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Field Artillery Course
FOR
PROVISIONAL SECOND LIEUTENANTS
THE ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS
Preparedin Department Field Artillery

Army Service Schools
Fort Leavenworth Kansas:

ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS PRESS
1917
The Course for Field Artillery Officers and Cavalry
Officers taking Field Artillery Course is divided into three
departments:
(a) Practical course out of doors in materiel, fire con-
trol instruments and smoke bomb range work under Captain
Sharp.
(b) Course in Equitation in riding hall, with lectures
on bitting, saddling, draft, shoeing, common ailments, trans-
portation of animals, etc., under Captain Seaman.
(c) Theoretical and practical Course in Field Artillery
Drill Regulations, with blackboard and sand box firing in
section room under Captain Miller.
The schedule is arranged so that what is taken up in
theory in the section room one day will be taken in a prac-
tical way at a later period the same day or on the following
day.
In order that there may be uniformity in giving the
instruction all of the lectures in each course have been placed
in printed form and each course is given under headings of
Course a, b and c in the following pages.
SCHEDULE OF INSTRUCTION
Capt. Sharp. Capt. Seaman Capt. Miller

COURSE "A" I COURSE "B" COURSE "C"
1st Lecture No. 1 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1-56; 115-130.

2d Lecture No. 2 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 131-204.
3d Lecture No. 3 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 205-280.
4th Lecture No 4 Lecture No. 1 F.A.D.R. Pars. 225-237; 281-354.
5th Lecture No. 5 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 355-441.
6th Lecture No. 6 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 442-507.1
7th Lecture No. 7 Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 508-610.t
8th Lecture No. 8 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 611-652.1
9th Lecture No. 9 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 653-696.$
10th Lecture No. 10 Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 833-1008.$
Lecture No. 1
12th Lecture No. 12 Equitation F.A.B:R Pars. 1095-1154.
13th Lecture No. 13 Lecture No. 4 F.A.D.R. Pars. 1155-1226.
15th Lecture No. 15 Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 611-613; 1298-1393.;
16th Smoke bomb range Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1394-1463.$
Lecture 16
17th Smoke bomb range Lecture No. 6* F.A.D.R. Pars. 355-441.t
18th Smoke bomb range Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1464-1534.$
19th Smoke bomb range Lecture No. 7 F.A.D.R. Pars. 1535-1592.$
Ord. Pamphlet 1965, pars. 7-39.
20th Smoke bomb range Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1593-1646.t
21st Smoke bomb ran,;e Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 450-463; 1646-1718.1
22d Smoke bomb range Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1719-1727 ; 1809-1864.
23d Smoke bomb range Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 591-632.1
24th Smoke bomb range Lecture No. F.A.D.R. Pars. 1728-1808 ;1831-1864.$
25th TACTICAL WALK

26th TACTICAL WALK
*No equitation artillery section hitched in riding hall.

iThirty minutes drill with staves (battery mounted).
$Thirty minutes standing gun drill-sight setting, etc.
FOREWORD
IN these notes, an attempt is made to give you as much
condensed information in general on the practical work,
which you will be required to know in the field artillery as
possible. No attempt is made at originality. It is simply
a collection of data taken from different publications' on ar-
tillery subjects. It is hoped that the officers will take advan-
tage of their opportunities from time to time to enlarge upon
the information here set forth, so as to make of themselves
good practical field artillerymen. An officer cannot be a
thoroughly practical field artilleryman unless he has a work-
ing knowledge of the tools of his profession.
Course
CAPTAIN SHARP
Lecture I
NOMENCLATURE
THEthefollowing caliber of guns and howitzers are in use in
United States Army at this time: The 2.95-inch
mountain howitzer (pack), the 3-inch mountain howitzer
(pack), the 3-inch field piece, 3.8-inch howitzer, the 4,7-inch
howitzer, the 4.7-inch gun, and the 6-inch howitzer. These
guns and howitzers are designed so that each gun will have
a sister howitzer. The 3-inch gun and the 4.7-inch howitzer
are sister pieces, and 4.7-inch gun and 6-inch howitzer are
sister pieces. The characteristics of the gun are, long
barrel, flat trajectory, high velocity, small angle of depar-
ture and small angle of fall. The characteristics of the
howitzer are a short barrel, curved trajectory, low veloci-
ty, high angle of departure and steep angle of fall. Some
of the advantages of the howitzer are that it may be
placed close behind a covering crest and thus secure pro-
tection from the fire of opposing guns. It is more val-
uable in a rough rolling country than a gun, on account of
its large angle of departure for ordinary ranges, and con-
sequently can be more easily placed in a position. The how-
itzer will clear a crest where a gun cannot do so. It also
has the advantage of a steep angle of fall, making it a val-
uable weapon to be used against trenches and over-head
cover. The gun, on the other hand, has a greater velocity
and a greater range, and its shrapnel pattern covers a
greater area.
The 3-inch field gun of our service compares very favor-
ably with the French 75-millimeter field piece, and as most
of the other guns of our service are constructed on the same
general principle, the knowledge of the 3-inch field piece will
be of material assistance in understanding the handling of
larger and smaller calibered guns. A cut is shown with this
pamphlet giving the names of all the parts of the 3-inch field
gun.
12 FIELD ARTILLERY
The gun is built up of nickel steel, consisting of a tube,
jacket, locking hoop and clip. A lug, known as the recoil
lug, projects from the undersurface of the jacket and is the
point of attachment for the recoil cylinder of the carriage
to the gun. The breechblock is of the interrupted screw
type.
There are three models of breechblock used in the 3-inch
gun. These are the 1902, 1904, and 1905 models. The 1902
model has two threaded and two flatted sectors, in rear of
which is a cylindrical section, smaller in diameter, on which
is a square screw thread for securing the block to the block
carrier.
The trigger works in a slot in the block carrier and is
urged upward by the trigger spring. When the block is
unlocked the trigger is disengaged from the sear and the
gun can not be fired.
The breech mechanisms of the guns, model 1904 and
1905, are similar in every respect and are interchangeable.
The block is provided with four threaded and four slotted
sectors.
The breech recess of the gun is threaded and slotted
to correspond with the threads on the block. The firing
pin is eccentrically located in the block. In the firing posi-
tion, it is in alignment with the axis of the gun and in line
with the percussion primer of the cartridge. As the block
is rotated to open the breech, the firing pin is moved to one
side clear of the primer and remains in that position until
the block is again rotated in closing the breech. It is thus
seen that it is impossible to fire the gun until the breech-
block is entirely closed.
The following weights and dimensions are given for the
gun, model of 1905: weight, 788 pounds; total length, 87.8
inches; number of grooves 24; lands 24. Twist right hand
from zero turns at the origin to one turn in 25 calibers at
9.72 inches from the muzzle, thence uniform. Muzzle vel-
ocity 1,700 feet per second; range at 15 degrees elevation,
6,000 yards; maximum range when trail is buried about
8,500 yards. Weight of gun carriage and limber com-
pletely equipped with ammunition, 4,260 pounds; weight
,of caisson, completely equipped with ammunition, 4,560
COURSE "A," LECTURE I 13
pounds. Diameter of Wheels, 56 inches, width of track
60 inches, length of recoil of gun on carriage, 45 inches. Max-
imum angle of elevation 15 degrees. Maximum angle of
depression, 5 degrees. Amount of traverse of gun on car-
riage, 140 mils.
The action of the carriage when the gun is fired is as
follows: the gun moves to the rear 45 inches on the cradle,
carrying with it the cylinder and compressing counter recoil
springs. The piston rod is attached to a non-recoiling part of
the carriage, so that as the cylinder moves to the rear, the oil
in it must pass from one side of the piston to the other. The
energy of the recoil of the gun is absorbed by the resistance
which the oil offers to being forced through small openings
past the piston and by the resistance of the counter recoil
spring. The energy stored up by the spring, returns the
gun to its firing position. This return movement is eased
and regulated by the counter recoil buffer. The piston rod
pull and spring resistance are transmitted to the carriage,
but owing to its weight and the resistance opposed to the
trail spade by the earth, the carriage remains stationary.
With the 4.7-inch gun, the piston rod moves to the rear with
the gun in recoil. Two spring columns are provided instead
of one, as with the 3-inch gun. With the howitzer, the
barrel is under-slung, the recoil mechanism being uppermost,
whereas with the gun the barrel is mounted on top of the
recoil mechanism. In firing, then the angle of "jump"
with the gun will be positive and with the howitzer it will be
negative.
The weight of the 2.95-inch mountain howitzer and
carriage is 830 pounds; velocity 920 feet per second for the
12z pound projectile and 750 feet per second for the 18-
pound projectile. Maximum angle of elevation 27 degrees;
maximum angle of depression 10 degrees; range about 4,000
yards.
The 3-inch mountain howitzer is an experimental wea-
pon and has not been formally adopted for use in the service.
The 3.8-inch howitzer with its limber loaded and equip-
ped weighs 3,970 pounds; caisson 4,027 pounds loaded and
equipped. It has three zones, its inner zone extends from
100 yards to 1,800 yards and its muzzle velocity is 454 feet
14 FIELD ARTILLERY
per second. Its middle or second zone extends from 100
yards to 3,000 yards with a muzzle velocity of 620 feet per
second. Its outer or third zone is from 100 to 6,000 yards
with a muzzle velocity of 900 feet per second. Its greatest
angle of elevation is 45 degrees. Projectiles fired are shell
and shrapnel, weight 30 pounds. The number of rounds
carried in limber of the 3.8-inch howitzer is 24; number of
rounds carried in caisson, 24. This howitzer was con-
structed with a view to its use as a sister piece to the 2.38-
inch horse artillery gun, which though designed, was never
issued to the service.
The 4.7-inch howitzer fires a projectile weighing 60
pounds. It has three zones. The inner or first zone ex-
tends from 100 yards to 980 yards with a muzzle velocity
of 454 feet per second. The middle or second zone extends
from 100 yards to 3,500 yards with a muzzle velocity of
620 feet per second. The third zone extends from 100 yards
to 6,600 yards with a muzzle velocity of 900 feet per second.
Maximum range at 40 degrees is 6,600 yards. Weight of
howitzer, carriage and limber loaded and equipped, 5,252
pounds. Weight of caisson, 4,726 pounds. Rounds of am-
munition carried in limber, 12; rounds carried in caisson, 18.
The 4.7-inch gun fires a projectile weighing 60 pounds.
The muzzle velocity 1,700 feet per second. The maximum
range is approximately 11,000 yards, the sight being grad-
uated to 9,000 yards. The weight of the 4.7-inch gun, car-
riage and limber, fully equipped is 8,756 pounds. Diameter
of wheels 60 inches and width of track 60 inches. Weight
of caisson, completely equipped and loaded, 8,221 pounds.
Rounds of ammunition carried in caisson limber, 28; rounds
carried in caisson, 28.
The 6-inch howitzer fires a projectile weighing 120
pounds. Its maximum range is 6,700 yards. It has three
zones. The inner or first zone extends from 100 yards to
2,000 yards. It has a muzzle velocity of 464 feet per second;
the second or middle zone extends from 100 yards to 3,600
yards; muzzle velocity of 629 feet per second. The outer
or 3d zone extends from 100 yards to 6,700 yards; muzzle
velocity 900 feet per second. The weight of the 6-inch how-
COURSE "A," LECTURE I 15
itzer carriage and limber is 8,611 pounds; weight of cais-
son, completely equipped and loaded, 7,997 pounds. Dia-
meter of wheels 60 inches, width of track, 60 inches. Rounds
of ammunition carried in caisson limber, 14, rounds carried
in caisson, 14.
The howitzers have a greater error in direction than
guns. Guns have a greater error in range than howitzers.
The 3-inch gun limber carries 36 rounds of ammunition
and the caisson 70 rounds. Gun ammunition tubes carry 4.
All batteries on war footing have 4 guns or howitzers and 12
caissons (ammunition wagons). There is a battery wagon
which carries carpenter and saddler's tool chests and a forge
limber, which carries the blacksmith's tools and portable
forge. Also there is a store wagon in which is carried spare
parts of guns and harness. The store limber carries the
fire control equipment. In firing first or inner zone with
all howitzers, the corrector 30 and range zero setting will
not be used, as it is likely to endanger the members of the
gun squad in the firing.
The names of the different parts of gun and caisson
are shown in attached cuts. It is incumbent upon every
artilleryman to be familiar with the names of the parts of
his guns.
Lecture II
TOOLS-DISMOUNTING BREECHBLOCK, ETC.

EACH gun is provided with the following tool kit which
is carried in the trail box. One spanner wrench for 56-
inch wheels, one spanner wrench for carriage, one wrench
.75 and one inch, one filling and draining plug wrench for
use in emptying and filling recoil cylinders, one cold chisel
1-inch by 8 inches. One hand smooth file 8 inches flat, one
3 square file, six inches dead smooth, one hand hammer
cross peen, 121-inch handle, one small steel punch, one small
copper drift, one large copper drift, one pliers, 10.75 inches.
One range quadrant wrench, one screw slot wrench, one
screw driver 10 inches. One wrench for fitting counter re-
coil springs guide, and grind stone. On left of caisson one
spanner wrench .625-inch and .75 inches. In addition to
these tools there are carried in the battery wagon and
forge limber a set of blacksmith's tools with portable forge,
a set of carpenter's tools, and a set of saddler's tools. On
each gun limber and caisson limber there is carried one axe,
one pick axe, one short handled shovel, one hatchet. On
each caisson there is carried one axe, one pick mattock, one
long handled shovel. These are provided for entrenching
purposes and other camp use.
It is thus seen that a battery has practically its own
work shop for the purposes of making all necessary repairs.
In the use of the tools assigned to a battery by the members
thereof, the officers in charge should be particularly careful
to see that the tools are used in the same manner that a.
skilled workman uses his tools. When it is necessary to tap
a piece of the metal, a block of wood should be interposed
between the metal and the hammer. In assembling or dis-
assembling the mechanism of the guns, care should be taken
not to make use of the tools to pry or drive or force the
parts to position or from position, as they have been all
carefully machined and will fit into position without difficul-
ty if a little patience is used, and the proper place is found
into which the different parts have been machined to fit.
16
COURSE "A," LECTURE II 17
In instructing new men in the dis-assembling or assemb-
ling of the mechanisms, care should be taken to impress
thoroughly upon them the necessity of observing the above
mentioned points so that the repairs to the battery materiel
will be reduced to the minimum. All the tools necessary to
the care of the guns are carried in the trail box tool kit
with the exception of a spring compressor, the block and
tackle, and hub liner driving tool. These are carried in the
battery wagon and forge limber.
Gunners should be required to present their tool kits
for frequent inspection of the platoon commanders to see
that none of the tools are missing and that they are in proper
condition.
To dismantle breech mechanism and firing mechanism,
remove firing lock case, grasp operating lever and open
the mechanism; when the mechanism is open, force the
block latch out of its seat in the block by gently pressing
it into the seat in the carrier. Take hold of the block and
revolve it to the right until it stops; then pull it to the rear,
taking care not to drop it. The block latch can now be
readily removed. After the firing-lock case has been re-
moved the operating lever can be removed by forcing the
pivot from beneath by a gentle pressure from the palm of
the hand. The lever latch can be removed by pressing
in on the latch at a point near its lower end and opposite
its pivot; a hole in the latch is cut eccentric with reference
to the pivot and a shoulder on the pivot prevents their dis-
placement until the latch is forced in and the hole is
concentric with the pivot. When this occurs the pivot can
be readily pulled out and the latch removed.
To remove the block carrier, force the hinge pin up by
the end until it can be caught by the head, and by swinging
the carrier back and forth, if the pin sticks, it can readily
be removed. Take care not to drop extractor lever. The
extractor can now be removed from the gun. No tools other
than hands are required for dismantling the breech mech-..
anism. To assemble the mechanism reverse these opera-
tions.
18 FIELD ARTILLERY
Firing Mechanism
To dismount the firing mechanism: Take hold of
the milled head locking bolt situated at the lower end
of the firing lock case, pull it to the rear; at the same
time revolve the firing lock case upwards about 45 degrees
and pull it gently to the rear. This will remove the case
with the firing mechanism complete, from the gun. Press
the trigger shaft detent until it disengages from the notch
in the firing lock case; this will allow the trigger with
its detent to be withdrawn, then gently press on the front
end of the firing pin forcing it back into the casing; this
will allow the trigger fork to fall out. Then, with one finger
press on the front end of the sear, force it outward, at the
same time grasp front end of the firing pin which is rough-
ened for the purpose; give it a sharp pull. This will remove
the firing pin spring and sleeve from the casing, then place
the front end of firing pin against a block of wood, bear down
on the firing spring sleeve until the spring is compressed
sufficiently to disengage the slot in the rear end of the sleeve
from the small lug on the rear end of the firing pin, slightly
turn the sleeve, and the sleeve can be separated from the
spring and pin. By an unscrewing motion the spring can
be removed from the pin; the sear can be removed by gently
pressing it in toward the center of the casing. To assemble,
reverse these operations, taking care that before pushing too
hard on the end of the trigger shaft that the square hole
in the trigger fork is in position to receive the tapered end of
the trigger shaft. No tools are required to assemble or dis-
mantle this mechanism.
Dismounting Gun
To dismount the gun from the cradle, remove the recoil
indicator throw, unscrew the cylinder-end, stud nut and
shove gun to the rear until the clips are free from the guides,
taking care that the gun is in a horizontal position before
starting the operation. Care should be taken to have at
least eight men, and two pieces of new 2-inch by 4-inch
lumber about 6 feet long to place under the breech when the
gun is pushed to the rear on the cradle. Great care should
be taken not to allow the gun to be pushed off the slides or
COURSE "A," LECTURE II 19
to remain with insufficient support at the breech end when
partially off the carriage, as a strain would then be put on
the guide rails. Two wooden horses or two logs of at
least three inches in diameter should be provided on which
to set the gun. See that no sand or grit gets on the guide
rails or guide clips. Unless care is taken the firing shaft
is also quite liable to injury during this maneuver, and care
should be taken to prevent its being struck by the muzzle
of the gun or by implements in the hands of the cannoneers.
The gun should be taken off of the cradle before firing, and
at other frequent intervals, and a thorough examination
made of the guide rails to see that they are clean and not
being burred or scarred by foreign substances which may
accumulate there from time to time. This opportunity
is also taken advantage of to examine the rivets of the
cradle to see that the heads ar not worn down or that they
are loose in the holes provided for them. If an insrection
shows this to be so, report of the facts should be made im-
mediately and the gun kept out of commission until put in
good order.
Mounting Gun
To mount the gun, have the cannoneers lay hold of the
-e
2 x 4 on each end and raise the gun to the level of t 1 gu'de
rails, shove the piece from the rear over the cradle guide rails,
keeping the gun in the same horizontal plane with the guide
rails until the clips are thoroughly engaged with them.
Screw on cylinder end stud nut, taking care that the locking
stud on the recoil lug enters one of the recesses provided for
it in the cylinder end; assemble the recoil indicator throw.
The dust guard must be assembled at the time the front clip
is engaged at the end of the guide rails.
Dismounting Wheels
To remove a wheel with outside fastening, first remove
the hub cap by means of the spanner wrench, unscrew by
turning the hub cap to the left. The fastening on the axle
can then be removed by sliding it out of its slot; the wheel
can readily be lifted off. Either a block of wood which is
longer than the distance from the ground to the axle should
20 FIELD ARTILLERY
be set under the axle to remove the wheel from the ground
before attempting to take it off, or a screw jack, which is
usually provided in each battery, should be used in jacking
the carriage up from the ground.. To assemble the wheel
reverse the above operations.
To remove a wheel with inside fastening, remove the
split pin from hasp, lift the hasp to a vertical position and
turn forty-five degrees; lift the wheel from the axle. To as-
semble the wheel reverse these operations.
Lecture III
FILLING CYLINDERS, ETC.

T HEandfilling of recoil cylinders require the greatest of care
a commissioned officer will verify that the cylinder
is properly filled. An improperly filled cylinder will disable
the gun when fired.
In filling the recoil cylinder of a three-inch gun two
methods may be used. Both are here given in detail. The
easiest way to fill a cylinder is when it is dis-assembled from
the carriage. If assembled to the carriage bring the gun
to a maximum elevation and remove both filling and drain-
ing plug. It is necessary that draining plug hole should be
located on top of the cylinder. Fill through the hole in
the piston rod, allow a few minutes for air to escape and
oil to settle, re-fill and repeat two or three times. When
satisfied that the cylinder is entirely full of oil insert both
plugs and depress the gun to a maximum depression. After
a few minutes elevate again to maximum elevation and un-
screw both plugs. Now re-fill as described above. When
entirely full allow not more than one-fourth gill of oil to
escape; insert both plugs and lash them with copper wire.
Before the cylinder can be filled, while assembled to the
carriage, it will be necessary to remove the cradle head by
first removing the piston rod nut, split pin and hasp, and
then turning the cradle head about fifteen degrees until it
disengages and can the be slipped off to the front. Then
proceed with the operation described above. When the
cylinder is removed from its position in the cradle it may
be filled by standing it on end, taking care not to burr the
cylinder-end stud, and pouring in the required amount of
oil, about nine pints of hydrolene. Allow the oil to settle,
then re-fill. Take out one-fourth of a gill of the oil. After
this has been done the cylinder can be returned to its posi-
tion in the cradle. The filling and drain plugs should be
securely wired with copper wire before the cylinder is placed
in the cradle. It may happen that after firing a few
21
22 FIELD ARTILLERY
rounds the gun will not return to battery. This may be
due to, first, weakness of springs; second, to stuffing box
gland being screwed up too tightly, or, third, the oil having
been expanded, due to heat. In any case, the cause must be
ascertained and remedied; if due to. expansion of oil, it is
proven by the fact that the gun cannot be pushed into
battery by force exerted on the breech of the gun. In
this case, elevate the gun to maximum elevation and re-
move filling plug. The oil will escape, permitting the
gun to return to battery. Hydrolene oil furnished for
the cylinder has a specific gravity of .85. It is charac-
terized by its low freezing point and non-corrosive action
on metal; the oil used in the cylinder should be clean and
free from grit and dirt. To insure this it should be strained
through a clean piece of linen or muslin before using. In
emergency, water may be used in the cylinder. This should
be done only when absolutely necessary, and never in
freezing weather, and as soon as practicable the cylinder
should be emptied, cleaned, and thoroughly dried, and filled
with hydrolene oil.
To test the recoil mechanism: Before firing, the re-
coil mechanism of every gun of the battery should be thor-
oughly gone over by an officer of the battery and an in-
spection made to see that the recoil apparatus is in shape to
stand the heavy strain incident to the firing of the piece.
After the recoil springs have been looked over, the cradle
rivets examined, the guide rails inspected, the cylinder filled,
and gland adjusted, the gun should be retracted from bat-
tery to its position of extreme recoil, then releasing it and
allowing it to slide into position in battery. The latter
maneuver is accomplished as follows: Take a pick handle
from the carriage, secure it in the middle by means of
halter shank, attach the spring compressor to the cylin-
der, and by means of block and tackle pull the gun to
the rear until the pick handle can be inserted between
the end of the cradle and the recoil lug of the gun. When
this has been done, ease off on the tackle and allow the
strain to be borne by the pick handle, release the spring
compressor from.the cylinder, have the cannoneers stand
clear of the piece, require the gunner or other competent
COURSE "A," LECTURE III 23
man to lay hold of the halter shank, wrapping it around
the hand, and with a good stiff jerk remove the pick
handle from its position. Note the manner in which the gun
slides "into battery" to see whether the springs have suf-
ficient elasticity to return the gun to battery. Note whether
the gun slides back into place nicely, and without a jar, or
whether it goes back with considerable jar. If there is
considerable jar it will indicate that the counter recoil
buffer is not performing its function, which is to ease the
gun into position. While the gun is in position at full
recoil the guide rails should be thoroughly oiled. Can-
noneers should take care to stand clear of the cradle in
performing this operation, so that in the event of the pick
handle slipping out of its position there will be no injury
to them by the return of the gun to battery. The gun
should not recoil more than 45 inches. This is the normal
recoil. If the gun recoils more than 45 inches it is clearly
indicated that the springs are weak or insufficient oil in
the cylinder, either of which would cause danger to mechan-
ism and gun squad in firing.
Battery officers should not hesitate to hold guns that
are incapacitated, out of action, or out of target practice.
It is by far better to do this than to endanger the lives
of the gun crews unnecessarily. Field artillerymen are
judged by the condition of their material, and all officers of
the battery should strive to keep the material of their bat-
teries in the pink of condition at all times. This is accom-
plished by constant inspection, careful notation, and imme-
diate correction of all irregularities in the material.
Lecture IV
DISMOUNTING RECOIL SPRINGS
TOthedismount* counter recoil springs and cylinder, bring

gun to approximately zero degrees elevation, that is,
horizontal. Unscrew the cylinder-end stud nut, the piston
rod nut, and cradle head. Shove the gun about one inch
from battery, attach the spring compressor to the cylinder-
end stud and put sufficient strain on the compressor to
relieve the retaining ring from spring pressure, then remove
the retaining ring by loosening and swinging aside the
retaining ring bolts. Ease off on spring compressor un-
til springs are free. In using the block and tackle pro-
vided for retracting the springs, two guns may be placed
pointing in opposite directions with the trail spades
touching and in the same line with each other. Take a
piece of one-inch rope about four feet long and make a
sling out of it. Pass the loop of the sling between the
flasks in front of the tool box and slip a piece of 2x4 lumber
through the loop, allowing it to bear on the bottom of the
flasks of the gun which is being used as an anchor, set the
brakes on both guns, attach the hook of the block to the
sling, then assemble several cannoneers on the fall of the
tackle and tighten up the rope, being careful to exert the
pull in a straight line with the cylinder. The gunner or
other competent man should stand by the elevating and
traversing gear to make small changes of elevation, etc.;
during this maneuver all other cannoneers should stand
clear of the piece. The chief of section or a capable can-
noneer should remain at the side of the muzzle end of the
cradle to perform the necessary duties of removing the
retaining ring bolts and the retaining ring. Note that
the springs, which are assembled under a pressure of about
five hundred pounds are held in place entirely by the re-
taining ring bolts. Do not allow an inexperienced man or
one who does not thoroughly understand the dis-assembling
of gun mechanism to meddle with the retaining ring bolts.
24
COURSE "A," LECTURE IV 25
After the pressure has been released on the springs
they will be taken out and placed on a paulin, being careful
that no dirt or other foreign substance is allowed to get
on them. The first section of the spring is removed with
the cylinder. This should be very carefully handled, as
the walls of the cylinder are extremely thin and liable to
damage by dropping or coming in contact with other
implements.
To disassemble the cylinder proceed as follows:
Unscrew gland sufficient to release the pressure of
the packing upon the piston rod; unscrew and remove the
cylinder head. The rod may then be withdrawn from the
cylinder. In dismounting and assembling the cylinder head
and also the gland, the cylinder should be held from turn-
ing by the spanner applied to the flange on the front end of
the cylinder; it should never be clamped with a vise, as its
walls are thin and are not intended to withstand such usage.
To remove the counter recoil buffer take out the cylinder-
end-stud set screw and unscrew cylinder-end-stud. Care
must be taken to always remove this screw, before unscrew-
ing cylinder-end-stud. The counter recoil buffer is attached
to the cylinder-end-stud. The necessity for dismounting
parts of the cylinder will seldom arise, except when cylin-
der has been carelessly filled with dirty oil. It should be
done only in the presence of a commissioned officer, who
should see that the parts are handled with the greatest care.
In removing the cylinder head, two spanner wrenches
should be used, requiring the services of two men working
in opposite directions. The cylinder should be placed on
two blocks of wood or two wooden horses and held in place
by a third man. The oil is always removed before dis-
mounting the parts of the cylinder.
After the cylinder has been taken apart careful exam-
ination should be made of its interior to see whether any
foreign substances are contained therein, and if so, what
damage, if any, has been suffered by the cylinder due to
presence of same.
Should any damage be discovered in the cylinder, re-
pairs should be made by skilled mechanics only. Gen-
26 FIELD ARTILLERY
erally, tools for the purpose of repairing damage within the

cylinder are not available in the battery, and repairs will
be .made by mechanics from the Ordnance Department.
Lecture V
ASSEMBLING SPRINGS AND CYLINDER

BEFORE assembling springs and cylinder the interior of
the cradle should be thoroughly cleaned and rivets ex-
amined, the springs carefully cleaned and all old oil and dirt
wiped off, and the cylinder thoroughly gone over and cleaned.
Several cannoneers should be set to work covering the
springs with slushing oil. The cylinder can then be as-
sembled.
In assembling, the parts should be thoroughly cleaned,
as the clearances in the cylinder are very small and the
presence of small foreign particles may interfere with the
proper working of the assembled parts. The cylinder head
should be set up hard with a wrench and then lashed with
copper wire to prevent unscrewing. The stuffing box is
.packed with five rings, Garlock's hydraulic waterproof
packing. The packing is issued cut into rings of such size
that the ends meet around the piston rod.
In assembling the packing, each ring is placed so as
to break joints with the preceding one, and is forced into
its seat by a packing tool of copper or hard wood, one
end of which should be shaped like a carpenter's gouge
and the other end forming a handle strong enough to stand
light taps from a hammer. This tool may be readily im-
provised by a battery mechanic. After five rings are firmly
fitted in position the gland can be screwed down on the
packing.
In assembling the gland, be sure that at least four of
its threads are engaged with the threads of the cylinder
head. Remember, in the adjustment of the gland, it will
call for the exercise of some judgment. If screwed up
too tightly the frictional resistance of the packing on the
piston rod will be so much increased that the counter re-
coil springs may fail to return the gun to battery, espe-
,cially at high angles of elevation. It should be screwed up
just tight enough to prevent leakage of oil through stuffing
box. Ordinarily this can be done by hand, but in cases
27
28 FIELD ARTILLERY
where hand power is not sufficient, a wrench provided for
the purpose should be used. When its proper adjustment
is determined, the gland should be lashed with copper wire
to prevent it from screwing up or unscrewing.
After the cylinder-end-stud has been placed in position,
the cylinder-end-stud set-screw should be placed in posi-
tion. The cylinder can then be filled conveniently with
hydrolene oil. Care should be taken to strain this oil through
a linen or muslin cloth to prevent particles of dirt getting
into the cylinder. Be sure to allow the oil to stand long
enough for all the air to escape, then re-fill; now remove a
quarter of a gill of oil from the cylinder, assemble the
filling and draining plugs, wire securely. Place two of the
springs in the cradle, slip the spring support on the cylinder,
then place the third spring on the cylinder, attach the
spring compressor to the end of the cylinder and pass the
free end of compressor from the muzzle end to breech end
through the two springs in the cradle. Place the rear end
of the cylinder in the front end of the cradle. Attach
the tackle to the spring compressor, being careful to align
the cannoneers on the fall of rope in prolongation of rear
end of cylinder. The chief of section or gunner should be
at one side of the muzzle end of cradle. Require the men
on end of the spring compressor to tighten up gradually,
drawing the counter recoil springs to their assembled posi-
tion. The man working at the muzzle end of the cradle
should be careful to assemble the spring support in the
grooves provided for it. The grindstone wrench should
be on hand at this time for turning spring support slightly
to the right or left as the springs reach the assembled posi-
tion. The man at the muzzle end of the cradle should place
the retaining ring in position, placing the retaining ring
bolts in their sockets and tightening up until they just come
in contact with the retaining ring and no more; as soon
as this has been done the cannoneers working on the tackle
can ease off their pressure and disengage the spring com-
pressor. The cradle head is then assembled. The gun can
then be pushed into battery, but care must be taken that
the small stud on the interior face of recoil lug engages
in the hole provided for it in the cylinder. A spanner
COURSE "A," LECTURE V 29
wrench should be used at muzzle end of cylinder to turn
the cylinder so that the hole is opposite the stud, if it does
not happen to be in alignment. The cylinder-end stud-nut
is then screwed on and split pin inserted and opened to
prevent falling out.
Lecture VI
SIGHTS-QUADRANTS-FUZE SETTERS
THE appliances used for laying the three-inch field piece

and other calibers in the United States service of
the wheeled materiel include line sights, front and rear
sights, the panoramic sight and the range quadrant. The
line sights are fixed to the gun, one on the muzzle end
and one on the breech end, and are simply used for get-
ting the general alignment, The front sight supported in
a bracket on the cradle is a short tube whose axis is marked
by the intersection of two cross wires set in the tube at an
angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal. The rear sight
bracket is seated in a socket attached to the cradle of car-
riage on the left side. At the upper end of the bracket
two seats are formed for the attachment of the socket for
the sight. The shank socket which holds the rear sight
is mounted on a bracket and has a circular motion on the
guides under action of the transverse leveling screw. This
arrangement permits the correction for inclination of sight
by revolution of rear sight in a plane perpendicular to axis
of gun until the sight is vertical as indicated by the trans-
verse level fixed to socket. The sight shank is an arm
curved to an arc of a circle whose center is the front sight.
The shank slides up and down in guides in the socket, its
movement being effected through a scrowl gear wheel which
acts on the teeth of the rack cut on the right face of the
shank. The scrowl gear is held in mesh by a spring; by
pulling out the scrowl gear handle it is disengaged from
the rack. Change in elevation may then be made by sliding
the shank through the socket by hand. The range scale
is marked on the rear face of the shank and read at index
at upper end of socket. The small division of scale cor-
responds to 50 yards of range, but this may be readily di-
vided by the eye. On the upper end of the shank is a
frame, on which is mounted the peep of the rear sight.
The peep is moved to the right or left by means of the de-
30
COURSE "A," LECTURE VI 31
flection screw; the peep hole is Vo inch in diameter; each
division of the deflection scale corresponds to 1 mil. (iooo)
of the range. The scale is marked from left to right as
follows:-
40__30__20__10-_0__90__80__70__6360
The deflection readings are uniform with those of the
panoramic sight and battery commander's telescope. The
readings 90 80 70 60 should have prefixed before them 63,
there being 40 mils on each side of the zero line. The
graduation on the rear sight corresponds exactly with
that on the drum of the panoramic sight for 40 mils on
each side of the zero line. In construction, the sight is con-
tinued upward above the seat for the peep sight, to form
a seat for the panoramic sight. The elevation level is
circular to line of sight and thus permits the use of sight
as a quadrant in giving elevation to the piece when the
target is not in view, or in case the range quadrant is
damaged and not available for use. In the sight for the
6-inch howitzer, the front sight is mounted on the same
bar as the rear sight, and the bar revolves in elevation about
a point between the two sights. The rear sight has a
slight movement of deflection on the end of the bar; the
adjustable sight is often called a tangent sight from its
similarity to sights with straight shanks, formerly much
used with cannon. The peep of rear sight moves on the
tangent to an arc instead of on the arc itself.
Panoramic Sight
The sights furnished to all batteries are practically
the same. Fire from modern field guns is so accurate and
destructive that it has been found necessary to establish
field batteries always in position where they are not visible
to the enemy in order to protect the, batteries from fire
of the enemy's guns. Indirect sighting becomes, then, of
necessity the usual method of sighting guns in battle. The
panoramic sight affords the means of aiming the gun by
directing the line of sight on any object in view from the
gun; at the same time it offers the advantages of a tele-
scopic sight in direct or indirect aiming. The panoramic
sight is a telescope so fitted with reflector and prism that
32 FIELD ARTILLERY
a magnified image of an object anywhere in view may be
brought to the eye without change in direction of gun.
The panoramic sight is shown in a cut attached hereto.
The rays of light from the object viewed enters the sight
through the plain glass window in the head piece, and are
bent downward by the prism of total reflection A, recti-
fied vertically by prism B, focused by object lens C,
and rectified laterally by gabled prism D, so that there
is presented to the eye piece E a rectified image of
object, which image is magnified by the two lenses of the
eye piece. The magnifying power of the instrument is
four, and the field of view is ten degrees, or about 180
mils. The head piece containing prism A is mounted to
rotate on body of telescope and in order to counteract the
doubled angular movement of the image by prism B, the
head piece is made to rotate twice as fast as the prism.
The image of any object then rotates through the same an-
gular distance as head piece and relative positions of the
object in the field of view are not changed.
The different movements of A and B are accomplished
by means of one tangent screw through gearing contained
in cylindical casing seen in junction of rotating point. The
angular movement of head piece is indicated by a grad-
uated scale on its perimeter visible through a window in the
rear of casing. When the index of casing is on zero of
scale, the line of sight of panoramic sight is in vertical
plane parallel to axis of piece. If at the same time the
rear sight, on which the panoramic sight is mounted,
is at the zero of elevation scale, the line of sight of the
panoramic sight is parallel to axis of the piece.
In the scale on the head piece the circle is divided in
64 equal parts, numbered clockwise. One complete turn of
micrometer screw moves the head piece through one of these
graduations. The micrometer scale mounted on the microm-
eter screw has 100 equal divisions. A movement of micro-
meter scale through one of the divisions of the micrometer
scale therefore moves the head piece through 40oopart of a
circle which corresponds very closely to iooo of the range.
The reading of the main scale is in 64ths of the circle.
The hundreds are read from scale on head piece, and the
tens and units from the scale on micrometer screw. Thus
when index has passed the mark 27 on head scale and in-
dex of micrometer scale stands at 18, the reading is 2718.
The Panaromic Sight May be Used as a Range Finder

By employing the two flank guns of a battery, by
means of sights, the azimuth reading zero, lay the guns
on the target, then by turning the worm knob the pano-
ramic sights are sighted upon each other and the angles
at each gun are read in units of the deflection scale. The
angle at target is equal to 3,200 (180 degrees) minus the
sum of the angles measured at the two guns. Measure the
distance between the guns at right angles to the line of
fire; the range in yards then is equal to 1,000 X base in
yards divided by the angle (parallax) at the target. This
may also be done using two battery commander's telescopes
instead of the flank guns of the battery and any conve-
nient base in yards. Preferably as long as possible.
The cross wires in the panoramic sight may be illumi-
nated for night firing by means of a shutter which is pro-
vided on the eye piece elbow. Electric flash lamps pro-
vided for each battery are used for illuminating these
wires. Whenever possible, and especially when not in use
in garrisons, the panoramic sight should be kept in a dry
place in order that the lenses may be kept free from damp-
ness and thus avoid clouding. Ordanace Pamphlet No.
1795 explains in detail the care, preservation, repair and
adjustment of instruments for fire control systems for
coast and field artillery. Dust should not be allowed to
accumulate on the lenses, but if however it does accu-
mulate it should be removed with a camel's hair brush or
a very soft cloth to prevent scratching.
The Range Quadrant

In rapid firing the duties of setting the sight for range
and deflection, in laying the piece, and manipulating the
elevating and traversing mechanism, if attempted by a
single cannoneer, delays the firing much beyond the time
allowed to load the piece. Since in the carriage for mobile
artillery, the elevating and traversing mechanisms are en-
ART.-2
34 FIELD ARTILLERY
tirely independent of each other, the pointing of the piece
may be much simplified and time required thus lessened by
assigning to one cannoneer the pointing of the piece for
direction, and to a second cannoneer the elevation of piece
for range. Such a division of duties is provided for by
the elevating crank at right of trail and the range quad-
rant attached to right of cradle; by this arrangement the
gunner on the left of piece usually sets off the deflection
on panoramic sight, laying for direction only while the
cannoneer on right of piece gives quadrant elevation. The
range quadrant is supported in a bracket on the right side
of the cradle of carriage with its axis circular to the ver-
tical plane containing the axis of piece therein; provision
is made for rotation of the quadrant about its axis in
order that the curved rocker arm of the quadrant may be
made. vertical when the wheels of the carriage are on dif-
ferent levels. The vertical position of the quadrant is
indicated by the transverse level. The quadrant consists
of a fixed arm, of which the rocker arm is a part, and a
movable arm in front of the fixed arm carrying a range
disk, a clinometer level and mechanism for elevating the
movable arm. The fixed arm has at the rear an upwardly
extended arc called the rocker arm with toothed racks
on front and rear edges. The movable arm pivoted at the
front of the fixed arm, the arm moves about its pivot by
a gear actuated by an elevating hand wheel and meshing
in the rear tooth rack, the pinion on the shaft of the
range disk meshes in the forward rack and the movement
of the arm in elevation is indicated by the scale on the
range disk in terms of corresponding range.
The Clinometer or Angle of Site Scale on the Range

Quadrant
The range level is pivoted on the axis of the movable
arm and may be moved relatively to the arm by the microm-
eter screw, the upper end of which carries a micrometer
scale. A short circular scale is marked on the left edge
of the piece carrying the level; the level scale is in 64ths
of a circle and the micrometer scale 6,400ths, similar to
scales of panoramic sight. The purpose of the clinometer
COURSE "A," LECTURE IX 3
is to make correction for difference in level of the gun
and target. The angle subtended at the target by the
difference in level is called the angle of site, as may be
seen by the words on the range level. This angle is some-
times spoken of as the angle of position, which is a better.
term, first, in better expressing what is meant, and, second,
in not leading to confusion through a similarity to the
word sight, and to term angle of sight frequently used.
The readings on the clinometer scale are. 2 3 45,
read 200; 300 400 and 500, to which are added the
readings of the micrometer scale; 300 corresponds to the
horizontal.
Targets above the level of the gun have an angle of si+
greater than 300, targets below the level of the gun have
an angle of site less than 300. This angle usually is meas-
ured by means of a battery commander's telescope and is
computed in mils.
Use of the Quadrant

The quadrant is used as follows:-
The quadrant is leveled transversely to correct for the
difference in level of wheels. The clinometer is set to
read the number of hundreds on the main scale and the
number of units and tens on the micrometer scale; the range
is then set off on range disk by means of the screw on the
rocker arm. The elevating gear is then moved until the
range level bubble is brought to the center. The piece has
now the proper elevation for the range corrected by the angle
of position. If the angle of position were measured as 315
this angle of 15 mils in elevation between gun and target'
would be added to quadrant elevation, if 285 it would be
subtracted from the quadrant elevation by means of the
clinometer scale, as it would then be an angle of depression,
which would subtract from the range. It will be noted
then that in the use of the clinometer scale in correcting
the elevation, by adding or subtracting the angle of posi-
tion, that we apply the principle of the rigidity of the tra-
jectory. A failure to center bubble of transverse level will
cause the gun to shoot in direction toward side of the lower
wheel.
36 FIELD ARTILLERY
The Bracket Fuze Setter
The fuze setter is a device for the rapid and accurate
setting of time fuzes in field gun projectiles. It is at-
tached to a bracket on the caisson for field guns in a posi-
tion convenient for the cannoneer who serves the ammuni-
tion; the base of the fuze setter is fixed to the bracket
on the caisson; mounted on the base are two movable rings
for setting corrector and range. The range ring carries
the range scale graduated in yards and the corrector ring
carries index with pointer that moves along the corrector
scale that is fastened to a fixed cover. The base of the
two rings are bored out conically to fit over combination
time and percussion fuze used in the three-inch projectile.
The corrector ring is notched to receive the rotating stud
which projects from the time train ring of the fuze, the
stud projects from the range ring of fuze setter. A guide
fixed to the base of the fuze setter serves to direct the point
of projectile into the socket of the fuze setter and to keep
the cartridge in proper position during the operation of
fuze setting. To set the fuze for time of burning corre-
sponding to any range, as say, 1,000 yards, and corrector
30, the range ring is turned by means of the range-worm
handle until the 1,000 mark on the range scale is opposite
the datum line marked on the corrector scale, the corrector
ring is turned by means of corrector worm until datum
point is opposite 30 on corrector scale; the weather proof
cover of time fuze is stripped off and the point of projectile
is then placed in fuze setter. The rotating stud on fuze en-
gages with notch in the corrector ring, the cartridge is then
turned slowly in a clockwise direction until the stud on
the time ring comes in contact with the stop on the fuze.
The stud prevents further rotation of the cartridge; the
time fuze has now been set to proper time of burning
for 1,000 yards with a corrector of 30. The rate of burn-
ing of the different fuzes of the same lot will be uniform, but
may vary slightly from the rate of burning used in gradua-
tion of scale of fuze setter. This must be determined by the
actual firing, and if after a few shots it is found the pro-
jectiles fired are all beyond range for which time fuze is set,
or if the height of burst is not exactly as desired, the correc-
tion is made in setting of fuze by means of corrector ring in
fuze setter. The height of burst may be increased or
diminished by turning the corrector ring by means of
the corrector worm thumb screw to increase or decrease
corrector scale reading. One point on the corrector scale
corresponds to a difference of 1 mil. in the height of burst,
and it is increased or decreased about 25 yards in range at
the mid-ranges, in range of burst.
Hand Fuze Setter
In addition to the bracket fuze setter a hand fuze
setter is provided for emergency use in the three-inch gun.
One is carried in each trail box. To use a hand fuze setter
loosen clamp screw. Set range scale with range opposite
corrector -desired; tighten clamp. Direct a cannoneer to
hold the projectile .in a vertical position, place fuze setter
over the fuze so that the stud on time train engages with
fuze setter. Turn fuze setter in clockwise direction until
stop on fuze stock brings up against stud of fuze setter.
The desired amount of time train has then been set off,
and the projectile is ready to load into gun.
The hand fuze setter is used with the 4.7-inch gun
and with all howitzers. The bracket fuze setter is pro-
vided for the 3-inch field gun only.
Lecture VII
FIELD ADJUSTMENT OF SIGHTS AND FUZE

SETTERS
A LLcerthebefore
sights of a battery should be adjusted by an offi-
action or before target practice and if any
of them are out of adjustment, they should be placed in ad-
justment before firing takes place. There is provided in
each battery for the purpose, a level, bore sight, and strap
for tying cross hairs to the muzzle. .As most of the adjust-
ments will have to be made when in the field a level platform
generally cannot be provided on which to place the gun;
however, ground as level as possible should be selected and
distant sighting point should be selected at least 5,000 yards
away, farther if possible. Place in the grooves provided
on the muzzle two horse hairs at right angles to each other
or two pieces of thread, secure in place by means of rubber
band or the belt provided for the purpose, place the bore
sight which is a brass disk with pin hole in center, in the bore
of gun, place the sight shank and panoramic sight in position
in their sockets, sit astride of trail and with assistance of
the gunner seated on the left of the piece traverse the piece
and elevate it until the intersection of the cross hairs on the
muzzle are in line with the sighting point and the pin hole
in the bore sight. The vertical wire is the one that must be
in line with the sighting point, then when this is complete
sit astride of gunner's seat, provide yourself with small teat
wrench from the tool kit in the trail box. Set the main scale
of panoramic sight at zero and micrometer scale at zero,
look through sight and see whether the vertical cross hair
is in line with the sighting point previously selected on
which you have laid the gun by means of bore sight; if the
vertical wire is not in alignment with the sighting point turn
the micrometer until the vertical wire is in alignment with
the sighting point. Note the number of mils on the micro-
meter setting that the sight is off in direction, place teat
wrench in small holes provided on face of micrometer screw
38
COURSE "A," LECTURE VII 39
and loosen up the screw, then turn the graduated scale of
micrometer until the zero is opposite the datum point, being
careful not to turn the head piece of the sight; when this is
accomplished tighten up the screw, sight through the pan-
oramic sight on the sighting point and same should be pro-
perly aligned.
Rear Sight
Place the front sight in the firing position, set the rear
sight at zero, sight through these sights on the sighting
point, if not in alignment turn the rear sight deflection
screw until zero on the sight is in alignment with the
front sight and sighting point. Note the reading on the
scale; unscrew by means of a screw driver the sliding deflec-
tion scale. Place zero of deflection scale opposite the datum
line on eye piece of rear sight, then tighten up the screws and
recheck to see that no displacement has taken place during
the operation. The sight shank has a range scale on its rear
face held in place by a screw and nut at bottom; this may
slip either up or down; level the gun, shove the sight shank
well down in its socket and the reading of zero range should
be had. If this is not the case loosen the screw and slip the
sight strip up or down until the zero on the strip is even
with the datum line. Tighten the screw,
The Range Quadrant

Bring the gun to a horizontal position by means of
elevating gear using the level provided and applying same
to the face of the breech; this should be at right angles
to the axis of bore. Place the quadrant in position with
the angle of sight scale reading 300, micrometer zero, and
the range disk reading at its lowest graduation zero, on
some quadrants 100 yards. If the rocker arm has been
pushed down as low as it will go and the range disk reads
more than 100 yards, say 3,000 yards, then it will be neces-
sary to use a quadrant wrench provided in tool kit in trail
box. Loosen the friction nut and turn the range disk until
it reads zero at the datum on the rocker arm, then tighten
friction nut, being careful to see that range disk does not
40 FIELD ARTILLERY
slip during this operation. If the bubble of the quadrant
is not in the center turn the clinometer level screw until it
does come to the center, then note the reading on the mi-
crometer scale. By means of a screw driver unloosen screw
on the micrometer head of the clinometer and turn the scale
until zero is opposite the datum line, tighten up the screw,
being careful to see that no displacement occurs in this oper-
ation. Before attempting to perform these operations, the
traverse level which corrects difference of level wheels
should be centered.
The Fuze Setter
All fuze setters of the battery should be tested before
firing takes place.
To test the fuze setter, set the range ring and corrector
scale to readings given, in columns 1 and 2, set the fuze for
that setting of fuze setter and compare settings of fuze with
the calculation setting given in column 3. Use a shrapnel
and not a drill cartridge in making the test. Record fuze
settings obtained with each fuze setter in column 4 with
error, if any in column 5, and the number of the fuze setter
in column 6.
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 30.0 0
2,000 4.0 5.99 . . . . . .
3,750 450 9.22
5,500 30.0 16.95 --- --- -
If errors exist in fuze setters they should be disas-

sembled and corrections made to set them right before they
are used in target practice or action. In order to keep them
in good order, fuze setters should be frequently oiled with
clock oil.
The hand fuze setter will be tested in the same manner
as the bracket fuze setter.
Lecture VIII
AMMUNITION
THE ammunition for the three-inch and four point seven
gun is fixed, that is the propelling charge and projectile
are in one piece, to facilitate rapidity of fire. The ammuni-
tion for the howitzers is contained in two parts. The projec-
tile with its fuze is loaded separately into the howitzer and is
inserted from a loading tray at the breech with a rammer.
The propelling charge is contained in three bags in the brass
cartridge case with its primer. The cartridge case of the
howitzer is sealed on the end to prevent the entry of mois-
ture. Just before loading, and after it has been determined
which zone is to be used in firing, the seal in broken and if
the second zone is to be used one of the bags, the uppermost,
is removed; if the first zone is to be used two bags are re-
moved, the cartridge case is then inserted in the breech
and is ready to fire upon the closing of the breechblock.
The action that takes place in the gun when it is fired is as
follows:-When a percussion primer in the base of the cart-
ridge case is fired by means of firing pin striking the primer,
a flame is shot into the propelling charge. This flame as-
sisted by a small charge of black rifle powder placed in front
of the propelling charge causes ignition of the powder
grains. After the grains are ignited gas is evolved and the
pressure rises until it becomes sufficient to move the projec-
tile against the resistance of the rifling; the projectile begins
to move and its motion is accelerated by the pressure of in-
creasing and expanding powder gases until a maximum
speed of 1,700 foot seconds is attained at or near the muzzle.
The propeller is nitro-cellulose powder, it is smokeless pow-
der and is made in small cylindrical grains for three-inch
gun with seven perforations running through each grain.
The size of each grain is about that of the little finger from
the end to the first joint. The object in having holes in the
powder grains is to facilitate the burning of the powder.
The powder grains for the different calibers vary m size
41
42 FIELD ARTILLERY
according to the increase or decrease in size of the caliber.
In the case of the propelling charges the combustion is
gradual, gas being evolved by burning powder during or
nearly all of the time of passage of projectile through bore
of gun. In the three-inch field gun this amounts to 24o of a
second. The constant generating gas develops power be-
hind the projectile.
Due to the increase of pressure and temperature the
rate of burning is increased; the burning in turn increases
the pressure, and the process of combustion is completed in
a time almost inappreciably small. Nitro-cellulose powder
is superior to nitro-glycerine powder as it causes less ero-
sion of the bore of guns and is easier to handle. Great
difficulty, however attends the making of the powder and
much time is required in its making.
The projectiles in use are high explosive shell, shrapnel,
and high explosive shrapnel. The latter is a unit projectile
and is much esteemed by the German artillerymen. The
fuzes in use are the base detonating fuze and the combina-
tion fuze. It may be stated to advantage at this point, that
the difference between an explosion and a detonation is as
follows:-
The explosion starts with the explosion of a single par-
ticle and takes place progressively from particle to particle
until the phenomenon is complete. Detonation is affected
with greater rapidity than explosion apparently, and is not
progressive from particle to particle but instantaneous con-
version of all explosive compounds into gases takes place.
The difference of rapidity of reaction of each gives rise to the
division of explosives into two groups-high explosives and
propellant explosives. The principal high explosives in gen-
eral use are nitro-glycerine, the dynamites, gun cotton, pic-
ric acid, and its salts, tri-nitro-teluel and the fulminate of
mercury. The various gun powders are progressive explo-
sives. Gun powder is a term covering charcoal and smoke-
less powder used as propellants in service and sporting
weapons.
Twenty-four ounces of nitro-cellulose powder is used as
a propelling charge for the 3-inch shell and shrapnel for
field guns. It is contained in a brass cartridge case fitted
COURSE "A," LECTURE VIII 43
with a 110 grain percussion primer. The primer is so

called because it contains 110 grains of compressed black
rifle powder and resembles a .30 calibre rifle cartridge case
except for radial holes drilled through its sides to permit the
escape of the flames into the propelling charge, when ful-
minate cap is struck by firing pin.
The Frankfort Arsenal 21-second combination fuze
(see cut attached) is used with the shrapnel of the 3-inch
gun. The body A of this fuze is machined from a bronze
casting. The time train rings C and D are turned from
hard rolled rods of Tobin bronze. An annular groove in
the shape of a horse shoe is milled in the lower face of each
of the time train rings. Mealed powder is compressed into
each of these grooves under pressure of 66,000 lbs. per
square inch, forming a time train the total length of which
is 9 inches.
The time element of this fuze is composed principally
of the following parts i The time or concussion plunger .e,
the concussion resistance ring e 1, the firing pin f, the vent g,
leading to the upper time train, the compressed powder
pellet h, the upper time train k, the compressed powder
pellet m, in the vent o, leading to the powder magazine p.
The plunger e, is cylindrical in shape and contains the
percussion composition in a recess at its base. The weight
of the plunger rests upon the concussion resistance ring e',
which keeps the primer from contact with the firing pin.
At discharge of the gun the resistance of the ring is over-
come and the primer is exploded by contact with the firing
pin. As stated before, the annular grooves into which the
meal powder of the time train is pressed are in the shape
of a horse shoe, a solid portion being left between the ends
of the groove in each ring or disk. The upper time-train
ring c, is prevented from rotation by pins which are halved
into the fuze body and the inner circumference of the ring.
The vent g, is drilled through the walls of the concus-
sion-plunger chamber, and is exactly opposite a hole in the
inner surface of the upper time train leading to the end of
the train from which the direction of burning is anti-clock-
wise.
The hole j is drilled through the upper face of the
44 FIELD ARTILLERY
lower time-train groove, from which the direction of bur-
ing is clockwise. The lower time-train ring is movable and
is graduated on its outer edge in a clockwise direction from
0 to 21.2, each full division corresponding to one second
time of burning in flight; these divisions are sub-divided
into five equal parts corresponding to one-fifth second. A
radial pin d2 is provided in the lower ring for engagement
with a notch in the fuze setter for setting the fuze. A line
in the lower flange of the fuze stock is the datum line for
fuze settings.
The vent o is drilled through the flange of the fuze
stock to the powder magazine p, and leads to the same end
of the lower time train as the vent j, that end from which
the direction of burning is clockwise when the fuze is at its
"zero" setting.
The action of the fuze as a time fuze is as follows :
Assume first the "zero" setting as shown on the figure.
At discharge of the gun the time plunger arms and fires
its primer. The flame from the primer passes out through
the vent g, igniting the pellet h, the end of the upper time
train i, down through the vent j to the end of the lower time
train k, and thence through the vent o to the magazine p,
the flame from which is transmitted to the base charge in the
shrapnel. It will be seen that for the "zero" setting of the
fuze the origin of both upper and lower time trains are in
juxtaposition. Assume any other setting, say 12 seconds:
The vent j has now changed its position with respect to the
vent h leading to the beginning of the upper time train and
the vent o, leading to the powder magazine p, both of which
points are fixed by the angle subtended between the o and 12-
second settings. The flame now passes down to the begin-
ning of the lower time train and burns back in a clockwise
direction to the position of the vent o whence it is trans-
mitted by the pellet of compressed powder m to the powder
magazine p.
For the 21.2-second setting the vent j, leading to the
beginning of the lower time train, is opposite the end of the
upper time train, and the end of the lower time train is
opposite the vent leading to the powder magazine. It will
now be seen that to reach the magazine p, and burst the
shrapnel the entire length of time train in both rings must
be burned.
The percussion element of the fuze is contained in the
base of the fuze. The plunger q, is armed by the rotation
of the projectile on its longest axis and held in place by the
forward motion of the projectile. On coming in contact
with the ground or target the projectile is stopped with
great force and the plunger drives forward into the priming
composition r, the flame rushes out of vent r into magazine
p and thence down central tube of shrapnel into bursting
charge at the base. If the time element of the fuze fails
to work, the percussion element acts on impact of the shrap-
nel. As already stated, the annular grooves in the lower
face of each ring for the powder trains do not form complete
circles, a solid portion being left between the ends of the
grooves in each. This solid portion is utilized to obtain a
setting at which the fuze can not be exploded, known as the
"safety point."
This point is marked by a line on the outer edge of
the movable time train, surmounted by "s," and is located
about halfway between the zero mark and the 21.2-second
graduation. When this point is brought opposite the line
on the lower flange of the fuze body, the vent j is covered
by the solid metal between the ends of the upper train, and
the vent o, leading to the powder magazine p, is covered
by the solid metal between the ends of the lower or movable
time train.
At the safety setting it will be seen that the upper
train may burn entirely out in case of accidental firing of
the time plunger, or in case it may be desired to burst the
shrapnel by impact or percussion, without the flame being
able to reach the magazine p.
The cloth washers c 1 and d' are glued to the upper
face of the graduated time train ring and to the upper face
of the flange of the fuze stock. These surfaces are cor-
rugated, as shown, to make the washers adhere more strong-
ly. The function of the washers is to make a gas check
and prevent premature action of the fuzes.
The compressed pellet j, in the vent leading from the
outside to the beginning of the lower time train is to re-
46 FIELD ARTILLERY
lease the pressure of the gases due to the burning train.
The gases from both time trains escape into the outer air
through the annular spaces shown in the illustration and
the vents b 1 in the closing cap.
The percussion element of this fuze, as shown in the
plate, consists of a percussion plunger q and an ordinary
percussion primer r.
The system of vents through the walls of the fuze
shown in Fig. 2 conduct the flame from the percussion
primer to the magazine p.
The bottom closing screw closes the percussion plunger
recess and keeps the powder in the magazine. The muslin
washer v is coated with shellac and held in place by the
brass washer w, over the outer edge of which a projecting
lip is crimped.
These fuzes are issued assembled in shrapnel. For
transportation in limbers and caisson the fuze should al-
ways be set at the safety point.
The fuze is provided with a waterproof hood of thin
brass, hermetically sealed. The hood should be stripped
off before an attempt is made to set the fuze. The fuze used
with the shell is a base detonating fuze. Its nomenclature
is a secret and is not published to the service.
The shrapnel is a drawn steel case fitted with steel
head and Frankfort Arsenal combination 21-second fuze. It
is used against troops in the open, to keep enemy troops down
in their trenches and with a low height of burst against
barbed wire entanglements, to destroy them. The base of
the shrapnel carries 24 ounces of black powder as a bursting
charge; holding the powder in place is a steel disk having
a hole -of an inch in diameter, to which is connected a steel
central tube from the bursting charge to the fuze. Around
the tube are placed 252 steel jacketed lead balls about half
an inch in diameter. Holding these balls in place is a smoke
producing matrix of resin, naphthalene, or some other such
substance.
When the fuze is set for a time burst the action is as
follows: The shock of discharge of the gun throws the
concussion plunger to the rear, sets off priming composition
by coming in contact with anvil, flame rushes out through
vent to upper time train, burns around in an anti-clockwise
direction until it strikes vent leading to lower time train,
then burns around lower time train in a clockwise direction
until vent is reached leading to powder magazine in the
base of fuze, then down from magazine through central
tube to small piece of guncotton in end of tube, thence into
bursting charge in base of shrapnel case. The explosion
of this charge forces steel diaphragm against shrapnel
bullets, strips off fuze and head of shrapnel case and throws
the shrapnel bullets out in a cone shape to the front at an
increased velocity of from 250 to 300 feet per second, cover-
ing an area in the form of an ellipse, at mid ranges, of
150 to 200 yards in depth and about 20 yards in width with
an average of one ball per square yard.
In the high explosive shrapnel the matrix around
shrapnel balls is composed of high explosive. When the
shrapnel functions in air the bullets are thrown out in
the usual manner and the fuze with head detonates on
striking the ground. When the shrapnel functions on im-
pact or percussion the matrix is detonated by the percussion
element, which causes a sympathetic detonation and a high
explosive shell effect is produced, the case being ruptured
and the fragments taking effect to the right and left of the
line of fire at the point of burst.
The common steel shell is a hollow steel casing bored
out at the base to take the base detonating fuze. It has a
capacity of 13.12 ounces of high explosive "D" (Dunnite).
It acts on percussidn only, and is used against materiel,
trenches, etc. On coming in contact with the ground or
target it is detonated and the case is ruptured into many
small fragments, the same being thrown to the right and
left of the line of fire.
Blank Ammunition
Great care should be taken by officers in the prepara-
tion and firing of blank ammunition in order to avoid acci-
dents. Smoking should be strictly prohibited in vicinity
of the place where loading is being done. An officer must
be present throughout the loading of the ammunition. This
should never take place in barracks, magazines, or stables..
48 FIELD ARTILLERY
Blank metallic ammunition is for use in salute firing,
morning and evening gun firing, maneuver firing, etc., and
consists of the following components: A brass cartridge
case, a percussion primer, a charge of black powder, and
a tight-fitting felt wad.
The Cartridge Case
The cartridge case for blank ammunition is drawn from
special brass, 'and for the 3-inch field gun is identical with.
the service cartridge case. Cartridge cases are issued un-
primed, and primers should not be inserted until the am-
munition is to be prepared for use.
Cartridge cases that have become deformed in service
should be turned in to the posts or arsenals designated in.
current orders for resizing and reforming.
The Primer
The 20-grain saluting primer (percussion) is used in the
preparation of blank metallic ammunition for the 3-inch field
gun. The primer should be a tight fit in the primer seat
in the cartridge case, and must be pressed into place with
the primer-inserting press provided for the purpose, and
not hammered in. No primer should be used that is not a,
tight fit in its seat in the case.
Cartridge cases should be primed just before the in-
sertion of the powder charge and under no circumstances
will primers be inserted after the powder charge has been.
inserted.
Primers are issued in hermetically sealed tin boxes,
which should not be broken open until the primers are to,
be used, as they deteriorate when exposed to atmospheric.
influences.
The Charge
The charge to be used in the preparation of blank
metallic ammunition for the 3-inch field gun is 1 pounds.
of saluting powder or 2 pounds of I. K. powder.
Preparation of Blank Metallic Ammunition
Blank metallic ammunition will be assembled at posts,
or in the field under the personal supervision of a commis-
sioned officer, who will be held responsible that it is pre-
pared in the manner prescribed. (General Orders No. 9,
War Department, January 11, 1908.)
For this purpose there are issued blank cartridge cases,
black powder in bulk, tight fitting felt wads, rubberine, or
other quick-drying paint, primers, etc.
Before assembling the cartridge cases should be care-
fully inspected to see that they are in sound condition and
thoroughly clean and dry. They should also be tested by
trying them in the gun, to determine whether they have
become deformed. Any cases that do not readily enter
the chamber in the gun, or that are otherwise seriously de-
formed, should be laid aside for resizing. After inspecting
the cartridge cases the blank ammunition should be pre-
pared as follows:
(a) Insert the primers with the primer-inserting
press.
(b) Pour into the cartridge case the proper weight
of black powder and shake it down well.
(c) Insert the felt wad and press it down hard until
it rests squarely on the powder charge.
(d) Give the upper surface of the felt wad and the
inside of the cartridge case just above the wad a good coat
of the rubberine or other quick-drying paint furnished for
the purpose, using a brush, and allow the case to stand
until this coat is dry. Then apply another coat of rubberine
paint in a similar manner. The object of using rubberine
paint, which is strongly adhesive, is to thoroughly seal the
joint between the wad and the case to prevent any powder
grains from leaking out, and at the same time to firmly
hold the wad in place.
Precautions to be Observed
Firings with blank metallic ammunition will be greatly
facilitated by a careful observance of the following:
Before all firings a careful examination should be made
of the assembled rounds to see that the felt wads have not
become displaced or the cartridge cases dented or deformed'
by careless handling. If the cartridge cases have been
properly resized and are clean no difficulty should be ex-
perienced in inserting them in the gun, provided the cham-
50 FIELD ARTILLERY
ber of the latter is clean. The continued insertion of car-
tridge cases that are not clean causes an accumulation in
the gun chamber which may make the insertion of subse-
quent rounds difficult or impossible.
In firing blank ammunition the gun chamber will be
sponged after each round with a damp sponge, to extinguish
sparks and remove powder residue resulting from the pre-
vious round, before the insertion of another round.
Care will be taken to see that the sponges are not
worn, and that they thoroughly fit the chamber. The in-
terval between rounds in firing blank ammunition should
be sufficient to allow thorough sponging of the chamber and
examination to ascertain that all sparks have been ex-
tinguished.
Wads for the preparation of blank metallic ammunition
are made to tightly fit in the cartridge case. No wads
should be used that are not a tight fit in the case.
Care of Cartridge Cases

As soon after firing as practicable the exploded primers
should be removed from the cartridge case by means of
the decapping tool furnished with the reloading outfit. The
case should then be thoroughly washed in strong solution
of soft soap and soda to remove all powder residue. It
should then be thoroughly dried.
Before firing a salute with blank metallic ammunition
all the cartridges to be used should be inserted in the gun
to ascertain if they will fit. In preparing ammunition for
salutes, a few rounds in addition to the required number
should be prepared for use in case of misfires. Lightly oil-
ing the outside of cartridge cases just before use will facili-
tate their insertion and extraction.
If the cartridge cases are carefully cleaned and wash-
ed immediately after firing, not only will less labor be re-
quired, but the life of the cartridge will be greatly pro-
longed.
A good solution for washing cartridge cases may be
prepared by using ingredients in the following proportions:
One gallon of water, 22 ounces soft soap, 5 ounces sal soda.
The mixture should be boiled and stirred until the ingre-
dients are entirely dissolved.
In washing cartridge cases this solution should be used
hot and in sufficient quantity to completely immerse the
cases. Neither acids nor solutions of acids will be used
for cleaning cartridge cases.
Drill Cartridge
The "drill cartridge" is a dummy cartridge for use
in drilling cannoneers in the service of the gun. It is a
bronze casting of the shape of the service shrapnel ammu-
nition, and is fitted at the point with a movable ring grad-
uated the same as the ring upon the Frankford Arsenal
21-second combination fuze. This arrangement is for in-
struction of cannoneers in fuze setting.
Number of rounds of ammunition supplied to the dif-
ferent calibers of guns in the service is given in the fol-
lowing table:
Number and Distribution of Rounds Per Piece
. .t3 I Q+ I.I
On wheels and packs 2121 464 312 180 336 168
In advance supply depots 2121 464 312 360 336 336
At base or in arsenals 425 928 624 540 672 504
Total available 850 1856* 1248 1080 1344 1008
*For cavalry divisions the number of rounds per piece is 1,254 for 3-inch
field gun.
Lecture IX
FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

T HEarebattery commander's telescopes, issued to the service,
of two kinds, the old model instrument with
single barrel, and the new model or scissors telescope. The
old model is mounted on a tripod and in construction re-
sembles very much an engineer's transit. It has leveling
screws on the base plate, which are exceedingly difficult to
manipulate and easily get out of working order. The azi-
muth scale is graduated contra-clockwise and is divided into
64 main parts, each one representing 100 mils. Mounted
on top of this plate is the upper plate or limb, on which is
contained the zero or datum line. A small micrometer scale
with its perimeter divided into 100 parts is attached to the
main scale by a scroll gear. One complete turn of the
micrometer scale moves the upper limb over 100 mils or
one division on the main scale. This is used for measuring
horizontal angles. On the upper plate is mounted the
telescope, which consists of one barrel, and is constructed
on the same principle practically as the panoramic sight.
Situated on the right of the barrel of the telescope is a main
scale, marked 2, 3, 4 and 5. Attached to this main scale
is a micrometer screw graduated into 100 parts, the small-
est division being 1 mil. These two scales are used for
measuring vertical angles. One complete turn of the microm-
eter screw moves the main scale over 1 division, or 100 mils.
The instrument is graduated for horizontal angles in a
contra-clockwise direction, so that angles measured with it
can be readily adapted to the panoramic sight, which is grad-
uated in a clockwise direction, the difference between the
two instruments being that with the panoramic sight the
scale itself is moved from the zero position in setting off
a deflection, whereas with the B. C. telescope the grad-
uated circular limb is stationary and the upper limb, which
is attached to the barrel of the telescope, is moved in meas-
uring an angle. With the scissors telescope, or new
52
model battery commander's telescope, as it is known, the
leveling screws are done away with and the ball-and-socket
.arrangement is substituted therefor; with a quick leveling
bubble device, the horizontal angles are measured in the
:same manner.
The vertical scales, however, are not. There is at-
tached to the barrels of the telescope a scale which works
in a vertical plane, carrying a spirit level. This scale is
so arranged that when it reads zero, the bubble is centered
:and a line through the zero of the scale is parallel with
a line through the lower horizontal line in the barrel of
the telescope. If then it is desired to measure a vertical
angle, and the elevating device of the instrument is ma-
neuvered so that the horizontal wire in the barrel is at
the base of the object to be measured, by centering the
bubble of the spirit level, the vertical angle is set off on
the scale. The main scale is marked in the same manner
as the main scale of the old pattern instrument, and the
micrometer scale is similarly marked.
Range Finder
The range finder furnished to the service is known as
the Field Artillery Self-contained Base Range Finder. The
base in some cases is divided into meters, in other cases
into yards. Most of the instruments furnished are the one-
yard base. This instrument consists of a barrel about three
feet long, which is placed in a horizontal position on a head
set on a tripod. This head contains a device for measuring
horizontal angles, the same as the scissors instrument, and
is similarly graduated. When the instrument is directed
on the object whose range is sought, the object is brought
into view before the eye-pieces through two object glasses,
one situated at each end of the instrument. Two images
of the object are seen through the eye-pieces. One in its
natural position, and the reflected image in an inverted
position, by means of a hand screw situated to the right
of the eye-pieces, the object as seen direct and the inverted
object are brought into coincidence. A screw situated in
front of the eye-pieces, known as the halving screw, permits
the inverted object to be raised and lowered along the
54 FIELD ARTILLERY
edges of the object seen direct, thus assisting in getting
exact coincidence of the object. When exact coincidence is
obtained after this manipulation, the range in yards to
the object is read at a window situated to the left of the
eye-pieces. Great care in handling fire control instruments
is essential and must be thoroughly impressed upon all en-
listed men and officers charged with their use.
Focusing
To focus the battery commander's telescope, old style:
(a) After the instrument is properly set up, focus the
eye-piece by screwing it in or out of the eye-piece top until
the cross wires are in position for distinct vision. This
can be done better by pointing the telescope skyward. (b)
Focus the object by pointing the telescope at a distant ob-
ject and turning the focus screw until the image of the
object is in the same plane as the cross hair of the reticule.
In this position, the cross hair will appear stationary as
the eye is shifted across eye-lens. To focus battery com-
mander's telescope, new style (scissors) : (a) Set up the
instrument and level it. (b) Direct the telescope to a
distant object. Place the leather cover over the object
lens of one of the barrels. Focus the eye-piece of the
other by screwing it in or out until the object appears the
clearest. (d) Take off leather cover from first barrel
and put on leather cover of second barrel, repeating the
operation with the other eye-piece. (e) Adjust the in-
terpupillary distance by turning the interpupillary adjust-
ing screw one way or the other, until the distant object ap-
pears in one distinct image. This is done more quickly if
the interpupillary distance scale is set at its maximum
reading, then brought to the proper distance while looking
through both eye-pieces. The reading of the interpupillary
distance scale and of each eye-piece scale should then be
noted and memorized, so that in using similar instruments
in the future the interpupillary distance scale and the eye-
pieces may be set with this reading before making ob-
servations.
Measuring Angles
Horizontal angles: (a) Set up the instrument and
level it. (b) Set the azimuth scale at zero. (c) Without
altering this reading direct the vertical line of the telescope
to the aiming point. (d) After clamping lower scale direct
the vertical line on the target or other object at which the
angle is to be measured. (e) Read the angle.
Vertical angles (the site) : (1) With battery command-
er's telescope, old style, the instrument being set up and
leveled, (a) turn the telescope in the direction of the target,
(b) see that the bubble on the range level is centered, (c)
sight at the target, the horizontal cross wire to be at the
base of the target or at such other points to which the site
is to be measured, (d) read the site. The target is below
the level of the instrument, if the site is less than 300,
and above if more than 300. (2) With instruments pro-
vided with independent angle of site level (scissors in-
strument, aiming circle, etc.), (a) the instrument being set
up, sight on the target or other object as above, (b) center
the bubble of the site level, read the site.
Field Glasses
The best field glass for a field artillery officer has been
generally determined to be one of 6 power with a good
field of view and having a vertical and horizontal scale
of mils contained in one barrel of the glass. The follow-
ing notes are of interest and should be borne in mind: (a)
To determine the power of a field glass, divide the diameter
of the object glass by the diameter of the pencil of light
on the eye-piece. (b) The higher the power, the poorer
the light. (c) If the eye-piece is very much smaller than
the object glass, the illumination is bad, and the glass is
practically worthless on a dark day. (d) To determine
the field of view of a field glass or other observing instru-
ment, divide the normal field for the naked eye, namely,
750 to 800 mils, by the power of the instrument. Example:
The power of the glass is 6; 750 divided by 6 equals 125
mils, or the field of view. (e) To determine the stereo-
56 FIELD ARTILLERY
scopic effect of a glass, divide the distance between the ob-
ject lenses by the interpupillary distance. (f) To deter-
mine the magnified stereoscopic effect, multiply this result
by the power of the glass.
The Battery Commander's Ruler

This instrument is about 6 inches long and an inch
wide. The cord, about two feet long, passes through a hole
in the ruler. One end of the cord is held between the
teeth by the observer, so that the ruler is held out until
the cord is taut and the ruler 20 inches from the eye. Scales
are on either edge to the extent of 300 mils and the ruler
is graduated to read deflections in mils, smallest graduation
being 2 mils. Rulers should be adjusted to the individual
eye, so that readings will be accurate. To do this, set up
a B. C. telescope and measure the distance between two ob-
jects from a certain point in mils, standing at the same
point with the knotted end of the cord between the ob-
server's teeth, holding the ruler at right angles to the
cord and sliding it backward or forward, until the read-
ing on the ruler is the same as that obtained with the
instrument. Knot the cord at this point, and the ruler is
adjusted to this particular observer's eye. The slide on
the back of the rule is used for determining whether guns
will clear a mask. The angle of site of the target, the
angle of site of the obstacle or mask in mils, and the
ranges of target and mask in yards are measured by means
of the B. C. telescope and range finder or other means.
The height of the trajectory in mils at the mask is then
determined for the given range from the ruler. If the
height of the trajectory is greater than the measured
height of the obstacle, the trajectory will clear the latter
and reach the target. If the height of the trajectory is
less than measured height of the obstacle the latter will
prevent the fire of the battery in the position selected from
reaching the target. (See cut attached.) To illustrate,
angle of site of target equals 285, or minus 15. Angle of
site of obstacle 380, or plus 80. Range of target equals
2,800 yards. Range of obstacle or mask equals 200 yards.
Setting minus 15 on the slide opposite 200 on the scale of
ranges brings 64 ,on the slide opposite 2,800 on range scale;
hence, the height of trajectory at 200 yards is 64 mils. If
the height of the obstacle is 80 mils, projectile would not
clear it. The principle involved in the use of the slide is
simply that of subtracting the angle of departure for the
range to the mask from that of the range to the target,
in order to determine the height of the trajectory at the
mask.
Lecture X
CARE AND CLEANING OF ARTILLERY

MATERIEL
FIELD artillery materiel requires intelligent, systematic
and constant care. Correct instruction and frequent
practice in the subject fit the personnel to keep the mate-
riel in serviceable condition and to effect repairs promptly
and satisfactorily. Materiel, all parts of which are clean,
correctly surfaced, and .in good repair, functions properly
with the least possible wear and permits the making of
repairs without unnecessary delays. The noncommissioned
officers of the higher grades and all officers should be thor-
oughly familiar with all the duties involved in caring for
the materiel of the batteries.
Frequent wiping or washing of all parts of the car-
riages is desirable, not only for the purpose of keeping
them clean, but also to aid in the detection of missing bolts,
nuts and split pins and of parts broken, cracked or out of
adjustment. Buckets and sponges are habitually used for
washing carriages. The use of a hose through which water
is thrown forcibly against the carriage tends to wet parts
which are not easily accessible for drying. After wash-
ing, the carriages are dried with sponges or cloths. Leather
cases and straps are kept well oiled to prevent cracking
and wear.
Lubrication
It is of great importance that the materiel be kept prop-
erly lubricated. By that is meant the constant maintenance
of a thin film of the proper lubricant between all working
and bearing surfaces and the surfaces on which they work
or bear. This film of lubricant is required in order that the
parts may function easily and without unnecessary wear.
The frequency with which the various mechanisms and
parts should be lubricated and the amount of lubricant
that should be applied in each case cannot be definitely pre-
58
COURSE "A," LECTURE X 59,
scribed; these depend upon the conditions under which the
materiel is being used. It should be borne in mind, how-.
ever, that too little oil causes more waste and damage than
too much.
Oil holes are provided at various places where the
surfaces to be lubricated are not directly accessible. These
holes should be cleaned out frequently. Except during oil-
ing, they should be fully closed by means provided. Be-
fore oiling at an oil hole, wipe off carefully any dirt or
grit near the opening that might be carried down into it by
the oil.
Before applying fresh lubricant the old should, if
practicable, be wiped from the surfaces and the surfaces
should be clean and free from grit. While applying lubri-
cating oil the mechanism is operated or the part is moved
to insure the formation of a complete oil film between the
surfaces, and care must be taken, especially when lubri-
cating through an oil hole in cold weather, to see that
sufficient oil actually reaches the proper surfaces. When
oiling, cotton waste should be at hand, and any oil that
spills or runs upon surfaces where it is not required should
be wiped up at once in order to prevent the accumulation of
dust and dirt.
The men should be practiced in lubricating the various
mechanisms and parts, and are thus taught the location of
oil holes and other points where oil should be applied and
the proper methods of handling the oiler and waste.
Disassembling and Assembling

In disassembling, if the parts cannot be readily re-
moved, the tendency of uninstructed men is immediately
to use too great force. By teaching them to exercise pa-
tience and ingenuity, this tendency will be checked and the
frequent breaking of parts avoided. Metal parts should
never be struck directly with a hammer; a buffer of wood
or soft metal should always be interposed. The disassembled
parts should be kept together while being cleaned and
should be reassembled as soon as possible. In assembling,
a thin coating of oil is applied to all unpainted metal parts,
including especially the threads of bolts and nuts, in order
60 FIELD ARTILLERY
to prevent the formation of rust and to aid in the next dis-
assembling. At points where friction may be developed
when the materiel is in use, a lubricating oil is used; at
other points a light slushing oil. All nuts are secured by
split pins, which should be replaced and properly opened
after the nuts are screwed home; threaded parts not se-
cured by split pins are lashed with copper wire to prevent
unscrewing. Before assembling, it is advisable to paint
those parts requiring it that after assembling become more
or less inaccessible. In so doing, however, care must be
taken to see that no bearing surfaces are painted.
Repairs and Adjustments

All cannoneers are taught to effect minor repairs, such
as the replacing of a wornout brake shoe or of a damaged
pole, and to make simple adjustments, such as the ad-
justment of the brakes. The more difficult repairs are made
by the mechanics and the noncommissioned officers.
Cleaning After Firing

As soon as possible after firing, the bores of the guns
should be cleaned with a solution of ingredients in the fol-
lowing proportion: One-half pound of sal soda to one gallon
of boiling water. They are then dried carefully and oiled.
Also, the exploded primers should be removed from the
cartridge cases and the cases washed by immersing them
completely in a hot but somewhat weaker solution of sal
soda; they are then dried carefully. Neither acids nor solu-
tions of acids will be used for cleaning cartridge cases.
Painting Artillery Materiel

The object of painting the materiel is to preserve it
and render it less visible when in the field. Surfaces that
become marred should be.painted over without waiting for
an opportunity to paint the entire carriage. The number
of coats of paint that should be applied in any period de-
pends upon the conditions under which the materiel is be-
ing used.
The paint issued for this purpose is of olive drab color,
put up in 5-pound cans ready for use, and is applied to
COURSE "A," LECTURE X 61
both wood and metal parts. If the paint is too thick, tur-
pentine should be used as a thinner, but not to greater ex-
tent than 2 per cent by volume.
All steel and iron nonbearing surfaces will be painted,
including that portion of the under side of the gun be-
tween the clips. Wearing and bearing surfaces, teeth of
gear wheels, elevating screws, piston rods, cylinders,
counter-recoil springs, and interior of cradle will not be
painted.
All parts to be painted should be free from dirt or
grease. They may be washed in a liquid made by dis-
solving one-half pound sal soda in 8 quarts of warm water;
then rinsed in clean water, and wiped thoroughly dry.
Where the materiel is in fair condition and only marred
in spots, the marred places should be primed with olive drab
paint, second coat, and permitted to dry. Then the whole
surface should be sand papered with No. 12 sand paper
and a coat of paint applied and allowed to dry thoroughly
before use.
Where the materiel is in bad condition all parts should
be thoroughly sand papered with No. 24 sand paper, be
given a coat of paint, and be permitted to dry for at least
24 hours; then sand paper with No. 00 sand paper, apply
a finishing coat, and permit the parts to dry thoroughly
before use.
In general, two coats of paint per year will be suffi-
cient to keep the materiel in good condition. After re-
peated painting the paint may become so thick as to scale
off in places or give an unsightly appearance. It may then
be removed for repainting, as follows:
Dissolve 1 pound of concentrated lye, powdered form,
in 6 pints of hot water, and slake in enough lime to give the
solution the consistency of paint. Use the solution freshly
mixed and apply to the parts where paint is to be removed
with a brush or with waste tied to the end of a stick. When
the solution begins to dry on the surface use a scraper to
remove the old paint, and complete the cleaning of the
surface with cloth and water. If one application is not
sufficient to loosen the paint, apply a second coat. Be-
fore painting wash the surface with sal soda water, rinse
62. FIELD ARTILLERY
with clean water, and then wipe thoroughly, as described
above.
Oils for Artillery Materiel
For service, cleaning, and. preservation of materiel
the Ordnance Department issues cylinder (or hydrolene)
oil, lubricating oil (or engine oil No. 1), sperm oil, kero-
sene, neatsfoot oil, and light slushing oil. Each of these
oils is suited for the particular purpose for which it is is-
sued, as stated below, and care should be taken that it is
not used for other purposes.
The cylinder (or hydrolene) oil is for use in the recoil
cylinders of the carriages and for no other purpose.
The lubricating oil (or engine oil No. 1) will be used
exclusively in all oil holes of the materiel, and in lubricating
such parts as wheels and axles, gun and cradle slides, pintle
socket, elevating and traversing mechanisms, exterior of
cylinders, brake bearings, hinges, different surfaces of
breechblocks, threads of breech recess, etc.
The sperm oil is a lighter lubricant than the engine
oil No. 1, and may be used on the gears of sights, fuze
setters, range quadrants, parts of revolvers, etc.; engine
oil No. 1 may also be used on such parts. Clock oil for in-
struments and sights.
Kerosene is furnished by the Ordnance Department for
cleaning purposes. In the field it may be used for lan-
terns. Kerosene for general illuminating purposes is fur-
nished by the Quartermaster Corps.
Neatsfoot oil is used for the care and preservation
of all leather equipment.
Light slushing oil is prescribed for use in the protec-
tion and preservation of all bright or unpainted surfaces
of steel or iron on all parts of the equipment when the ma-
teriel is to remain unused for an appreciable length of time.
Its use as a lubricant for mobile artillery is forbidden.
Before applying the slushing oil to any surface, the
part should be thoroughly cleaned, so as to be free from
rust, water, kerosene, lubricating oil, etc., as their pres-
ence will cause rusting under the slushing oil. The slush-
ing oil should then be applied in a thin, uniform coat, since
this is all that is necessary to give good protection.
Except in very cold weather it can be applied by using
a paint brush as when painting; in cold weather it should
be applied by stippling-that is, lightly tapping the sur-
face with the end of the sash tool held with bristles per-
pendicular to the surface to be covered. It can be applied
to the bores of guns by the slush brush issued for the pur-
pose. In cold weather it should be warmed before use for
coating the bore of gun.
It may be readily removed by the use of burlap or waste
dipped in kerosene.
The following suggestions for care and management
of materiel are of value and should be carefully noted and
remembered. Careful compliance with these suggestions
will avoid delay and possible injury to personnel or
materiel:
The firing pin should habitually be carried uncocked
in model 1902 breech blocks.
Recock carefully with a lanyard after a hangfire or a
misfire with 1902 breechblocks. The breechlock should not
be opened for at least one minute after a misfire.
All work upon recoil cylinders, sights and other optical
equipment should be done in the presence of a commissioned
officer.
The recoil cylinder should never be clamped in a vise,
but when necessary to hold it from turning a spanner ap-
plied to front end of cylinder should be used.
Never remove the cylinder-end stud nut when the piece
is at an elevation.
See that proper kind of oil is used in cylinders and
for lubrication.
Strain the oil used in filling the cylinders through a
fine clean cloth and be sure that the receptacles used in
handling the oil are clean.
Take every precaution to keep the interior of the cylin-
ders clean and to prevent the entrance of foreign particles.
In assembling the gland, be sure that at least four
threads of the gland are engaged with the threads of the
cylinder head.
Lash parts with copper wire to prevent unscrewing.
Before firing, inspect to insure that cylinders are prop-
64 FIELD ARTILLERY
erly closed and that the cylinder-end stud nut and the piston
rod nut are in place.
If time permits, oil slides before firing.
Note length of recoil for first few shots to insure that
the recoil mechanism is working properly.
If the gun fails to return fully into battery, it is prob-
ably due (1) to dirt on slides and guides; (2) to cutting
of sliding surfaces on account of dirt and lack of oil; (3)
to gland being screwed up too tightly; (4) to dirt or for-
eign particle in the cylinder, and especially in the counter
recoil buffer recess; (5) to weakness of springs. Ninety
per cent of such cases will be found due to (1), (2) or (3).
Lock the cradle to the trail at drill and in traveling
to avoid unnecessary strain upon the pointing mechanism.
After unlimbering, release elevating and traversing
lock before attempting to elevate or traverse gun.
After assembling a wheel, see that the wheel fastening
hasp is secured by a split pin properly opened in the case
of old pattern fastening.
Keep hub bolts and hub caps properly tightened.
Do not permit brake levers to be released by a kick
or a blow.
Remove cylinder-end stud set screw before trying to
unscrew cylinder-end stud.
Replace and properly open all split pins after replacing
nuts.
Close down the ends of the recoil indicator guide to
avoid loss of the indicator.
Prevent possible injury to cannoneers by causing them
to stand clear of the counter recoil spring column in as-
sembling or dismounting.
In moving the gun on or off the cradle, provide ample
support for the breech end, so that the gun clips are in
prolongation of the cradle guides; if this is not done, the
cradle guides may be ruined.
If the gun will not remain at the elevation at which
set, the crank shafts are probably not correctly assembled.
If the elevating screws do not house in traveling, they
are incorrectly assembled.
Do not strike any metal part directly with a hammer;
interpose a buffer of wood or copper.
Frequently verify the adjustment of sights and
<quadrant.
Require special care in handling sights.
Do not permit cannoneers to use front sight as a
handle in mounting.
Be sure that the range disk of the quadrant and range
strip of the rear sight shank are graduated for the par-
ticular type of ammunition used by the battery.
Do not unnecessarily expose ammunition to the sun
or load it into a warm gun before time for firing; if this
is done, erratic shooting may result.
See that fuzes are set at safety for transport.
Use the small primer-inserting press for inserting
primers in cartridge cases and the decapping tools provided
for removing old primers.
The Wheeled Materiel

In order to maintain the wheeled materiel in serviceable
condition and to practice the men in its care, all parts are
periodically disassembled, examined, cleaned and assembled.
For this purpose a schedule of systematic cleaning will be
followed, to train the personnel in the regulation way in
each battery. The cleaning schedule should be simple in
operation, and should set forth briefly the routine work to
be done each day that the materiel is used, and the special
work to be done from time to time; and the items of work
included therein should be such that together they consti-
tute a thorough overhauling of the carriages. There are
a number of operations at which the presence of an officer
is required. They are usually omitted from a schedule ar-
ranged for the use of enlisted men, such work being per-
formed when especially ordered.
Work on the carriages during cleaning periods is per-
formed under the immediate supervision of the lieutenant
assigned to Department A, which is described in paragraph
32, Field Artillery Drill Regulations.
The chief mechanic is in direct charge of the work.
He is respohsible that the requirements of the cleaning
schedule are complied with; that the parts broken, cracked,
ART.-3
66 FIELD ARTILLERY
worn, or out of adjustment are detected and promptly re-
paired; that the necessary materials and spare parts are
obtained from the supply sergeant; that the tools and
cleaning materiels are properly used, and that the carriages
are left always in readiness for immediate use.
On each day that the carriages are used, two periods
will habitually be designated for their care; one before the
carriages leave park while the drivers are harnessing, the
other during the first stables held after the return of the
carriages to park. At the first period, the gunners and
the Nos. 4, assisted by other members of the gun squad,
if present, look over their pieces and caissons, oil wheels,
etc., and see that the carriages are in every way prepared
for use. At the commencement of the period held during
stables, the gunners, and Nos. 4, and such other cannoneers
as may be needed for the work at hand, assemble at the
park where the chief mechanic notifies them of any special
work required for the day. They then proceed with the
regular cleaning and with the special work ordered. Chief
mechanic moves from carriage to carriage inspecting the
work and assisting wherever needed.
At the close of the period he accompanies the lieutenant
in a careful inspection of the carriages, and when so di-
rected, sees that the park is put in order and that the men
are dismissed.
Lecture XI
TELEPHONE AND BUZZER

CARE and use. The service buzzer has taken its place
as one of the most important parts of the equipment of
the battery since the outbreak of the European War. The
necessity for every officer, especially junior officers, of
knowing all about the service buzzer and of being able to
send and receive the general service code on the buzzer
is of the greatest importance. It therefore behooves each
officer to set to work early in his service to learn about the
buzzer. A short description is given herewith, with cuts
illustrating different parts.
1. Given an induction coil, consisting of a primary
winding of a few turns and a secondary winding of many
turns on a soft iron core, some device rapidly to make and
break or vary the primary circuit and a source of electro-
motive force, then an alternating current of high voltage can
be obtained from the secondary coil. The ordinary telephone
receiver is marvelously sensitive to alternating currents of
frequencies of the order of 500 to 1,000 per second. By
combining these two principles the present service buzzer
has been evolved.
2. The buzzer requires no adjustment at the re-
ceiving end except as noted in paragraph 10. Leaks, bad
connections and high resistances, any one of which would
cause loss of some or all of the signals on Morse instru-
ments, simply affect the loudness of the signals in the re-
ceiving telephone. The delicacy of the telephone receiver
makes telegraphy possible over lines long after Morse
operation has ceased.
3. From the general principles involved, it will be
seen that a telephone transmitter may be substituted for
the key and interrupter to vary the current in the primary
and the resultant current in the secondary. The buzzer
then constitutes a telephone station. This feature is of
great importance, especially in the operation of tactical
lines.
68 FIELD ARTILLERY
4. This buzzer is 71 inches in length, 54 inches wide
and 3- inches deep, all outside measurements. It weighs
5 pounds. The case is of aluminum, covered with fair
leather and provided with carrying strap. Two Type A
Tungsten dry batteries (3 volts each) provide the primary
current. These batteries are inserted through a hinged
door in the end of the case, and they fit against spring
contacts at the other end of the case and contacts on the
door. The electrical connections are automatically made
through these contacts. A hard rubber base is mounted
over the batteries, and on it are mounted the induction
coil with interrupter, two sets of condensers, the sending
key, the "Rec." key and the line jack, together with bind-
ing posts, to which are attached the cords of the tele-
phone transmitter and the receiver. The two latter, with
their cords and the line plug with its cord and connectors,
are packed for transportation in the space between the
base and the back of the case. A wrench and screwdriver
handle and two screwdriver blades fit into sockets in the
case. Instructions for use are permanently mounted on
the inside of the cover, together with a diagram of cir-
cuits. That diagram is so simplified that it bears little
resemblance at first glance to the real circuits of the in-
strument.
5. The plates show, in the center, the actual wiring
in grooves on the under side of the base, and the various
parts are shown above and below this diagram and con-
nected at the proper points with the corresponding points
on the base by dotted lines.
The primary circuit for telegraphy is as follows: Bat-
tery 1+, a, lug P, primary of coil, lug PS, b, c, back under
contact of key, front under contact of key, d, e, point of
interrupter, vibrator of interrupter, f, g, battery 2-. The
two batteries are in series. The primary condenser shunts
the break of the interrupter.
The primary circuit for telephony is as follows: Bat-
tery 1+, a, lug P, primary coil, lug PS, b, c, binding post
RT, transmitter, binding post T, battery 1-. Battery 1
alone is used in telephoning. The button switch on the
transmitter must be pressed while talking.
COURSE "A," LECTURE XI 69
The secondary circuit for telegraphy, sending, is as
follows: Line jack ring, h, i, lug S, secondary of coil,
lug PS, line condenser switch, k, 1, line jack tip. The line
condenser may be interposed in the circuit by opening the
switch, that is, pushing it in the direction indicated by the
arrow. This is only done when it is desired to use the
buzzer on a line already being utilized for Morse sending,
i. e., a line carrying direct current; the condenser preventing
flow of same through itself, yet allowing the alternating
current of buzzer and telephone to pass freely. The normal
position of the switch is pulled toward the interrupter
screw, that is, short circuiting the line condenser. No noise
is heard in the receiver on sending because the first effect
of closing the sending key is to open the upper contact
which is in the receiver circuit.
The secondary circuit in telephoning, both sending and
receiving, and in telegraphing, receiving, is as follows: Line
jack ring, h, i, lug S, secondary of coil, lug PS, b, c, binding
post RT, receiver, binding post R, m, upper contact of key,
base of key, n, o, line condenser switch, k, 1, line jack tip.
The key "Rec." in models 1912 and 1913, when pressed,
short circuits the secondary of the coil arid removes its
resistance from the circuit. It is used in receiving only,
and then only in case of very weak signals.
In the 1914 model this "Rec." key is replaced by a
single pole double-throw switch whose poles are marked
"B" and "T." By consulting the diagrams of this model
the action of the switch is apparent; i, e., on buzzer side
the secondary is out of circuit when sending key is in
normal position, thus removing its impedence from line
when receiving, and placing the receiver only, in series with
line. It is also seen that the 'phone element cannot be used
under these conditions. When sending key is depressed the
receiver is removed from the line by virtue of upper con-
tact of key opening, thus removing its impedence and ren-
dering it silent when sending. With switch on "talk" side
the telephone element is normal; the buzzer may also be
employed, but with less efficiency than before because the
receiver and secondary are both in series with line when
sending key is normal, i.e., when receiving.
70 FIELD ARTILLERY
To Use the Buzzer as a Telephone
7. The key is closed and opened several times to draw
the attention of the operators at other stations. The opera-
tor at the calling station calls the letter or call letters of
the station wanted, signing at intervals his own call; when
answered, he informs the station called to use the telephone,
which is done by sending the word "fone."'
To use the telephone press in the button on the trans-
mitter while talking and hold the transmitter vertically
or substantially in the position in which the transmitter
on a commercial telephone is mounted. If held horizontally
the granulated carbon in the receptacle of the transmitter
may not touch the front carbon disk and the transmitter
will not operate. In the 1914 model, switch should be first
placed on "T," or "talk" side.
Care of Buzzers
8. A buzzer used at a station, such as at a tent in
the camp, will cause but little trouble. Occasional battery
renewal, whether the instrument is in use or not, is neces-
sary. The battery must be renewed when, after all key,
interrupter and other contacts have been cleaned and tight-
ened, the interrupter works feebly on its best possible ad-
justment.
The buzzer, however, carried by operators gets out of
order at times, due to being jarred while carried on horse-
back, especially when traveling at the faster gaits. This
can frequently be obviated by seeing .that all connections
are tight, and that the buzzer does not rattle when shaken
after being packed and closed. The line plug, with its cord
and connectors, must always be packed with the receiver
and transmitter and never carried separately.
The operator who takes proper care of his buzzer will
seldom have to turn it in for repair.
Adjustments and Location of Faults

9. Sometimes, even with all precautions, the buzzer
will not work. When such is the case, the first thing to
do is to try and locate the trouble. The trouble may be in
the buzzer, in the connector, or in the line.
10. An operator, on being issued a buzzer, almost in-
variably feels called upon to adjust the play of the send-
ing key and the tension of its spring to his individual liking.
It is a vital point in the operation of this buzzer that the
two lower contacts of the key remain open when the key
is open, and that both close when the key is pressed. It is
desirable that the back lower contact closes first when the
key is pressed, and also that the spring be strong enough
to insure proper pressure on the upper contact when the
key is open. Smoothness of operation of the key can often
be secured by proper adjustment of the two pivot screws,
leaving the spring pressure fairly strong. Reference to
the plate will show that the upper contact of the key is
in the receiver circuit, and therefore a bad contact here
will cut down the strength of the signals. If the back
lower contact does not open when the key is open, the re-
ceiver will be short circuited and no signals will be re-
ceived. If the back lower contact does not close when the
key is pressed, the primary circuit will not be completed
and the interrupter will not buzz. Each operator should
have a buzzer permanently issued to him, and after he has
adjusted the play of the key and the spring tension, the
proper adjustment of the back under contact should be
made by an expert and the operator warned not to change
his key adjustment. The adjustment of the back under
contact is made by bending up or down the L-shaped strip
on which the flat spring rests when the key is up.
11. The two batteries should be inserted into the bat-
tery compartment bottom first, so that the zinc bottoms
rest against the spring contacts under the sending key.
The contacts on the door when it is closed will press against
the brass terminals of the carbons. These carbon terminals
and zinc bottoms should be cleaned and brightened before
insertion of the batteries. The buzzer will not operate if
one battery is reversed in the compartment.
On rare occasions, after hard use, the zinc containing
case of a battery will be eaten through and the electrolyte
will escape and corrode all brass work in the compartment.
If this occurs, the base on which the instruments are mount-
ed should be removed by taking out the four screws in the
72 FIELD ARTILLERY
white circles (two under the condensers) and the metal
work of the compartment and the wiring on the bottom of
the base should be cleaned thoroughly and dried before the
base is replaced.
12. With the key in proper adjustment and a good
battery in the instrument, there is little difficulty in ad-
justing the interrupter. The contacts between the screw
point and the vibrator spring should be clean. The vibrator
-spring is first adjusted so that it lies parallel to the end
of the coil and very near but not touching the iron core.
Loosen the locking screw of the screw point and unscrew
the point well away from the vibrator spring before making
this adjustment. A slip of paper should pass freely be-
tween the vibrator spring and the iron core of the coil.
Now carefully screw in the screw point until it just touches
the vibrator spring and the buzzer should operate. Adjust
for loudest operation and test for operation as the sending
key is rapidly opened and closed while tightening up the
locking screw. If the key, battery and vibrator spring are
all in proper condition and the interrupter either fails to
operate or operates with brilliant sparking at the contact,
the primary condenser is either short circuited or open.
Remove it and replace with one of the line condensers which
are identical with it.
13. The receiver and its cord can be tested by touching
two poles of a dry cell to its binding posts, or by disconnect-
ing the cord on (R) post and touching it on post marked
(T). A sharp click should be heard. The receiver rarely
gets out of adjustment and should not be opened except
by an expert. The whole secondary receiving circuit can
similarly be tested by touching the two connectors on the
line plug cord to the two poles of a cell when a sharp click
should be heard in the receiver.
The transmitter and its cord are only in circuit when
the buzzer is used for telephoning. A complete test of the
talking circuit can be made by listening in the receiver with
line short circuited and blowing in the transmitter while
pressing the button switch and letting it go. The blowing
should be distinctly heard when the switch is closed. The
rear cover over the switch and connections can be removed
in the event of a fault being localized there. The trans-
mitter proper must never be opened under any circum-
stances, as this will invariably result in its complete de-
struction.
Emergency Operation
14. The service buzzer may be the only telegraph and
telephone instrument that will survive and operate properly
in active operations in the field. Therefore, a few sug-
gestions on its operation when spare parts and supplies
cannot be obtained and some possible uses in the theater
of operations follow:
15. When no Tungsten Type A batteries are available
take four dry cells of any type and connect them in series
with leading-in wires from the two end cells and from the
connection between the two middle cells. The used-up bat-
teries being removed from the case, attach one end wire to
lug P of the coil and the other end wire to the horizontal
bar along the side of the coil. The middle wire goes to
binding post T and is unnecessary if the telephone trans-
mitter is not to be used.
This system of wiring in battery may be used to ad-
vantage where the buzzer is permanently installed in an
office, but fine wire must be used to get it under the screw
heads.
16. If the line plug is lost or broken, the two parts
of the line jack may be scraped bright and the line and
ground wires wrapped around them several turns and twist-
ed up tight. Watch the insulation of the wires at this
point.
The "Rec." key, models 1912 and 1913, is not a vital
part of the buzzer, and if damaged need not be replaced.
Keep the contacts of this key well separated.
Any telephone receiver and cord may be substituted
for the receiver and its cord.
Any local battery transmitter may be substituted for
the telephone transmitter, but a common battery trans-
mitter will not work satisfactorily. A switch must be
provided in the transmitter circuit if an ordinary -trans-
mitter is used.
74 FIELD ARTILLERY
The line and primary condensers are identical and may
be interchanged. The line condensers are only essential
in the rare case when it is desired to bridge buzzers on a
line already being used for Morse signaling. The primary
condenser reduces sparking at the interrupter terminals,
and is not absolutely essential, although it should be in
circuit if a condenser is available.
It would be difficult in the field to find substitutes for
the sending key and coil, but they are of rugged construc-
tion and not liable to damage.
17. In addition to the ordinary use of the buzzer on
battery lines, some of these uses are possible:
It may be used as an office instrument on long, badly
insulated lines where Morse operation is impossible or un-
satisfactory. It will work through a break and dead ground
if both ends of the wire at the break are grounded.
It may be connected to a local battery telephone switch-
board for use as a telephone, in which case the point screw
of the interrupter must be carefully screwed up against
the vibrator spring until the latter just cannot move when
the key is pressed. The call and ring-off are made by a
few dots with the key. This method will operate line and
clearing-out drops in a switchboard as positively as a mag-
neto through 600 ohms line resistance. The receiver is
not as satisfactory as a call bell, but central's ring can be
heard distinctly for some distance as a series of clicks.
As already mentioned, two or more buzzers can be
cut in on a line already being utilized for Morse trans-
mission by throwing the line condenser switch in. Neither
method of operation will interfere with the other. It is
understood that the buzzers must be connected between
the line and the ground, and not cut into the line in series.
Dry Cells
18. The operation of the buzzer depends much on the
condition of the dry cells used with it. Dry cells deteriorate
in storage and, in general, are unserviceable after six
months. The date on which each battery is installed in a
buzzer should be plainly marked with an indelible pencil on
the. 1ttery.
The general tendency is to blame any failure of the
buzzers on the dry batteries; throw these away without
test and substitute new ones. This practice should be rig-
orously checked and all questionable batteries should be
be examined to see that their terminals are clean and
bright, and that the spring contact between the two cells
inside the paper tube is sufficiently strong to properly con-
nect the two cells in series. This may be done by sliding one
or both of the cells out of the tube.
Lecture XII
COMPUTATION OF FIRING DATA

OFFICERS should learn how to teach enlisted, men to
compute firing data, so that they may readily take
charge of a battery in case the officers are killed or wounded
or otherwise removed from the battery. In order to teach
the majority of the enlisted men this work, the greatest
simplicity must enter and the work made more or less me-
chanical, eliminating as much mathematics as is possible,
otherwise the enlisted man, who has not been fortunate
enought to have a good education, but who is otherwise a
good practical artilleryman, will be very loath to take
over the work and will be inclined to get discouraged with
the work clouded in a mystic veil of mathematics. To this
end the parallel method of computing the deflection is best
adapted for general work. It is best to start out in fact with
this mechanical method in teaching any beginner.
If the target cannot be seen from the vicinity of the
gun, select a battery commander's or observation station
where it can be seen. Assume that the B. C. station is se-
lected 150 yards to the left of the second gun in prolongation
of a line of guns and at about the same level; that the aiming
point is 4,000 yards to the left rear and that the target
is a hostile battery at range 2,500 yards, 6 mils higher than
the guns, and 8 mils below the skyline. Proceed as follows:
1. Set up, level, and focus B. C. telescope. 2. Put the azi-
muth reading to zero. 3. Unclamp the scale and turn the
telescope toward the aiming point. 4. Think of the line
joining the aiming point and second gun; estimate the per-
pendicular distance from the B. C. station to this line (in
the case assumed, suppose this is 100 yards). Divide this
distance in yards by /Aooo of the distance in yards to the aim-
ing point (100 divided by 4 equals 25). The result is then
off set on the aiming point. The off set is always made
away from the gun, namely in this case when the off set is
made the telescope with a deflection reading zero would be
76
COURSE "A," LECTURE XII 77
pointed 25 mils to the right of the aiming point (as one
faces it). To make an off set: (b) Use azimuth micrometer
and turn the vertical cross line toward the guns the required
number of mils for the off set. (c) With the slow motion
screw, put the vertical cross line on the aiming point where
upon the off set on the aiming point is made. This is prob-
ably the best single method to make the off set on the aiming
point, as it works with all B. C. observing instruments or
aiming circles. 5. With the scale clamped use the azimuth
wormknob and turn the telescope until the vertical cross line
is opposite the right portion of the target, bearing in mind
that the initial deflection is computed for the second gun
directed on the right portion of the target. 6. Think of the
line joining gun and target, estimate the perpendicular
distance from the B. C. station to the line (as 150 yards for
the case assumed) ; divide this distance in yards by /iooo of
the distance to the target (150 divided by 2.5 equals 60
mils), use the azimuth micrometer and turn the telescope
until the vertical cross line is 60 mils to the left of the tar-
get (away from the guns). Look through the telescope to
see that it is being turned in the proper direction and ob-
serve the change in reading on the micrometer to insure that
the correct number of mils 60 are set off. Then read the
deflection (deflection 4,085). The initial deflection is given
to the nearest multiple of 10. In this case, it could be read
deflection 4,080 or deflection 4,090. 7. Point the telescope
to the center of the target, bringing the horizontal cross
line to the base of the target and read the sight to the near-
est multiple of 5 (site equals 305). 8. Measure the front
of the target by using the graduated field in telescope or in
the case of target covering a larger front by reading the
deflection of the right and left limits of the target and sub-
tract one reading from the other, thus obtaining the width
of the target. 9. Measure the height of the skyline above the
base of the target by using the graduated field (hk equals
8 mils). Either field glass with graduated field or- B. C.
ruler may be used to measure the front of target and the
height of skyline. If the skyline is more than 10 mils above
the base of the target, take a prominent crest or land mark
beyond and on line with the target. 10. Take the deflection
78 FIELD ARTILLERY
difference from the B. C. ruler and add 10 algebraically.
In this case, assume deflection difference equals zero (ac-
tually minus two); zero plus 10 equals 10; deflection dif-
ference equals plus 10.
Right here it may be stated to advantage, that the par-
allax of a point is the base divided by the number of 1,000ths.
of yards in the range. In computing the deflection differ-
ence, the distance between guns is considered as the base
and in normal time is 20 yards. In order to obtain parallel
fire for the guns, that is to have the lines of fire from the 4
guns parallel with each other, the parallax of the aiming
point is taken as the deflection difference. Supposing the
guns in this case to have been 20 yards apart, the deflection
difference would have been 20 divided by 4 or 5 and as the
aiming point is to the rear of the line of guns, it would be
minus. This would be obtained if the aiming point had been
directly to the rear of the guns, but as the aiming point
was to the left rear, almost on the left flank, the value of the
angle at the aiming point subtended by a base of 20 yards
between 1st and 2d guns was considerably decreased by
what we call obliquity. Refinements in the computation of
parallax are uncalled for but frequently where the aiming
point is located on the flank and the corrections are not made:
for obliquity, a faulty forming of the sheaf of fire is obtained.
A mental picture of the diagram in cut will quickly deter-
mine the deflection difference for parallel fire without refer-
ring to the B. C. ruler. It is especially convenient in the
absence of the B. C. ruler. If the aiming point is at or
within 400 mils of "Full" take the "Full" parallax; if at or
within 400 mils of half, take of the parallax and if at or
within 400 mils of zero line of guns, disregard parallax.
If the aiming point is in front of the line of guns, the
parallax is positive; if in rear of the line of guns it is nega-
tive. Ascertain the range from the range finder. If there
be no range finder, an estimated range will be used. In
either case care must be observed that the range finder,
reading is correct for the position of the gun; thus if the
range finder reading shows the distance from the B. C.
station to the target as 3,000 yards, and if the guns are
200 yards behind the crest on which the B. C. station
is located, the range used must be 3,200.
Obtaining Firing Data Without Instruments

If instruments are not available firing data may be ob-
tained by means of the B. C. ruler and field glasses, if the
man is well trained. Example: (1) Without instruments,
aiming point to the rear, assume that the station is near the
second gun and that the correct deflection as determined by
the B. C. telescope is 3,150. If the B. C. ruler was used to
measure the angle it would have to be placed and moved 10
times. There would be 10 chances for error, but if a right
line passing through the aiming point and B. C. station is
established, there would be only two chances for error-one
in establishing the line, the other in measuring the differ-
ence between this line and target. To establish a right line,
aiming point in rear, proceed as follows: face aiming point,
place an article on the ground (hat, handkerchief, rock, etc.,)
and for convenience call this station No. 1. Go toward the
target about 10 to 20 paces and place yourself on line with
station No. 1 and the aiming point; drop another article at
your feet, station No. 2. Go to station No. 1, and face
squarely toward station No. 2. You are now looking along
the line from a straight angle with the aiming point (3,200
mils). The difference between the established line and the
line joining station No. 1 and target measures 50 mils; tar-
get being to the right, subtract the difference from 3,200
(3,200 minus 50 equals 3,150). If the target is to the
left of the established line add the measured distance. Ex-
ample No. 2, with assistant: Aiming point to the rear direct
the assistant to go 10 or 20 paces toward the target keep-
ing under cover if possible and have him align himself with
you and the aiming point stations No. 1 and 2 are thus
established simultaneously. Face squarely toward your as-
sistant and proceed as explained in example No. 1. If
aiming point is in front, measure directly from aiming
point to the target; if target is to be left of aiming point,
the angle measured between the two points is the one de-
sired. If target is to the right of aiming point, subtract
80 FIELD ARTILLERY
the measured angle between the target and the aiming point
from 6,400 mils. This will give you the outside angle,
which is the one desired. To determine the deflection of
right gun from a point other than the vicinity of the right
gun, the amount to be off set is calculated in the same man-
ner as with instruments. Df==AOPOT in which Df
equals deflection for the right gun. A equals angle in mils as
measured before transforming for the right gun. OP equals
offset of the aiming point; it is additive when made to the
right of the aiming point and subtractive when made to the
left of it. The reverse is true for the offset of the target;
OT=off set of the target. It is additive if made to the left
of the target and subtractive if made to the right of it.
The offset is always made on that flank of the aiming
point or target which is furthest away from the right gun.
No matter at what angle the aiming point is, if the line
joining the right gun and the aiming point does not pass
at or near your station, there is an offset to be made. The
same is true with respect to the target if the line join-
ing right gun and target does not pass close to your
station. In computing the angle of site, a rough rule
of thumb is to measure with your field glasses the angle
of site of the target from your station, by means of
the vertical scale in your glasses; looking at the position of
your right gun, and estimating the difference in level in
yards from the battery commander's station and the posi-
tion of the right gun. Divide this difference by the number
of 1,000ths of yards in the range to the target. Apply this
correction to the angle of site, measured with your glasses.
Example: Assume range to target 2,000 yards; angle of site
measured with glasses, 310; estimated difference of level
between the B. C. station and right gun, 20 yards (gun be-
low). Twenty divided by 2 equals 10 mils. Guns are be-
low B. C. station; target is 10 mils above B. C. station,
therefore target is 10 plus 10 or 20 mils above guns and
angle of site of guns for this target should be 320. This
method is sufficiently correct, if care is taken in estimation
of distance and difference of elevation.
Prismatic Compass
In using the prismatic compass, to obtain a deflection,
the magnetic north is always assumed to be zero and the
graduations on the prismatic compass are contra-clockwise,
just as is the case with the B. C. telescope. It is easily seen
then that if the aiming point is given as magnetic north and
this nomenclature is used with the circle divided into 6,400
mils, the same as on the B. C. telescope that we can easily
lay our guns where distant aiming points are not availa-
ble, due to the guns having been "dug-in" or placed in a
thickly wooded area. Similarly deflections for targets by
use of maps at known places can be given to guns by means
of reading directly from a circular protractor graduated
in mils, placing the protractor directly on the map provid-
ing the map is of reasonably large scale and reading the
deflections. This method of laying is in common use in
Europe today.
B. C. Telescope as an Aiming Point
If the battery commander is unable to locate a suitable
aiming point for his battery and the battery is able to see
the B. C. telescope, he may designate his telescope as an aim-
ing point. Setting the instrument at 3,200 and sighting
directly on the right piece, he clamps the instrument and
turns the upper limb onto the target, making the offset in
the manner prescribed in the preceding problems. He es-
timates the distance in yards to the line of fire from his
station and notes the distance to the target, divides this
distance by the number of 1,000ths of yards in the range
to target to obtain his offset. If the battery commander
is on the right of the guns, this offset is subtractive and if
done in a mechanical way the offset is made to the right or
away from the guns. If B. C. is to left of guns the offset is
additive and is made away from the line of guns.
Lecture XIII
FORMULAS FOR ELEMENTS OF THE TRAJECTORY-
ESTIMATING RANGES
A FEW appproximate methods of computing elements of

the trajectory are given herewith, which are suffi-
cient for all practical purposes.
1. TO FIND THE ANGLE OF DEPARTURE (AD)

for any given range:
Formula:
AD = 5R (R plus 3). (R =l ooo of range)
Example:
What is the angle of departure for range 3,000 ?
Solution:
5R = 15; plus 3 = 6; 15 X 6 = 90 mils (ans.)
2. TO FIND THE TIME OF FLIGHT (t), in seconds,

for any given range:
Formula:
t = R/10 (3R plus 16). (R = iooo of range)
Example:
What is the time of flight for range 3,000?
Solution:
R/10 = 3/10; 3R plus 16 = 3 X 3 plus 16 = 25;
3/10 X 25 = 7.5 seconds (ans.)
3. TO FIND THE MAXIMUM ORDINATE (MO)

(the highest point of the trajectory in feet):
Formula:
MO = 4t squared. (t = time of flight in seconds)
Example:
What is the maximum ordinate for range 3,000 ?
Solution:
t for 3,000 = 7.5; t squared = 7.5 X 7.5 = 56.25;
4 X 56.25 = 225 feet (ans.)
COURSE "A," LECTURE XIII 83
4. TO FIND THE DISTANCE (D) TO THE MAXI-
MUM ORDINATE:
Formula:
(D = 3/5 of the range)
Example:
What is the distance to the maximum ordinate
when firing at range 3,000?
Solution:
3/5 of 3,000 = 1,800 yards (ans.)
5. TO FIND THE HEIGHT OF TRAJECTORY (HT)

in yards at any given point:
Formula:
HT = K (AD- ADC)
Where:
K= -iooo of range to the point in question.
AD = angle of departure of range to target.
ADC = angle of departure for range to point in
question.
Example:
The battery is firing at range 2,000; what is the
height of trajectory at a point 500 yards from
the guns ?
Solution:
K= .5
AD 50; ADC -9; AD -ADC 41
.5 X 41= 20.5 yards (ans.)
6. TO FIND THE ANGLE OF FALL (AF) :

Formula:
Angle of fall= angle of departure plus 1/2 of
same.
Example:
What is the angle of fall for range 3,000?
Solution:
Angle of departure for range 3,000 = 90;
1/2 of 90 = 45; 90 plus 45 = 135 mils (ans.)
84 FIELD ARTILLERY
7. TO FIND THE DANGER SPACE (DS):
Formula:
DS =1,700/AF, where .AF= angle of fall.
Example:
What is the danger space when firing at range
3,000?
Solution:
AF for range 3,000 = 135 mils;
1,700/135- 12.6 yards (ans.)
8. TO FIND THE REMAINING VELOCITY (RV) at

any point of the trajectory:
Formula:
RV RV
=- 400 x 4R plus
00(4R plus 36)
9) (R -= T-o of range)
Example:
What is the remaining velocity for range 4,000 ?
Solution:
R = 4; 4R = 16; 16 plus 36 = 52; 4R plus 9 = 25;
52 divided by 25 = 2.08; 400 X 2.08 = 832 feet per
second (hand book gives 837.2).
9. TO FIND THE MINIMUM RANGE (MR) that will

clear the crest; and also to find the DEAD SPACE (that
space which is beyond a hill or crest and which is below
the trajectory which just clears the crest) :
Formula:
MR = C/K plus ADC - si. DS = MR - DC
Where:
MR = angle of departure in mils for minimum
range
C height of crest above level of guns in yards.
K = Aooo of distance (yards) to crest
ADC = angle of departure in mils for distance
to crest
si = site to T- 300
DS = dead space
DC = distance to the obstacle from the gun.
Problem:
C is 21 yards above gun and 700 yards from it.
Site to T - 290.
(a) What is the MR?
(b) What is the dead space?
Solution:
C 21; K- .7; ADC 14; si - 10;
21/.7= 30; 14 -(- 10) 24; 30 plus 24 = 54;
(a) 54= AD for Rn. 2,050 (ans.)
(b) 2,050 - 700 = 1,350 yards (ans.)
CLEARING THE CREST:

Formula:
AD plus si- (C/K plus ADC)= plus or - mils
that will clear crest
Problem:
Crest 700 yards distant, 28 yards above gun; site
290, Rn. 2,100.
(a) Will the guns clear the crest?
(b) By how many mils?
Solution:
AD for 2,100 = 54 mils; si - - 10; C = 28;
K -. 7; ADC =14
54 plus (-10)=44; 28/.7=40; 40 plus 14 = 54;
44 -54= - 10
(a) No. (b) 10 mils (7 yards) ans.)
10. TO DETERMINE THE SIGHT (SI) to guns at a

considerable distance from B. C. Sta. and when the RN
(guns to target) and the distance from B. C. to target
differ considerably.
Formula:
SI = 300 - Lg - Lt/R
Lg = level of gun above or below B. C. in yards
Lt = level of target above or below B. C. in yards
R= Aooo of RN (guns to target)
Example:
SI to gun (Sg) = 240, that is, (-60).
SI to target (St) = 305, that is, (plus 5).
86 FIELD ARTILLERY
Distance B. C. to gun (BG) =800 yards.
Distance B. C. to target = 2,000 yards.
RN (gun to target 2,500 yards.
What is the SI from gun to target?
Solution:
Lg= - 60 X .8 - 48
Lt =5 X 2=10
R = 2.5
300- (-48-10/2.5) =323.2 (325) (ans.)
If it is desired, as it frequently is, to locate the posi-
tion for the guns before the guns are brought up, a bat-
tery commander must know whether the guns will clear
a crest and at what ranges the crest will be cleared, in order
to avoid loss of time and the occupying of a position from
which he will later have to move his battery, on account
of inability to fire. For this reason, the formula just quoted
above, 5R (R plus 3), which gives roughly the angle of
departure for any range, should be familiar to all and should
be memorized.
Suppose that a battery commander desired to fire at

target 1,000 yards in front of the covering crest of his
guns, on which his B. C. station is located. He figures by
the formula that the angle of departure for 1,000 yards
range is 20 mils; setting 280 on his angle of sight scale of
his B. C. telescope, he directs it on the ground in rear of
the crest which he desires his battery to occupy. The lower
horizontal line in the telescope will cut the ground at the
place where his guns can be placed, and they will clear
the crest in question. It is usually better to place guns
a little further beyond in order to insure safety. It is
readily seen that this method, although a rough one, is of
inestimable value in locating the position of guns in ad-
vance of their arrival, and thus doing away with unneces-
sary delay, incident to their movement to proper ground
later.
Estimation of Distance
It may frequently happen that a battery will be with-
out a range finder, or that a range finder may get out of
adjustment in action. For this reason it is absolutely nec-
essary that officers and noncommissioned officers, who are
likely to command the battery, practice themselves in the
estimation of ranges. In order to correctly estimate range,
you must have some knowledge on which to base your es-
timate. "Guesses" are not "estimates." The difference
between the two must be understood. When changing sta-
tion from a lower to a higher altitude, or vice versa, one is
usually deceived by the objects appearing nearer or farther,
as the case may be, resulting in either underestimating or
overestimating ranges. It is necessary, therefore, that upon
changing from one general locality to another one acquaint
himself with the appearance of the various objects of the
terrain, by comparing same with other similar objects lo-
cated at points to which the ranges are known. Form a
mental picture of the way objects appear to you on the
known distance small arms range, at say, 1,000 yards. Use
this distance in a comparative way in estimating artillery
ranges.
It is quite difficult to give a definite rule as to how
certain objects appear at different ranges, even with re-
spect to one general locality, since the personal visual equa-
tion plays an important part in the determination of out-
lines of objects. It must be left to the individual to ac-
quire this faculty by daily practice. A general rule is here
given which may aid the beginner to formulate a line of
reason for his own observations.
Estimating distance by the appearance of tree trunks:
Branches and foliage (subject to variation, due to reasons
above stated).
FIELD ARTILLERY
WITH THE NAKED EYE
(Trees average 18 inches in diameter.)
Main or Minor or
Distance. Trunk. inner outer Remarks
branches. branches.
500 to 1,000 Visible. Visible. Visible. The foliage per-
yards. taining to each
branch' towards
the observer can
be easily distin-
guished.
1,000 to 1,500 Visible. Visible. Distinguish- Begins to blend
yards. able. in cluster - like
shape, with small
apertures permit-
ting visibility of
some of the inner
branches.
1,500 to 2,000 Visible. Visible. Blending More densely
yards. with or ob- clustered, p r e -
scured by senting a rather
the foliage. rough surface.
The outlines of
foliage of a large
branch or group
of branches dis-
tinguishable.
2,000 to 2,500 Visible. Distin- Blending In clusters repre-
yards. guishable. with or ob- senting a smooth
scured by surface. The out-
the foliage. line of the fo-
liage of trees
distinguishable.
2,500 to 3,000 Visible. Distin- Blending Assumes the ap-
yards. guishable. with or ob- pearance of a
scured by continuous clus-
the foliage., ter blending with
the foliage of
adjoining trees.
3,000 to 3,500 Lower Blends Blending Assumes the ap-
yards. half with with or ob- pearance of a
visible. foliage. scured by continuous clus-
the foliage. ter blending with
the foliage of
adjoining trees.
3,500 to 4,000 Lower Blends Blending Assumes the ap-
yards. half with with or ob- pearance of a
distin- foliage. scured by continuous clus-
guishable. the foliage. ter blending with
the foliage of
adjoining trees.
4,000 to 5,000 Blending Blends Blending Surface of each
yards. with with with or ob- cluster or group
foliage. foliage. scured by of clusters,
the foliage. smooth; motion
caused by ordi-
nary winds not
detectable.
Five thousand yards and beyond whole area covered by
trees appear like a bushy area at about 100 yards distant, ex-
cept that the surface is smoother and blackish.
Estimating by the Appearance of Objects
1. An object appears near: 1. An object appears further:
(a) When looking over water (a) When looking over rolling
or a large ravine or depression. country.
(b) When the sun is behind the (b) When the sun is in front
observer. of the observer.
(c) When the air is clear, es- (c) When the air is not clear,
pecially after a rain. due to fog, smoke, rain, etc.
(d) When the background' is in (d) When the background is
contrast with the color of the similar in color to that of the
object. object.
2. On hot days, especially when ground is moist, an

'object will appear further if observed from a kneeling or
sitting position, due to refraction caused by the evaporating
moisture. Sometimes the refraction renders the object
invisible. Allowance must be made:
(a) When using field glasses.
(b) When trees are leafless-as in winter.
(c) When the trees or branches are silhouetted against
a clear skyline or a contrasting background.
Estimating ranges by a progressive method. Com-
mencing with a short range, which is easier to estimate.
(a) Estimate the distance to a near object, say an
object at 500 yards.
(b) Locate a second object which "appears" to be as
much beyond the 500-yard object as the 500-yard object is
from the observer. The distance from the observer to the
second object equals 3 times the distance to the first ob-
ject: 3 X 500= 1,500 yards (approximately).
(c) If the object whose range is to be estimated is
still further out proceed as above, i.e., locate another object
which "appears" to be as much beyond the second object
as the second object is from the observer. Multiply the
distance to the second object by 3, and it will equal the dis-
tance to the third object (approximately). In the above
case, would be: 1,500 X 3 4,500 yards.
If the depth from the near object to the object whose
range is sought appears to be less than the depth between
the observer and the near object, double the fraction there-
90 FIELD ARTILLERY
of, add it to one and multiply by the estimated range of
the near object; i.e., suppose that in (c) the depth between
the second and third object appeared to equal the depth
between the observer and the second object the range would
be determined as follows:
2 X % = 1/3; 1/ plus 1= 2%; 2/3 X 1,500 =3,500 yds.
Keep in mind that the apparent depth between the
objects appear small when looking over depressions or when
the ground at the object is not visible but the object is
"cut" by a nearer crest or other features of the terrain.
To obtain proficiency in any of these methods one
must practice them daily, though it be for only a few
minutes, until proficiency is attained.
Lecture XIV
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, BAROMETER AND
WIND' UPON RANGE AND CORRECTOR
Temperature
RANGE: The temperature of the air changes the rate
of burning of the powder charge when it is first ignited.
High temperature causes the powder to burn faster, caus-
ing greater bore pressure, which increases the velocity of
the projectile. If the gun is loaded when it is hot, the
propelling charge will be heated before the gun is fired, in-
creasing the muzzle velocity, which increases the range.
When the temperature of the air is low, the propelling
charge starts to burn slower, due to its low temperature,
causing the bore pressure to be lower and decreasing the
muzzle velocity, also the range. If. the gun is kept cool it
will retain its proper muzzle velocity. Under service con-
dition, as the gun becomes heated in firing, the bore pres-
sure increases, due to the more rapid burning of the pow-
der until, if not carefully watched, the pressure will be-
come so great as to endanger the gun and the men
serving it.
Barometer
The atmospheric pressure varies the range to a great-
er or less extent, and is a very important factor when guns
are kept in the same position for several days and required
to fire very accurately.
To properly fire guns under such conditions an officer
must be familiar with elementary meteorology and un-
derstand the daily variations of the barometer.
When the barometer is high the air is heavier and
the range of the gun is shortened. In almost all parts
of the world the barometer has a local daily variation,
and a knowledge of the phenomenon would help consider-
ably the accuracy of fire and would account for variations
that are observed during a day's firing. With careful study
these could be obviated.
91
92 FIELD ARTILLERY
Low atmospheric pressure (low barometer) increases
the range of the gun. Low atmospheric pressure is en-
countered at high altitudes where the air is light.
In general we might say that in winter, when the
temperature is low and barometer high, the range is short.
In summer, when the temperature is high and barometer
low, the range is long.
Wind
A 12 o'clock wind retards the projectile in its flight,
while a 6 o'clock wind has the opposite effect.
The Fuze
Temperature and atmospheric pressure effect the rate
of burning of the fuze and must be taken into considera-
tion when firing at the same objective under different at-
mospheric conditions.
Low temperature causes the fuze to burn slower and
increases the burst range. It can be readily seen that
should fire be carefully adjusted on a target during the
day it will not necessarily be correct after nightfall when
temperature and atmospheric pressure have both changed.
High temperature of the air increases the rate of burning
of the fuze, thereby shortening the burst range and rais-
ing the height of burst.
Low atmospheric pressure causes the fuze to burn
slower, lowering the height of burst. High pressure has
the opposite effect, causing the fuze to burn faster and
raises the height of burst.
It will be seen from the above that the normal cor-
rector varies with the atmospheric conditions, and these
factors should never be lost sight of where accurate fire
is to be employed, especially when it will pass over and
endanger our own infantry.
An accelerating wind, or 6 o'clock wind, lowers the
normal corrector; a retarding, or 12 o'clock, wind has the
opposite effect. The daily variations in range and normal
corrector caused by atmospheric conditions increase with
the range. Cross winds have very little effect at short
ranges on the projectile; however, at the long ranges, the
COURSE "A," LECTURE XIV 93
wind has quite an effect, due to the loss of velocity of the pro-
jectile. Information from the European War indicates that
great attention is being paid to the effect of temperature,
barometer and wind upon artillery firing. Data is com-
puted for different targets from day to day, and recorded
on maps known as fighting maps. At the time of registra-
tion of all this data, the temperature of the air, the barom-
eter and the wind are all recorded. When it is later de-
sired to fire upon these targets, with the calculated data,
corrections are made according to charts that are issued by
the Ordnance Department to correct the range and deflec-
tions. These corrections at mid-ranges make a difference
sometimes of at least 150 or 200 yards, quite an important
item when it is considered that artillery must fire at hostile
trenches in some cases not more than 150 or 200 yards from
our own infantry trenches. Field artillery officers should
give this matter the closest attention in their work or
preparation to take command of batteries in the present
war. It is hoped that our Ordnance Department will fur-
nish us at an early date data with similar charts, showing
corrections to be made in the range at different tempera-
tures and pressures, for our service ammunition.
Storage of Explosives
Magazines: Magazines for the storage of explosives
should be located far enough from works or structures to
avoid destroying them should the magazine blow up, and
not more than 100 tons of nitrocellulose powder should be
stored in one magazine. Primers or igniters should not be
stored in the same compartment of a magazine with powder.
Magazines for the storage of powder should preferably
be of very light material, which is not inflammable, so
that in case of explosion the parts will fly but a short dis-
tance. The magazine should be well ventilated and care-
fully protected from fire and lightning.
An excellent material for the.construction of magazines
is sheet metal, which is light and fireproof. This sheet
metal should be connected to damp ground in a good many
places, and wire should be run along the roof and edges
as a protection against lightning and all carefully connected
with the ground.
94 FIELD .ARTILLERY
The temperature of the magazine should be kept, if
possible at 700 F, and should the temperature rise much
above 1000 F, the powder should be at once tested for sta-
bility. The temperature should never fall below the dew
point, as this would cause moisture and tend to deteriorate
the powder.
There should always be fresh air in the magazine,
and this air should circulate if possible for the purpose of
removing the gas that might collect from the decomposition
of powder.
The following tests and examinations should be made
of smokeless powders (not stored in soldered metallic cases)
kept in service magazines at posts.
Daily.-A sample from each lot of smokeless powder
in the magazine is to be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle
in a conspicuous place, and frequently examined in a good
light as to its external appearance.
Fortnightly.-The powder in one or more boxes or
bags of each lot to be examined externally for evidences
of incipient decomposition.
Monthly.-The sample in the index bottle will be sub-
jected monthly to a moist litmus paper test for 30 minutes.
Quarterly.--A sample from each lot in the magazine
to be subjected to the potassium-iodide-starch test for 40
minutes once a quarter, and also to a six-hour litmus test.
In case of a pungent odor is detected it should be in-
vestigated.
Transportation of Explosives
The transportation of explosives in large quantities is,
in general, the function of the Ordnance Department.
Artillery officers, however, especially those assigned to
the heavy artillery, will be required to transport their own
ammunition which is on hand when changing station, and
they should be familiar with all of the details and difficulties
of the work.
Ammunition, especially the propelling charges for
heavy artillery, should not be shipped in cars with other
supplies, and great care must be exercised in the proper
security of the shipment.
COURSE "A," LECTURE XIV 95
The regulations for the transportation of explosives
are prescribed by an Act of Congress and are very rigid.
Should an officer be required to make a shipment of am-
munition or powder he must, before preparing the ship-
ment, make himself familiar, not only with the government
requirements, but also the requirements of the transporta-
tion companies involved.
This should be done several days before the shipment
is to be made.
In packing ammunition in a car care must be taken
to properly cleat the containers in position to avoid any
motion due to jolts during travel.
Lecture XV
ARTILLERY PANORAMIC SKETCHING

IN connection with the field artillery work, it is absolutely
necessary that officers, noncommissioned officers, and
members of special details be familiar with the methods
of panoramic sketching in use in the service. A well-made
panoramic sketch is of a great deal of value. The great-
est effort should be made to record all these sketches ac-
cording to date. It is not desired that pretty pictures be
made, but that the reference point be definitely identified,
and that the deflections and ranges and angles of site be
correctly measured and recorded. Remember that it is of
the greatest importance to put in on your sketch the date
and the hour at which made, your name and the weather
conditions under which made, the magnetic bearing and the
place from which made. A short treatise on panoramic
sketching, prepared by the School of Fire for Field Ar-
tillery in 1916, is given you herewith, with copies of
sketches drawn at Fort Sill, Okla. In connection with
panaromic sketching, officers should also practice them-
selves in the preparation of fighting maps. These should
be drawn to scale and by means of protractors graduated
into mils and range arms graduated to the desired scale;
practice should be had in plotting sectors with objects defi-
nitely located therein, and all data recorded, same show-
ing the amount of change to be made in shifting the line
of fire of the battery from reference point to cover them.
I. Equipment
Pencils,-medium black lead,-colored pencils are use-
full;
Paper,-smooth hard finished;
Good pencil eraser,-should be dispensed with as facili-
ty is attained;
Knife;
Compass,-preferably graduated in mils;
Battery commander's ruler;
Field glasses.
96
COURSE "A," LECTURE XV 97
II. Sketching Pad
Sheets,-held either by rubber bands or by being gum-
Imed along opposite edges.
Size,-convenient to carry in the field,-preferable
width, 6 inches; length, 9 inches.
Ruling,-in very faint lines so as not to obscure the
sketch.
(a) Nine parallel lines (vertical) one inch apart across
width of sheet, leaving one-half inch at each end.
(b) Parallel lines (horizontal) across length of sheet
as follows:
Five lines one-half inch apart, the lower line one inch
from bottom of sheet,-used as aids in entering features of
landscape in their approximately correct vertical relation.
Six lines, one-fifth inch apart, upper line one inch from
top of sheet,-used in recording data.
.A sample sheet is attached.
III. General Use of Spaces

The one-inch space above the upper horizontal line,-
used for writing in the names of registration points, tar-
gets, etc., and for entering their estimated or measured
ranges; measured ranges should be underscored.
The space covered by the six horizontal lines,-used for
entering, in the order given, the deflection, deflection differ-
ence, site, corrector and range for the gun position. The
deflection difference and corrector for any particular target
or point should be entered only after these data have been
determined by actual fire. The deflections (actual deflections
from the aiming point) should ordinarily be computed and
entered before opening fire, data should be changed after
delivering fire so as to show the actual data determined.
The one-inch space below the six horizontal lines and
above the five horizontal lines,-used for noting the angular
distance from the reference point to prominent points on
targets shown in the body of the sketch. These angles
should be recorded immediately below the lower of the six
horizontal lines. This space may also be used for recording
ART.-4
98 FIELD ARTILLERY
times of appearance and disappearance of targets and for
reference letters to sub-sketches when such sketches are
used.
The two-inch space covered by the five horizontal lines,
-used for the body of the sketch which is usually confined to
the limits covered by the lines.
The one-inch space below the five horizontal lines,-
used to enter the place from which the sketch is made; the
north-south line; the date and hour; the condition of the
weather; the name of sketcher and miscellaneous notations.
IV. Procedure
1. Study sector. Select most suitable reference point
in sector; estimate where horizontal plane cuts the land-
scape; determine what features should be shown on sketch,
with especial reference to locating targets, if present, or
their expected routes of approach.
2. Select horizontal and vertical scales so that sector
may be included on limits of paper. Horizontal scale 1
inch = 100 mils will give a sector of 800 mils on above size
of paper while allowing a one-half inch margin at each end
of the paper. These margins are ordinarily used to extend
the principal lines of the sketch a little beyond the limits
selected.
3. Orient sketching pad. Indicate location from which
sketch is made in the center of the blank space at the bot-
tom of the paper. Hold the paper in the horizontal plane,
point the vertical line through the center of the paper
toward the reference point and draw in the direction of
north from the compass.
4. Plot the reference point. The reference point is
the origin of measurement of horizontal angles. It should
be plotted on the vertical line which is nearest its relative
position. Thus, if it is near the center of the sector the
reference point should be plotted on the center vertical line;
if it is to one side of the center of the sector, the reference
point should be plotted on the vertical line approximating
this position.
5. Horizontal control. Select a few important features
as the basis for horizontal control. Measure the horizontal
angular distance of each from the reference point and plot
the feature, writing the angle above the plotted point and
immediately below the six horizontal lines. Sketch each
feature in, with very light lines, at its proper height as in-
<dicated below.
6. Vertical control. Select a line on the sheet for the
horizontal plane through the position of the observer so that
sketch will appear within vertical limits desired. In plot-
ting vertical positions a slight exaggeration is permissible,
but do not over-exaggerate or the sketch will lose all re-
semblance to the actual landscape. Select a few features
as the basis for vertical control; place them at their proper
relative height above or below the horizontal plane and
sketch them in very lightly. Such features may well be
horizontal crest lines, edges of woods, roads, fences, etc.
It is necessary only to select a few features to which to refer
all others in filling in later.
7. Alternative method of obtaining horizontal control,
sector and reference point having been selected. Face the
sector; take sketching tablet with one hand and hold it
vertically about twelve inches in front of the eyes, face of
paper toward you; top edge horizontal. Two marks near
,extremities of upper edge indicate limits within which sec-
tor is to appear.
Close one eye and move tablet to or from you until these
marks coincide with limits of sector.
Hold pad as above and observe over the top edge of the
paper the highest points and prominent objects in the sector;
make a dot, in the proper lateral relation, near the upper
edge for each object which you desire to transfer to the
sketch.
Sit down; transfer dots from top edge to the body of
the drawing; place them in their approximate vertical re-
lations by interpolation by eye, using horizontal very faint
lines as aids; sketch in skyline and important features.
Other features can now be.sketched in by placing them
in their proper relation to those already drawn.
8. Fillingin. When the frame work has been made by
sketching in a few features as a guide to locating all others
in their proper positions, these others should be sketched in
100 FIELD ARTILLERY
free hand with bold, free strokes. Begin in the distance
and fill in toward the foreground. Use faint, thin lines
for features in the distance. Use heavy wide lines for fea-
tures in the foreground. Stop each line in the distance just
short of its intersection with a line in the foreground.
These devices give the appearance of depth to the draw-
ing. Look at the ground before drawing in lines. Do not
draw a line aimlessly so that it will have to be erased but
notice the actual position of the features with reference to
those which were selected as control features. When its
relative position is clearly in mind draw in on the sketch
boldy and without hesitationto conform to this position.
It is better to use the time in observation and judg-
ment before drawing than to use the same amount of time
in erasing a line whose shape or position was wrong be-
cause not properly observed. The mind must form the im-
pression before the hand can transfer it to the paper.
9. Finishing up.
(a) At bottom of sheet check to see that location of
position from which sketch is made, date, hour, name of
sketcher and condition of weather have been noted.
(b) See that the direction of north is indicated by an
arrow.
(c) Through each target or important feature rule a
light vertical line terminating one-quarter inch above the
horizontal lines. Place an arrow on the lower end of the
vertical line to the reference point and write 0 on that line
immediately below the six horizontal lines.
(d) Write in the name of each target or feature so
that it can be read without turning the sketch. Enter es-
timated or measured range from the observer immediately
below and parallel to the name or description of the target
or feature; underscore measured ranges. Place the first
letter exactly at the upper extremity of the vertical line
and incline the word obliquely upward to the" right. For
example:
COURSE "A," LECTURE XV
RN.
(e) When the necessary computations have been made,

enter the deflection, site and range from the directing gun
to the various targets or registration points. All these
entries must be on the proper horizontal lines and on the
vertical line to the target or feature to which they refer.
(f) It may occasionally be desirable to number each
important crest line shown in the body of the sketch. When
this is the case begin with the skyline and in the margin
near the left edge write in the numbers in proper order to-
gether with a brief name or description; each number and
name being placed opposite the proper crest or feature. For
example,-
No. 1. Skyline.
No. 2. Wooded crest.
No. 3. Hill.
No. 4. Ravine.
When of advantage to do so the site and range may be
added after the name.
102 FIELD ARTILLERY
(g) When the instruments belonging to the B. C. sta-
tion are available, deflections, sites and ranges may be ac-
curately measured. After firing at a target or registration
mark, the deflection, deflection difference, site, corrector and
range producing, the best results should be noted and entered
on the sketch so as to provide a readily available record for
use in changing target or in quickly opening effective fire
on any objective.
(h) It is frequently desirable to show certain features
on an enlarged scale so as to bring out more especially im-
portant details. In such cases make a sub-sketch on a sepa-
rate sheet of paper utilizing the entire sheet for the sub-
sketch. Mark the first sub-sketch (A), the second (B), and
so on. Make suitable notation on the original sketch of all
sub-sketches as shown in the example attached.
V. Hints
1. Do not try to show too much. A sketch gains in

clearness by omission of detail.
2. Show only such features as are of military impor-
tance or as are necessary to identify landscape.
3. Do not spend too much time on details of distant
outlines. Much of the distant outlines could be omitted, a
few of the striking or prominent features being retained.
The eye looks for important features as a means to identify
the landscape. Aid it by omitting those which are not im-
portant.
4. Features of military importance:
Land marks;
Ground forms, hills, ridges, spurs, valleys, ravines;
Obstacles, rivers, stream lines, marshes;
Roads, bridges, railroads;
Positions held by enemy or liable to conceal him:
Woods, hedges, fences, walls, embankments, cuts,
hills, ravines, etc. ;
Villages, towns, groups of buildings.
5. Features of the foreground in the immediate vicinity
of the sketcher usually should not be included in the sketch.
6. The eye will interpret a few form lines and the mind
supply missing details. Thus, a gable and ridge line will
indicate a house; a mere irregular outline the top of wood,
etc.
7. Slope and shape of ground may be indicated by form
lines drawn in the direction of the slope.
8. Use shading very sparingly.
9. In finishing up look over general appearance of
sketch as a whole and seek by bold strokes to block in fea-
tures so as to give realistic effect.
VI. Conventional Signs

It is necessary to study conventional signs or how to
indicate certain features, such as,-
1. Woods.
2. Individual trees as land marks. Rows of trees.
3. Ground forms:
Level land;
Hills, ridges, projecting spurs;
Gullies, ravines, valleys.
5. Rivers.
6. Bridges.
7. Fences, walls, hedges.
8. Cultivated land, crops.
9.' Targets of various kinds.
VII. Principles of Perspective
1. Objects nearby appear larger than those in the -dis-

tance.
2. The horizon, as the term is used in perspective, is on
a level with the eye.
3. Each set of horizontal parallel lines has its own van-
ishing point on the horizon at which these lines converge on
the drawing. Thus parallel horizontal lines directly to the
front converge at the center of the horizon as it appears on
the drawing. Those parallel to the top of the sketching
pad, as oriented, appear parallel to the horizon on the draw-
ing. Sets of parallel horizontal lines between these two
directions converge at the proper point on the horizon to
indicate their direction.
104 FIELD ARTILLERY
4. Parallel lines sloping downward converge at a point
below the horizon. To make a sketch look as though the
foreground slopes downward, the ground up to the level of
the eye must be filled in, otherwise the foreground will ap-
pear as though sloping upward.
5. Parallel lines sloping upward converge at a point
above the horizon.
If these principles are not understood or are not ap-
plied the drawing will not look right, for any one can per-
ceive when slopes look wrong, even if not able to tell why
they do so.
VIII. Application of Principles of Perspective
1. Select a horizontal line at proper height across the

sheet to represent the horizon.
(a) When most of the landscape is above the level from
which the sketch is made, place the horizon toward the
lower part of the sketch.
(b) When a wide strip of intervening foreground is
below this position, select the position of the horizon well
up on the paper in order to give the impression of removing
it to the distant line where the horizontal plane cuts the
landscape.
2. Features of the landscape should be shown in their
relative positions above or below this horizon.
3. Form lines to indicate the slope of ground, etc.,
should be drawn so that if produced the lines would con-
verge at the proper point to indicate the slope desired.
This can be done by using the ruler to sketch in very lightly,
when necessary, and then covering these lines by bold
strokes in finishing up.
4. The effect of level ground is best secured by a few
form lines parallel to the horizon.
5. Shading should be sparingly used, but when it will
emphasize ground forms at desired points, as in the vicinity
of the target, etc., draw in shaded lines with soft pencil, the
lines being parallel to indicate level ground, or converging
at a point to bring out the appearance of the slope.
IX. Other Devices
1. Trees, houses, rows of telephone poles, roads, etc.,
disappearing or partly disappearing behind crests, help to
bring out ground forms.
2. A row of telephone poles, hedge, trees of about equal
height, should be drawn according to the principles of per-
spective as if two parallel lines were extended along their
tops and at their feet. If so drawn they will help to bring
out such ground forms as valleys, level ground, hill forms,
etc.
3. When winding streams and roads are properly drawn
in perspective, those portions directed toward or away from
the sketcher appear wider than other portions equally dis-
tant but directed across the field of view.
4. The eye grasps many forms as a whole. The details
of the pencil lines may be mere scratches bearing no rela-
tion whatever to the actual details of the feature drawn.
Examples of various devices and sketches are appended.
X. Preliminary Practice
Valuable preparation for panoramic sketching will be
attained by copying good landscape sketches.
Lecture XVI
CARE OF GUNS IN OPERATIONS

DUE to intense fire during some actions, guns may be
fired for a long time without interruption. The ex-
cessive heating produced results in premature wearing of
bores and the burning out of some recoil mechanism joints.
While volleys can be fired with the greatest rapidity pos-
sible, there should be intervals sufficient to avoid excessive
heating. Cooling can be hastened by the use of water
either thrown on the outside of the gun or, preferably, used
in washing the bore.
Precautions
(a) A receptacle full of water must be kept at each
piece during firing.
(b) During each interval in firing, even for a few
minutes, wash and grease the bore without causing smoke.
At the end of the day, or during long interruptions but
not during short ones, the breech mechanism must be dis-
mounted and cleaned. During prolonged firing, pieces and
even platoons may cease firing to permit cooling, cleaning,
and greasing.
(c) Grease the rotating bands freely, leaving a certain
amount of grease on the forward edge of the band.
(d) Whenever the rapidity of fire permits, make sure
before each round that the bore is free from foreign bodies,
such as pieces of cartridge cases or unburned powder.
(e) If the fire has been intense enough to cause copper-
fouling, remove the copper at the first opportunity.
After each day's firing the gun must be given a gen-
eral examination. See whether any dangerous fault exists.
Estimate the seriousness of each depreciation. Inform the
proper authority. Make bold decisions, and do not hesi-
tate to keep the piece out of action provisionally, making
report of the circumstances. The bore must be cleaned
carefully with hot water and coal oil, if necessary, to re-
106
COURSE "A," LECTURE XVI 107
move caked grease in guns badly cared for. Examine both
ends of the bore carefully. Provide light by candle, electric
light, or sunlight reflected from white paper.
Common Manifestations of Deterioration
(a) Erosion.-Large pitted areas close together in
groups near the forcing cone or the beginning of the rifling.
They are not dangerous unless they degenerate into fissures.
(b) Indentations.-In the chamber and barrel recess,
caused by rupture of cartridge cases and usually not deep
or dangerous.
(c) Fissures.-The beginnings of cracks in the tube
appearing as fine lines usually parallel to the axis of the
piece. Generally isolated and very deep. Differentiated
from the scoring made by foreign bodies by their great
depth. Rare, but very dangerous. Watch for deterioration
of this nature that grows with further firing. Do not con-
fuse with scars made by foreign bodies or tools.
(d) Scars.-Made by hard bodies, they are frequent
and may easily be mistaken for fissures. They are usually
more continuous than fissures, long, shallow, and not neces-
sarily parallel to the rifling. Not dangerous.
(e) Scratches, Cuts and Dents.-Ordinarily caused by
the presence of foreign bodies in the tube during firing.
Of no importance unless they obstruct the passage of pro-
jectile. In such case, retire the piece; this is very impor-
tant on account of the use of high explosive projectiles.
Dents are frequent in guns using fixed ammunition. They
are not deep. In spite of the gravity of their appearance,
they are not serious unless their edges project into the bore.
(f) Swellings.-Recognized from the appearance of the
bore. Retire the gun. Record all marks of the ammunition
that was used and report.
(g) Copper deposits.-Pay no attention to a tinge of
copper appearing at the muzzles even after a few rounds.
In case of slight copper-fouling, remove the copper with am-
monia solution. Deposits having the appearance of caked
dirt may be removed only under expert direction.
(h) Wear of lands near their origin.-Light guns
can be submitted for condemnation when the wear exceeds
108 FIELD ARTILLERY
0.5 millimetre and, at the same time, dispersions over level
ground of rounds of the same lot of ammunition equal eight
times the probable error. The rule is the same for 4.7 and
6-inch cannon when the wear exceeds 1.0 mm.
(i) Exterior dents caused by hostile hits.-Examine
the bore. If swelling will oppose passage of projectile,
retire the piece.
Each gun must have its record book, in which are
entered the rounds fired and an account of accidents and
important incidents. It must be presented at all inspections
of materiel. In it the inspector enters important informa-
tion. It must remain always with the gun. It is not a
battery record.
The adjustment of sights must be made daily or, even
better, after each firing. Only simple field adjustments
are required.
Assemblage of parts will not be made in the battery
when forging, riveting, or filing of delicate parts is involved.
War experience shows that the wear of bores is not
due alone to the number of rounds fired, but also to the
way in which fire is conducted and to the methods of clean-
ing, cooling, and care.
Some light guns have become unfit for use after from
3,000 to 6,000 rounds, while others, after 20,000 rounds,
are without copper-fouling or excessive wear. One bat-
tery is known to have fired nearly 1,000 rounds per gun in
24 hours without wear, copper-fouling, or change in the
bore. Pieces and platoons were fired alternately, the in-
active pieces being cooled, cleaned, and greased.
Copper-fouling is one of the most frequent and impor-
tant causes of trouble. Under the friction of the projec-
tile light pieces of copper, liquefied by high temperature
or flaked off by friction, are detached from the rotating
bands and fixed to the surface of the bore, where they
sometimes remain as though they were welded. The smal.
projections thus formed increase the wear of subsequent
rounds, and the copper becomes more and more deeply
embedded in the metal of the tube, especially if the tem-
perature is greatly raised. Even if the fouling is removed
by chemical means the surface remains rough, and is liable
to fouling again after even a few rounds.
COURSE "A," LECTURE XVI 109
For a given kind of copper the fouling depends upon:
(a) The condition of the bore-whether smooth and
polished, or rough; whether clean and lubricated, or dirty
and full of powder residue; whether subjected to excessive
heating, or cared for by rest and cooling; whether dry and
clean, or seldom or rarely cleaned.
(b) The action of the rifling on the rotating band-a
function of the velocity of the projectile in the bore, its
weight, and the inclination of the rifling. In cannon with
constant rifling the fouling is chiefly at the beginning of
the grooves; in those with increasing twist, nearer the
muzzle. It does not occur with low-velocity guns if they
are not badly cared for.
The change in the surface of the lands and grooves,
particularly in the edges of lands, is marked in cases of
bad fouling. This is followed by changes in the rotating
bands that explain some more or less erratic shooting.
Sometimes small flakes are nearly sheared off from
the band, resulting in loss of powder pressure and irregu-
larities of fire.
Sometimes larger bits are actually broken off and pro-
jectiles leave the muzzle with decreased rotational velocity
that may be so low as to cause tumbling early in the tra-
jectory, and that will frequently result in tumbling on the
descending branch at long ranges.
Due to copper fouling, great difficulties will therefore
result from firing rapidly without proper precautions. But
improper use also causes erosion and premature wear.
These again increase the fouling. Thus the destruction of
materiel and waste of ammunition are direct results of im-
proper use and care.
Tubes would be conserved longest by washing and greas-
ing before each round.
Tactical and technical requirements of war make this
ideal difficult to reach, but it must be sought. It is possible
in some cases. The more nearly it is approached the greater
will be the saving of life and materiel and the earlier will
be victory.
As the initial velocity and power of cannon increase,
the greater is the necessity of special precautions. During
110 FIELD ARTILLERY
fire from the heavier guns, tubes should be greased at least
every four rounds.
Whenever the tactical situation demands it, the fire
should certainly be as rapid as the materiel permits. But
before each such fire is ordered from large calibers it is
essential that commanders should have examined the situa-
tion in all its particulars and have balanced the necessity
of the moment against the probability of the partial or
total destruction of some pieces.
From guns having variable charges the full charge
should never be used except when the range or the nature
of the target requires it. One round fired with a full charge
wears a gun as much as five rounds fired with a half charge.
Course "B"
CAPTAIN SEAMAN
Lecture I
BITTING AND SADDLING

THIS course will cover twenty-four periods. Fourteen
of these periods will be devoted entirely to practical
work in the riding hall, as will a part of the other ten. The
remainder of the time will be devoted to a theoretical dis-
cussion of the following subjects:
1. Bitting and saddling.
2. Grooming, watering, and feeding.
3. Conformation.
(a) Artillery, riding and draft horses.
(b) Pack mules.
4. Common ailments and picket line accidents, their prevention
and treatment.
5. Shoeing, under the following subheads:
Normal check and correction of blacksmith's work. (In
connection with this, your attention is invited to The
Army Horseshoer, 1912, a copy of which should be in
the possession of every mounted officer.)
6. Artillery harness and the adjustment of same.
7. The care of artillery harness and leather equipment.
8. Draft; light and heavy artillery.
9. Care of animals.
10. Loading (and unloading) of animals, artillery harness, and
equipment for shipment by land and water.
As you realize, this will allow us to touch only the most
important points on these subjects, as the time allowed for
this is insufficient to permit our taking up a detailed study.
You must remember, however, that a thorough knowledge
of these studies is of vital importance to every field artil-
lery officer.
The only reason for the existence of the field artillery
is its ability to assist other arms of the service on the field
of battle. To enable it to do this effectively, artillery must
be able, first, to march rapidly and in good order, and to
establish itself promptly and without confusion in such po-
sitions as to best utilize the available terrain; second, to
deliver an effective and overpowering fire upon any desig-
nated part of the enemy's position. To accomplish the
first of these objects, a thorough knowledge of the horse,
his training and equipment, his physiology and psychology,
113
114 FIELD ARTILLERY
his powers and his limitations, is absolutely necessary.
Without this knowledge, the battery commander cannot
hope to have his horses so trained and so conditioned as to
withstand the terrific demands made upon them by cam-
paign conditions.
The instruction given you here in these subjects will
be only sufficient to enable you to continue this study in-
dividually after you have arrived at the organizations to
which you are assigned.
In all your work with horses you must remember that
patience and kindness are, above all things, necessary in
their handling.
Bitting and Saddling-Bits

In the field artillery of our army the team horses
are almost universally driven with the single snaffle, while
the individually mounted men of the batteries are equipped
with bit and bridoon. The adjustment of the single snaffle
is very simple.
(a)
The cheek straps are adjusted so that they are of
even length and so that the snaffle rests easily in, but does
not draw up the corners of the mouth. A mouthpiece that
is too low strikes the tushes and makes them sore; one
that is too high causes the horse discomfort and makes
the corners of his mouth sore.
(b)
The browband is examined. If it is too short, it causes
the sensitive skin at the base and back of the ears to be
galled or cut by the crownpiece. If it is too high on the
crownpiece, it causes the same trouble at the base and
sides of the ears.
(c)
The throatlatch is buckled loosely, being only suffi-
ciently tight to prevent the crownpiece from slipping over
the horse's ears. Generally speaking, it should permit the
entire flat of the hand to be inserted between it and the
COURSE "B," LECTURE I 115
throat when the horse's head is reined in. A tight throat-
latch interferes with the large blood vessels of the neck,
with the gullet, and also with the windpipe.
(d)
The mane and forelock are carefully smoothed out
under the crownpiece to avoid causing a sore at the poll
and also to present a neat and tidy appearance.
Double Bridle
The fitting of the bit and bridoon on the horse of the
individually mounted man is somewhat more complicated.
The bit should be of sufficient width to fit. the horse's mouth,
the branches of the curb touching lightly the outer surface
of the lips. The snaffle, or bridoon, should touch lightly the
upper corners of the lips. The curb should rest just be-
low the snaffle. The curb chain should lie flat in the chin
groove, and should be of sufficient length as to cause the
reins, when stretched from the pommel of the saddle, to
form a right angle with the branches of the curb.
If the curb bit is placed high, it is less severe; if
placed low, it becomes very powerful. It should not be
placed so low as to strike the teeth, nor so high as to
raise the curb chain out of the chin groove.
One of the most vital causes of restiveness and impa-
tience on the part of the horse lies in improperly fitted, and
hence, painful bits.
Use and Effect of the Bit and Snaffle
The effect of the snaffle is very mild, because it is re-
ceived more on the lips than on the bars of the mouth.
Its action is upward, and it tends to raise the head and
neck. It gives a comfortable support, is the bit most
efficacious for relaxing the jaw by means of vibrations, and
if the horse carries the head too low tends to correct it.
The effect of the curb is much more severe than that
of the snaffle, because it is received almost entirely on the
bars of the mouth, and the lips and the tongue ameliorate
its pressure but little. Its action is downward, and it
tends to lower the head and neck. It gives an uncom-
fortable support if maintained continuously, because the
116 FIELD ARTILLERY
bars of the mouth become deadened to sensation and the

curb chain stops circulation. If the horse carries the head
too high the curb tends to correct it.
To Put on the Double Bridle
Bridle: Take the double reins in the right hand,

the crownpiece in the left; approach the horse on the near
side; slip the reins over his head, letting them rest on his
neck; take the crownpiece in the right hand and the lower
branch of the curb in the left, the forefinger against the
mouthpiece; bring the crownpiece in front of and slightly
below its proper position; insert the left thumb into the
left side of the mouth above the tush; press, upon the
lower jaw, insert both bits by raising the crownpiece, then
with the left hand draw the ears gently under the crown-
piece, beginning with the left ear; arrange the forelock,
secure the throatlatch and the curb chain, taking care to
adjust them properly.
The bridle with snaffle bit, only used on team horses,
is -put on in a similar manner.
A bridle with curb bit only is not permitted to be
used on the horses of individually mounted men, because
the curb when used alone is a powerful instrument requir-
ing such dexterity in its use that only an expert horseman
on a perfectly trained horse is capable of using it with suf-
ficient delicacy and discretion to obtain perfect control with-
out injuring the horse.
A horse quickly resents and is easily frightened by
abrupt or sudden movement about his head. Bridling
should therefore be done in a most deliberate and careful
manner. The ears are especially sensitive, and extreme
care must be used in drawing them under the crownpiece
and into their place. A reliable test that a horse has not
been mistreated in bridling is that he permits, without sign
of fear or resentment, the gentle stroking of his ears.
Except in the field, or when equipped for service, or
when the duty is such as to make it necessary to tie up a
horse, the halter is taken off before bridling, the reins be-
ing first passed over the neck.
If the halter is not taken off, the halter strap is tied
in the near pommel ring, or, if the horse be not saddled,
around his neck. When the halter is to remain on, care
should be taken that the halter rope is untied from the
manger before attempting to bridle a horse that is liable
to pull back.
Fitting the Saddle
Great care must be taken in the fitting and adjust-
ment of saddles to prevent sore backs. There are six
axioms in saddle fitting:
1. The withers must not be pinched nor pressed upon.
2. The central line of the back must have no pressure
upon it.
3. The shoulder blades must have full and unhampered
movement.
4. The loins must not carry weight.
5. The weight must be put upon the ribs through the
medium of the muscles covering them.
6. The weight must be evenly distributed over a sur-
face which extends from the play of the shoulders
to the last true rib.
To fit the saddle: (a) The saddle, without blanket,
is placed in its proper position on the back. It is noted
whether the upper or lower edges or the front or rear of
the side bars gouge into the back at any place. If this
occurs, or if the saddle when lifted from the back a dis-
tance corresponding to the thickness of the blanket other-
wise fails perceptibly to conform to the outlines of the
back, the test and remedy described under (e) should be
made and applied.
(b) The existence of wither pressure is determined
by blanketing and saddling the horse and placing an as-
sistant in the saddle. The hand is run over the top and
along both sides of the withers beneath the blanket. To
make the test effective the man in the saddle should lean
forward, and the examiner should not be satisfied with any-
thing less than the introduction of his entire hand.
(c) It is noted that the central line of the back and also
that the loins bear no weight, even when the assistant in
the saddle leans to the front, rear, or either side.
118 FIELD ARTILLERY
(d) To determine if the blade bones have unhampered
movement, the hand is passed underneath the blanket from
the front until the play of the shoulder blade can be felt.
-The foreleg is raised and advanced to its full extent to the
front by an assistant while the hand is in this position. If
this can be done, while the man in the saddle is lean-
ing forward without pinching the fingers between the side
bars and the shoulder blade, the fit in this respect is satis-
factory. The test should be made on both shoulders. If
the fingers are pinched, the blade bones will also be pinched
and the action of the horse restricted. To correct the diffi-
culty the saddle must be raised, assuming that it is at the
proper place on the back, by placing under it a greater thick-
ness of blanket or by attaching pieces of felt under the
side bars.
(e) To ascertain whether the pressure of the side
bars is evenly distributed the saddle is ridden in for half
an hour or more. On completion of the ride the saddle is
carefully ungirthed and lifted from the blanket without
disturbing the latter in any way. The blanket will be
found to bear the imprint of the side bars, and an examina-
tion of this depression will show at a glance whether the
bars press evenly from top to bottom and from front to
rear. This examination must be made quickly, as the elas-
ticity of the blanket soon causes it to lose the impression
of the side bars. Any irregularity in the fit of the side
bars may be remedied by the introduction of pieces of felt
to fill up the spaces between the side bars and the blanket.
With very little practice these pieces of felt may be cut
to the required shape and thickness with a very sharp knife.
Some edges will need to be as thin as a knife edge; other
parts may require the addition of more than one thickness.
After determining where these pieces of felt are to rest
they are attached to the side bars with glue and bound in
place by sheepskin tacked to the side bars. The most rad-
ical alterations in the fit of the side bars can in this manner
be effected. The method is simple and quick and can easily
be performed by the average battery saddler.
(f) The cincha should be sufficiently tight to keep the
saddle in its place and no tighter. Generally speaking, cor-
rect cinching has been obtained when the flat of the hand
is easily admitted under the quarter ring safe. With most
horses, after exercising for a while, the cincha will be found
too loose, and should be taken up.
A tight cincha restricts the animal's breathing, and
also brings too much pressure upon and strangles the tis-
sues. Especially is this apt to be the case under the quarter
and cincha ring safes, where strangulation soon causes
lumps, puffs, and sores.
(g) Care is taken that the quarter straps are so ad-
justed and the cincha so selected that the cincha ring safe
will be a sufficient distance from the quarter ring safe to
avoid pinching and galling the skin between them.
Blanket
The saddles furnished to the field artillery have on
their under surface, next to the horse, no padding of any
sort, other than a facing of sheepskin, the purpose of which
is to prevent the saddle from slipping from the front to
rear. In order to provide some cushion between the
horse's back and the saddle, our army uses a saddle blanket
which is practically the same size as the bed blanket issued
to the troops.
The blanket, after being well shaken, will be folded into
six thicknesses, as follows: Hold it well up by two adjacent
corners, the longer edges vertical; double it lengthwise, so
the fold will come between the "U" and "S," the folded
corner in the left hand; take the folded corner between the
thumb and forefinger of the right hand, thumb pointing to
the left; slip the left hand down the folded edge two-thirds
of its length and seize it with the thumb and second fin-
ger; raise the hands to the height of the shoulders, the
blanket extended between them; bring the hands together,
the double fold falling forward; pass the folded corner from
the right hand into the left hand, between the thumb and
forefinger; slip the second finger of the right hand between
the folds, seize the double folded corner; turn the left, dis-
engaged corner in and seize it with the thumb and fore-
finger of the right hand, the second finger of the right hand
stretching and evening the folds; after evening the folds
120 FIELD ARTILLERY
grasp the corners and shake the blanket well in order to
smooth the folds; raise the blanket and hold the upper edge
between the chin and breast; slip the hands down halfway,
the first two fingers outside, the other fingers and thumb
of each hand inside; seize the blanket with the thumbs and
the first two fingers, let the part under the chin fall for-
ward; hold the blanket up, arms extended, even the lower
edges; retake the middle points between the thumb and
forfinger and flirt the outside part over the right arm; the
blanket is thus held before placing it on the horse.
To Put on the Blanket

Approach the horse on the near side, with the blanket
folded and held as just described; place it well forward on
his back by tossing the part of the blanket over the right
arm to the off side of the horse, still keeping hold of the
middle points; slide the blanket once or twice from front
to rear to smooth the hair, being careful to raise the blanket
in bringing it forward; place the blanket with the fore-
finger of the left hand on the withers and the forefinger
of the right hand on the backbone, the blanket smooth; it
should then be well forward with the raw edges on the
left side; remove the locks of mane that may be under it;
pass the buckle end of the surcingle over the middle of the
blanket and buckle it on the near side, a little below the
edge of the blanket.
To Saddle
For instruction, the saddle may be placed 4 yards in
rear or in front of the horse. The stirrups are crossed
over the seat, the right stirrup uppermost; then the cincha
and cincha straps are crossed above the stirrups, the strap
uppermost. The blanket, without the surcingle, having been
placed as previously explained, seize the pommel of the
saddle with the left hand and the cantle with the right;
approach the horse on the near side from the direction of
the croup and place the center of the saddle on the middle
of the horse's back, the front ends of the side bars about
three finger widths behind the points of the shoulder blades;
let down the cincha strap and cincha; pass to the other
side, adjust the cincha and straps and see that the blanket
is smooth; return to the near side, run the left hand back
up, down the withers so as to raise the blanket slightly
under the pommel arch, in order that the withers may not
be pinched or pressed upon; take the cincha strap in the
right hand, reach under the horse and seize the cincha ring
with the left hand, pass the end of the strap between the
ring and safe and through the ring, then up through the
upper ring from the outside; if necessary, make another
fold in the same manner.
The strap is fastened as follows: Pass the end through
the upper ring to the front; seize it with the left hand,
place the fingers of the right hand between the outside folds
of the strap; pull slowly from the horse with the right hand
and take up the slack with the left; cross the strap over
the folds, pass the end of it with the right hand, underneath
and through the upper ring back to the folds, then down
and under the loop that crosses the folds and draw it tight-
ly; secure the end of the strap.
Another method of fastening the cincha strap is as
follows: Pass the end through the upper ring to the rear;
;seize it with the right hand, place the fingers of the left
hand between the outer folds of the strap; pull slowly from
the horse with the left hand and take up the slack with the
right; pass the end of the strap underneath and draw it
through the upper ring until a loop is formed; double the
loose end of the strap and push it through the loop and
draw the loop taut. The free end should then be long
enough to conveniently seize with the hand.
Having fastened the cincha strap, let down the right
stirrup, then the left.
The surcingle, if used, is then buckled over the saddle,
and should be a little looser than the cincha.
In saddling a horse the cincha must be tightened grad-
ually, and not with violence; the latter is a practice that,
if persisted in, renders a horse ill tempered and mean in
saddling.
To Remove the Saddle
Unsaddle: Stand on the rear side of the horse; un-
buckle and remove the surcingle; cross the left stirrup
122 FIELD ARTILLERY
over the saddle; loosen the cincha strap and let down the
cincha; pass to the off side, cross the right stirrup, then
the cincha over the saddle; pass to the near side, cross the
cincha strap over the saddle; grasp the pommel with the
left hand, the cantle with the right, remove the saddle over
the croup and place it in front or in rear of the horse, as
may be directed, pommel to the front; if in the stable, place
the saddle on its peg; grasp the blanket at the withers with
the left hand and at the loin with the right; remove it in
the direction of the croup, the edges falling together, wet
side in, and place it across the saddle, folded edge on the
pommel.
Lecture II
GROOMING, WATERING AND FEEDING

Grooming
M OUNTED work will be followed immediately by
stables; the horses are then thoroughly groomed and
the harness and equipment cared for and put away in good
order. The lieutenant in charge of Department B is pres-
ent and in immediate supervision of this work. He is as-
sisted by the first sergeant.
On Sundays or holidays the horses are thoroughly
groomed once during the day. This is usually done at
morning stables. The lieutenant 'in charge of Department
B or some other officer of the battery is present at this time.
On days that the horses are worked morning stables
are held before they go out. At that time each chief of
section superintends the removal of manure and foul litter
from his stalls or picket line, seeing that it is placed in
piles convenient for carting away; he causes the drivers
and individually mounted men of his section, after cleaning
their stalls, to look over and carefully examine their horses
to see that they are fit for work, and he causes each horse
to be brushed clean of dirt or manure. The lieutenant in
charge inspects the general condition of horses and stables
at this time.
On returning from a drill or exercise and after a march
the horses are unbridled, their collars and traces removed,
and the girths loosened. The men then put on stable
clothes, relieve themselves, and prepare for the work of
caring for the equipment and grooming while the horses'
backs are being cooled under the pressure of the saddle.
After the bits and collars are cleaned the remainder of
the harness is removed from the horses and disposed of
deliberately, the necessary cleaning being done at the same
time and in the most convenient manner. After the allotted
time has been given for the care and disposal of the harness
and equipment the horses are groomed and cared for.
123
124 FIELD ARTILLERY
The horses are habitually groomed at the picket line.
Under a noncommissioned officer, the horses of the
battery commander's detail, the ninth section, and the
supply section are groomed by their riders or drivers or
detailed privates, two horses to each man.
Under the chief of section the horses of each other
section are groomed by their drivers or riders or detailed
cannoneers, two horses to each man. An absent chief of
section is replaced by a caisson corporal.
The horses of officers are groomed by specially detailed
men. The men are marched to the horses, take the position
of stand to heel at the direction of the first sergeant, and
then begin work as soon as the first sergeant commands:
Commence grooming.
Grooming is essential to the general health and condi-
tion of the domesticated horse. Horses improperly groom-
ed, with ragged manes, unkempt pasterns, feet improperly
looked after, form an indication of an inefficient organiza-
tion. Clean horses, properly harnessed and smartly turned
out, add to the spirit of an organization and give a fair in-
dication of its discipline and efficiency.
The principal use of the currycomb is to clean the
brush. For this purpose a piece of hard wood with chan-
nels along its surface answers equally well.
The currycomb should never be used on the legs from
the knees and hocks downward or about the head, and when
occasionally required to loosen dried mud or matted hair
on the fleshy parts of the body it must be applied gently.
To groom the horse proceed as follows:
First clean the front legs, then the hind legs. They
will thus have time to dry while the rest of the grooming
is being done. Next, on the near side, with the currycomb
in the right hand, fingers over back of comb and the brush
in the left hand, begin brushing at the upper part of the
neck, the mane being thrown to the other side out of the
way; thence proceed to the chest, shoulders, back, belly,
flanks, loins, and rump. In using the brush the man should
stand well away from the horse, keep his arm stiff, and
throw the weight of the body against the brush. The prin-
cipal work of the brush should follow the direction of the
COURSE "B," LECTURE II 125
hair, but in places difficult to clean it may be necessary to
brush against it, finishing by leaving the hair smooth.
After every few strokes clean the brush from dust with
the currycomb.
Having finished the near side, take the brush in the
right hand, the currycomb in the left, and groom the off-
side in the same order.
Having done with the brush, rub or dust off the horse
with the grooming cloth, wipe about the face, eyes and
nostrils, arrange the mane and tail, and clean the dock. Fi-
nally go over the legs once more and clean out the hoofs.
In cleaning the mane and the tail begin brushing at the end
of the hair and gradually work up to the roots, separating
the locks with the fingers so as to get out all scurf and
dirt. Tails require frequent washing with warm water and
soap. The skin under the flank and between the hind quar-
ters must be kept soft, clean, and free from dust.
Currycombs, cards, or common combs must never be
applied to the mane or tail; the brush, fingers and cloth
are freely used on both.
The wisp is used when the horse comes in wet, and
also for stimulating the coat. It is made by twisting or
plaiting straw into a rope. The ends are then bent together,
cut off square, and rubbed on a board until they form a
soft, even straw brush. The wisp should be worked forward
and backward well into the coat, so that full advantage may
be obtained from the friction. After finishing with the
wisp the coat should be laid flat.
Hand rubbing is beneficial. When a horse has had
very hard, exhausting work his legs should be rubbed and
afterwards bandaged, taking care that the bandages are
not tight. An exhausted horse should also be given stimu-
lants and warm gruel.
The value of grooming is dependent upon the force
with which the brush is used and the thoroughness of the
work.
Officers and noncommissioned officers should, by con-
tinuous personal supervision, see that the grooming is
properly done.
No horse should be considered in order until he is thor-
126 FIELD ARTILLERY
oughly clean, his mane and tail brushed out and laid flat,
his eyes and nostrils wiped or washed, and hoofs put in
order.
The pasterns and that part of the mane where the
crownpiece of the bridle rests should be neatly trimmed and
the mane and tail plucked.
At each stable the horses' feet and shoes are care-
fully examined. Horses requiring shoeing are reported to
the chief of section, who notifies the stable sergeant.
The sheath will be kept clean by washing, when neces-
sary, with warm water and castile soap.
A horse should never be teased in grooming. It is
bad practice to attempt to make an animal submit to
rough or harsh grooming. To do so means that he will
be provoked into kicking, striking, or biting, and perhaps
confirmed in these bad habits. If he objects to the use of
the brush or currycomb, the hand or cloth should be gently
used instead. Careful work will usually win the animal
into sumitting to the proper use of the grooming tools.
The object of grooming is not merely to clean the coat.
The skin must be rubbed and massaged to keep the animal
healthy and in condition. An abundance of friction applied
to the skin when the horse returns from his work is of
special value in keeping him healthy and fit.
Quick grooming is to be encouraged. Under ordinary
conditions a horse should be thoroughly groomed in 20
minutes. On the other hand, at least that much time
should be devoted to him. Each chief of section, after the
necessary time has been devoted to grooming and after
he has made a thorough inspection of every animal in his
.section and finds them all satisfactorily groomed, reports
to the first sergeant and to the officer in charge: First
(such) section horses in order. The officer, after making
a general inspection of the whole section and a critical
inspection of three or four of the horses selected at random
may, if the grooming is satisfactory, permit the chief of
section to dismiss his men.
To confirm recruits in a thorough and systematic meth-
od of grooming, and to impress upon them the amount of
time to be ordinarily devoted to the different parts of the
horse, they are required to groom by detail during their
instruction in The Soldier Mounted.
To groom by detail the instructor causes the men
to stand to heel and commands: 1. By detail. 2. COM-
MENCE GROOMING. Clean and brush front legs from
the knees down, rubbing under the fetlocks ard around the
coronets with the brush and hand; time, 2 minutes. 3.
CHANGE. Same as at second command, the hind legs
from the hocks down; time, 2 minutes. 4. CHANGE. On
the near side, with currycomb and brush, groom neck,
shoulder, arm, elbow, back, side, flank, loins, croup, and the
hind leg to the hock; time, 4 minutes. 5. CHANGE. First
on the near side, afterward finishing up on the offside, groom
chest between the forelegs, the belly, and between the
hind legs; time, 3 minutes. 6. CHANGE. Same as 4, on
the offside; time, 4 minutes. 7. CHANGE. Brush head,
ears, and and throat; with the hand rub the throat and
between the forks of the lower jaw; time, 1 minute. 8.
CHANGE. Brush and lay forelock and mane; time, 2 min-
utes. 9. CHANGE. Brush out the tail; time, 2 minutes.
10. CHANGE. With the grooming cloth, or with a damp
cloth or sponge if the parts are foul, wipe out the eyes
and nostrils; wipe the muzzle, dock, sheath, and up be-
tween the hind legs; time, 2 minutes. 11. CHANGE.
Clean out the feet; time, 2 minutes. 12. CHANGE. Com-
plete any unfinished work. 13. CEASE GROOMING. 14.
STAND TO HEEL.
Total time required for the horse, at least 24 minutes.
To facilitate supervision, the men must be required to
change promptly at the command.
To judge the cleanliness of a horse, the hand may be
passed the reverse way of the hair to get a view of the
skin. When the points of the fingers are run firmly against
the set of the coat, lines of gray are left on the coat of a
dirty skin and the points of the fingers are covered with
scurf. Between the branches of the under jaw, under the
crownpiece of the halter, at the bends of the knees and
hocks, under the belly and between the forelegs and thighs
128 FIELD ARTILLERY
are the places usually neglected when the work is not thor-
ough, and which should be looked at when the horse is be-
ing inspected.
Watering
Except when they are heated, it is desirable that
horses should have free access to water at all times. It
is always best to water a horse so frequently that he will
never be unduly thirsty. As frequent watering, however,
is usually impossible it becomes necessary to water at
stated times.
Horses should, if possible, be watered before feeding,
or not until two hours after feeding. As horses rarely
drink in the early morning, the watering must follow the
feeding, but after the proper interval, if practicable.
A horse requires from 5 to 15 gallons of water daily,
depending upon the temperature and upon the work he is
doing. Except in very cold weather, horses should be
watered at least three times daily-in the morning, be-
fore noon feeding, and before the evening feeding. In
warm weather, water drawn from a cold well or spring
should be allowed to stand long enough for the chill to
pass off before the horse is allowed to drink.
A horse.should be allowed ample time to drink his fill
and not be led away the first time he raises his head from
the water. This must be carefully explained to the un-
trained man who thinks, because a horse puts up his head
to get his wind after his first fill, that he has finished.
Horses are always led or ridden to and from water at a
walk.
Stable Duty-Feeding
Three principles should be adhered to in feeding:

1. Water a thirsty horse before feeding him.
2. Feed in small quantities and often.
3. Do not work a horse hard immediately after a full
feed.
The water which a horse drinks passes almost immedi-
ately from his stomach into the small intestines, and thence,
in the course of a few minutes, to the caecum or blind
gut, which is the reservoir from which it is absorbed and
used by the horse as needed. To water a thirsty horse im-
mediately after he has eaten causes a considerable portion
of the contents of his stomach to be carried with the
water into the intestines. As a consequence digestion is
incomplete, there is avoidable loss of nourishment, and in-
digestion or colic may result.
The digestive organs of the horse are arranged to ad-
mit of leisurely feeding for long periods at a time. Thus
a horse will graze 22 out of 24 hours. The fact that the
stomach of a horse is small, the capacity of the functional
stomach being only about 1 gallons, points to the neces-
sity for frequent feeding in small quantities. The intes-
tines, on the other hand, are very large and require a con-
siderable bulk of forage to fill them. If bulk is withheld,
horses will eat quantities of earth or sand or otherwise be-
,come depraved in appetite to fill up the void. A horse will
not thrive if bulk of forage, in the form of hay and other
good roughage, is not supplied him, even if highly nutritive
food is given in abundant quantities.
A horse requires, roughly, about 2 pounds of proven-
der daily for each 100 pounds of live weight; that is, about
25 pounds for a 1,000-pound horse. Of this amount the
proportion of hay to grain should depend upon the severity
of his work. When the work is very light one-third of the
allowance should be grain and two-thirds hay. When the
work is very heavy, two-thirds should be grain and one-
third hay. The proportion varies between these limits ac-
cording to the amount of work the horse is doing.
The daily allowance of oats, barley, or corn is 12
pounds, and of hay 14 pounds for each light artillery horse.
It is 14 pounds of grain and 17 pounds of hay for each field
artillery horse of the heavy draft type weight 1,300 pounds
or more. Substitutions of hay for grain or grain for hay
are authorized, so that in garrison the horses of an or-
ganization may at all times be properly fed in accordance
with the severity of their work.
The best substitute for the slow, continuous feeding
natural to the horse is regular and frequent feeding. The
value of regularity is abundantly proven by experience. The
ART.-5
130 FIELD ARTILLERY
digestive organs become organs of habit, and perform their
functions best if called upon to work at fixed and regular
times.
If not limited by other important considerations, five
feeds daily would be better than three, the first one being
not later than 6 a. m., and the last at 11 p. m., the other
three so that the intervals between feeds are as nearly equal
as the work may permit. In the service such frequent
feeding is impracticable.
Artillery horses should be fed at least three times a
day-at reveille, in the middle of the day, and at night.
Ordinarily one-third of the grain ration is fed each time.
Hay, if the horses are to work, is not fed in the morning,
but about one-third of the ration should be fed at noon and
the remainder at night.
Immediately after a full feed the stomach and bowels
are distended. If hard work is given at once they press
against the lungs and impede their power of expansion,
thus leading to blowing and distress. Fast work should,
therefore, be avoided after a full feed. Moreover, though
such work rarely results in colic, it interferes with diges-
tion to such an extent that looseness of the bowels occurs
and the food passes through undigested and is wasted. Food
remains in the stomach about one and one-half hours. Fast
or heavy work should therefore be deferred for from one and
one-half to two hours after a full feed.
A bran mash acts as a mild laxative, and should be fed
once or twice a week to stabled horses. A little dry bran
mixed with the oats is of value in compelling more thor-
ough mastication and prevents greedy animals from bolt-
ing their grain. In spring or early summer the animals
should be grazed daily when practicable. A lump of salt
should be kept in each manger.
. Before feeding hay it should be thoroughly shaken
out with a fork so as to get rid of dust and seed; it is also
advisable to moisten the hay before giving it to the horse.
The grain, if possible, should be run over wire screens or
allowed to fall through the air to remove dust.
It is advisable to feed at least a portion of the allow-
ance of hay before feeding the grain.
Grain should never be fed or placed in the mangers
until it is certain that the horses are thoroughly cool.
In the morning horses are usually fed at or before
reveille. The noon feed of hay is usually placed in the
mangers while the organization is at drill, but the grain
is not fed until the horses are thoroughly cool. The evening
feed is placed in the mangers after the stables have been
thoroughly policed for the night.
All horses do not require the same amount of forage;
the amount given each horse must be based, therefore, upon
his individual requirements.
When forage cannot be obtained, grazing should be
required at every spare moment, especially early in the
morning when dew is on the grass, but not if it is covered
with frost.
All forage should be inspected by the lieutenant in
charge to see that it is up to weight and contract specifica-
tions. A forage book, showing daily' entries of all forage
drawn, fed, and remaining on hand, together with the num-
ber of the public and private animals fed, will be kept by
the stable sergeant and checked daily by the lieutenant in
charge. All officers should be familiar with the characteri-
tics of good forage and the manner in which it is commer-
cially graded for contract specifications. To obtain this
knowledge, officers should be encouraged to visit large com-
mercial stables.
Barley possesses a husk so tough and indigestible
that it should always be crushed before being fed, else a
very great part' of its nutrient value is lost.
Sudden changes in food are to be avoided. The diges-
tive organs are frequently unable to accommodate them-
selves to' a sudden change, and scouring, constipation, or
colic may result. If sudden changes become necessary, the
ration of the new feed should be greatly reduced and then
increased gradually to the full requirements.
Good oats weigh about 40 pounds to the bushel; barley
about 48 pounds; corn about 56 pounds. Pressed hay
weighs about 11 pounds per cubic foot.
132 FIELD ARTILLERY
The standard bushel in the United States contains:
2,150.4 cubic inches. A cubic yard contains 21.69 bushels.
A box 16 by 16.8 by 8 inches holds 1 bush'el; a box 12 by
11.2 by 8 inches holds half a bushel; a box 8 by 8 by 8.4
inches holds 1 peck; a box 8 by 8 by 4.2 inches holds one-
half peck or 4 quarts.
Lecture III
CONFORMATION OF ARTILLERY ANIMALS-RIDING

AND DRAFT HORSES AND PACK MULES
Artillery Riding Horses
THE riding horses of a battery with the exception of
those used by the battery commander's detail, should not
differ in type from the draft horses for the reason that it
frequently becomes necessary to place them in harness
when the draft animals become unserviceable, due to the
exigencies of the service. Horses used by the battery com-
mander's detail, should have the same conformation as a
cavalry horse. The following description taken from Car-
ter's "Horses, Saddles and Bridles," is believed to be an ex-
cellent one:
The head should be small and well set on the neck;
ears small, thin, and erect; the forehead broad and the
face straight; eyes large, prominent, mild in expression
and with fine eyelids. Lips thin and firmly compressed;
nostrils large and open. The neck should be of medium
size and moderate length, tapering toward the head with
its upper border or crest longer than the under side and
with mane intact and fine. The withers should be moder-
ately high, but not too much so as horses with very high
withers, while pleasant to ride, are unsuitable for hard ser-
vice with packed saddles.
The shoulders should be sloping, well muscled, and com-
paratively long as this conformation does not tend to dis-
place the saddle. The back should be short, straight and
well muscled. The ribs should be well arched and definitely
separated. Flatness, shortness and nearness together are
undesirable, because they limit the volume of the chest, and-
characterize the horse as short-winded and deficient in
power.
The chest should be full, deep, and moderately broad,
and plump in front. Narrow chested horses lack endur-
133
134 FIELD ARTILLERY
ance. From a point just in rear of the elbows, the lower
line of the chest and belly should be nearly or quite hori-
zontal. If the belly be large and hang down the horse will
not be fit for any but slow work, and if the circumference
of the body decreases rapidly from the forehand to the
rear, the horse is "tucked up" and if the horse is "tucked
up" in the belly, the tendency is for the saddle to slip back.
The forelegs should be vertical, springing from the chest
perpendicularly when viewed from the front. The elbows
prominent and clear of the chest. The forearm large above
and heavily muscled. The upper bone of the leg should be
long in proportion to the lower or cannon bone. This bone
cannot be too large or too fully supplied with muscles. The
knee should be wide from side to side and thick from front
to rear.
The leg just below the knee should not be very small
or tied in, which indicates a weakness of the part, but
should be as large as the other portions of the limb in that
vicinity. The back tendons should run parallel to the can-
non bone and not adhere closely just below the knee. If the
bone at the back of the knee is not prominent, the objection-
able conditions mentioned will be almost certain to exist
and the animal cannot stand hard service.
The large bone between the knee and the fetlock, known
as the cannon bone, cannot be too short or too strong. It
should be straight, broad, and flat.
The pastern, consisting of the upper and lower pastern
bones, should be strong, not too oblique, and of moderate
length. The feet should be somewhat circular in shape, of
medium size, due regard being paid to size and shape of the
horse, and there should be no visible difference in the feet
as to size and form.
The hind quarters: The stifles should be prominent
and well defined; should be close to the abdomen, and be
slightly deviated from it.
The hocks should be neatly outlined, lean, large, and
wide from front to rear. The leg below the hock should
incline but little if at all below the body. The same re-
marks refer to the canon in the rear leg.
The hocks should be viewed from behind with refer-
COURSE "B," LECTURE III 135
ence to the parallelism to the median plane of the body.
The hocks that turn towards each other behind, (cow-
hocked) and those which turn away from- each other are
both objectionable.
The tail: The dock or solid part of the tail should be
large and muscular. The tail should be carried firmly and
well away from the hind quarters.
Light Artillery Draft Horses
The conformation of an artillery horse is somewhat
hard to define exactly. He should be an animal capable
of pulling heavy loads and yet able to move at a rapid
gait. For light artillery, such as the 3-inch gun and
3.8-inch howitzer, a horse about 15 hands 2 inches, weigh-
ing from ten hundred and fifty to eleven hundred pounds,
is the most desirable size and weight. He is a combina-
tion of the saddle and draft types. He should have a
clean head, not too large, well set on at the neck, neck
well formed and fairly heavy, shoulders not so straight
as that of the common draft horse, but more so than that
of the cavalry horse. A short straight back, strong loins
and a broad, strong, well-formed rump. His feet should be
as small as possible in this type of horse as large splay feet
are hard to keep in condition and go to pieces easily on hard
ground, as well as being fertile causes of injuries to the
cannon bone. The cannon should be short, broad from
front to rear, and flat. The forearm and gaskin should be
relatively long as compared to the cannon, and should be
well muscled. The breast should be full and broad and the
chest large, and deep from the backbone to the breastbone.
Probably the best artillery horse that can be found is
the typical pure bred Percheron, as he possesses great draft
power combined with more agility than any other grade
of heavy horse, in addition to which he is very docile and
intelligent.
Heavy Artillery Horses
Draft horses for the heavy artillery, by which is meant
those batteries, the carriages of which weigh from 8,500 to
10,000 pounds each, should be of a heavier type than those
for the lighter guns, but should be built along the same
136 FIELD ARTILLERY
lines. These horses should weigh from twelve hundred
and fifty to fourteen or even fifteen hundred pounds each,
and their height of course is proportionally greater than
that of the lighter artillery horse.
In the choice of these horses, however, agility must not
be lost sight of, as it is sometimes necessary to move even
these heavy guns at the trot or even at the gallop, although
such a procedure is a rare one. Here again we find that
the Percheron breed will give us more nearly the ideal that
we desire than will any other. The greatest drawback to
the Percheron is his color, for while we often find bays and
blacks among them, iron grey is the predominating color.
This is of course a distinct disadvantage because of its
high degree of visibility. Bay, black and sorrel are the
colors most to be preferred.
Pack Mules
In our service pack mules are used by the quartermas-
ter for the transportation of supplies and by the mountain
artillery and machine gun companies for the transporta-
tion of material and ammunition. The Q. M. and ordnance
aparejos, while not actually alike, do not so differ in essen-
tials as to necessitate different types of mules in the two
different services. The pack mule should be about 15 hands
1 inch and weigh about 1,000 pounds when in condition.
As nearly as possible the conformation of his legs should
be similar to that of the artillery riding horse just de-
scribed, although you will find them in almost every case,
much smaller and lighter than those of a horse of the same
size. "Cow hocks" are quite common among mules and in
this case are not to be considered as being nearly so unde-
sirable as they would in the case of a horse. The pack mule's
shoulders should be sloping and well muscled, his breast full
and plump, his withers low and rather broad, with a short
straight back. The fore part of his body behind the
shoulders should be cylindrical, increasing in size from this
point to the rear. The most vital points in the conforma-
tion of a pack mule are: low withers, making a continuous
straight line with his back, and a tapering body as this
makes fitting of the aparejo much more simple than if he
COURSE "B," LECTURE III 137
have high withers, sway back or unequally shaped body. It
is most impossible to work a mule with high withers or sway
back under an aparejo for any length of time without seri-
ously injuring him.
Lecture IV
COMMON AILMENTS, PICKET LINE ACCIDENTS,

THEIR PREVENTION AND TREATMENTS
VERY field artillery officer should have some knowl-
edge of the more common ailments that may befall
horses, as well as those accidents which most frequently
occur to them, and a knowledge of the treatment required
to cure the disease or repair the injury. The following ex-
tracts from "The Army Horse in Accident and Disease"
cover those things which we most frequently encounter
in the service.
Wounds, Sprains, Abrasions
Wounds (separations of the soft tissues) are classed
as: Incised wounds, or cuts; lacerated wounds, or tears;
and punctured wounds, or holes.
A dressing is a local, periodically repeated treatment,
producing a continued action and often following the per-
formance of an operation. It is the application upon the
surface of the wound of healing substances, which, in some
cases, are mechanically held in place by bandages, stitches,
etc.
Before applying a dressing the wound should be thor-
oughly cleaned and freed from blood, pus, the remains of
previous dressing, and, in a word, of any foreign or other
substances capable of becoming sources of irritation. This
is best done with water, but the effect is frequently greatly
improved by combining with it some of the antiseptics,
such as carbolic acid, creolin, bichloride of mercury, etc.
Antiseptics are remedies which prevent putrefaction,
or rotting, and their combinations with water are called
solutions.
The solution may be applied by, carefully passing a
saturated ball of oakum over the surface of the wound,
or it may be used more freely in larger ablutions (wash-
ings). Crusts or scabs, if present, may be removed with
438
COURSE "B," LECTURE IV 139
the scissors or scraped away with the knife, but the finger
nails must never be used for such a purpose, for the prac-
tice is both filthy and dangerous. The wound is to be han-
dled only when necessary; all needless handling irritates.
If the wound is deep, it should be cleansed by syringing.
The essential condition of cleanliness applies not only
to the wound, but also to the materials used for dressings,
and soiled cloths or bandages and dirty oakum must be
rigorously rejected; everything coming in contact with a
wound must be absolutely clean, hands as well as instru-
ments and dressings. Instruments, however, should never
be immersed in the bichloride solution, which rapidly cor-
rodes metal.
In the treatment of all wounds cleanliness is of more
importance than medication, but the two in combination,
when thoroughly and intelligently carried out, will leave
no room for the propagation and ravages of those germs
that cause the formation of pus and retard the healing
process. The farrier, or the man who is to care for the
injured animal, should have his hands thoroughly cleaned,
and should procure in a clean can or bucket a solution of
creolin or other antiseptic, and several clean pieces of cot-
ton, gauze, or oakum. Sponges are cleaned with difficulty
and should not be used.
If hemorrhage (bleeding) is profuse the first step is
to arrest the flow of blood by ligating (tying) the blood
vessel or vessels with a piece of silk, or if none is at
hand, with a clean piece of string; if the blood vessel can-
not be tied a thick pad made of cotton or of several layers
of gauze or clean cloth, folded so as to cover the wound,
and held firmly in place by one or more cotton bandages,
will check the flow of the blood. This arrangement, called
a compress should be left on until the hemorrhage ceases,
and the wound treated as described later.
In applying dressings (except compresses) unneces-
sary pressure should be avoided, especially on the soft
tissues.
Incised wounds: If the injury is one that can be
sutured (sewed) a needle and silk should be immersed
in a solution of creolin-creolin 1 part, water 50 parts;
140 FIELD ARTILLERY
the hair around the wound either be shaved or be clipped
with a pair of shears, and the wound thoroughly cleaned
by washing it with cotton saturated with the creolin solu-
tion; all dirt and hair must be removed, all ragged edges,
if any, cut away, and the edges of the wound placed in
contact with each other if possible and held in place by
the aid of sutures, care being taken to allow free drainage;
the wound should then be wiped dry with a fresh piece of
cotton or gauze, and over the surface should be dusted
some iodoform or acetanilid. If the location will permit,
the wound should be covered with a pad of gauze or ab-
sorbent cotton ,and a cotton bandage wrapped around the
parts to hold the pad in place. The wound should be dress-
ed once or twice a day until the formation of pus ceases;
when the wound is dry, only the powder should be used.
Lacerated wounds: If the wound is a large one,
with the tissues so badly torn and lacerated as not
to admit of the use of sutures, the torn and ragged edges
(especially if the lower part of the wound hangs down)
should be removed with the knife or scissors and the
wound dressed as above directed. When the wound begins
to granulate (fill with new tissues) care should be taken
that the granulations are not allowed to grow out higher
than the skin, causing the condition known as proud flesh.
The treatment of proud flesh consists in the removal
of the unhealthy tissue by the use of the knife or by the
application of a red-hot iron; burnt alum or salicylic acid
dusted upon the surface of the wound will also destroy
the unhealthy granules.
Punctured wounds: Punctured wounds (except those
around joints) should be explored with a probe to as-
certain if any foreign bodies are in the channel; if so,
they should be removed, and if necessary a dependent open-
ing be made to allow perfect drainage. The parts should
then be syringed out thoroughly with a solution of creolin,
1 to 50; carbolic acid, 1 to 20 or 30; or bichloride of mer-
cury, 1 to 1,000, and the outside opening sprinkled with
iodoform. This treatment should be applied twice daily.
For a few days the wound should be swabbed with
tincture of iodine or packed with strips of gauze saturated
with this drug in order to destroy infection, check the for-
mation of pus, and promote the growth of healthy tissue.
Wounds of the lips, nostrils, and eyelid heal very rap-
idly; if of several days' standing they should have their
edges scraped and then be sutured and iodoform or acetani-
lid dusted over the surface twice daily.
An excellent antiseptic solution for the treatment of
wounds during fly time is made by dissolving 8 ounces of
gum camphor in 3 ounces of carbolic acid. Apply with a
clean swab several times daily. One ounce of creolin to 8
ounces of olive oil is a good substitute.
Punctured Wounds Around Joints

Open joint is a wound situated on a joint and ex-
tending through the capsular ligament, allowing the joint
fluid to escape.
Treatment: Remove the hair and thoroughly clean
the parts around the wound with a solution of bichloride
of mercury, 1 to 1,000. Unless a foreign body is known
to be lodged in it, do not probe or explore; as the introduc-
tion of any instrument, even if thoroughly clean, will be
the means of setting up considerable inflammation. Apply
a blister of biniodide of mercury 1 part, cosmoline 4 parts,
for the purpose of closing the opening, limiting motion, and
relieving pain. Use the slings if the wound is very painful.
If the wound is so large that a blister will not close it,
the treatment should be as prescribed for an open wound.
A punctured tendon sheath is treated like a punctured
joint.
Cause and Treatment of Sprains
Sprains affect muscles, tendons, and ligaments. The
fibers of which they are composed are severely stretched,
sometimes torn in serious cases, causing inflammation and
subsequent contraction, and, in case of muscles, atrophy,
or sweeny (wasting away).
Strains of the Muscles

Muscle strains occur in various parts of the trunk
and limbs; thus, a horse may strain the neck muscles, as
142 - FIELD ARTILLERY
a result of falling on the head; the muscles of the dorsal
region may be strained by the hind feet slipping backward.
When a muscle is strained the injury is succeeded by pain,
swelling, heat, and loss of function.
An inflamed muscle can no longer contract; hence in
some strains the symptoms resemble those of paralysis.
Sprains of the Suspensory Ligament and Flexor

Tendons
("Breakdown" and "Bowed Tendons.")
The fibrous structures situated behind the cannon bone,
both in the front and hind legs, are often the seat of lacera-
tions or sprains resulting from violent efforts or sudden
jerks. The injury is easily recognized by the changed
appearance of the parts, which become more or less swol-
len,. the swelling usually extending from the knee down
to the fetlock and occasionally even farther. It is always
characterized by heat, and is variously sensitive, ranging
from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness which
shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of lameness
corresponds to the severity of the injury.
Sprains of Ligaments
The calcaneo-cuboid ligament, situated at the back part
of the hock and uniting the calcaneum, the cuboid, and the
external splint bones, is frequently sprained. This condi-
tion is known as a "curb."
The various ligaments entering into the formation of
joints are subject to sprains and injuries. This condition
is indicated by lameness, accompanied by pain, heat, and
swelling.
The capsular ligament when sprained very often be-
comes weakened, resulting in distention of the synovial sac.
their location. Bog spavin is a characteristic bursal en-
Bursal enlargements receive different names, according to
largement. It is found on the front and inner side of the
by slipping, hard and fast work, irregular exercise, and
tion of the capsular ligament. The trouble is usually caused
high feeding. Draft animals, pulling heavy loads over rough
hock joint and varies in size with the amount of disten-
or slippery ground, are particularly subject to this injury,
which is also more commonly seen in young than in mature
animals. The swelling can be readily detected; under pres-
sure it fluctuates; heat may or may not be present; lame-
ness rarely results unless the injury be accompanied by
complications, such as bone spavin or bony deposits.
In sprain of the stifle joint, the ligaments holding it in
position are severely stretched, in some cases sprained or
ruptured, and even dislocation of the patella may occur.
In this trouble the patella is forced outward and thus makes
the joint immovable, the leg being extended backward and
the foot resting on the toe. If the animal is forced to move,
he drags the leg, being unable to bring it forward in the
natural manner on account of the dislocation. The bone is
returned to place in the following manner: A rope having
been placed about the pastern, the leg is steadily drawn
forward by one or more assistants, while the operator
stretches the patella forward and inward. When the bone
regains its proper position, the animal has proper control
of his leg. Reduce the inflammation promptly and blister
as explained below. In case the patella persists on slipping
out again, a rope should be fastened to the pastern and
attached to the collar about the horse's neck; the rope should
be drawn tight enough to prevent the horse extending his
leg to the rear, but allowing him to stand upon it; keep the
rope on until the blister has worked.
General treatment of sprains: Perfect rest is abso-
lutely necessary and must never be overlooked in the treat-
ment of all sprains; therefore the injured animal should
be at once removed to a level stall where it can remain until
complete recovery has taken place. Hot or cold applications
should be applied to the injured parts. These applications
should be in the form of fomentations (bathing) or band-
ages saturated with water. Flannel bandages must not be
allowed to dry while in contact with the injured parts, as
flannel applied wet shinks in drying, and will not only retard
the reparative process, but cause unnecessary pain. Cold
water is often materially assisted in accomplishing the de-
sired results by the addition of acetate of lead or sulphate
of zinc, witch-hazel, or nitrate of potash. A convenient
144 FIELD ARTILLRY
solution is made as follows: Acetate of lead and sulphate

of zinc, each 1 ounce; water, 1 quart; or, 1 pint witch-hazel,
1 ounce of acetate of lead, 2 ounces; water to make 1 quart;
this application is of more benefit when applied warm. All
applications should be used several times daily.
If, after the inflammation is reduced, the parts remain
large and swollen, benefit will result from the application of
tincture of iodine, well rubbed in, twice a day. If this treat-
ment fails to restore the parts to their normal condition in
a reasonable length of time, a blister should be applied.
It is made as follows: Cantharides (powdered) 1 part,
cosmoline 4 to 5 parts; or cantharides (powdered) 1 part,
biniodide mercury 1 part, cosmoline 4 to 6 parts.
Before applying either the blister or the iodine the hair
should be clipped from the parts to which the medicine is
to be applied. To obtain the best results from the blister
it should be well rubbed in for at least fifteen minutes. The
animal must be tied in such a manner that he can not reach
the blistered part with his mouth; the blister should be
left on for a period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours; it
must then be removed by washing with warm water and cas-
tile soap. After the blister has been removed the animal
may be untied. The parts should be kept clean, free from
scabs, and soft by the use of cosmoline, olive oil, or glyc-
erine.
Rest is necessary throughout the treatment, and even
to test his soundness the animal should not be moved more
than is necessary.
If the desease does not yield to blisters, the parts
must be fired. For this operation, two kinds of instruments
are used: The Thermocautery, which generates its own
heat, and the more common form the iron heated in the
fire. Two methods of firing are in general use: Line
firing, for diseases of the tendons, ligaments, etc., and
puncture firing, for diseases of the bone.
Bruises
In the artillery horses, the most frequent bruises are
saddle and cinch galls, and bruises of the withers, bruises.
of the shoulder, and bruised necks.
Certain horses suffer more than others, on account of
the presence of old sores, scars, or scabs or because of
peculiarities in conformation making it difficult to adjust
properly the different parts of equipment.
Unless great care is exercised in the fitting of steel
collars and the proper adjustment of the holding down
straps, sore necks and sore shoulders will appear on
even well formed horses during a long march, and hard
service in the field.
All horses, whatever their conformation, are subject
to saddle and cinch galls; bruised neck and shoulders, pro-
duced mechanically by several causes. Saddle bruises are
produced by unequal distribution of weight, faults in sad-
dling and cinching; faulty packing of saddle, and sometimes
by poor riding.
Collar bruises may be a result of ill-fitting collars, poor
driving, or too heavy loads on the pole yoke. There is
another sort of injury caused by the collar other than
bruises. This is an abraision, caused by sliding of the collar
up and down, or laterally on the surface of the horse's
shoulder when the collar is not properly fitted.
Bruises are evidenced by local swellings. After a long
ride or after having been left a long time with constant
pressure on the back or shoulders, the blood vessels under
those parts are compressed and almost empty. If this
pressure be suddenly and completely removed, blood is
vigorously forced into the paralyzed vessels and may rup-
ture their walls. On the other hand, if the saddle is allowed
to remain for some time in position, circulation is gradually
restored without injury.
Treatment
As soon as a swelling is noticed, application of cold
in the form of pads saturated with cold water and massage
in the form of gentle stroking with the fingers will aid
in the absorption of the fluids causing the swellings.
Injury to the withers require different treatment-cold
applications without pressure and without massage, on
account of the danger of the fluid burrowing.
A solution made of the following is a very good appli-
146 FIELD ARTILLERY
cation for bruises: Sugar of lead, 2 ounces; laudanum, 4
ounces; water to make one quart. This should be applied
several times daily. A poultice made of flaxseed meal, to
which has been added an antiseptic; such as creolin or
diluted carbolic acid is also beneficial.
Bruises caused by kicks or by running against ob-
stacles are of a different type and should be treated by ap-
plication of water, the best method of making this appli-
cation being to allow a constant stream of cold water to run
over the parts. If painful, an anodyne (pain reducing)
liniment should be applied. The following makes a good
anodyne: Witch-hazel, 2 parts; tincture of opium, 1 part;
tincture aconite - part; water 2 parts. This should be
applied locally with the hand.
The white lotion, composed of one ounce each of sugar
of lead and sulphate of zinc, dissolved in one quart of water,
is also an excellent remedy for bruises and abrasions as
well.
Bruises of the Sole and Heel

These are quite frequent and should be treated by hot
or cold applications, accomplished by holding the foot in
a tub of cold water or incasing the foot in a hot flaxseed-
meal poultice. If suppuration (pus) forms, the under run
horn must be removed and the parts kept clean and covered.
Abrasions
An abrasion or chafe, is an inflammation of the skin,
resulting from friction. Parts of the equipment frequently
wear away the hair and leave the skin -raw and tender,
as in the case of a sore shoulder on an artillery horse, when
the collar slides up and down or transversely across the
face of the shoulders.
Treatment of Abrasion
One ounce of tannic acid in a pint of witch-hazel is es-
pecially valuable for collar chafes; zinc oxide as a dusting
powder is effective, and the white lotion is always beneficial.
In emergencies, bathe the parts with cold water to which
a little salt has been added.
Rope Burn
Rope burn is an abrasion, usually at the back of the
pastern and caused by the animal becoming entangled in
the halter shank, picket line, or lariat. The injury may be
simply a chafe of the superficial layer of the skin or it
may involve the deeper structures. In the latter case it is
of a serious nature and requires careful attention.
Treatment
If possible, give the animal complete rest. Clip the
hair from the injured parts, at the same time removing any
torn skin; wash with some good antiseptic, such as solution
of creolin or carbolic acid, and apply a dusting powder, such
as zinc oxide or iodoform, the former preferably. Apply
a pad of clean cotton and secure with a cotton bandage;
change the dressing daily. Should the parts be slow in
healing, an occasional dressing of tincture of iodine is bene-
ficial, and good results are often obtained by alternating
this with a dressing of olive oil 3 parts and creolin 2 parts.
Should proud flesh appear, the three sulphates (iron, copper,
and zinc) may be used, or powdered copper sulphate alone.
Use until the granules disappear. When the wound begins
to heal nicely, it is better to dispense with the pad and
bandage.
Pharyngitis and Laryngitis-Sore Throat
Sore throat is an inflammation of the lining membrane
immediately in the rear of the mouth and is caused by
irritating medicines, by bodies bruising the tissues, by
sudden changes in the temperature and by infection.
Symptoms
Diminution of the appetite, cough, stiffness, of, the
head, soreness when pressure is applied to the throat, a
considerable amount of mucus and saliva in the mouth, es-
caping in long, transparent threads, and usually a profuse
thick discharge from the nose. Swallowing of liquids is
painful; they are ejected through the nose and are often
of a greenish color and contain quantities of food. Tem-
perature may range from normal to 106 degrees F., with
difficulty in breathing.
148 FIELD ARTILLERY
Treatments
The sick animal should be separated from the healthy
ones and placed in a comfortable box stall, free from drafts,
but well ventilated, and should be given green food or very
fine hay, steamed oats, bran, or gruel; fresh water should
be left within reach. Four drams of either ammonium
chloride or potassium nitrate should be added to the drink-
ing water.
The lips and nostrils should be kept perfectly clean and
the mouth washed frequently with fresh water. Cold com-
presses should be used if the parts are hot, tender, and
painful. In a mild case, use ammonia liniment. If an ab-
cess is likely to form, poultices of linseed meal may be
applied, and the abscess, when ready should be opened, but
never with a knife. Cut through the skin only and then
insert a blunt instrument, or the finger and allow the pus
to escape.
If the animal breathes with great difficulty, manifested
by making a loud, wheezing sound, an opening should be
made in his windpipe and the edges of the opening held
apart by inserting a suture in each side, tying the silk
ends up over the neck; or a tube may be inserted in the
opening. This operation is called tracheotomy.
The sore-throat patient should never be drenched: If
the horse should cough while taking medicine in this man-
ner, the liquid might enter the lungs and cause pneumonia.
Fever may be combatted by cold water injections into
the rectum, 1 to 2 gallons at a time.
Strangles, Commonly Called "Distemper"

Strangles is an acute, infectious disease, and usually
attacks young horses.
Symptoms
The disease begins with a high fever, ranging from
104 degrees to 106 degrees; a discharge from the nose,
at first watery, rapidly becoming thicker, and later as-
suming a whitish-gray or greenish-yellow color. The glands
below the lower jaw become swollen, hot, and painful, and
occasionally there is soreness of the throat; loss of appetite,
depression, great muscular weakness, and occasionally,
swelling of the hind legs follow. Sometimes a swelling may
be found on some portion of the windpipe or other part of
the body.
Treatment
Separate the sick animal from the healthy ones and
place him in a well ventilated stall, free from drafts; clean
the nostrils frequently; clothe the body according to the
season of the year; apply hot poultices to the abscess several
times daily, and, as soon as pus is formed, open and wash
twice daily.
Give easily digested food, green fodder, roots, or slops
made of bran or steamed oats, and to his drinking water
add one-half ounce of saltpeter; do not drench, as the throat
in many cases is sore.
Spasmodic Colic-Gripes
Spasmodic colic is a painful contraction of the intes-
tines. The usual seat of the trouble is the small intestines,
and it is usually caused by indigestible or chilled food or
drink, and frequently by sudden chilling of the body.
Symptoms
The suffering is very violent but of short duration;
the spasms appear suddenly and disappear with the same
rapidity. .The horse paws, stamps, looks around at his
flanks, lies down and rolls, and if the pain is very severe,
sweats profusely. During the attack a few pellets of dung
may be passed, and attempts to pass urine are frequently
made. This latter symptom has misled many persons to
the impression that the disease was located in the "urinary
organs".
Treatment
Place the animal in a large, well-bedded stall and give
the following: Cannabis indica, 2 to 4 drams; aromatic
spirits ammonia, 1 ounce; water to make one pint. Or,
fluid extract belladonna, 2 drams; nitrous ether, 2 ounces;
150 FIELD ARTILLERY
water to make 1 pint. Either one of these prescriptions can
be given at one dose and repeated in three-quarters of an
hour.
If the animal is not relieved in one hour, give a purga-
tive of aloes (physic ball).
Warm water injections, per rectum, are often of ad-
vantage.
Flatulent Colic
Flatulent colic is generally due to the animal having

eaten improper foods, such as musty oats, sour bran, green
corn, etc., which interfere with the process of digestion and
give off much gas. It is sometimes caused merely by a
sudden change of diet from oats to corn. This trouble is
also frequently observed in horses that have the habit of
wind sucking.
Symptoms
The rapid swelling of the belly constitutes the charac-
teristic symptom. The abdomen is distended, the pain is
not so severe as in spasmodic colic, but more constant.
With the increase of swelling the breathing becomes more
difficult, anxiety and restlessness are shown, walking is
painful, and the animal staggers, lies down and rolls, but
only for a short time.
Treatment
Place the horse in a large, roomy stall, and give the
following drench: Sulphuric ether 2 ounces, aromatic spirits
of ammonia 1 ounce, fluid extract belladonna 2 drams, water
to make 1 pint. Repeat in one hour if necessary. Should
the animal not be relieved after the second dose, administer
a purgative. Cold water injections into the rectum are
sometimes of advantage. If the abdomen continues to dis-
tend with gas, the trocar and canula must be used. This is
an instrument for puncturing the intestine, but should be
used only by one who understands the operation. The in-
strument, as well as the seat of the operation, should be
thoroughly disinfected.
Sand Colic
When animals are in the field and have to pick their
food up off of the ground, we frequently find another sort
of intestinal disturbance known as sand colic caused by
picking up dirt, and sand by the animal and the consequent
lodgement of these substances in the lower parts of the
intestines. This is a condition extremely difficult to combat,
and frequently results in the loss of life.
Thrush
Thrush is a diseased condition of the frog, characterized
by a dark-colored discharge of offensive odor.
Causes
Uncleanliness; horses standing in stalls saturated with
urine, or in wet earth filled with decomposing vegetable
matter.
Symptoms
At first there is simply an increased moisture in the
cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After
a time the discharge is more profuse, then watery and
highly offensive, changing gradually to a thick, putrid
matter, which rapidly destroys the horn of the frog.
Treatment
Remove the cause; keep stalls clean and dry. Pare
away all lose portions of the horn, so as to expose the dis-
eased parts; clean thoroughly by washing with warm water;
dry with oakum and pack with powdered alum, calomel,
or copper sulphate; if the dressing will not remain in place
use a leather boot.
Puncture of the Sole and Frog-Pricks in Shoeing

A puncture of the sole or frog is usually caused by a
horse stepping on a nail, a piece of broken glass, or other
sharp object. If the wound enters the soft structures of
the foot, it results in lameness and the formation of pus.
Pricks in shoeing are of two kinds: First, when the
nail is driven into the soft structures, and second, when it
152 FIELD ARTILLERY
is driven too close, causing a bulging of the inner layer of

horn, which is forced in upon the sensitive laminae. In the
first case the horse goes lame immediately; in the second
case lameness may not appear for several days or weeks.
To detect a punctured wound of the foot, remove the
shoe, examining each nail as it is withdrawn for traces of
moisture. Then test with the pinchers. When the sore
spot is pressed, the horse will flinch.
Treatment
Open the wound and let out any pus that may have
formed; wash out with a solution of creolin, 1 to 25, or of
carbolic acid, 1 to 20. Unless the pus has a good outlet,
it will burrow into the surrounding tissues and quittor
or canker may follow. Moreover, there is always danger
of tetanus in all cases of punctured wounds, especially in
the feet. The germ of this disease is present in nearly all
soils and is very liable to be carried into the wound upon
the nail or other object. After the wound has been opened
up and washed out, the foot should be placed in a hot flax-
seed poultice, a fresh one being applied three or four times
a day, and the parts washed out after each poultice as in
the first instance. The treatment should be continued until
inflammation is reduced and the formation of pus has
ceased. The hole can then be plugged with oakum and tar,
the shoe reset and the horse put to work.
Simple Injuries to the Eyelids
Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the eye-
lids may be caused by bruises or the presence of a foreign
body, such as sand, chaff, etc. If the eyelids should become
torn, they must be sutured; the utmost care is necessary
as the needle may puncture the eyeball and blindness will
follow.
Treatment
Keep the parts clean with a saturated solution of
boracic acid, and dust with iodoform.
Lecture V
SHOEING
T HE horse's foot is particularly liable to disease both
1from the delicacy of its mechanism, and the injury to
which it is naturally exposed. The feet of the stabled horse
:bear eloquent testimony to the class of stable management
which is in vogue. Cleanliness is an all important feature;
under the influence of manure, and urine the horn of the
foot is very liable to suffer, the urine acts chemically by its
alkaline nature, in which horn is more or less soluble. This
corrosive action is particularly evident in the matter of the
sole and frog, especially the latter, where in conjunction with
wet and filth inflammatory trouble is set up in the sweat
glands of the frog, with destruction of horn and loss of
function.
The horn of the foot requires for its healthy condition
to be kept in contact with the ground; the effect of pressure
is remarkable, and especially is this seen in the frog.
Pressure also keeps the foot normal in shape and
width; the parts are intended for contact with the ground
and pressure, and if the pressure is not obtained the foot
atrophies, wastes away; this shrinkage, besides other effects
also means a loss of bearing surface.
The care of the feet in the stable or on the picket
line is comprised in the words "cleanliness and ordinary
dryness." Cleanliness to insure the horn undergoing
no change as the result of the action of urine and faeces,
ordinary dryness to avoid the rotting of horn by constant
exposure to wet. It has been known for ages that horses
kept on dry surface had stronger and better feet, more
capable of resisting injury, than those brought up on filthy
and moist ground.
As the wear is greater than the secretion, the exces-
sive wear of the foot which results from work necessitates
some protection being afforded, and this is given by shoe-
ing.
153
154 FIELD ARTILLERY
In the application of the shoe to the foot the functions.
of the various parts must be borne in mind. A horse's
weight is carried by the wall of the foot and that part of
the sole adjacent to it, the bars and frog. All of these
parts in an unshod foot are in contact with the ground.
The sole being concave, would not rest upon the ground.
excepting in soft soil, nor is it intended to carry weight
excepting where it joins with the wall.
When a shoe is placed on the foot the natural condition
just mentioned should be complied with, the shoe should
rest on the wall, adjacent circumference of the sole, and the:
bars. The frog should rest on the ground; it is one of the,
anti-concussion mechanisms and cannot perform this func-
tion unless on the ground. This India rubber-like structure
acts like a non-skidding, pneumatic tire to the body, except-
ing that it does not wear out from constant use.
I wish to draw your attention to an important part of
the foot which is greatly ill-treated or neglected in shoeing,
and that is the heel, we find that all its parts are constructed
with an elastic structure intended to yield, to expand and
contract, to act as a buffer or cushion for the lateral cartila-
ges; furthermore the wall is one-third thinner, one-third-
lower and one-third younger at the heel than at the toe, all
helping the elastic cushion in its function. With this posi-
tive knowledge of the rational requirement of this part of the
foot, it is most essential that we should shoe accordingly.
That is to retain, as much as it is possible to do, the natural
functions of the heel. There is no form of shoeing that pre-
vents and blocks these functions more effectively than the
application of calks to shoes, consequently calk shoes are not
to be recommended except for winter shoeing when the
roads are icy and slippery. At no other time, whether for
draft or other purposes, roads hilly or not, should calk shoes
be tolerated.
It is useless to elaborate here and explain the why and
wherefore of every point brought out; it is, sufficient to state
that every statement made is the result of study, observation,
and experience.
The art of horseshoeing is simple, and not complicated.
It mainly consists in the removal of the wall, at the lower
COURSE "B," LECTURE V 155
or bearing surface, which has grown since the previous
shoeing, the foot rasped to a proper level all around, the shoe
adjusted to its entire circumference and applied. No other
manipulation of the foot should be allowed, except for
therapeutical or surgical reasons and under proper authori-
ty. There is an excellent order published, which I herewith
submit for your information:
"G. O. No. 16, A. G. O. 1888.-In preparing the horse's

foot for the shoe do not touch with the knife, the frog, sole.
or bars.
"In removing surplus growth of that part of the foot
which is the 'seat of the shoe' use the cutting pinchers and
rasp and not the knife. The shoeing knife may be used if nec-
essary in fitting the toe clip. 'Opening the heels' or making a
cut into the angle of the wall at the heel must not be al-
lowed. The rasp may be used upon this part of the foot
when necessary, and the same applies to the pegs. No cut-
ting with a knife is permitted, the rasp alone is used when
necessary. 'Flat-footed horses' should be treated as the ne-
cessity of each case may require. 'In forging the shoe to
fit the foot' be careful that the shoe is fitted to and follows
the circumference of the foot clear around to the heels; the
heels of the shoe should not be extended back straight and
outside of the walls at the heels of the horse's foot, as is
frequently done. Care must be taken.that the shoe is not fit-
ted too small, the outer surface of the walls being then rasp-
ed down to make the foot short to suit the shoe, as often hap-
pens. Heat may be used in preparing and shaping the shoe,
but the hot shoe must not be applied to the horse's foot under
any circumstances. Make the upper or foot surface of the
shoe perfectly flat so as to give a level bearing. A shoe with
a concave ground surface should be used."
The only rasping of the wall that can be allowed is in

the removal of the fringes which are left after levelling the
surface for the shoe, and the only cutting of the sole that
can be permitted is the removal of the loose flakes. A slight
impression of a hot shoe to the foot may be used to deter-
mine an uneven surface and level accordingly, but nothing
beyond this use of the hot shoe should be allowed. As the
156 FIELD ARTILLERY
bars are part of the wall, it goes without saying that their
bearing surface should be maintained and never cut beyond
the level of the wall.
In proper shoeing the frog should be flush with the
shoe, with no nails driven close to the heel. In flat feet,
accompanied with low broad heels, "swelling" of the shoe
at the heel may be allowed to avoid excessive frog pressure.
In contracted feet brought on from any cause, except
navicular disease, tips should be used to develop the frogs
and heels till normal shoeing can again be restored. "To
maintain a level foot bearing, tips should be counter-sunk."
The practice of hoof-dressing with oily substances or
hoof-stuffing with clay or other material is not to be re-
commended when the foot is sound and in normal condition,
even if it should happen to be hard. Such practices, when
once started, have to be kept up and it then becomes a nui-
sance.
The method of shoeing as described above, taken from
Major LeMay's lecture on that subject delivered to the last
class, illustrates what is known as normal shoeing, or the
fitting of a shoe to the average horse in good health, and
having healthy and whole feet. There is another type of
shoeing known as corrective or, pathological shoeing which
has for its object the correction of defects either in the foot
itself, or in the gait of the animal. Upon this subject we
have no time to touch but you will find it fully covered in
the "Army Horse Shoer," published by the Government
Printing Office, and in similar works.
Paragraph 32, Volume 1, Field Artillery Drill Regula-
tions, direct that one officer of a battery will be in charge
of stables and animals and held responsible for the shoeing,
feeding, fitting and adjustment of harness, etc. This officer
is known as officer in charge of Department B and he should
be thoroughly familiar with the little red book called "The
Army Horse Shoer" and with the principles enumerated
therein.
Horses, like men, cannot march unless their feet are
Scomfortable and properly shod. Good horseshoers are ex-
tremely rare and it is often with the greatest difficulty that
COURSE "B," LECTURE V 157
the battery horseshoer can be made to follow out the rules
of shoeing laid down by the school for farriers and horse-
shoers as enunciated in the book referred to above.
It is only by the exercise of the closest supervision of all
details connected with shoeing that the battery commander
or his lieutenant in charge of Department B can have his
battery well and properly shod at all times.
The following are a few suggestions as to the method
of checking up and inspecting shoeing which have been tried
in many batteries and have always given the results de-
sired:-The stable sergeant is required to keep a book
known as the "Shoeing Record" in which are entered the
numbers of all the horses in the battery, the section to which
they belong, together with the dates on which they were last
shod, and information as to whether or not the animal was
shod all around at that time. Every morning at stables, the
officer in charge of Department B has the stable sergeant
bring to him the shoeing record together with a memoran-
dum of what horses were shod the previous day and what
horses are to be shod today. The officer then has the chief
of section bring to him for inspection the animals shod
yesterday and carefully examines every shoe, noting its fit,
whether or not the heels are too short, if it bears properly
on its upper surface, whether the bars have been cut out or
any other evidence of the knife having been used on the
sole. He should also examine each animal standing squarely
on all four feet, to see if the feet have been so leveled that
the axis of the leg when produced is coincident with the
axis of the hoof. He should then compare his memoran-
dum of the horses that were to have been shod yesterday
with the records of those actually shod and see if the horse-
shoers are keeping up with their work. The number of
horses shod each day should equal the total number of horses
in the battery divided by the total number of working days
in the month less two, to allow for emergencies.
The officer in charge of Department B should make fre-
quent and lengthy visits to the battery shoeing shop in order
that he may be able to discover and correct any bad prac-
tices on the part of his horseshoers. These visits should occur
at least once each day and more often if possible. He should
158 FIELD ARTILLERY
see to it that each of his horseshoers has a copy of, and is
familiar with, the "Army Horse Shoer" and if, as will occur
in many cases, he finds his horseshoers unable to understand
exactly what certain passages mean, or the'reason which
lies behind the rule given, he should carefully explain such
things to them, as in this way alone can he expect to secure
their conscientious following out of the rules laid down.
Lecture VI
Artillery Harness-Its Nomenclature and Adjustment
T HERE are two types of field artillery harness. That
which is used on the wheel pairs, known as wheel har-
ness, and that used on the swing and lead, and in the case of
four pair teams, on the wheel swing, lead swing, and lead,
which is known as the lead harness. It consists roughly of five
principal parts which from head to rear on the horses are:
The bridle; the collar and' its attachments; the saddle and
attachments; the back strap and its attachments; and the
traces. These latter are of steel cable covered with leather
to protect the horses' sides from abrasion. The nomencla-
ture of various parts is shown on the accompanying plate
and its explanatory table. The collars used by the field
artillery are of two types. The steel collar which encloses
the horse's neck completely and bear upon the entire front
face of his shoulder, and the leather breast collar. The
former is the one most generally in use at present, but in
light batteries is being rapidly superseded by the breast
collar. It will be retained in heavy batteries, however,
where the draft is so much greater. The chief reason for
dropping it from the light batteries is that it requires
considerable expertness for its proper adjustment, especially
when, under field conditions, constant changes of adjust-
ment are necessary to meet the changes of conformation
of the horse's neck and shoulders as he falls off in flesh. In
such batteries the loads behind the teams are light and the
breast collar offers a sufficient traction surface to take care
of that weight under anything except abnormal conditions,
in addition to being more easily adjusted by novices. This
feature makes it exceptionally valuable when, in time of
war, most, if not all, of the officers on duty with batteries
lack experience in fitting harness.
Steel Collars
Steel collars are made in the following sizes: 2A, 2B,
4A, 4B, 5, 5A, 5B, 6, 6A, 6B, 7, 7A, 7B, and 8A. The
number and shape of the collar are stamped on the front
159
160 FIELD ARTILLERY
side under the extension bolt. The A and B shapes have
straighter sides than the numbers without letters. When
issued with harness, unless otherwise ordered, 10 per cent
of the collars are No. 5, 50 per cent No. 5A, and 40 pea cent
No. 6. In requisitions, the size of collars desired should be
given.
The steel collar pads are made in seven different sizes:
No. 0 is 4 inches wide, No. 1 is 4.5 inches, No. 2 is 5 inches,
etc., to No. 6, which is 7 inches wide. The pad connections
are also furnished in seven sizes, from No. 0 to No. 6. For
the plain number of collar (5, 6, or 7) the regular adjust-
ment requires a pad connection of the same number as the
pad. The A and B shapes have straighter sides and take
a pad connection two sizes larger than the pad-that is,
it would take a No. 3 connection with a No. 1 pad, etc., for
the regular adjustment in these shapes. When the collar
is very wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, the size
of the pad connection must be increased one or two numbers
to allow the collar to close easily at the bottom. In the
reverse case, a smaller pad connection must be used. The
collar pads are numbered on the front inner side. The
pad connections are numbered on the side having the round
holes, which side must be kept to the front on the collar.
In requisition for the collar pads and pad connections the
sizes desired must be stated.
The buckle is made in two sizes. No. 2 is 1 inch longer
than No. 1, and is used with the larger sizes of collar pads.
The correct adjustment and fitting of collars is of the
utmost importance. The variety of sizes and shapes of
collars, pads, pad connections, and buckles, issued by the
Ordnance Department is sufficient to enable any horse to
be correctly fitted. Efficient supervision by officers of the
fitting of collars and of the adjustment of the point of draft
(trace plate) is required to secure proper results.
The Artillery Harness
The component parts of the artillery harness are given
in the table below. Plate I shows the harness of the
off-wheel and off-lead horses. The nomenclature corres-
ponding to the numbers in the plate will be found in the
table.
COURSE "B," LECTURE VI 161
Wheel Lead
in _________________ - Class ec-
in Component parts. Near Off Near Off tion
plate orse horse horse horse
1-4 Backstrap and crupper, complete-___________ _____- 1 1

Consisting of-
1 Body and hip straps---------------------1 _____ 1
2 Dock-------------------------------------- -1 1
3 Loin strap-------------------------------------1 1
4 Trace loops --------------------------- ----- 4 4
Backstrap-hooks ---------------------------- -1 1
.8,9 Breast strap, complete-----------------1 1
Consisting of-
8 Breast strap--------------------. 1 1
9 Breast-strap hooks---------------_--2 2
2-7 Breeching, complete--------------------1 1
Consisting of-
5 Backstrap (1) and hip straps (4)__ 1 1
6 Body ----------------------- ------ 1 1
2 Dock ----------------------------- 1 1
Backstrap hooks--------------------1 1
Side strap hooks ----------------- 2 2
3 Loin strap ----------------------- 1 1
7 Side straps----------------------- 2 2
4 Trace loops------------------------2 2
10-19 Bridle, complete------------------------1 1 1 1
Consisting of-
10 Brow band------------------------1 1 1 1
11 Brow-hand ornaments--__--__--- -___- 2 2 2 2
12 Cheek pieces------------------____ 2 2 2 2
18 Coupling strap-------------------_____ ----- 1
19 Connecting strap---------------- ---------
1 1
13 Crownpiece--------------------.._ 1 1 1 1
14 Snaffle hit (watering) ------------ 1 1 1 1
16 Reins (pairs) _-------------------- 1 1 1 1
17 'Throatlatch -- _------------ - ------- 1 1 1 1 iv 8
20 Collar, steel--------------------------- 1 1 1 1
21 Hame tug, a part of the collar_ ___ ______
40 Collar strap---------------------------1 1 1 1
22,23 Halter, complete-___________________ - 1 1 1 1
Consisting of-
22 Headstall ------------------------ 1 1 1 1
23 Strap --------------------------. 1 1 1 1
24,25 Martingale, complete-__---__----------- 1 1...........
Consisting of-
24 Martingale ----------------------- 1 1
25 Cincha strap-----------------------1 1
26-33 Saddle, complete----------------------- 1 1 1 i
Consisting of -
27 Cinchas, with reenforces and loops.. 1 1----------
15 Cinchas, without reenforces and
loops -------------------------------------- 1 1
28 Lead-rein roller and strap----------__--_ - 1--------- 1
29 Quarter straps, including ring, safes,
and cincha straps---------------1 1 1 1
42 Cincha strap, a part of the saddle
quarter strap --------------
43 Coat strap, 83-inch (pommel) 3 2 8 2
44 Coat strap, 45-inch (cantle) -------- 1 1 1 1
80 Coat strap, 60-inch _--__---------- _____ -- 2-- - 2
91 Saddletree, leather-covered----------1 1 1 1
82 Stirrups, brass (new style nickel
steel) -------------------------- 2 2 2 2
33 Stirrup straps _-------- __--------- 2 2 2 2
84 Saddlebags, pairs ------------------ 1 1 1 1
85 Saddlebag side straps--------------- 2 2 2 2
ART.-6
162 FIELD ARTILLERY
Wheel Lead
No. Class Sec-
in Component parts. Near Off Near Off tion
plate horse horse horse horse
86 Traces, lead, model of 1908 ------------ 2 2

Consisting of-
1 trace body, 2A-----------------
1 trace cover, 2E..............___
3 links, 2B
1 chain, 2C--------------------
1 toggle, 2D ----------------------
2 sockets, 2F ------ ______________
2 cones, 2H ----------------------
2 filler pieces, 2G -----------------
37 Traces, wheel, model of 1908_____7 2
Consisting of-
1 trace body, 10C_________________
1 trace cover_--------------------
1 ring, 10B --------------------
2 sockets, 2F -------------------
2 links, 2B ---------------------
2 chains, 2C ---------------------
2 toggles, 2D --------------------
2 cones, 2H-
2 filler pieces, 2G ----------------
38 Mogul spring, a part of wheel
trace------------------------
1 loop hook, 10F----------------
1 ring, 10E ----------------------
1 Mogul spring loop, 10D ___----
1 locking strap, 10G ------------
Whip-----------------------------
Sweat leathers..................... 2 2
41 Blanket, issued separately from harness 1 1 1
Table of Dimensions
Size of collars fitted with No. 3 pads.
Length of Width 6 Width 8

collar in- inches inches Width at
Number. of collar.
side. down from down from draft.
top. top.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
2 A ---- ---- ---- 18 7/ 88
63
2 B--------------- 18 8
4. A --------- ---- 192 7
74
814
4 B-------------- 192 92
5 21 78
5 A-------------- 21
61
7 9.
8s
5 B--------------- 21 94
6 222 7
6 A--------------- 222 7
6 B--------------- 222 7 71/1
7 - 24 104
7$
7 A--------------- 24 7 10
7 B--------------- 24 77 10
8 A ---- ---- - --- 252 94
Table of Dimensions-Continued
Size of collar fitted with No. 1 pads.
2 A---------------- 162 54 51 7
2 B--------------. 162 44 54 6
4 A----------------18 58 62 74
4 B-----------------18 53 54 74
5---------------- 192 64 78 84
5 A-------------------192 54 68 74
5 B----------------192 54 54 74
6 ------------------ 21 67 84
6 A----------------21 6 64 8$
'6 B-------------- 21 54 64 84
7------------------222 63 7$ 8$
7 A---------------- 224 54 64 84
7B-----------------222446 84
:8 A-.-------------- 24 54 64 84
The table of dimensions gives the largest and smallest

size that each collar can be made with the No. 3 and No. 1
pads. Adding one-half inch in length and width to the
smallest dimensions given in the table will give the size
of the collars when fitted with the No. 2 pads. These ex-
amples are given to show the three regular adjustments in
each size collar, but these dimensions can be varied to suit
the different shapes of necks. The largest pad can be put
in the top of the collar and the bottom taken in to its
smallest dimensions, or the smallest pad can be put in the
top and the bottom let out. While each collar can be length-
ened or shortened and taken in or let out at the bottom by
-means of the adjustments provided, the width at the top
can not. be changed without using a larger or smaller pad.
In fitting irregular shapes none of the connections
may give just the proper tension on the pad. In such a
case use the one that comes nearest and straighten or bend
the extension at the top. When the collar requires. to be.
widened at the top to relieve the pressure on the pad and
make it lock easily at the bottom, open the collar wide and
place a round piece of hard wood or iron, 1-inch in diameter
and 2 inches long, between the connections and collar side
close up to the hinge; then press the sides together. and bend
both sides alike, so that they will be the same length at
the bottom. Do not let the fulcrum rest on the pad, for it
will bend it. If the collar sides require straightening to
close them tighter on the pad and give more tensions on the
164 FIELD ARTILLERY
latch at the bottom, open the collar at the bottom, hook
the wrench over the top of collar side, and press down the
lever, treat both sides alike. Both of these operations can
be performed with the collar put together.
The spare parts furnished for the repair of the collars
with the correct names of the parts are shown on Plate II.
Canvas collar pads are not part of the artillery harness,
but are furnished upon requisition. They are made in sizes,
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, as called for, if no size is called for,
they are made in equal proportions of Nos. 4, 5 and 6.
Adjustment
You must appreciate the fact that every sore, every in-
jury, every abrasion of the skin, is due to a certain definite
cause which, if removed, can produce no further effect. If
ill-fitting harness has escaped the notice of a driver while
his horses were at work, any injury caused thereby must
not escape his notice at the next stables. Failure to dis-
cover and report such injury at once to the instructor or
to the chief of section is a neglect calling for disclipinary
correction.
The bridle and saddle are adjusted as explained in the
lecture on bitting and saddling.
The collar should fit about the horse's shoulders and
neck easily and uniformly. It should freely admit the
thickness of the hand between the lower part of the collar
and the throat and, when pulled to one side, should admit
the thickness of the fingers between sides of the collar and
the neck. A short collar chokes a horse by pressing on the
windpipe; a narrow one pinches and rubs the neck. A broad
collar works about and galls the shoulders. More injuries
result from collars that are too large than from collars that
are too small.
The final test of the fit of a collar is to observe it care-
fully when the horse is in draft, and at halts, to notice what
effect it is having on his shoulders.
After a collar has been properly fitted to a horse it
should be marked with his battery number. This is con-
veniently done by painting the number just above the left
draft spring on the inside of the collar.
The back strap, when adjusted, should admit the
breadth of the hand between it and the horse's back. If
too short, the crupper will cut the tail and the saddle will be
displaced.
The collar strap should not be tight; otherwise it will
pull the saddle forward on the withers.
The surcingle, when used, should be buckled on the near
side of the near horse and on the off side of the off horse,
less tight than the girth and over it.
The hip strap should be so adjsuted as to bring the
breeching body flat against the thighs and with its rear
portion high enough on the buttocks so that its sides make a
continuous straight line with the side straps. To produce
this effect the rear hip straps must be considerably shorter
than the front ones. Care must also be exercised to prevent
placing the rear of the body too high, as otherwise it will
slip up and over the point of the buttocks and will only be
prevented from climbing on the horse's back by its coming
in contact with the lower face of the dock.
Another thing which must be guarded against is the
placing of the breeching so high as to cause the breeching
rings into which the side straps are buckled to rub against
and injure the stifles.
The side straps are adjusted to cause the breeching
body to bear quickly should the horse be required to check
the carriage, but not so short as to impede the animal's
movements while in draft. The exact adjustment can be
obtained only by watching the horse in draft, both up and
down grade.
The martingale is fastened by its cincha strap to the
neck yoke. The length of this fastening should be such as
to permit the D ring and D ring safe on the martingale to
be well through the standing loop on the cincha, thus
.avoiding catching and interfering with the latter when the
horse is set into breeching. The martingale must be kept
smooth and soft or it will chafe the inner sides of he legs
and rub the belly.
The breast straps should support the pole in a hori-
zontal position. If the pole is too low, the effort of sup-
porting it is increased; if too high the martingale and neck
yoke may rub the breast.
166 FIELD ARTILLERY
The loin straps should be adjusted so that the traces
when in draft, will be straight and without downward pull
on the trace loops. Otherwise, galls on the back will result.
The traces: The length of the lead and swing traces
must depend in a great measure on the size of the horse
and his stride. The rule for lead and swing pairs is to allow
about 1 yard from the head of the horse in rear to point of
the buttocks of the horse ahead when in draft. The length
of the wheel trace is fixed, but allowance may be made for
difference in the size of the horses by proper adjustment of
the martingale and side straps. This will allow a minimum
distance of about 14 inches between hind quarters and
singletree for the average wheel horse when in draft. The
traces should be adjusted by a strap under the belly or one
over the saddle so that their directions shall be as nearly
normal to the shoulders as possible to avoid any downward
or upward pull of the collar. A downward pull of the collar.
will tend to gall or injure the neck, while an upward pull
on it will tend to make it rise and choke the horse.
The rear trace chains of the lead and swing traces have
a ring at one end and a hook at the other; the hook is passed
through a "D" ring at the front end of the trace of the
horse in rear and hooked back into any desired link. By
this means the length of the lead and swing traces may be
adjusted. Care must be exercised that the traces belonging
to any one horse are of even length.
The coupling rein should be so adjusted as to permit
the off horse properly to maintain his trace and yet to hold
him to his place in the team.
In the adjustment of the breast collar, which consists
primarily of a broad soft strap passing across the horse's
breast and supported in that position by another strap pass-
ing at right angles to it, and over the horse's neck, it is only
necessary to see that the strap passing across the breast
fits so as to give the greatest amount of traction surface
on the horse's breast and shoulders without being high
enough, to choke him or low enough to impede his move-
ments. This adjustment is made by shortening or lengthen-
ing the strap passing over the neck.
Lecture VII
THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF LEATHER
A TTENTION is invited to the following:-

"It is forbidden to use any dressing or polishing ma-
terial on the leather accouterments or equipments of the
soldier, the horse equipments for cavalry, or the artillery
harness except the preparations supplied from the Ordnance
Department for that purpose." (A. R. 293 of 1910.)
Reason for Oiling

Leather, as it comes from the tannery in manufac-
ture, is hard, rough, brittle, inflexible, and readily absorbs
water. To remove these undesirable qualities and render
the leather soft, pliable, flexible, and impervious to water,
to increase the strength and toughness of the fiber, and to
give the leather such a surface color and finish as will make
it most sightly and suitable for the purpose for which intend-
ed, the manufacture is continued by hand stuffing it with a
"dubbing" made of pure cod liver -oil and tallow, which the
experience of curriers has shown to be the best material for
this purpose. This dubbing is thoroughly absorbed by the
leather, penetrating it completely, and is not merely lim-
ited to the surface.
The russet leather now used by the Ordnance Depart-
ment in the manufacture of all leather equipments is pure
oak tanned, of No. 1 tannage and finish, hand stuffed with
a light dubbing made of pure cod liver and tallow to pre-
serve the leather, the dubbing being so sparingly used that
the oil will not exude. This leather, as it comes from the
manufacturer, contains enough oil to materially improve
its quality and prolong its life, but not enough to soil the
clothing if the equipment is properly cared for. No oil
whatever is added to the leather in the manufacture of
the equipments at the government arsenals."
Articles of leather equipment should never under any
167
168 FIELD ARTILLERY
circumstances be placed in water or have water allowed
to run over them as a means of cleaning them. Water, when
applied to tan leather, has almost as injurious an effect
upon it as has acid on the living skin. At the regular week-
ly battery harness cleaning, an officer should always be pres-
ent and preferably two of them, the executive or officer in
charge of Department A should be present at the cleaning
of the materiel other than harness, while the officer in
charge of Department B should give his closest attention to
the supervision of cleaning of the harness and leather
equipment.
Harness, saddles, and bridles should be completely
taken down at every weekly harness cleaning. Every
buckle should be unbuckled in order that each individual
part of the harness and other equipment can be thoroughly
cleaned throughout. If any portions of the leather equip-
ment have mud caked upon them, this should be removed
by manipulation of the leather between the hands, or by
brushing. This done, every leather part should be thor-
oughly soaped with a lather of castile, Propert's, Hollings-
head, Miller's, or English Crown saddle soap, all of which
are issued from time to time by the Ordnance Department.
This lather is prepared as follows:-
After saturating the sponge thoroughly, squeeze out
from it nearly, but not quite, all of the water, then rub
the sponge over the soap, and by manipulation of it, work
up a thick, creamy lather. This lather should be made
with the least possible amount of water in it. The lather
is then applied to the leather with the sponge, being rub-
bed into both sides of each strap and then left to dry. If
any article of equipment is unusually dirty, the first lather,
after having been left on long enough to penetrate and
loosen the dirt, should be removed and a fresh lather ap-
plied; this in order that the soap may thoroughly soak
into the pores of the leather. As all the soaps mentioned
above contain a considerable amount of pure oils, their ap-
plication does away with the necessity of oiling except in
unusual cases. If, as stated above, the leather becomes
harsh and dry, from exposure or other causes, necessitating
COURSE "B," LECTURE VII 169
the application of oil, it is almost impossible to use little
enough. One tablespoonful of Neatsfoot oil is sufficient
for oiling the entire harness for one pair.
In removing mud from the hair cinchas of the sad-
dles, manipulation with the fingers and beating with a
switch are the best methods.
Collars
In cleaning the breast collar, the process is exactly
the same as for any other piece of leather equipment. Spe-
cial care must be exercised to keep the surface of the breast
collar which comes in contact with the horse's breast soft
and pliable, in order to prevent abrasions and sores. The
same is true of the supporting strap which passes over
the neck.
In cleaning a steel collar its zinc surfaces should be
washed with water and a sponge. The zinc surface should
never be scraped with any sharp instrument, nor should
vinegar or any other acid be used upon it for the removal
of foreign substances. To resort to any of these methods
results in the removal of the zinc itself. This is followed
by rusting, which makes the collar worthless. "Elbow
grease," a sponge and water are all that is necessary to
keep the steel collar in condition. The unzinced surfaces
of the collar, those which do not come in contact with the
horse's neck or shoulders, should be kept well painted with
the brown collar paint issued, as this insures protection
from rust and greatly enhances the appearance of the
collar. All collars, either breast or steel, and all bits should
be cleaned immediately after their removal from the horse
not only each day, but after each drill or exercise; thus it
may be necessary to clean your bits and collars two or
three, or even four, times a day. If this is done, however,
your bits will always be clean, as well as your collars, and
the number of sore necks and sore shoulders will be ma-
terially reduced. If this is not done, the presence of for-
eign matter upon those surfaces of the collar in contact
with the horse's flesh causes additional friction and an
uneven bearing surface, both of which are fertile causes
of sore shoulders and necks.
170 FIELD ARTILLERY
Bits
Bits should be washed after each exercise, preferably
in warm water, if such is obtainable, as this dissolves the
accumulation of dirt and saliva more readily than cold
water. Care should be exercised, however, to see that when
the bits are placed in the water, the ends of the reins
and the cheek pieces into which they are buckled are not.
Careful inspection is necessary to prevent this, as a lazy man
(and you will find some in each battery) will be tempted
to dip his whole bridle into the bucket.
Aparejo
In the cleaning of the aparejo, the sobrejalma should
be removed and its leather binding cleaned with lather
in the same manner as any other article of russet leather
equipment. The crupper should not be removed from
the aparejo for cleaning as with the sobrejalma removed;
it is possible to reach every part of the aparejo and its
crupper without difficulty. Both the inside and outside
of the aparejo should be cleaned with lather as described
above for russet leather, except where the inside of the
side pieces of the crupper are faced with canvas. This
canvas should not be washed at all, but should be scraped
clean with the edge of a very dull knife, preferably a
mess knife. Great care must be exercised in the clean-
ing of the dock piece which, when in use, is constantly in
contact with the tender skin on the under side of the ani-
mal's dock. This dock piece should be very carefully and
thoroughly cleaned with lather and should it, through ex-
posure to the weather or other causes, become so harsh
and brittle as to necessitate oiling, a new dock piece should
be put on if possible. The canvas facing of the corona
should be thoroughly scraped with a dull-edged knife for
removal of sweat, dirt, hair, etc., and should occasionally
be thoroughly scrubbed with a stiff brush and a lather of
saddle soap, preferably castile.
SThe canvas surfaces of the corona, the canvas facing
on the inner side of the crupper side pieces or bodies,
and the dock piece of the crupper must be thoroughly clean-
ed immediately after the removal from the animal's body
COURSE "B," LECTURE VII 171
every time they are used. For this cleaning, scraping of
the canvas surface with a dull-edged knife to remove ac-
cumulation of foreign matter and sponging the dock piece
is sufficient. Unless this is done after each exercise, sore
tails, rubbed buttocks, and abrasions on the sides and backs
will occur. That portion of the canvas cincha which is in
contact with the mule's belly should also be cleaned after
each exercise, in the same manner as the other canvas
parts.
Lecture VIII
ARTILLERY DRAFT
IN addition to his ability to ride horses properly, and to
instruct other men in doing the same, the field artillery
officer must have a thorough knowledge of the subject of
draft. That is, of securing from his horses the greatest
amount of tractive force with the least possible expenditure
of energy. Owing to the varying nature of the guns and
howitzers with which the field artillery of all armies are
equipped, this subject has at least two, and possibly more,
divisions, but the underlying principles of both are iden-
tical. The horse-drawn guns of our army today are the 3-inch
rifle, the 3.8-inch howitzer, the4.7-inch howitzer, the 4.7-inch
rifle, and the 6-inch howitzer. It is hardly probable in
these days of rapidly developing motor traction that guns
of 'greater caliber than 4.7-inch rifle or howitzers larger
than the 6-inch, will depend upon horses for traction. In-
deed, at the present moment at least one of our 4.7-inch gun
regiments is motorized, and it is believed that practically
every type of field artillery of calibers heavier than the 4.7-
inch howitzer will depend almost solely upon motor traction
in the future. With this type of traction we have but little
to do in this course further than to state that a tractor
of the type known as the Caterpillar has been subjected
to very severe service tests and has been found to be very
satisfactory under almost all conditions.
If time permits, a brief description of some of these
tests which were conducted by the field artillery board at
Fort Sill, Okla., in 1915, together with illustrations of some
of them, will be included in this course.
The subject immediately under consideration, however,
is the tractive power of horses when utilized for moving
light and heavy batteries from place to place. This sub-
ject has, as you can readily understand, a very considerable
bearing upon the manufacture of the different types of
field artillery, upon their range and weight, and the weight
172
COURSE "B," LECTURE VIII 173
upon the projectile which they throw. There is a limit
of weight beyond which it is not possible to go and still
have a piece light enough that the horses can move it
at a gallop over rough ground without quickly exhausting
themselves. If the weight of the piece is cut down in
order to increase its mobility, its power must. be correspond-
ingly reduced or the metal of the piece will not be sufficient-
ly strong to withstand the stresses set up by gas pres-
sure in its interior. Since a howitzer can throw a heavier
projectile to approximately the same range with a lower
powder charge than can a gun, we find that it is possible
to make a howitzer powerful and still retain a large degree
of mobility; for instance, the 3-inch rifle throws a 15-pound
projectile to a maximum range of 8,000 yards, and when
completely loaded and equipped, has a weight behind the
team of 4,260 pounds. The 3.8-inch howitzer, with aprojectile
weighing 30 pounds, has a maximum range of 6,338 yards,
with a weight behind the team when the howitzer and lim-
ber are loaded of 3,970 pounds.
Light guns and howitzers intended for use close up
to the infantry lines must have a high degree of mobility,
as it is frequently necessary to move them under heavy-fire,
either to the front or to the rear, when speed means a les-
sening of the probability of destruction from fire. In the
heavier types, which are intended for use at a greater dis-
tance behind the infantry lines, made possible by their long
range, the same high degree of mobility is not necessary.
In our service the light batteries, horse batteries, and
light howitzer batteries are the ones of which a high
degree of mobility is expected, while the heavy gun and
howitzer batteries are those of the second class mentioned
just above. The first-named three types have 6 horse
teams, the horses being of the type described in a pre-
vious lecture as light artillery draft horses, and have the
following loads behind the teams:
In the light batteries the gun and limber completely
loaded and equipped weighs 4,260 pounds, the caisson 4,560,
or an average weight behind each horse of the team of 735
pounds. This does not include the weight of the cannoneers
who ride upon the carriage. In the horse batteries, which
174 FIELD ARTILLERY
are armed with the same piece as the light batteries but-
on which the cannoneers do not ride upon the carriages and
in which no ammunition is carried in the limber, the weight
behind each horse is only 623 pounds. In batteries in which
the cannoneers ride upon the carriages an average weight
of 130 pounds per cannoneer should be added-in computing
the load behind the teams, making for a 6 horse team
an additional weight per horse bf 863 pounds (four men
on each carriage). In only two types of batteries do the
cannoneers ride; they are the light, and light howitzer
batteries.
In the light howitzer batteries, that is, the 3.8-inch, we
have, when not including the weight of the cannoneers on
the carriage, a load of 666.4 pounds behind each horse, or
if we include the weight of a cannoneer, 752.4 pounds.
In the 4.7-inch gun batteries we have an average weight
behind each horse, 1,061 pounds. When the limber and
caisson are completely loaded and equipped in these heavy
batteries only one cannoneer rides upon the carriage, the
man who applies the brake, and for him a load of 164 pounds.
per horse should be added to the figures above, making them
1,0774 pounds. In the 6-inch howitzer batteries, not in-
cluding the weight of the brakeman, we have a load behind
each horse of 1,037 pounds, including the brakeman, 1,053-
pounds.
In order that you may have some way of arriving at
these weights for yourself, the following weights are
quoted from the hand books of the various types mentioned.
All weights given in this table are for the gun and its
limber and caisson and limber completely loaded and equip-
ped, but do not include the weights of the cannoneers.
3-inch gun and limber -097' 6 710 710 + 760
Caisson and limber -------- 4,560 6 760 1,470+2 735
3,8-inch gun and limber --_ 3,970.4 6 661.72

3.8-inch gun and caisson . 666.4
limber --- ---------- 4,026.5 6 671.08
4.7-inch gun and limber --- 8,756 8 1,094.4
4.7-inch gun and caisson 1,061
limber ------------ 8,221 8 1,027.5
6-inch howitzer gun and
limber ----------- - 8,611 8 1,076.
6-inch howitzer caisson and 1,037
limber ___ --------- 7,997 8 1,996.8 J
Line of Traction
If the harness is properly adjusted, the line of traction
along the traces of each horse is at right angles to the face
of his shoulder. If the battery commander could ideally
size up the horses for his battery he should have a straight
and continuous line of traction from the collar of his lead
horse to the singletree of his limber. This, however, is im-
possible, due to the fact that his horses come to him as
they are issued from the remount depot, not as he would
like to have them so far as shape of shoulders and height
of horses is concerned. This line of traction along the trace,
sometimes known as the line of draft, can be made perpen-
dicular to the shoulder of each horse, however, by length-
ening or shortening the holding-down strap which passes
under the belly through a loop in the girth and which
has at each of its own ends an adjustable loop through
which the trace passes. This strap is not shown as a part
of the artillery harness in the plate or nomenclature table,
as it has only been recently made an article of issue. While
its use undoubtedly brings some component of draft upon
the horse's chest at the girth, this is more than counteract-
ed by the beneficial results of having the line of draft
squarely perpendicular to the face of the shoulder of each in-
dividual horse, thereby lessening the movement of the col-
lar from side to side and preventing choking in going across
176 FIELD ARTILLERY
gulleys, etc.; when, except for the use of this strap, the
collar would be pulled up tight against the horse's neck.
With this strap properly adjusted, and with all the horses
of the team constantly in draft, the load behind them is
equally distributed and the horses will suffer but little
fatigue as a result of their labors. This much to be de-
sired result can only be obtained, however, by a thorough
training of the drivers and by constant and unending su-
pervision and inspection on the march by the caisson cor-
poral, chief of section, platoon and battery commander.
Drivers must be made to keep their horses at the gait pre-
scribed, whether it be walking, trotting, or galloping, and
to see that their horses neither lag nor pull the whole load,:
and that the traces are tight all the way from the collar
of the leader back to the singletree. If the hametugs of
the swing and wheel pairs are hanging loose, then the
leaders are pulling the whole carriage and the wheelers and
the swing pair are loafing. Often the wheel and swing pairs
pull the load while the leaders move along with the traces
loose. Any and all of these things are bad. Every horse
must pull his share, or the result will be a part of your
team fagged while the others are still fresh. As was said
before, officers and noncommissioned officers must be con-
stantly on the watch to prevent this. While the column is
in motion an artillery officer has no such thing as a fixed
position anywhere along the column to which he belongs ;
he must constantly ride around, behind and on both sides
of his platoon or his battery, as the case may be; the one
place where he must not ride is at the head of the sub-
division for which he is responsible, for there he sees noth-
ing, while from the rear and the sides of his sub-division he
has it constantly under his eyes. This rule should be ap-
plied not only to officers, but to the chief of section and
caisson corporal as well.
Jigging or prancing on the part of the team horses.
is one of the most fertile causes of slack traces in parts
of the team and must not be allowed. Drivers must be
instructed how to prevent this, and if, as is rarely the case,.
it is impossible to cure the horse of his bad habit, he should
be taken out of the team and used as an individual mount
No artillery officer should ever be satisfied with the driving
in his organization until every horse is in his collar every
minute, except when going around curves or backing.
The mobility of a battery of field artillery depends to a
great extent upon the degree of proficiency which its drivers
have attained in constantly keeping a proper line of draft
in 'their teams. If this is not done, neither quick maneu-
vers, long marches, nor efficient transportation service can
be assured. This result is greatly facilitated by a careful
teaming of the horses. By the term "teaming" we mean a
selection of horses that are to work together in one team.
Horses possessing uniformity of temperament, gait, size,
and conformation, as stated above, represent the ideal con-
ditions which a battery as a whole is never able to even
approximate. In any battery, however, the individual
teams may be made up with a uniformity of qualities men-
tioned. The first consideration in teaming horses is uni-
formity in gait, which usually means also a uniformity in
temperament. At their natural walk, and trot, the six or
eight horses selected for a team should cover as nearly as
possible the same distance in a fixed length of time. Having
selected a team in this manner, the horses are then paired
with regard to, first, activity and temperament; second,
size (height, weight) ; third, conformation.
The pair that is most active and that has the most
free, willing, and most responding temperament should go
in the lead; those that show these qualities to a less degree
should go in the wheel.
If activity and temperament afford no choice in placing
the pair, the blockiest or heaviest pair should go in the
wheel and the tallest or lightest pair in the lead.
Matching for color, though desirable for the sake of
appearance, is the least thing to be considered when team-
ing horses to obtain draft efficiency. The most freely mov-
ing team should be assigned to the first section piece, the
next to the first section caisson, the next to the second sec-
tion, and so on throughout the battery. Then, if the first
section leads, there will be a slight but uniform' tendency
throughout the battery to lose distance, while if the last
section leads there will be a slight tendency to crowd.
178 FIELD ARTILLERY
. As a general principle, horses under seven years of age

should habitually be employed as off horses, while the older
ones are used on the near side; also in any pair the horse
of the better saddle conformation should be the near horse,
and the freer driver the off horse. However, in any team
the horses should be interchanged in order that they may
be trained to work willingly in the lead, swing or wheel and
as the off or near horses in the pair.
In all movements from a halt or in changing gait or
direction, each driver gathers both of his horses before ap-
plying the aids or giving the signals which they are to obey.
In starting a carriage it is desirable that all the horses
of the team simultaneously apply power in the collar.
Though this is extremely difficult, since three or four driv-
ers cannot usually start six or eight horses at the same
instant, the endeavor to do so should always be made. A
good start is rendered more certain if the traces are rea-
sonably well stretched before the team is called on to move.
In stretching the traces, however, a driver must be care-
ful not to permit his horses to bump into the collar, because
such a practice tends to make them think that a bump on
the shoulder means to stop. A good start is rendered cer-
tain if every horse steps slowly into the collar and holds
there, quietly straining at his task until the slower horses
in the team overtake his motion and add sufficient strength
to move the carriage. A gradual start, then, becomes of
greater practical importance than a simultaneous start.
Chiefs of section and drivers have a constant tendency to
start off too quickly. This evil is aggravated if the com-
mand for starting has been loud, sharp, and abrupt, rather
than low and prolonged. A good start is facilitated if the
command of execution habitually follows the preparatory
command at a fixed interval.
At the preparatory command each driver gathers his
horses; at the command of execution he applies the proper
aids to the near horse, touches the off horse, if necessary,
with the whip, and speaks to both horses with a low cluck
or chirrup, causing them to respond promptly by stepping
slowly into their collars and straining until the carriage
moves.
The same principles apply in increasing the speed of
the carriage by passing to a faster gait. Abruptness or
suddenness of the movement is to be avoided.
Drivers must appreciate the necessity for co-operation,
and each one must be constantly attentive to what the
others in the team are doing. Each should regulate his
movements on those of the pair ahead of him; the wheel
driver especially must be careful that his pair does not lag
behind or attempt to start the carriage alone. As an exam-
ple, for the wheel driver to have his horses in the breech-
ing when the others are in the collar is inexcusable.
When, for an unexpected reason, a driver must stop
his pair or can not start it at the command, he must give
a warning call to the others.
To Stop a Carriage or Reduce its Speed

To the same degree that effort is made to avoid abrupt
or sudden starts, so also should effort be made to avoid
abrupt or sudden stops or reductions in speed. In stopping
the carriage the drivers hold their horses out of traction
and stop with the gradual stopping of the carriage. The
wheel driver may, when desirable, assist in stopping the
carriage by holding his horses back in the breeching. The
brake, if carefully and gradually applied so as not to jerk
the horses, is of great use in stopping the carriage or check-
ing its speed. The lead and swing drivers regulate the
movement of their pairs by those of the wheel pair, keep-
ing out of the way, but avoiding any strain on the traces.
To Back a Carriage
The wheel driver is responsible for backing the car-
riage. The other drivers must give him complete liberty
of trace. Both horses are reined back together, quietly
and steadily, according to the principles outlined in "The
Soldier Mounted".
To Confirm in Horses a Willingness to Pull

Almost any horse can be trained to be an honest and
willing puller. Through ignorance, lack of judgment, bad
management, or laziness on the part of the driver, he can
180 FIELD ARTILLERY
far more easily be trained to be a shirker and a quitter. A

horse will not pull freely or willingly if to do so causes him
pain. It is essential, therefore, that his harness, especially
his collar, fit him with absolute comfort; that his shoulders
be hardened through careful conditioning and rational work
and are therefore not tender or sore; and that he apply his
weight in the collar slowly and gradually, without sudden
starts or jerks that would pound and bruise his shoulders.
Even though all of the above conditions be favorable, a
horse will not pull unless he is confirmed in the belief that
when he applies his strength the load behind him will yield.
Thus a willing horse may be hitched to an immovable ob-
ject and within a few minutes, especially if he be yelled at
or whipped, be transformed into a sulker and a balker that
only long, patient, and careful handling will cure. To allow
repeated trials and failures in pulling is the quickest 'and
most effective method of ruining the draft efficiency of a
team. It must be borne in mind that there is a limit to
the draft power of any artillery team, and that this power,
due to the tandem method of hitching, is, even with perfect
driving, from 20 to 50 per cent less than the sum of the
powers of the individual horses. A team should never be
given deliberately a task that is clearly beyond its strength.
It is right and proper in order to train a team and to develop
its draft power to a maximum to give it from day to day
or week to week tasks that gradually increase in difficulty.
Such tasks will occasionally stop the team. No evil re-
sults will follow if the animals, when stopped, are per-
mitted to rest quietly for a few minutes and recover their
wind. The first tendency of the inexperienced noncommis-
sioned officer or driver when a team stops is to urge it for-
ward immediately. This is exceedingly wrong. The horses
are either taking an absolutely needed rest or are showing
by their action that they need assistance. While the horses
are resting, a sufficient number of cannoneers with drag
ropes should be brought up so that when the signal to move
is given the carriage will certainly move. Such a practice
trains the horses that there is no such thing as failure or
defeat in a pull and. therefore confirms a willingness to pull
whenever they are called upon to do so. A team so trained
COURSE "B," LECTURE VIII 18i
may, when it has become hardened to its work, be called
on to make the attempt to pull out of a difficulty unaided
unless such a task is clearly beyond its strength. How-
ever, if the attempt fails, it must be appreciated that the
team to a certain extent has been injured and that for
some time to come it must not again be subjected to the
risk of failure. A team trained and managed in accordance
with these principles can always be counted on to occasion
a minimum of delay to a battery which encounters diffi-
culties in transport.
Driving up Steep Slopes and Over Difficult Ground
In order to exert his maximum strength when in a

difficult pull, the draft horse must get the greatest pos-
sible weight forward and into the collar. By maintaining
a low, extended, and advanced carriage of the head and
neck he is able to add considerably to his power of trac-
tion. He should, therefore, be allowed full freedom of
rein when in a heavy pull and not be forced to fight the
driver's hand. Because a horse can exert a greater power
of traction when ridden, it is often advantageous when in
a difficult pull to mount cannoneers on the off horses. When
pulling up a hill the drivers should lean well forward and
should encourage their horses by a low and 'quiet use of
the voice.
The most favorable gait for heavy pulling is a steady,
uniform walk, with every horse straight in his collar and
the team straight from lead to wheel. The tendency to
rush a hill or other difficult pull must be avoided. Any in-
crease of speed for such a purpose can not be taken up
with perfect uniformity by all the horses of a team, and
the footing for each horse is rendered more uncertain and
difficult. This causes undue weight to come upon the
shoulders of some, while none at all may be borne by others.
Uneven draft quickly results, often to the point of stalling
the team. In going over a V-shaped ditch unusual effort
should be made to keep the horses at a steady walk. In
such a place the brake must be used with great care, so
that the traces will be tight and the horses in draft during
the entire crossing. The brake should be released a little
182 FIELD ARTILLERY
too late rather than too soon, for, in the latter case, the
carriage rushes forward into the bottom of the ditch, where
it stops, and the horses on again coming into draft are
given a violent jerk.
When maneuvering off the road, steep ascents should
be taken in line to avoid checks. When on a road or track,
if circumstances permit, the battery should be halted to
rest and blow at the top, or, if the hill be a long one, to
be halted a number of times during the ascent. Each car-
riage or section, after such a halt, moves out in time for
the carriage or section which follows to halt on the same
ground.. Cannoneers, instructed to follow and watch a car-
riage in difficult draft, may, by applying their strength at
the moment a stop seems imminent, prevent the carriage
from stalling.
When a carriage has been stalled it may, in some cases,
be found best to have cannoneers first back it for a few
feet, in order to put both horses and carriage on more ad-
vantageous ground from which to make the start.
Crossing of Streams
When crossing streams on ferries with the field ar-
tillery, it is advisable to unhitch the teams and to first ferry
across all animals, with the exception of one or two teams
of the battery. These should be left on the near side of
the stream for the purpose of hauling the carriages to the
ferry slip or approach. After all the carriages are fer-
ried across, the remaining teams may be taken over. The
reason for this, as you can readily see, is that in case
an accident occurs to the ferry, the horses and their drivers
are free and have a chance to swim out of the wreck. Be-
cause of this fact, before loading the horses on it, the coup-
ling rein should be unbuckled, and the pole yokes removed
from the wheel pairs.
Bridges
Before going over ordinary road bridges that are not
known to the officer in command, the floor and support of
the bridge should be carefully examined to ascertain wheth-
er or not it is of sufficient strength to carry the load which
must be placed upon it. Weak bridges may be strengthened
by shoreing up from underneath, by laying down planks
for the wheels of the carriages to run over, thus distributing
the weight over a greater surface; or by being refloored
with timber near at hand. When a bridge is too weak to
support the carriages in column, the carriages may be sent
across one at a time, or the horses may be unhitched and
either led across the bridge or made to ford the stream,
and the carriages be drawn across by hand. Occasions may
arise when it will even be necessary to unlimber carriages
and take across first a limber, and then a piece or caisson.
Under circumstances of this sort, it is advisable to have
most of the traction applied as follows:
Fasten a prolonge or picket rope to the pole of limber,
leaving only enough men with it to guide it, having the
other men at the end of the prolonge pull the carriage
across, thus reducing greatly the amount of weight upon
the bridge.
Fording
Practically any ford that is passable for a wagon is

passable for an artillery carriage. Fords should always
be entered, crossed, and left at a walk; there should be no
shouting or excitement to irritate the horses. Where a
ford is narrow it should be marked .by posts in the daytime,
and lanterns hung on the posts at night. If a ford is boggy
or full of quicksand it may be necessary to mattress it, or
even corduroy its bottom. If the banks leading down to
and up out of a ford are very steep, the carriages should
be stopped before entering the ford and halted again be-
fore leaving the water in order to quiet the horses and
give them a chance to get their breath.
Mountain Artillery
The field artillery officers attached to mountain bat-

teries will find that while they do not have draft to con-
sider, that the adjustment of the pack animal's load and
the keeping up of that load in adjustment will require just
as constant and unremitting attention on their part as does
184 FIELD ARTILLERY
the maintainance of a proper line of draft on the part of
their fellows in those batteries equipped with wheeled
carriages.
In the lecture on the Adjustment of Harness, the fit-
ting and adjustment of the aparejo itself was not touched
upon, as it requires a very lengthy description. What the
mountain artillery officer must constantly watch for on the
road is to see that the pack animal's loads are kept always
in such a position as to keep the arch of the aparejo directly
above the center line of the mule's back. The motion of
the animal, the height of the load above the center of mo-
tion, brushing against trees, the swaying of the load, all
tend to disarrange the pack. The best position from which
an officer can observe the loads of his pack animals is from
directly behind them. The loads of gun mules, particularly
the cradle gun and trail, all of which are top loads, re-
quire special attention. Many pack animals grunt with
each step when loaded and marching. However, officers
must be on the alert to distinguish this grunt from the
groaning of a mule that is suffering either from being too
tightly cinched, too heavily loaded, or exhausted from other
causes. One positive indication of exhaustion on the part
of the pack animal is the appearance of sweat about the
poll and ears when the rest of his body is dry. This is
usually accompanied by groaning. As soon as these things
are observed the mule should be halted, his load removed,
and the cincha loosened, and an examination made to de-
termine the exact cause of his exhaustion. As a rule it
will be found to be due to having been cinched too tightly.
Crossing Streams with Pack Animals
In the passing of unbridged streams with pack animals,
the stream may be forded with the animals loaded, provided
the current is not too rapid and the water is not so deep
as to come above the bottom of the hand poles in the panels
of the aparejo-this, of course, providing the bottom of
the stream is a hard one. In crossing dangerous fords, a
number of mounted men should remain on that side of the
ford toward which the danger lies, in order to drive back
on to solid footing any mules that may escape from their
drivers.
When unbridged streams are too deep or too rapid to
ford, or have bottoms of such a nature as to make fording
inadvisable, the animals may be unloaded and the loads
ferried across. The animals with the aparejo on may then
be swum across the streams. If the aparejo is properly
cinched little or no water will enter the handhole and the
buoyancy of the aparejo will assist the mules in swimming.
Since all pack animals are used to being herded, a simple
manner of having the animals land at the right place on
the far bank is to send several men to the far side, one of
whom carries the bellmare's bell. Before the animals are
allowed to enter the water this man begins to ring the bell
on the far bank, the animals are then freed and will swim
for the bell, the rest of the men on the far bank catch
them as they arrive. This expedient greatly facilitates the
crossing of streams, as it obviates the necessity of ferrying
across the aparejos.
Lecture IX
CARE OF ANIMALS
O FFICERS of mounted organizations in permanent

garrisons have but little difficulty in taking the proper
care of their animals. The stables are usually excellent,
provided with corrals in which the horses can be turned in
fair weather when not eating, with box stalls for sick ani-
mals, the veterinary hospital close at hand, and with plenty
of water. It remains then only to see that sufficient ven-
tilation is provided for the horses when, at night or in
inclement weather, they are kept in the stables; that the
stables and their vicinities are kept scrupulously clean; that
the animals are properly fed, groomed and watered.
In the field, however, they find themselves deprived
of all the above mentioned aids, and they must resort to
all sorts of expedients in order to preserve the health and
efficiency of their horses. The first thing which it is neces-
sary to provide in the field is something to which to secure
the horses, and in the field artillery, except in the moun-
tain regiments, we find ourselves very fortunately provided
with a means of putting up high picket lines. On the limber
of each carriage is carried a prolonge, or picket rope, which
has fixed to one end a heavy ring and to the other a strong
hook. By joining all the prolonges of the battery and pass-
ing them around and over the upper portion of the wheels
of each one of a line of carriages we are afforded an ex-
cellent high picket line. The mountain artillery, however,
is not so fortunate and must depend upon a ground line
unless they are willing to add to the loads of some of their
mules, some sort of telescopic pair of shear legs by means
of which they can raise their picket line off the ground.
These should preferably be made of two sections of light
water pipe about three feet long, bolted together about six
inches from one end and perforated at intervals of about
four inches for about a foot from the other end; two other
sections of pipe sufficiently large to slip back and forth over
186
COURSE "B," LECTURE IX 187
the first ones, and about three feet long, which are also
perforated at intervals of four inches for a distance of one
foot and a half from one end, and provided with pins to
lock them together. By raising the small pipe until one
of its perforations comes opposite one of those of the lower
section and slipping a pin through the two coincident holes,
first on one leg and then on the other, you are thus able
to raise the picket line to any desired height.
The reasons for desiring a high picket line are many;
It practically does away with the two most dangerous fea-
tures of the ground line. First, rope burns, caused by a
horse getting his feet entangled in his halter shank; second,
the picking up of dirt off the ground with the food. Horses
fed with nose bags always spill more or less of their grain
on the ground, and if they are so tied as to enable them to
get their heads down, will, after the removal of the nose
bags, attempt to pick up this grain. In this way they al-
ways pick up more dirt and sand than grain and sand colic
is the result.
No matter what the conditions in the field, officers
should under all circumstances attempt to avoid the neces-
sity of feeding their horses on the ground. A strip of can-
vas may be laid on the ground and the hay placed on that,
or temporary hay racks may be erected if the camp is to
be of sufficient duration to warrant the labor required.
In the temporary camps where the command is going
to remain but a day or two, and where the ground is cov-
ered with turf, hay may be fed on the ground itself with-
out any very great injury. The expedients for securing
high picket lines mentioned above are only some of those
that may be resorted to in temporary camps.
Permanent Camps
In permanent camps every effort should be made to
increase as much as possible the comfort of animals in
every way. A permanent picket line should be erected by
putting up strong posts, preferably about six to eight inches
in diameter, and stretching the prolonges over these. These
posts should not be set further than thirty feet apart in
order to prevent sagging of the line. The ground about
188 FIELD ARTILLERY
this line should then be graded so as to bring it above the

surrounding surface, care being taken to see that it is
highest at its center and has a uniform slope away from
the line of posts. This grading should extend for at least
twelve feet on each side of the line and a gutter should
be dug along each side of the grade to carry off the water.
If possible some sort of overhead cover should be erected
over this line to provide protection from the sun and rain
*inthe summer and from snow in the winter time. Any sort
of light framework covered with grass, boughs, straw, or
canvas is of the greatest benefit to the animal. Hay racks
should be constructed along the center of the line, and if
possible, improvised feed boxes provided. If material and
time permits, a second line similar to the first except with-
out hay racks and feed boxes should be constructed in
order that the animals may be shifted from one to the
other, thus giving an opportunity for the line to dry.
It is of the utmost importance that these picket lines
be kept thoroughly policed at all times, as otherwise flies
will breed rapidly and sickness will be frequent. One of
the best methods of keeping down the breeding of flies
and of preventing thrush, canker and tetanus is to cover
the ground along and about the picket lines with straw
sprinkled with crude oil, which is then set on fire. This
should be done about every five days. Not only does this
destroy any fly larvae, or other disease germs which may
be in the ground about the lines, but it bakes the sur-
face of the ground, making it much more impervious to
water. Care must, of course, be exercised in this burning
to prevent the destruction of the picket line posts, the hay
racks, overhead shelter, etc. Probably the best means of
controlling the fire is to burn only short sections of the line
at a time and to have water buckets, wet sacks, etc., al-
ways at hand while this work is being carried cut.
If the camp is to last for any length of time and ma-
terials are available it is desirable to build corrals into
which the horses can be turned. As this involves a con-
siderable amount of work, it is hardly worth while at-
tempting it unless the camp is to last two or three months.
If the camp is to last through cold. weather, some sort
of windbreak should be erected around the picket line. This
can be done by constructing hurdles of boughs somewhat
after the manner described in Field Engineering under the
head of Revetments. All of these things add materially
to the comfort of the animal, thereby making it far easier
to keep him in condition. In extremely cold weather horse
covers should also be utilized.
Water Troughs
Where possible, water troughs should be provided, one
for the well animals and one for diseased ones. These
may be extemporized from lumber, or may be made from
canvas hung on improvised wooden racks. These water
troughs, of course, can only be used where a pump or a
pipe line brings water directly to the stables; otherwise,
watering in running streams has to be resorted to.
The question of feeding and grooming is always of
the utmost importance, and demands even greater attention
in the field than in garrisons.
Care and Conditioning of Horses

All mounted men must thoroughly understand the fol-
lowing rules for the care of horses:
Horses are nervous animals, and for that reason re-
quire gentle and quiet treatment. Docile but bold horses
are apt to retaliate upon those who abuse them, while per-
sistent kindness often reclaims vicious animals.
Before entering a horse's stall, and when coming up
behind him, speak to him gently, then approach quietly
and without sudden or abrupt movement.
A horse must never be struck or threatened about the
head. Such treatment quickly makes him head shy and
renders his proper control difficult and exasperating.
Never kick, strike, or otherwise abuse a horse. On
rare occasions punishment may be necessary, but it must
be administered immediately after the offense has been
committed, and then only in a proper manner with whip
or spur, and never in the heat of anger.
Before taking a horse out carefully examine him to
make sure that he is fit for work.
190 FIELD ARTILLERY
1. See if he has eaten his food, especially his grain.
2. See if his breathing is normal; that is, quiet and without
distended nostrils.
3. See that he is not resting a foreleg, a sure indication that
something is wrong with it.
4. Note whether his droppings are normal.
5. Look him over, especially on the back and the shoulders, to
see that there are no sores, lumps or injuries to be rub-
bed and irritated by harness or saddlery.
6. Clean out his feet; see that there are no stones or nails in
them; and see that his shoes are tight. A loose shoe
greatly increases the concussion on the foot.
7. See if the horse goes lame on leading him out.
Give the horse an opportunity to drink before leaving

the picket line or stable and before putting the bit in his
mouth.
In cold weather warm the bit by blowing and rubbing
it before putting it in the horse's mouth.
In taking a horse out, always walk him the first mile
to start the circulation in his legs. Habitual disregard of
this rules leads to foot and leg troubles that will render
the horse unserviceable before his time.
Always walk the last mile, or farther if necessary, to
bring the horse in cool and breathing naturally.
To be certain of no ill effects, a horse brought to the
stable in a heated condition must be cooled out and dried
before he is left tied up in his stall. To cool the horse,
walk him about slowly, under a blanket, if the air is chilly.
Occasionally interrupt the walkings by giving him a good,
brisk rub-down and two or three swallows of water. Walk-
ing is especially valuable, because this gentle exercise keeps
the muscles moving slowly and so assists in working any
excess. of blood out of them and out of his vital organs.
The brisk rubbing dries him and assists in bringing the
blood back to .the skin, and so aids in restoring the cir-
culation to the normal. If the surface of the body be-
comes chilled, or if the cooling out is too sudden, the con-
gestion existing in the lungs or in the feet may not be re-
lieved, and pneumonia, laminitis, or other troubles will
then result. A sudden stoppage of hard work is always
bad for the feet, and is very liable to result in laminitis.
The water given in small quantities slowly cools the horse
internally, and so aids in sending the blood back to the
surface and restoring the normal circulation and tempera-
ture. The cooling-out process must always be a gradual
one. To throw water on any part of a horse is particularly
dangerous.
Except as directed in the preceding paragraph, never
water a horse when heated unless the exercise or march is
to be resumed immediately; if the exercise or march is
to be resumed at once water will be of the greatest benefit
to the horse, no matter how heated he may be. But a
horse should not be called upon to do fast work for at least
a half hour after a big drink.
Never feed grain to a horse when heated or fatigued.
Grain is a highly concentrated food that requires high di-
gestive power. Abnormal temperature impairs the power
of the digestive organs.
If the animal has been worked to the point of fatigue,
all bodily functions are for a time injuriously affected. For
that reason he must be rested and his normal digestive
power restored before concentrated food of any kind is
given to him. On the other hand, hay, being a bulky food,
will not hurt a horse, however heated or fatigued he may be.
Never remove the saddle and blanket in such a way as
to expose a wet back either to the rays of the sun or to
a sudden cooling. The pressure of the saddle restricts
the blood supply and so weakens the tissues of the back.
In this condition a hot sun more readily -burns or inflames
the skin, while a sudden cooling contracts the blood ves-
sels and prevents the proper return of the blood to nourish
the tissues. In either case sores and swellings may result.
When the saddle is removed the back should be prop-
erly rubbed and massaged to dry it and restore the cir-
culation. If this is impossible, the next best thing is to
replace the blanket with the dry sides next to the skin
and again put on the saddle, girthing it loosely.
After a long or hard march it is necessary to restore
the circulation in the back very gradually, or sores and
swellings are liable to result. To do this the girth should
be slightly loosened and the saddle allowed to remain on
the back for 15 or 20 minutes. The more gradually the
circulation can be restored, the less severe will be the pain
and swelling.
192 FIELD ARTILLERY
In hot weather, especially on the march, it is very
refreshing to the horse to have his eyes, nostrils, dock, and
the inside of his hind quarters sponged with cool water.
When the horse comes in wet with rain he should
be scraped, then blanketed, and his head, neck, loins, and
legs rubbed. If the weather is cold an extra blanket should
be put on for 20 minutes. The wet blanket should be
changed when the horse dries.
Do not wash the legs. This practice is one of the
surest means of causing scratches. The legs should be
rubbed dry and bandaged loosely with thick bandages.
Strips of gunny sacks are satisfactory for this*purpose. It
is far more important to have the legs warm and dry than
clean. The best method of treating muddy legs in order
to avoid scratches is to bandage them to keep them warm
until they are dry and then brush them clean.
Never leave a horse for the night until he is thor-
oughly clean, especially around his legs, pasterns, and feet.
Individual men returning from mounted duty or pass
will report their return to the stable sergeant, who will
inspect each horse and see that he is properly cared for.
Stables and Stable Management
A lieutenant of the battery is responsible to the captain
for all duties in connection with the care of the horses,
with the stables, and with the stable management. He
is assisted by the stable sergeant, who takes immediate
charge of the stables, picket line, and paddock, forage, and
stable property in general.
The stable sergeant is responsible that the stables
and their surroundings are kept at all times thoroughly
policed and free from odors; he is usually assisted by one
or more stable orderlies.
Sufficient men are detailed as stable police to perform
the general police and to remove all manure as it is dropped,
either in stables, on the picket line, or in the paddocks, dur-
ing the day. The stable police also assist in the feeding,
watering and bedding of the horses.
Foul air and dampness are the causes of many dis-
eases of the horse; hence, the importance and economy of
spacious, clean, dry, and well-ventilated stables.
It is impossible to give the horse too much fresh air,
even in the coldest weather. Stable windows should be
closed only when it is necessary to prevent rain or snow
from beating in on the animals. The stables should be
considered as merely a shelter from storms. The more
nearly the air of the stables approaches the purity and
temperature of the outside air, the more nearly are the
stables adapted to the health and comfort of the animals.
A practical and satisfactory test that a stable is prop-
erly cleaned and ventilated is that, on entering it, the
sense of smell detects no apparent change from the air
outside.
The picket line should be established in the immediate
vicinity of the stables. The floor of the picket line should
be raised and trenches to carry off the rain should be pro-
vided so that the ground upon which the horses stand may
be kept dry.
A horse prefers to stand with his fore feet lower than
his hind feet, as this rests and relieves his tendons. Where
horses are required to stand for long periods on the picket
line the floor should be constructed so that this is possible.
Paddocks, with shade and water, should be provided
near the stables; if there is no shade, shelter from the
sun should be extemporized. The picket line and paddocks
should be sprinkled to keep down the dust; crude oil may
be used to advantage. Racks for drying bedding should
be provided near each stable.
The horses are assigned stalls and places on the picket
line by sections, as nearly as practicable according to their
usual place in the battery. The name and hoof number of
the horse are posted over his place in the stall. Over the
middle of each double stall occupied by a driver's pair are
displayed the number of the section, the carriage, and the
position of the pair in the team, as: First, Piece, Wheel,
or, Fifth, Second, Caisson, Swing.
Manure or foul litter must not be allowed to accumulate
in or near the stables, but must be carried to the manure
heap daily.
In the morning stalls are cleaned and the stable policed
ART.-7
194 FIELD ARTILLERY
under the direction of the stable sergeant, assisted by the
chiefs of section.
The bedding is taken up, carefully shaken out, and
sorted. All parts of the bedding which can be used again
is taken to the bedding racks and spread thereon for a
thorough drying; parts which can not be used again are
sent to the manure heap. Special attention is necessary in
this matter, as the allowance of straw, 3- pounds per day
per animal, is insufficient under most favorable condition.
In the evening the dried bedding, mixed with such fresh
bedding as may be necessary, is laid down. The bed must
be soft and even, with the thickest part toward the manger.
If practicable, all woodwork within reach of the horses
should be protected with sheet metal or painted with a
thin coat of gas tar; other woodwork and brick should be
painted a light shade and then kept clean and free from
dust.
Feed boxes must be kept clean; they should be washed
from time to time with diluted vinegar and always after
feeding bran, mash, or other soft food.
During the day, except in the very cold or stormy
weather, the horses, when not being used or fed, should
stand at the picket line or in the paddocks. In hot cli-
mates, however, if there is not sufficient shade on the picket
line or in the paddocks, it is better to keep the horses in
the stables during the heat of the day.
Smoking in the stables is prohibited.
One or more covered lights should be provided in the
stables at night.
Condition and Exercise

Condition means thorough bodily and muscular fitness
for the work required. Although thorough fitness is essen-
tial, the standard to be aimed at is not that of the race
horse, whose condition is at the maximum of work, and
a concentrated nervous energy which can not be indefinitely
maintained at highest pitch. The quality of condition re-
quired for the artillery horse is shown in a horse well cov-
ered with flesh, well hardened on, without sign of running
up light toward the flank, full of spirits, capable of long-
,continued exertion without fatigue, and with a good diges-
tion waiting on a healthy appetite. Such a state of bodily
health can be almost indefinitely continued when once at-
tained and allows some reserve of flesh and animal spirits
to draw on when hardship comes.
Condition of this description must not be confounded
with fatness. The fresh young horse from the dealer is fat,
not fit; his muscles, are soft and flabby, unable to stand
severe exertion and rapidly fatigued. Although he is full
of life at the beginning of the day, a very moderate amount
of work will tire him.
The only way to get animals into condition is by the
combination of sufficient good food and sufficient healthy
<exercise, continued over a long period.
The transformation of fat, flabby flesh into hard, tough
muscle is a gradual process that can not be forced; a regu-
lar course of graduated exercise is the only way to ac-
complish it. This work should never be so severe as to
fatigue the animal; the soft muscles will suffer to such an
'extent from the reaction of over-exertion that an actual
loss of flesh will result. Working tired animals when unfit
is a fruitful cause of accident and disease. But once good,
hard, muscular development has been attained, any. work
within reason will not only be performed without great ef-
fort, but will continue to add to the quality of the condition
already acquired. It is important to recognize this cumula-
tive power of condition. It means that a good amount of
work may be demanded from a seasoned horse, that it ac-
tually does him good, and that, while performing it, he
will run less and less risk of accident and disease. Thrown
entirely out of work for a considerable period, however,
the conditioning process will have to be repeated, though
not, perhaps, to the same extent. This must be particularly
borne in mind when animals are taken into work after a
run at grass or a long period of sickness.
At first the work should be light, but, if possible, spread
over a considerable time. A minimum of two hours daily,
excepting Sundays, should be required. Much time should
be spent in the open air daily, pure atmosphere having a
good effect on the health and spirits.
196 FIELD ARTILLERY
The bulk of the work in conditioning a horse should
be carried out at a slow pace. The conditioning exercise
for the race horse may be considered ideal. To fit such an
animal for the faster part of his preparation he is kept
constantly on the move for 2 or 21 hours in the morning,
2 or 3 miles being at the trot and canter, and for 1 or 1
hours in the evening at the walk. Even when his faster
work is in progress long walking is continued. Plenty of
walking, then, and a moderate amount of trotting should
constitute the exercise for putting an artillery horse in
working condition and for maintaining it. In the early
part of the work the trot period should be of about 5 min-
utes' duration; this is gradually increased until, within 4
or 6 weeks, trot periods are of 20 minutes, which should
rarely be exceeded. During any daily period the ratio of
walk to trot should be about 4 or 3 to 1. The first mile
should always be covered slowly, so that the horses can
feel their feet, stretch their legs, and empty their bowels
before they are called upon to trot. The last mile should
also be walked so that they return to the stables cool. To
crowd much work into short time, under the impression
that ft will add to condition, can not be too strongly con-
demned; it does not harden muscle on the animal, but tends
to reduce his flesh, to irritate his temper, and to render
him liable to chill on return from work.
The latter part of the elementary training period should
find the horses of a battery in thoroughly fit condition.
During the drill period, while the cannoneers are getting
their specialized training in the gun squads, the lieutenant
in charge of Department B trains the drivers and conditions
the horses. In employing the conditioning trots, it is de-
sirable to put the drivers on a large circle with pairs un-
hitched and traces unhooked. The officer can then most
favorably watch the riding of the men and the working
of the horses. During the later drills by battery the horses
should not be permitted to stand idle when the guns are
unlimbered, but should be worked at the walk or trot suf-
ficiently to maintain or to add to the condition of the ani-
mals. The horses should be in their hardest condition when
training in marching begins.
To produce the best results, the policy of full feeding
and fair work must be adopted. No other combination
will get the best out of the animal. A small ration and
little work will keep him normal in appearance, but plenty
of food and sufficient work judiciously combined make the
only routine which will really fit either the draft or riding
horse for use in war. The correct adjustment of ration
to work is a matter of practical knowledge which a book
can not teach; it must be gained by observation and expe-
rience. When the work is light, as at the beginning of a
young horse's training, half a grain ration is generally
accepted as a standard on which to begin feeding, but a
rule of thumb method should be avoided and each horse's
needs considered; in no case should the ration be so small
or the work so hard that a round and glossy sleekness dis-
appears.
Thirst and sweating are very prominent features of
the early stages of conditioning and are to some extent de-
pendent upon each other. Apart from the sweating which
may naturally be expected as the result of work, some
young horses sweat very profusely from purely nervous
causes, more especially when the work is conducted in a
confined atmosphere.
It is not always possible to prevent every young horse
sweating from the excitement of new lessons, particularly
in the case of highly bred or excitable animals; but such
outbreaks exhaust a horse more than a far greater amount
of quiet work and should be avoided in every way.
Working in the open air in preference to a roofed
school, absolute quietness of methods, the avoidance of
long, monotonous lessons, and the example of older, well-
behaved animals quietly doing the same things are all val-
uable in keeping horses cool in body and temper; but
there are instances where sweating can not be prevented,
and thirst is a natural result.
Thirsty horses are to be allowed to drink their fill; it
is best that they should not be sweating, but the fact of
their being hot need not be a bar to their drinking if care
is taken to keep them on the move until cool and so prevent
198 FIELD ARTILLERY
risk of chills. As their, condition improves the keenness of
their thirst will :diminish.
The quantity and quality of the sweat are very gen-
erally and correctly taken as an index of condition. When
the body is. soft and flabby, slight exertion produces copious
sweat of a soapy, lathery nature which dries slowly and
frequently breaks out again. As the condition improves
the amount of work required to make the. skin damp in-
creases and the sweat itself is less greasy and more watery
in consistence, while it dries with rapidity and does not
recur. There are, however, some free-sweating horses that
lather freely even when in good condition. Weather has a
great influence on the amount animals sweat, for whereas
on a cool, clear day it takes a lot of exertion to turn a hair,
a damp, muggy morning will make them sweat freely.
Lecture X
TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS BY RAIL AND

WATER
SN covering this subject we will first call your attention
to the following extracts from Major Le May's lecture on
"Notes on Veterinary Field Sanitation", which have to do
with the sanitary features of transportation by rail and
water.
Transportation by Rail
Before loading public animals every car should be
carefully inspected to see if it is in good repair throughout.
Projecting nails, bolts and splinters, loose boards, broken
fixtures, doors, all mean liability to injury and discomforts
for the animals. Cars should be well cleaned and disinfected.
Railroad companies cannot be depended upon in the
cleaning and disinfecting of cars, so that it becomes neces-
sary for us to do this work, giving us additionally the sat-
isfaction of knowing that it has been done, and done prop-
erly. While waiting for the cars to arrive, a detail of two
men to each car, with tools and implements, such as shovels,
brooms, buckets, ash cans and the necessairy disinfectant,
with water handy for dissolving, should hold themselves in
readiness to carry on this work upon their 'arrival.. The
disinfectants used are carbolic acid, creolin, or similar coal
tar products, corrosive sublimate, and formalin in 5% to
10% or stronger solutions. The application of these disin-
fectants, except corrosive sublimate, which corrodes tin,.
is more effectively applied with a spray pump or ma-
chine, as by this means the preparation gets into all the
cracks and crevices. Cars are at first swept, the dirt col-
lected and burned, then the disinfecting solution is applied
with a broom or spray to the walls, ceiling and flooring. The
necessary amount of time must be allowed for the com-
plete or partial drying and disappearance of disinfectant
199
200 FIELD ARTILLERY
odors before the cars are sanded and ready to load. Never
whitewash cars, as the lime is likely to get into the animal's
eyes, nostrils or lips and produce injury. Never use straw
or hay for bedding in cars, as it soon gets.wet and becomes
slippery; again, sparks from its own or passing engines
might start fires. Never tie horses in cars not having in-
dividual stalls.
For officers' mounts, cars with individual stalls should
be provided in all shipments.
All the states of the country now have a 28-hour law,
which requires that all animals must be unloaded, for feed-
ing and watering and rest, after 28 hours' travel. Most
states also require a veterinarian's certificates as to the
health of the animals in transit.
At stock yards, all water troughs should be thorough-
ly cleaned before a fresh supply of water is put in.
No feed of any kind found in these yards should be
used by our animals; it should be removed from the yards
before our animals are unloaded. Vicious animals should
be tied so as not to interfere with the feeding of the
others.
The time of rest in the yards is from 6 to 12 hours.
Transportation of Horses at Sea

The selection and fitting of ships for the transporta-
tion of animals is usually carried out by the Quartermaster
Corps, and the duties of the line officers in this matter are
confined to inspection after completion, to see that the fit-
tings are in accordance with specifications, that the stores
are of good quality, and that the ship in every way is fit for
embarkation.
During war, or at remote ports, any officer may find
himself called upon to report regarding the fitness of a
ship for the conveyance of them. It is therefore neces-
sary to have an accurate general idea of the requirements
and fittings, and a close acquaintance with the details of
management during a voyage. The importance of this
knowledge being possessed by all officers is very essential.
For oversea expeditions, the value of horses landed in good
COURSE "B," LECTURE X 201
condition at the base of operations is not to be estimated
in money; if in bad health, they are useless till they are
fit; if landed well, they are invaluable.
Class of Ships Required

The typical horse transport for troops should be of
good speed, roomy for the number to be carried, a steady
sea boat, broad of beam, with big hatchways, watertight
doors leading through compartments, ample mechanical
ventilation, good means for drainage, lighted throughout
by electricity, and with specially good arrangements for
exercise.
These requirements set a high standard, but the im-
portance of the animal's condition when landed for a cam-
paign is such as to more than justify all the expenses in-
curred by their being insisted upon.
Ventilation
Too much importance cannot be attached to the pro-
vision of ample means for ventilation. It is at all times
difficult to ventilate lower decks and holds which are be-
neath the water line, and special care should be taken to
provide methods both for withdrawing the foul air, and
for pumping in a fresh supply; this is especially necessary
in the vicinity of stalls which are furthest removed from
the neighborhood of the hatchways.
In addition to hatchways and port holes, which should
be kept constantly open whenever possible, the means for
ventilation are: Permanent air funnels; iron wind scoops;
canvas wind sails, electric fans or blowing machines; and
steam ventilation.
Artificial ventilation appears to be the only real solu-
tion for supplying air on board a ship. A ship has been
compared to a bottle with a narrow neck; there is plenty
of air of the purest kind at sea, the difficulty is to intro-
duce it; ships are proverbially close, stuffy, and objec-
tionable.
Artificial ship ventilation may be effected in many
ways: By air conduits opening beneath the fires in the
stokeholes; exhaust pipes opening into the funnel; steam
202 FIELD ARTILLERY
being ejected into exhaust pipes; jets of compressed air
introduced into an air conduit, acting either as an extract-
ing or propelling agent; rotary fans of the centrifugal va-
riety. All of these act either by extracting or propelling
air, and experience in ship ventilation shows that of the
two, propulsion is superior to extraction.
Drainage
This is usually unsatisfactory on horse ships. The
whole drainage runs, as a rule, from the decks, down small
pipes leading from the scuppers to the bilge; the entrance
to these pipes is guarded by a perforated cover to prevent
them becoming choked with dung and other solids. Not-
withstanding this precaution, the pipes constantly become
so choked, the urine has to be pumped up, and overboard
by hand. For this reason, suitable hand pumps should
be provided, unless a better system is adopted.
There should be no difficulty in dealing with the drain-
age of decks above the water line; it should run straight
overboard, and not into the bilge. In decks, however, which
are below water, it is more difficult to dispose of, and un-
less the ship is specially fitted for the purpose, it must be
gotten rid of as already stated.
Stalls
Transports conveying mounted units can, as a rule,
accommodate the horses on two decks only, owing to the
amount of room required for troops; but in ships chartered
for the carriage of horses only, all the decks may be util-
ized for the erection of stalls, and the hold and alleyways
can also be occupied if suitable.
Horses are not to be carried on topgallant, forecastles
or poops, nor are they to be stood against bulkheads or
in the vicinity of steam pipes.
Arrangements of stalls: All stalls should be placed
athwart the ship. Down each side of the deck a long row
is erected, heads inward. When there is room enough for
a row down the center of the deck, there must be sufficient
space both in front and behind for free passage, and if
width permits of double amidship rows the animals oc-
cupying these stalls should face outward. Under no cir-
cumstances should a sea-going ship be fitted with fore and
aft stalls. This would place the horses sideways of the roll,
in which position they are unable to balance themselves;
as the angle of the ship's roll is always greater than the
one she pitches, they are swung from side to side and fre-
quently injured.
The strain on the fittings, especially the side rails,
caused by this pendulum-like bumping, is always very great,
and they may give way. Heavy losses have occurred in the
past as the results of stalls being so placed, and the plan
is unsuited for a ship which may encounter heavy seaways.
It may be used to advantage for river transport, and econo-
mize room.
As to the construction of stalls and the material need-
ed, we will leave it to the quartermaster and the marine
carpenter; there are other subjects to consider. Sufficient
to say that all constructing material should be strong; all
woodwork of stalls should be well rounded and smoothed
on the inner sides. There should be arrangements made
for exercise, some box stalls and a veterinary hospital.
Treatment Before Embarking

Before horses are placed on board a ship, they should
be reduced both in work and diet for a few days prior
to embarkation, and their bowels rendered laxative by bran
or alfalfa hay.
On the day of embarkation they should be watered
before going on board, as it saves trouble, and after being
placed in their stalls they may be fed with hay, in order
to settle them to their new surroundings.
They should be shod without calks on both fore and
hind feet; shoes should never be removed for a voyage.
Good health before embarkation should be insisted
upon; the weak or feverish will probably succumb.
Freedom from infectious and contagious diseases is a
veterinary duty of the utmost importance; it is far better
to leave a doubtful case behind than to run any risk by
taking him. No more favorable conditions are conceivable
for the spread of disease than life on board a ship, for
204 FIELD ARTILLERY
the animals are placed closely together, frequently with
their noses touching, and there is the utter impossibility
of keeping the feeding boxes separate. In addition, the
animals are breathing a vitiated air which lowers their
power of resistance. Glanders, distemper, pneumonia and
mange are diseases among horses which soon get a foot-
hold, and find most congenial conditions existing for their
spread at sea. The most rigorous inspection before em-
barkation is necessary to avoid their introduction; all ani-
mals should have been previously malleined; if such a dis-
ease as a case of mange got on board, it would be sound
economy to at once destroy it in order to stay its spread,
as it is almost impossible to treat mange effectively at sea,
for it spreads in the most rapid way on board ship.
A febrile condition is very common at sea; it may be
due to heat in the tropics, but is more commonly caused by
air poisoning and nausea. Such cases are frequently the
prelude to matters more serious.
Management on Board
During the voyage, the two points which demand the
greatest attention from all concerned, are ventilation and
exercise. On the amount of ventilation and exercise to-
gether which it is possible to give depends the condition
in which the horses land. The means by which they may
be obtained I have already described; it remains only to
note that a constant inspection of every ventilation, outlet
and inlet, is necessary. Sufficient and free exits for foul
air are as important as entrance for a fresh supply. Exer-
cise and the cleaning out of stalls -should, if possible, be
carried together, half the men being employed on each
duty alternately; the more exercise, the better.
Sanitation
This includes the mucking out of the stalls and cleansing
and disinfecting the decks.
When the horses are taken out of their stalls, the
droppings are removed, the platforms raised, and flushed
with the salt-water hose and disinfected with sole odorless
disinfectants.
Watering should be done three or four times daily, ac-
cording to the condition of the weather. Feeding: Full
ration of hay and half grain ration, with an occasional
feed of bran as a bowel regulator.
Duties on board are of the most exacting and harass-
ing kind; an inspection of every animal on the boat must be
made at least three times daily in the working twelve
hours, and a fourth visit should be made at night.
These visits are the means of picking out all cases
of sickness as early as possible, and detecting irregularities
in stable management, of which the most common is the
waste of hay in the gangway, and insufficient watering.
It takes a long time to go around a ship and inspect
three or four hundred horses, and a round seems hardly
completed before the next has to start; but there is a
feeling of security given by these inspections.
The Care of Horses After Landing
This is a matter of supreme moment. It will take the
animals as long to regain condition on shore as the journey
occupied. To work them at once is the height of folly and
can only result in absolute disaster.
Having arrived at our destination, we are about to go
into camp.
Camps are of two kinds: Permanent and temporary.
However, it is the sanitation of the permanent camp that
is all important as a military necessity.
On arriving in a new country it is always a wise pre-
caution, with the veterinarian of the command at least,
to inquire of the diseases among horses peculiar to that
locality, so as to adopt the necessary measures to safe-
guard our animals against them.
As the sanitation of a camp is a part of the medical
officer's duty, that part of it pertaining to the picket line
should concern the officers in command as well as the
veterinarian.
Loading of Animals
In the loading of animals in stock cars for shipment,
if possible, the car should be spotted at a stock shoot, as
the animals will enter the car much more readily from
206 FIELD ARTILLERY
the shoot than from a platform, providing the shoot is of

sufficiently heavy construction as to give them solid foot-
ing. Next in advantage to the permanent stock shoot
is the heavy platform between the car on which is laid a
short, heavy ramp. When neither of these expedients
are available, temporary ramps may be constructed; but
as the horses are afraid of the ramps and bridges con-
structed of new lumber, and as portable or temporary
ramps, while they may be strong enough to carry horses,.
usually set up considerable vibration, animals frequently
resist being led on or over them, with injured animals and
men as a result. If a horse hesitates at the bottom of a
shoot, he can usually be forced in the following manner:
Two men, one on each side of the shoot, clasp each other's
wrists firmly, then bring their arms against the animal's
rump about where the breeching body usually rests, and
force him forward. If this is properly done, it is impos-
sible for the animal to injure either of the men by kicking,
and sufficient force can be exerted in this way to either
move him forward or topple him onto his nose.
When loading animals over new ramps their fear of
them may be lessened by covering the floor of the ramp
with dirt or straw. When loading animals into stock cars
they should be packed as tightly as possible, as in this
way there is less danger of their falling or becoming bruis-
ed. At least 18 heavy artillery horses can be packed in the
36-foot stock car if the loading is properly done. Fre-
quently, when a car seems loaded to its capacity, two more
horses can be forced into it.
In unloading animals care should be exercised to pre-
vent the animals from rushing from the car. Only one
animal should be allowed to leave the car at a time; they
should be led out quietly, and at a walk. If this is not
done, they are sure to injure themselves against the sides
of the doors, or may slip and fall when reaching the plat-
form outside the door. Animals should be handled quietly
at all times, but over and above everything else in their
loading and unloading should quietness and kindness pre-
vail; even when it is necessary to force animals up shoots
or into cars, there should never be about any loading or
unloading point, any shouting, waving of hats and hands
or cracking of whips, as all this serves only to add to the
horse's fright and make him still more unmanageable.
Transportation of Material by Rail
This subject is so well covered in Field Artillery Drill
Regulations that I do not deem it advisable to take the
matter up here, other than to refer you to the paragraph
Nos. 1728 to 1804, inclusive, for Transportation by Rail,
and 1805 to 1808, inclusive, for Transportation by Water,
calling your attention to the fact that the tables of Cars
Required, given in paragraphs 1749, 1750, 1751, 1755, were
worked out under the tables of organization of 1914 and
must be modified to fit the increased organization pro-
vided for the organization tables of 1917.
Course "C"
CAPTAIN MILLER
209
Lecture I
IN CONNECTION WITH BLACKBOARD AND SAND

BOX SIMULATED FIRING
T HERE are many ways in which officers may improve
themselves in firing practice, but there are two simple
methods given herewith, which can be done at any time
by two men.
Blackboard firing is a method of simulated fire de-
signed to give indoor practice in conducting fire and in
giving commands. The size of the blackboard used is not
important, one 5 feet by 2 feet being large enough. The
instructor works at the board, and the students take a
position about 20 or 25 feet in front of it. One student
at a time is given a problem, the others give attention to
his commands and to the criticism by the instructor.
The instructor draws a target upon the board and
assumes a range and corrector. For example, Fig. 1 (cut
attached) represents a battery upon a crest, and the in-
structor assumes that in order to get a proper height of
burst for ranging a corrector of 38 must be employed, and
that the effective range is 3,550 yards. The size of the
target drawn on the board is not essential, say, about 2
inches by 4 inches. The instructor now gives the problem
to the student, as: "Your target is the battery upon the
crest; front of target 15 mils; height of skyline 5 mils;
range finder's range 3,500; wind blowing across line of
fire from left to right. Range on your target and open
an effective time fire as soon as possible." From this point
on, the instructor offers no comments, but illustrates upon
the board the burst or impact of the projectiles. In the
elementary instruction in the conduct of fire, it would be
advantageous to criticize each command given wherever
such criticism. is applicable.
The method is illustrated in Fig. 2 (cut attached). In
this figure:
211
212 FIELD ARTILLERY
(a) Represents an air burst, but too high to be ob-
served for range. The corrector used by the student is too
high; the deflection is correct.
(b) Represents an air burst over; deflection and cor-
rector good.
(c) Represents an air burst short; deflection and cor-
rector good.
(d) Represents an impact over; deflection good, cor-
rector too low.
(e) Represents an impact short; deflection good, cor-
rector too low.
(f) (g) and (h) show conditions arising with platoon
salvos.
Assuming that the right platoon has fired, these il-
lustrate:
(f) and (g) Error in deflection difference, corrector
too high.
(h) Bracketing platoon salvo, deflection good, correc-
tor good for adjustment.
With regard to the deflection and the deflection dif-
ference, the instructor may assume that the values given
.by the student are correct, or he may assume that there
are small errors. The instructor, by assuming that there
are small errors and by placing the bursts so as to show
these errors, can give the student practice in handling these
elements. The instructor should watch the initial com-
mands and represent upon the board the position of the
shots as they would actually fall; for example, the student
might give such a deflection difference as to cause converg-
ing or cross fire when he desires parallel fire.
The instructor shows upon the board the bursts of a
salvo or volley as soon as "Fire" is given (in case of an
opening salvo), or as soon as the range is announced for
a succeeding salvo. He then allows the student one or
two seconds to see what is represented and erases the
bursts but not the targets. The student announces his
sensing of shots and gives his next commands.
Figure 3 (cut attached) illustrates the complete work-
ing of a problem. The instructor has drawn a figure simi-
lar to Fig. 1 and has assumed a corrector of 38 and a
COURSE "C," LECTURE I 213
range of 3,550. The width of the target is given as 15
mils and the range finder range as 3,500. He announces
the problem as indicated above. The student gives the
commands: "Aiming point the water tower. Deflection
3,210, on second piece open 5, site 300, corrector 25, right-
right, 3,500. Fire."
Suppose that the instructor assumes that there are
small errors in the deflection and the deflection difference.
The corrector given is lower than the one assumed while
the range is short. He places the bursts on the board, as
shown in Fig. 3-a.
The student calls: "Graze, short. Graze, short," and
commands: "Left 5 on first piece, close 10" (or "Right 5
on second piece, close 10"). "Up 5, 3,700."
The corrector is still too low. The instructor sees that
proper changes have been made in the deflection and deflec-
tion difference. He may now show bursts as in Fig. 2-d, or
he may announce "Lost" (assuming that the bursts were
in a ravine behind the target). Suppose he announces
"Lost."
The student calls: "Lost," and commands: "Up 10,
3,700."
Figure 3-b illustrates.
The students calls: "Normal, doubtful. Normal,
doubtful," commands: "Down 5, 3,700."
Figure 3-c illustrates.
The student calls: "Low, over. Graze, over," and
commands: (a) "Battery 1 round, up 3, 3,600," (b)
"3,500," (c) "3,550," and so on.
The instructor may stop the firing after obtaining the.
proper adjustment, or he may continue it to represent fire
for effect, which, however, is not easily done on a black-
board. He then criticizes the work of the student, or he
may call upon another student to make the criticism. At-
tention should be paid to the methods used by the student,
whether the commands given are correct, and in the proper
sequence, if proper corrections are made, and if the time
is excessive. Students should be required to give the com-
mands without delay and hesitation. A well-instructed stu-
dent will announce his observations as soon as the bursts
214 FIELD ARTILLERY
are shown and his commands will follow immediately. A
stop watch should frequently be held against him, and he
should be "killed" and the problem passed on to the next
man if he has consumed more than five seconds from the
spotting of the last shot to the announcement of his next
commands.
The students should frequently act as the instructor,
since this gives most excellent practice. It will be found
that the instructor must have a good knowledge of the
principles and mechanism of fire in order to represent the
shots correctly and without unnecessary delay.
If a blackboard is not available for this work, a com-
mon slate and slate pencil answer the purpose admirably
if the number of students is not large.
Two or three men working together in this way for
15 or 20 minutes every day can develop remarkable dex-
terity in the conduct of fire.
The nomenclature used in designating heights of burst
for shrapnel are as follows:
B equals bursts in air below bottom of target.
G equals burst on impact or percussion, graze.
L equals low a burst between zero and 2 mils high.
N equals normal, or a burst between 2 mils and 4 mils
high.
H equals high, or a burst between 4 mils and 6 mils.
VH equals very high, or above 6 mils.
All observations are made and distances measured from
bottom of target to top of smoke ball at instant of burst.
This nomenclature will be applied in all blackboard, sand
box and smoke bomb fire, and in recording observations.
The principles of blackboard fire may be applied to the sand
box in the same manner, except that the bursts are indi-
cated by an instructor standing in a position close to sand
box with a small white disk attached to the end of 'a rod
about two feet long, to represent a smoke ball; targets are
represented by pieces of cardboard; hills and hollows are
constructed in the sand. If the smoke ball silhouettes the
target, the shot is said to be over; if the smoke ball blots
out the target, it is said to be short. If from the observing
position, the smoke ball is so high that it cannot be told
COURSE "C," LECTURE I 215
whether it obscures the target or silhouettes it, the shot
is called doubtful, the corrector is lowered, and the range
is repeated until observations are obtained. Officers should
practice themselves frequently in their odd moments with
blackboard firing and sand box firing, using these methods,
one officer acting as the instructor and the other conduct-
ing the fire.
Probabilities
EFORE any one can make the best use of a complicated

piece of machinery it is necessary that he know its mech-
anism thoroughly and its powers and limitations. This is
as true of field guns as of any other machine. Every one
who has fired or has seen fired, any number of shots knows
that all shots with the same angle of departure, do not fall
exactly in the same spot, but the knowledge of the reason
for this is usually very vague. No machine is perfect and
therefore each has its personal error and this applies to guns
as well as to anything else.
The principal causes of inaccuracies, eliminating errors
of personnel are:
Variation in action of gun and its carriage (jump) ;
Variations in the powder (temperature, age, stability) ;
Variations in the projectile (dimensions, weight, loca-
tion of the center of gravity);
Variations in atmospheric conditions (temperature ba-
rometer, wind).
All of the above apply to time as well as to percussion
fire. In addition, the variable action of the time element
of the fuze goes to make up further variations.
None of the above causes of error can be corrected for
by the field artilleryman, who has neither the appliances
nor the time to make any corrections for them. But every
field artilleryman should know that these errors exist, or
otherwise he cannot use his weapon to the best advantage.
Inaccuracies due to errors of personnel are variable
and depend upon the training of the battery, and therefore
in making up tables showing the accuracy of a gun, the data
from which these tables are made must be as free as possible
from errors of personnel and are therefore obtained with
the greatest care.
Upon first glance at the dispersion tables it may appear
that our gun is very inaccurate and comparison may be
made between the accuracy of our gun and of those used by
217
218 FIELD ARTILLERY
the coast artillery and the Navy. In this connection, how-
ever, it must be remembered, that the three things which
tend to increase the accuracy of the guns, particularly for
vertical targets, namely; increase of muzzle velocity, weight
of projectile, and weight of carriage to insure greater sta-
bility, are extremely limited in application, when it becomes
necessary to design a field gun possessing in proper propor-
tion, power, mobility and structural strength. It may be
added that our gun is about as accurate as any foreign field
gun.
By the study of this subject it is certain that every
officer will be greatly benefitted in his knowledge of artillery
fire, and it will also save a great deal of time wasted in
checking up instruments for apparent abnormalities and
errors, when none of them exist. Also an officer should
be able to distinguish between the abnormal and say, the
unusual, the latter however being within the error of the
gun.
The probability tables are however not to be used to
excuse or explain poor shooting, but to give an officer such
knowledge of his weapon as to improve his shooting, by
permitting him to get the maximum efficiency out of his
guns.
If a great number of shots are fired under the same con-
ditions and with the same data, their points of impact on a
horizontal or vertical plane will form an ellipse, the center
of which is the center of impact. The points of impact are
most dense at the center of impact, and become less dense
as they approach the outer part of the figure.
The shots are grouped symmetrically about the center
of impact, and each shot has one diametrically opposite it,
and at the same distance from the center of impact.
By the law of probabilities a deduction based upon
higher mathematics, with which we have nothing to do in
this paper, it is possible to apply to a finite number of
shots the rules deduced for an infinite number, with the
assumption that the results obtained are what has probably
happened or will probably happen.
On page following this treatise are given certain tables
the use of which will be shown in problems to follow.
PROBABILITIES 219
The method of obtaining the data for these tables is
about as follows (same can also be found in 3-inch handbook,
1917, page 181).
Firing is conducted with the greatest care to eliminate
personal errors and with all shots fired under as nearly
identical conditions as possible. Several shots are fired at
each of several ranges and their points of impact, or of
burst in case of time fire, accurately determined. The
number of ranges used, and the number of shots fired at
each range are as great as possible, and the greater they
are, the more accurate the results in the tables will be.
These points of burst, or impact, are referred to co-or-
dinates, the center of which may be the gun itself for range,
or the target for range and deflection, or any other conven-
ient center and axis may be used.
The following table is taken from the 3-inch handbook
and with its explanation is inserted here, so that everything
of practical value will be included in this paper.
From the ranges and deviations obtained at each eleva-
tion the mean values are computed. The difference of each
round from the mean value gives the error, and the mean
of the errors affords a measure of the accuracy.
The following table illustrates this method:
No. of round Range Variation Deviation Variation

Sa from mean right, drift from mean
Yards Yards Yards Yards

1 5,973.6 26.4 62.4 7.1
2 - - 5,978.0 22.0, 58.7 3.4
3 _-------_ _ 6,026.0 26.0 .... 53.1 2.2
4- ---
_______ _ 5,956.6 43.4 48.0 7.3
5 --------- 6,053.6 53.6 49.2 6.1
6 --------------- 6,012.2 12.2 60.4 5.1
36,000.0 183.6 331.8 31.2
Mean______ 6,000.0 30.6 55.3 5.2
The second column in the above table gives the actual

ranges. The mean range is obtained by adding all to-
gether and dividing by 6, since 6 rounds are considered.
The third column contains the error or difference of
each round, irrespective of sign, from the mean range just
220 FIELD ARTILLERY
found. The mean of these differences is then obtained and
called the mean error in range. Evidently, if all the pro-
jectiles fall nearly at the same range this error will be small.
The fourth column gives the lateral deviation from the
direction in which the axis of the bore points before the
piece is fired. The mean deviation is at the bottom of this
column.
The fifth column gives the difference from this mean,
with a mean at the bottom called the mean error in devia-
tion or mean lateral error.
Collecting the results from the table, we have:
Yards.
Mean range ------ --------------------------- 6,000
Mean longitudal error --------- ---------------- 30.6
Mean deviation right ------ -------------------- 55.3
Mean lateral error -------------------------------- 5.2
The angle of fall of the 3-inch shrapnel at 6,000 yards
is known to be 23 40.9' and the mean range error of the
point of burst of a series of rounds is 30.6 yards for the
same range, then the
Mean vertical error==30.6 tan 230 40.9'=13.4 yards.
Vertical targets are employed at the shorter ranges be-
cause they may then be of moderate size, and errors due to
inequalities of the ground are eliminated, but at long ranges
targets can not generally be made large enough to catch all
the rounds.
The center of impact on a horizontal target is the inter-
section of the lines of mean range and mean lateral devia-
tion, and on a vertical target it is the intersection of the lines
of mean vertical and mean lateral deviation.
The above table gives very uniform results for the
six shots fired, but it often happens that in a small num-
ber of shots one or more may occur, either erratic or so un-
usual, as to be of very rare occurrence and which, if used in
computing tables, would indicate a greater inaccuracy in
the gun than actually exists.
For this reason shots of this nature should be thrown
out and the following table has been prepared and inserted
here to be used to determine whether or not shots should be
thrown out.
PROBABILITIES
No. of Rounds. Factor.
4 1.92
5 2.03
6 2.16
7 2.27
8 2.34
9 2.41
10 2.44
11 2.49
12. 2.54
13 2.58
14 2.62
15 2.66
16 2.69
17 2.73
18 2.76
19 2.80
20 2.82
To use this table first find the mean error of the

complete group of shots. Multiply this mean error by the
factor taken from the table. If any shot has an error
greater than this product it should be thrown out and a
new mean error determined and the test repeated.
The following will illustrate; X being distance of point
of impact from co-ordinate:
No. of shot. X Error.

1 188 49.6
2 0 138.4
3 157 18.6
4 171 32.6
5 176 37.6
5 692 5 276.8
138.4 55.36
The factor for five shots is 2.03.

55.36X2.03 equals 112.4. But shot No. 2 has an error
greater than this and is therefore thrown out, and the
above table becomes:
222 FIELD ARTILLERY
No. of shot. X Error.

1 188 15
3 157 16
4 171 2
5 176 3
4 692 4 36
173 9
The factor for 4 shots equals 1.92.

9 X 1.92 equals 17.28 and none of the shots has a greater
error than this and these shots should be retained for com-
putation.
Having now arrived at the mean error it can be shown
by the theory of probabilities that the mean error multiplied
by .846 equals the probable error. The probable error for
range is the distance from the center of impact, measured
in the direction of range, within which 50% of the shots
fired will probably fall. The other 50% will fall a greater
distance than this from the center of impact. We likewise
have the probable error for vertical and lateral deviations.
Now if we draw two lines parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the line of fire, and on opposite sides of
the center of impact, and at a distance from the center of
impact equal to the probable error,. we will have a zone
which will probably contain 50% of the shots fired. This
is known at The 50% Zone For Range, and is the one used
in the tables. Its width can be obtained directly by multi-
plying the mean error by 1.69 (2X.846). The 50% zones for
lateral and vertical deviations are obtained in a similar
manner.
If we went deeper into the subject of the theory of
probabilities we could find that the chance of exactly 50%
of the shots falling in the 50% zone is only .11 which is
greater than for any other percentage falling in this zone.
Also that the chance of 51% falling in this zone is exactly
the same as the chance of 49% falling in it.
There is no practical necessity for going this deeply
PROBABILITIES 223
into the theory and the above statement is made only to im-
press the reader with the fact that we are working with
what probably has happened, or will happen.
The theory is based upon an infinite number of occur-
rences, shots, and we apply the rules deduced for an infinite
number of occurrences to a finite number under the assump-
tion that they will probably follow these rules. This is
only probable. In other words the rules which are abso-
lutely true for an infinite number of shots are assumed to be
probably true for a finite number, and we can make no
serious error in this assumption if we always remember that
what we find is only probable and can not be assumed as a
positive fact.
The following table comparing theory and practice is of
interest. It shows how closely they agree. The first column
shows the hits actually obtained in firing and the second
column the hits which would porbably have been obtained
under the same conditions.
Actual Hits. Probable Hits.
1 2.5
9 5
11 7.5
11 10.
13 12.5
16 15.
19 17.5
21 20.
21 22.5
22 25.
27 27.5
28 30.
28 32.5
31 35
39 37.5
43 40.
45 42.5
47 45.
49 47.5
224 FIELD ARTILLERY
TABLE OF PROBABILITY FACTORS
PerCent Factor Per Cent Factor Per Cent Factor Per Cent Factor
1 0.02 26 0.49 51 1.02 76 1.74

2 .04 27 .51 52 1.04 77 1.78
3 .06 28 .53 53 1.07 78 1.82
4 .07 29 .55 54 1.09 79 1.86
5 .09 30 .57 55 1.12 80 1.90
6 .11 31 .59 56 1.14 81 1.94
7 .13 32 .61 57 1.17 82 1.98
8 .15 33 .63 58 1.19 83 2.03
9 .17 34 .65 59 1.22 84 2.08
10 .18 35 .67 60 1.25 85 2.13
11 .20 36 .70 61 1.27 86 2.18
12 .22 37 .72 62 1.30 87 2.24
13 .24 38 .74 63 1.33 88 2.30
14 .26 39 .76 64 1.36 89 2.37
15 .28 40 .78 65 1.39 90 2.44
16 .30 41 .80 66 1.42 91 2.52
17 .32 42 .82 67 1.45 92 2.60
18 .34 43 -. 84 68 1.48 93 2.69
19 .36 44 .86 69 1.51 94 2.78
20 .38 45' .89 70 1.54 95 2.91
21 .40 46 .91 71 1.57 96 3.04
22 .41 47 .93 72 1.60 97 3.22
23 .43 48 .95 73 1.64 98 3.45
24 .45 49 .98 74 1.67 99 3.82
25 .47 50 1.00 75 1.71 100
Taking the width of a 50 per cent zone as unity, the

factors in the above table are the width of other zones con-
taining different percentages; thus 80 per cent and 20 per
cent zones are, respectively, 1.9 and 0.38 times as wide as
the 50 per cent zone.
If the width of the 50 per cent zone is given in yards
or feet, the widths of other zones, containing different per-
centage can be obtained by multiplying by their correspond-
ing factors: Thus, if the width of a 50 per cent zone is 3
yards, the widths of 25 per cent and 72 per cent zones are
0.47X3=1.41 yards and 1.60X3=4.80 yards, respectively.
Conversely, if it is required to find what percentage
will fall in a zone of given width, the factor must be obtained
by dividing by the width of the 50 per cent zone.
Thus, with the same 50 per cent zone (3 yards wide)
as before, what percentage will fall in zones 2 yards and 6
yards wide? The factors are -=0.67 and %=2,and they
correspond to 35 per cent and 82.4 per cent, respectively.
One thing must always be remembered, a zone always
has at its center, the center of impact.
PROBABILITIES 225
To give an idea of the variation of the density about the
center of impact the following figure may be of assistance.
2 pc
7 pc
16 pc
25 pc
C For range
25 pc
S16 pc
0 7 pc
2 pc
For
2 7 16 25 C 25 16 7 2
deviation
The distance between lines is in each case equal to the

probable error. The above figures can be used also for the
vertical and lateral deviations if the direction of fire be con-
sidered as perpendicular to the paper.
By superimposing the above figures we can get a very
good idea of the general dispersion.
2 71 161 25 25 161 7 2::

.04 .14 .32 .5 .5 .32 .14 .04 2
.14 .49 1.12 1.75 1.75 1.12 .49 .14 7
.32 1.12 1.96 4. 4. 1.96 1.12 .32 16
.5 1.75 4. 6.25 6.25 4. 1.75 .5 25
.5 1.75 4. 6.25 6.25 4. 1.75 .5 25
.32 1.12 1.96 4. 4. 1.96 1.12 .32 16
.14 .49 1.12 1.75 1.75 1.12 .49 .14 7
.04 .14 .32 .5 .5 .32 .14 .04 2
ART.-8
226 FIELD ARTILLERY
The above figure shows the probable distribution of 100

shots the number in each small rectangle showing the num-
ber of hits to be expected in this area. While the actual
area in which all the shots will probably fall is an ellipse,
it is more convenient to consider it in this form. Note the
symmetry of the disposition of the hits.
As has been stated, the tables are computed from data
obtained with greatest care. All the nearly ideal conditions
of test firing can not be expected in the field in time of peace
much less in time of war and therefore instead of taking
the values as in the tables we introduce another factor
1.5, called the field factor. Actual target practice firing
shows this to be about correct, but many believe and with
reason, that this is too small, and that war conditions will
require even a greater factor. This factor assumes a well
trained battery, doing its work well.
The following problems are given here to illustrate
the use of the tables. It must be understood that no effort
is made to use these tables during actual firing. The pur-
pose of the study is to give everyone a thorough idea of
trajectories, with their inherent errors so that he may know
what to expect to see and when he sees a thing to be able to
recognize it and act accordingly, instead of wasting time
seeking errors in instruments and personnel which exist
in the gun and its ammunition and which can not be elim-
inated. It is believed that enough is given in this paper to
make anyone studying it sufficiently familiar with his wea-
pon to handle it to its full capacity and to be able to analyze
and criticize target practice reports intelligently.
Problem No. 1. Percussion
What position does the center of impact occupy with

respect to the center of the target, when out of a total of 8
shots fired, 2 are observed to be either short or over, and
6 over or short of the target?
Range 4,000 yards.
As. 2 shots out of 8 fall short of the target, the per-
centage of shorts is % equals 25 per cent.
In any case 50 per cent fall short and 50 per cent be-
yond the center of impact. Now, if 25 per cent have fallen
PROBABILITIES 227
short of the target, then 25 per cent more must fall be-
tween target and center of impact. The center of impact is
always at the center of the 50 per cent zone, therefore one-
half of the shots in the 50 per cent zone fall on either side
of the center of impact, or 25 per cent on either side. The
target is therefore at the edge of the 50 per cent zone.
Therefore, if we find the width of the 50 per cent zone,
and divide it by 2, we will have the distance the target is
in front of the center of impact.
From probability tables we find depth of 50 per cent
zone at 4,000 yards equals 48.21 yards.
48.21 X 1.5 equals 72.3, the corrected 50 per cent zone.
72.3 divided by 2 equals 36.1 yards, the distance of
target short of the center of impact. The converse, or 6
short and 2 over, would place the target 36.1 yards beyond
the center of impact.
Therefore, when out of 8 shots 2 fall short or over, the
center of impact is either 36.1 yards beyond or short of tar-
get, and the range should be diminished or increased by 25
yards, which would bring the center of impact within 11.1
yards of target.
The figure illustrates above problem-for 2 short and
6 over.
25% .............. 25% ............. X --- 25% ...... . . 25%
......... 25yds
..T.... ...........36.1 ..
Center of impact
Proper point
Problem No. 2. Percussion

What position does the center of impact occupy with
respect to the center of the target when, out of a total of
8 shots fired, one shot is observed as short or over, and
the remaining 7 as over or short?
Range 4,000 yards.
s equals 12.5 per cent, which fall short of the target.
228 FIELD ARTILLERY
Then 50 per cent minus 12.5 per cent equals 37.5 per
cent, which equals the percentage of shots falling between
target and center of impact.
37.5 X 2 equals 75 per cent. The center of impact is at
the center of 75 per cent zone. The target is at the edge
of 75 per cent zone.
To find depth of 75 per cent zone:
48.21 X 1.5 equals 72.3 equals depth of 50 per cent zone.
Factor for 75 per cent zone equals 1.71.
72.3 X 1.71 equals 123.6 yards, the depth of the 75 per
cent zone.
123.6 divided by 2 equals 61.8 yards, the distance of
center of impact beyond target for 1 short and 7 over,
therefore in subtracting 50 yards from range in first
case and adding 50 yards in second case a range will be
obtained which will bring the center of impact within 11.8
yards of target.
Figure illustrates above problem for 1 short and 7
over.
Center of impact
i..---.....--....- 37 -% . . . --.- 372 % ...... ....-

X ----------...
Problem No. 3. Time Fire
What should be the percentage of points of burst in

front of the target when the range of burst is normal, i.e.,
fire properly adjusted?
Range 4,000 yards. - Assuming range of burst to be
normal when projectile bursts 75 yards in front of the tar-
get. This point is the center of burst corresponding to
center of impact. As many burst short of this point as
beyond it. The target is at the edge of a zone 2 X 75 equals
150 yards in depth. If therefore we find what percentage
burst in this zone, and subtract from 100 per cent, we will
PROBABILITIES '22.9
get the percentage which burst outside of it. One-half of
this percentage will burst short of this zone and one-half
beyond it, or beyond target.
To find zone whose depth is 150 yards:
Depth of 50 per cent zone equals 44.1 X 1.5 - 66.1.
150 divided by 66.1 equals 2.27, which is factor in
tables-this factor corresponds to 88 per cent, therefore
12 per cent burst outside of this zone and 6 per cent be-
yond target and 94 per cent short of target, or out of 16
shots, 15 burst short and one beyond target.
Figure illustrates.
75 yds ................- X..-- ...

.. ............ - 75 yds ............
:- ..-. ... 88 pc.

..--. --.-..--... --
6 pc 6 pc
T
Problem No. 4. Time Fire
What is the mean range of burst when out of 8 shots

fired, 1 is observed to burst beyond target?
Range 4,000 yards.
( equals 12.5 per cent, which burst beyond target,
therefore the target is at the edge of the 75 per cent zone;
100 minus (2 X 12.5) equals 75, because as many burst
short of any zone as burst beyond it.
Width of 50 per cent zone equals 66.1 yards (44.1X 1.5).
Factor for 75 per cent zone (page 181, Handbook) is
1.71.
66.1 X 1.71 equals 113 yards, the depth of 75 per cent
zone.
113 divided by 2 equals 56.5 yards, the distance of
point of burst in front of target. As 75 yards has been
assumed as the proper interval of burst, by subtracting 25
yards from the range the point of burst will be brought to
81.5 yards in front of target, which is better adjustment.
Compare this problem with Problem No. 3.
230 FIELD ARTILLERY
Figure illustrates problem No. 4.

.......................... 75 pc-
12 p -. 56.4 yds--- - -------- 56.4 yds............ 12A pc
-25 yds- T
Proper point
Problem No. 5
What is the mean range of burst when out of 8 shots

fired, 2 are observed to burst beyond target?
Range 4,000 yards.
9s equals 25 per cent. Therefore the target is at the
edge of the 50 per cent zone; 100 minus (2 X 25) equals 50.
Depth of 50 per cent zone equals 66.1, therefore point
of burst is 66.1 divided by 2 equals 33 yards short of target.
By subtracting 50 yards from the range the point of
burst will be brought to the best position.
Figure illustrates Problem 5.
Center of burst.
.. ............
. ...........
...-... .. ....
25 pc...... 33 yds X .........33 yds . 25pc
T
..............50 yds ...... .
Proper point of burst
Problem No. 6
When the corrector has been adjusted to give burst of
normal height, what percentage of bursts on impact and
exceptionally high points of burst are to be expected?
Range 4,000 yards.
Height of burst equals 3 mils equals 12 yards, the
height of center of burst above ground.
50 per cent zone for vertical dispersion (H. column in
table) equals 8.92.
8.92 X 1.5 equals 13.38 yards.
PROBABILITIES 231
2 X 12 equals 24 yards height of zone to be considered.
24 divided by 13.38 equals 1.79 equals factor corre-
sponding to 77 per cent, therefore 77 per cent burst from
ground to 24 yards (equals 6 mils) above ground, the re-
maining 23 per cent burst half on graze and half above 6
mils in height.
11.5 per cent graze.
11.5 per cent over 6 mils high.
Figure illustrates.
11 pc
12 yds.
Center of burst --- X- 77 pc
12 yds 3 mils
"..." '.. . """""""'' ground
11J pc
Problem No. 7
When the corrector has been adjusted, what percentage

of low bursts are to be expected (low point of burst less than
3 yards high)?
Range 4,000 yards.
This problem, in other words, is to find what percentage
of shots burst in air, within 3 yards of ground.
4 X 3 equals 12, the height of center of burst above
ground.
If two zones be used, one of 24 yards depth (12 X 2)
and one of 18 yards depth (12-3X2), the difference be-
tween the percentages in these two zones will be the per-
centage of shots bursting within 3 yards of ground and
between 21 and 24 yards above the ground, and one-half of
this percentage will be the percentage required by the
problem.
24 equals 1.80 factor of zone, hence zone con-

8.92 x 1.5
tains 78 per cent.
18 equals 1.34 factor of zone, hence zone con-
8.92 X 1.5
tains 63 per cent. 78-63 equals 15.
232 FIELD ARTILLERY
15 divided by 2 equals 72 per cent or one shot out of

14 will give a low point of burst.
Figure illustrates.
71 pc
78 pc 12 yds 9 yds .
Center of
63 pc
63 Px x- impact.
12 yds 9 yds 3 mils
7A pc 3yds
ground
Problem No. 8
What is the average height of burst when out of a total

of 8 shots fired, only one low point of burst is observed?
No impact burst.
Range 4,000 yards.
a equals 12- per cent burst within 3 yards of ground.
100-- (122.X 2) equals 75. Find depth of 75 per cent zone.
8.92 X 1.5 X 1.71 equals 22.9.
22.9 divided by 2 equals 11.5, the height of center of
burst, above a point 3 yards from the ground.
11.5 plus 3 equals 14.5, the height of center of burst.
1 mil equals 4 yards; therefore 14.5 yards equal 14.5
divided by 4 equals 3 mils.
Figure illustrates.
122 pc 3 yds
112 yds
Center of
--75 pc -------- ------ ------
impact.
112 yds
122 pc 3 yds
I, , F F F F, F F F 'ground
PROBABILITIES 233
Problem No. 9
What is the average height of burst when out of 8 shots
one explosion on impact or point of burst below the target
is observed ?
Range. 4,000 yards.
I equals 12 per cent. 100-(2 X 12) equals 75.
The ground at the target is at the edge of the 75 per
cent zone.
8.92X1.5 X 1.71 equals 23.
23 divided by 2 equals 11.5 yards equals height of center
of burst.
12J pc
23 yds
75 pc
11.5 yds
121 pc - ground
Problem No. 10
What is the average height of burst when out of 8 shots,
two low points of burst are observed (in air within 3 yards
of ground, or on graze) ?
9s equals 25 per cent. 100-(2x25) equals 50 per
cent zone.
Depth of 50 per cent zone equals 8.92 X 1.5 equals 13.4.
13.4 divided by 2 equals 6.7 equals height of center of
burst above point 3 yards from ground.
6.7 plus 3 equals 9.7 yards equals average height of
burst.
25 pc
A A
25 pc 6.69 Center
of burst
2525pc6.69
pc ;
V A
A
25 pc 3 vds.
v
ground
234 FIELD ARTI'LLERY
Problem No. 11
A platoon salvo is fired at a range of 4,000 yards, and
one graze and one burst 5 mils high is observed. Is it ne-
cessary to check up platoon or to make a change in corrector
before firing the next salvo ?
Referring to probability tables we find width of 50 per
cent zone for'vertical dispersion equals 8.92 yards. Hence
100 per cent zone corrected by factor equals 1.5 X 8.92X 4
equals 53.52. Therefore there is: nothing abnormal about
the combination of bursts obtained, as the vertical difference
between the two bursts is only 4X 5 equals 20 yards. This
combination in fact gives a zero height of burstirand one best
adapted for adjustment at long ranges. Hence fire should
be continued with this corrector setting and no change should
be made unless subsequent fire shows error. There is none
shown here.
Problem No. 12
Assume the range and deflection to be so accurately

determined that the center of impact of all shots is at the
center of target two yards high and four yards wide. What
is the probability of obtaining a hit on this target, percus-
sion fire used?
Range 4,000 yards.
Width of 50 per cent zone for vertical dispersion equals
10.29.
Width of 50 per cent zone for lateral dispersion equals
3.40.
10.29X 1.5 equals 15.43.
2
Sequals .13 factor corresponding to 7 per cent.
15.43
3.40 x 1.5 equals 5.10.
4
Sequals .78 factor corresponding to 40 per cent.
5.10
Now if 7 per cent of all shots are correct for height and
40 per cent for deviation the percentage correct for both
is equal to .40 X.07 equals .028 or 2.8 per cent, or under
these ideal conditions the probable expenditure of shots per
hit will be 100 divided by 2.8 equals 36 shots.
PROBABILITIES 235
Figure illustrates.
40 pc
4 yds
2 yds C 2.8pc 7 pc
.. . . . . ..
C is center of impact..
Problem No. 13
The assumption of the center of impact being at the

center of target having been made n a1bove problem, which
will rarel Iif ever happen, assume the center of impact at
two yards to the right and two yards above the center of the
target. What is the probabili' of abtaiiing a under "hit
these conditions? Range 4,000 yards.
'Figure illustratds.
C is center of impact.
'd e
2yds
lyd
1 yd
a
2 yds' 4yds 4 yds

b
To find percentage between lines, a b. From bottom of

target to C is three yards, hence find the percentage in a
zone 6 yards wide and percentage in a zone 2 yards wide:
One half the difference between these .two percentages will
equal the percentage in a b.
To find percentage between lines d and e.
236 FIELD ARTILLERY
Find percentage in a zone 8 yards wide. One-half the
percentage will be the percentage in space d e.
The product of these two percentages will be equal to
the percentage in target.
6 equals .39 factor corresponding to 20 per cent.

15.43
2 equals .13 factor corresponding to 7 per cent.
15.43
20-equals 6.5 per cent in (a-b).
2
8 equals 1.56 factor corresponding to 71 per cent.
5.10
71 equals 35.5 per cent.
2
.355 x .065 equals .023 or 2.3 per cent or about 44
shots per hit.
Problem No. 14
Assuming the ball of smoke from shrapnel bursting

in air to be four yards in diameter, and the dirt and smoke
from percussion shrapnel to be four yards in diameter,
what percentage of air and graze bursts are sensible against
a target two yards high and four yards wide? No wind.
Assume a zero height of burst, i.e., half air, half graze.
Range 4,000 yards. The ball of smoke rolled around outer
edge of target, asuming the point of burst to be at center of
smoke ball, will increase the size of area to be considered by
.two yards in height and four yards width. Range 4,000
yards.
4 yds 2 yds 2 yds

PROBABILITIES 237
Assume deflection exactly correct:

Width 50 per cent zone lateral dispersion equals 3.40.
3.40 x 1.5 equals 5.10.
8 equals 1.57, therefore 71 per cent.
5.10
Width 50 per cent zone vertical dispersion equals 8.92.
8.92 x 1.5 equals 13.38.
8 equals .60, therefore.31.
13.38
.31 divided by 2 equals .155 the center of burst being
at bottom of target.
.71 X .155 equals .11 in air. or 11 per cent.
50 per cent are on graze, Hence:
.50 X .71 equals .355 on graze or 35.5 per cent, total
sensible, 46.5.
These problems taken literally might result in con-

siderable discouragement, and might convey the impression
that it is hardly worth firing. For example in the last prob-
lem with ravines in front and rear the grazes would be lost,
but with ravines in front and rear, several of the 50 per cent
on graze, would be bursts in air below target but sensible,
making almost 6 per cent more to be added to the 11 per
cent already obtained making 17 per cent sensible.
Then in addition thereto, if there is any cross wind, as
there usually is, lateral dispersion so far as sensing is con-
cerned, could be eliminated by shifting the sheaf, which
would finally make about 20 per cent sensible, or say one
shot in five.
This illustrates the fact, to prove which is one of the ob-
jects of this paper, that a large percentage of shots cannot
be sensed. Hence every effort should be made to sense shots
correctly, and a battery commander, even at the short ranges,
must of necessity have a large percentage of questionable
sensings and must not hesitate to act upon the sensing of
a single shot, in obtaining his rough adjustment.
When consideration is taken of the impact shots which
are sensible and also of the patterns, these low figures ap-
pear exaggerated. It is regretted that so much of our prac-
238 FIELD ARTILLERY
tice is held during the summer, where we have every ad-

vantage of dry and dusty soil, making observation much
easier than we may normally expect it to be.
The impact firing for direct hits also appears extremely
discouraging. However if a battery commander, with
4 X44 equals 176 projectiles, could put out of action the ma-
teriel of another battery, it would be ammunition well spent.
Solutions of problems similar to these and at short and
mid ranges will be of value in illustrating the rapidity with
which the. accuracy of the gun diminishes as: the range in-
creases.
Tables for. Use in Probabilities
3-INCH FIELD GUN-SHRAPNEL-TIME FIRE
3
O
o *' oo
0*'
I
~
y
44 4- a
30 0 a
.0 3- ao 0
-0 3
p. v a) N F '. yO
a U4 o'.
ro
ai I~; .. 0
o4.
EI 2
Range. 3-~
0o p a
'a ,8-. 4-0, a kov
aO Gc , a3r L' a~
Ce ,Q '-4,
45.3 3 4.F 'JO 0
a
4-4M a 0E
54.' 'a 3
'3i
a
Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards- Yards

0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 8 41 0.00
500 21.5 .2---------------------------.32 9 54
1,000 35.0 .9_---------------_------------ .61 11 06
1,500 47.0 2.2------_-------------------1.15 12 06..
2,000 58.0 4.2 - 4.3 20.4 34.5 1.54 13 02 2.48
2,500 67.0 6.8 + 4.2 22.0 37.2 1.86 13 52 3.80
3,000 76.0 10.3 +13.0 23.4 39.5 2.54 14 28 5.34
3,500 84.5 14.5 +21.0 24.8 41.9 2.95 14 54 7.22
4,000 92.5 19.7 +28.3 26.1 44.1 3.40 15 22 8.92
4,500 100.0 26.1 +34.7 27.4 46.3 4.23 15 48 12.18
5,000 107.0 33.6 +40.2 28.6 48.3 5.42 .16 12 15.09
5,500 113.0 42.2 +44.8 29.6 50.0 6.92 16 32 18.52
6,000 119.5 52.4 +48.9 30.6 51.7 8.78 16 48 22.67
6,500 125.5 64.3 +52.5 31.6 53.4 11.15 17 05 28.11
7,000 131.0 77.8 +55.6 32.6 55.1 14.00 17 20 34.44
7,500 136.4 93.0 +58.4 33.5 56.6 18.00 17 35 43.54
8,000 141.7 110.0 +60.9 34.2 57.8 23.40 17 50 52.55
PROBABILITIES 23:)
3-INCH FIELD GUN-SHRAPNEL-PERCUSSION FIRE
4- w "
so -n t9~' C"et : a-
Range. c v ., et o - , '
OS d+
.,...u Osq q qA, 4
Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards

0 ------------------ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
500 --------------- 12.9 .5 .13 8.27 .32 .083
31000-------------- 24.8 .95 .63 13.90 .61 .403
1,500--------------- 5.6 1.8 1.64 22.82 1.15 1.05
2,000-.--_ 45.4 2.4 8.28 29.10 1.54 2.10
2,500 ---- 53.9 2.9 5.49 84.55 1.86 8.52
3,000-------------- 61.5 8.96 8.30 39.42 2.54 5.82
3,500- ----------- 68.6 4.6 11.76 48.97 2.95 7.54
4,000 -------------- 75.2 5.3 16.05 48.21 8.40 . 10.29
4,500_---_ 81.1 6.6 21.16 51.99 4.23 18.56
5,000 -------------- 85.8 8.45 26.94 55.00 5.42 17.27
5,500 ------------ 89.5 10.8 38.43 57.87 6.92 21.48
6,000 ------------ 92.4 18.7 40.52 59.28 8.78 25.97
6,500 ------------ 95.1 17.4 48.69 60.96 11.15 81.21
7,000 ------------ 97.2 21.9 58.20 62.81 14.04 37.81
7,500------------99.2 27.2 69.80 68.59 17.44 44.42
8,000 ------------ 101.0 88.2 82.60 64.74 21.28 52.95
Tactical Walks
(Fort Leavenworth Map 3"=1 mile)
General Situation:
Missouri (Red) and Kansas (Blue) are at war.
A Red invading force from the south is reported to be
at Lansing.
A Blue force consisting of the First Brigade Infantry,
First Battalion First F. A., and the First Squadron First
Cavalry, based on Kickapoo, are guarding supplies being
accumulated at Fort Leavenworth.
Special Situation (Blue):

At 11-00 A. M., on the morning of October 31, Gen. Hill,
commanding the Blue force, received the following message
from the outpost cavalry:
One Mile north of LANSING,
31 Oct. 1917, 10-00 A.M.
Gen. Hill,
Fort Leavenworth.
A Red force, estimated to consist of one brigade of
infantry, one squadron cavalry, and one battalion field
artillery, marched north from LANSING at 10-00 A. M. I
continue reconnaissance.
Smith,
Lieut.
General Hill assembles the three colonels, the artillery
commander, and the cavalry commander and gives the fol-
lowing order:
"The enemy, estimated strength, one brigade Infantry,
one squadron cavalry, and one battalion field artillery
are reported to have marched north from LANSING at 10-00
A.M. this morning.
"There will be no reinforcements sent from KICKAPOO.
"We will hold line MISSOURI RIVER-POPE HILL-LONG
RIDGE-ATCHISON HILL.
241
242 FIELD ARTILLERY
"The first regiment will occupy position from 800 yards
west of PRISON LANE to point 100 yards west of GRANT AVE.
"The second regiment will occupy position from point
100 yards west of GRANT AVE. to MISSOURI RIVER exclusive.
"The third regiment, constituting the reserve will be
stationed just north of SOUTH MERRITT HILL.
"The cavalry will withdraw to the right flank.
"The field artillery will take position in the vicinity of
SOUTH MERRITT HILL to support the infantry line.
"The trains will remain in their present position at
quartermaster corral.
"Messages to me at the reserve."
Major B, the field artillery commander, sends the fol-

lowing order to his battalion:
"The enemy estimated at a brigade of infantry, squad-
ron of cavalry and battalion of artillery is reported to be
moving north from Lansing toward Leavenworth. Our
infantry is taking up a position along the line: MISSOURI
RIVER-POPE HILL-LONG RIDGE-ATCHISON HILL.
"This battalion will occupy a position in the vicinity of
SOUTH MERRITT HILL to support the infantry.
"The battalion will form at once in column on POPE AVE.
with its head at GRANT AVE.
"The combat trains will be consolidated and will follow
the battalion at 500 yards.
"Battery commanders with details, reconnaissance offi-
cers, and Lieut. Y as combat train agent will report to me
immediately at the corner of POPE and GRANT AVENUES."
When all have reported, Major B rides south on

Grant Ave., taking with him the battery commanders, de-
tails, reconnaissance officers, combat train agent, battalion
adjutant and detail, directing the sergeant major to mark
the route and reel cart to follow at a walk. As he proceeds
he observes the terrain on both sides of the road to locate
suitable positions for combat train and limbers.
On reaching South Merritt Hill Major B leaves the
road and makes the reconnaissance of the battalion position.
Before reaching South Merritt Hill Major B no-
tices the deep ravine leading from Merritt Lake east of
Grant Ave., and directs the combat train agent to reconnoiter
this ravine as to its suitability for position for combat train
and to report to him on Pope Hill. Major B also notices
a suitable position for limbers south of Merritt Lake.
TACTICAL WALKS 243
Major B having reconnoitered the terrain assigned

to his battalion, decides to place his own station on Pope Hill
and selects as the battalion reference point the northeast
corner of the prison wall.
The combat train agent has returned from his recon-
naissance reporting that the position is suitable for the com-
bat train.
Major B now sends an agent to direct the battalion
to proceed south along Grant Ave., at a walk.
He then gives the following order to the assembled offi-
cers and details:
"There is no further information of the enemy.

"The battalion sector extends from the MISSOURI RIVER,
exclusive, to ATCHISON HILL, exclusive.
"The battalion reference point will be the northeast cor-
ner of the prison wall.
"My station will be at this point (POPE HILL).
"Battery A will occupy a position on the north slope of
SOUTH MERRITT HILL, flash defilade, with its left at a point
100 yards west of GRANT AVE., and will cover sector, battalion
reference point--ATCHISON HILL, exclusive.
"Battery B will occupy position on north slope of
SOUTH MERRITT HILL, flash defilade, with its left on GRANT
AVE., and will cover the sector, BATALLION REFERENCE POINT
-GRANT AVE., inclusive.
"Battery C will occupy position on north slope of POPE
HILL east of GRANT AVE., covering the sector, GRANT AVE., to
MISSOURI RIVER, both exclusive. Commander of Battery C
will have his B. C. station with me.
"I will establish telephone communication with batteries
A and B.
"Lieut R (reconnaissance officer) and orderly will re-
port to Gen. Hill as agent.
"Lieut. S (reconnaissance officer) with one scout cor-
poral and one scout private will report to commanding officer
First Infantry and will keep in touch with me.
"Lieut. T (reconnaissance officer) with one scout cor-
poral and one scout private will report to the commanding
officer Second Infantry and will keep in touch with me.
"Lieut. Y (combat train agent) will place combat train
in ravine on south side of ONE MILE CREEK, 200 yards east of
GRANT AVE. and will then report to me."
Required, FirstDay:
Capt. A's actions and orders.
244 FIELD ARTILLERY
Required, Second Day:
Capt. C's actions and orders.
Approved Solution-Capt A
After receiving the orders of Major B, Capt. A
turns to his battery detail and says: "You have heard the
orders of Major B, mount, and follow me."
Capt. A proceeds north by a concealed route crossing
Grant Ave., about 100 yards south of Merritt Lake.
He halts in rear of house on north slope of South
Merritt Hill, dismounts, and proceeds alone to top of crest,
avoiding exposing himself to view from the south.
Having satisfied himself that this crest is the best posi-
tion from which to observe the sector assigned to him, he
decides to establish his B. C. station in hole on crest 300
yards west of Grant Ave.
He observes from this station that the area assigned for
his battery affords an excellent position.
Capt. A then calls: "Detail."
The instrument sergeant, range finder, and scout No. 2,
dismount and come forward with the instruments.
When these men arrive, Capt. A gives the following
order:
"There is no further information of the enemy.

"Our infantry line is on that ridge (pointing). The
cavalry is withdrawing to the vicinity of ATCHISON HILL
(pointing).
"The battery sector extends from the northeast corner
of prison wall, inclusive, to ATCHISON HILL, exclusive
(pointing). Do you identify the limits of the sector?
*"Battery reference point will be that round cupola on
building just west of prison (pointing). Do you identify
it?
"The B. C. station will be in this hole.
"The right gun of the battery will be about 100 yards to
our left rear.
"Aiming point, B. C. telescope.
"Telephone communication will be established.
"The B. C. station will be prepared with overhead
cove- "
Capt. A then goes to select the exact position for his
guns.
TACTICAL WALKS 245
As he proceeds down the slope he calls: "Detail."
At this command the balance of the detail dismount,
link their horses, turn over to the horseholder, and report
to the B. C. at double time.
Capt. A places scout No. 1 at the point where the
left of the battery will rest, being careful not to encroach
on ground assigned to Battery B, and operator No. 1
where the right piece of the battery will rest, being satisfied
that the trajectory at minimum range to be used will clear
the crest.
He then directs the telephone corporal to establish tele-
phone communication between battery and B. C, station and
to hook on battalion line at B. C. station.
Capt. A then mounts and with the first sergeant
rides to the vicinity of Merritt Lake and selects a position
for the limbers, in ravine just east of Grant Ave., and along
One Mile Creek.
He then directs the first sergeant to ride back and meet
the battery and lead it into position.
Capt. A returns to B. C. station and after carefully
examining data and panoramic sketch prepared by his de.-
tail, begins a careful study of his sector.
As soon as he has examined the data he sends the initial
deflection to the battery.
Approved Solution-Capt. C
During the reconnaissance, Capt. C has noted that
the area assigned to his battery is thickly wooded.
After receiving the order of Major B, Capt. C turns
to his detail and gives the following order:
"You have heard the orders of Major B.

"Our infantry will occupy that crest (pointing).
"' he sector for this battery extends from GRANT AVE.
to the MISSOURI RIVER, both exclusive. Do you identify the
limits of the sector?
"The battery reference point will be ST. JOHN'S CHURCH
(pointing). Do you identify it?
"The guns will be stationed to the left-rear.
"Reciprocal laying will be used for the initial deflection.
"The instrument sergeant, range finder, and scout No. 2
will set up the instruments here, at once. B. C. station will
246 FIELD ARTILLERY
be intrenched with overhead cover. Cannoneers will be

sent to prepare 'position."
.Capt. C directs the rest of the detail: "Mount and
follow me."
He then reconnoiters carefully the ground assigned
him and selects a position for his guns, two on each side of
the ravine 200 yards east of Grant Ave., and 50 yards north
of his station. He places scout No. 1 marking the left two
guns, and operator No. 1 the right two guns.
Capt. C gives scout No. 1 the direction of fire and
directs him to notify the executive officer on his arrival to
lay the guns on the reference point by reciprocal laying. He
then directs the telephone corporal to establish telephone
communication between the battery and B. C. station.
He then mounts and with the first sergeant selects a
position for the limbers just south of Davin Ridge and to the
left rear of the battery.
Capt. C directs the first sergeant to lead the battery
into position, turning east from Grant Ave., just south of
One Mile Creek and following the unimproved road to the
position.
He then returns to his station and examines data and
panoramic sketch prepared by his detail and begins a care-
ful study of his sector.
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-- ---- - 'uardjube - -- -- -
r---
--- --- Vod Tube-- -- - - - -
-
------ h leation4'"ale-- 'S ew
cr---- - - ,
e H oy de n
-r - - -= - eltc
r- -- A'ecee Tube
r --Aeeens
i-Field Lens
iI
'II leeUaton ia --- -- --- --
r -Letel---- ---
fzimuthG 2k-al-----
I -- A
-Azimuth )%at- I_
- 2w ~ io'an,-'LZI
OG'J' SL3Iie L- -- _
I ,Y.5I ,A otton S5irew = - - - - - - - -
--- F~red Limb------------ -
- -- -- -Zecelin; $5c-iewJs---- ----------
- -- -;ce .La e--d -

-Trpo ----- --
L_ - -- -- Tripod L eael
Batlerb (iommzaders Teiescone

Model of 1.905
o / 2 3 4 -5 61nes
b b- hlescoip : tube
'fYA~ le of 'Siteme1msm
cin
'-t c6a- kob
J3 bas
Tronladcr Ter escopede

Ni
i dI Sissrs
.I nsC um rn p 9 Lv
c tH irq d
r od
ISVe
basj Raq
PLATtX/i/
F------- --
- I- is - -----------------
-Reticuke/o/dep$Sras
- _.. i i RetkdAfled.
-R"u"""fr~elal. *
'-"w 1pelA~bde$t
.-
I I{Iii
e.('sif
!i'I ' Eleat~.
I heneJ, "--I
r "4L AY,4'Esn.leeeMpD/.djL - - - 0
$eak.
1 fdrkmuDA
rAwuAhBx Wlut -I -----
-------
Cefr -s~-1 L I---
.;; .---- 6.kt,'

fA*d Igge-------..- w". -pt- - " .7---
ev0.
- 9pod -.- - -..--- ----------
THE NORRIS
PETERS O. C.
CO.,WASHIMOTON4
Itocrr5ha --- , Ba*eBeamn. -"--
Jlxte~earti -- --"I 15~e Z . ',m - -;
o !
-urci~y 5,eal J9rm&.Srypo1-
r'8muuut nco,.Carrnert - 8.ale5eat

Foot Ret , ~" Y-. eer
III
I .. td o b lre-- "
-SWf9 0 ' ,1/ L~
- --- ,5pun IS&E

1
Plan
S A d 1) 25 X 4" -1 103%
1
1--_e _' j
JJ/w cGun Car r ~~e Aloe1 f90.2
,Si hraet r -z---

AS5eat~/rrn- 'aar- - ''op , 'ueld Fastenuizy
,5eat 'r7rc 5zyaport---- - \ -----Parpewuec,St'ih1Case
,Seal ,5Qpporit j PRanoramic ith

Fronr t S.hHolder- - ,' ?ear <<4Ght
~-- eaaci~zeeace s pwrt
aver--s irtcg JandwwetL
i~i, -------- Rochser
--
Beoa~r94crews (Innerand Outer!.
------ -)hoadder Gaani
--- Cradle
H Yhraahe -Lay For Traversing and Etevatzcg9Zochk
r-------- -Blevaetig Cratnh
~RenngRngBo7l; o
A
X2andspi.76e----------------------
anelte ---------- ----
--Cradle Ifead
,Ypae -ru'-----
,-aeton Rod J'ai
-WhzeeldUaar'd
AproncLatc--
Zal4" (loverawdLalcl
A--e-Bearing
r__
,5 iceJJ~eytorn [Left NrheetRemooed]

0. 5 /0 J-T 20 25 .30 .75 40 45 50 65 60 65.- 0
..
,Fronss -Cow i5'cg/u
ewneY@ L$- ~C.C--S------~ +o~----------- 1

r~~W~ ~4
y-- ------------- -- GCps- ~~~

-- -'3lnech
3tcoe td Field. Gun ledeZ a/IO
- -AZeaezbae Sight r - - - - - -- S chree--, .'"Lockuj9A-Xoop--, read., Front Clip
---------------------
--
F D
!rucde Raa'L G2yve-
A
i -- - -'
L -Breech Recess-'
L.---Aecoe Lug--
L-=--"-ar dCyinde End17
Stud-'
3Inc/t Field Gun e7P&odeI of 1.901
rFJutt Line cy9M
r - -- -- ea,'ine SY~t r- --- -- Jket--' ;:1-ockingyXo@p-i Ta.- r-. Cwoe C'4w
----- -----
nech Aeces' 1
re
--- Fod-l
Aecll
'31k ~g- -- hField Gun "Model oti.9O05
_______________
3ca~e lZecher
orrPart
2e eNa.Na e Yam
ofA7rt JIB 93
_-37
Jlncli.Fie1d Czln, v'7lodels a1'196V 1905.
B 'eecli. 3fecllanism Jlssernlled,

o r z a e. s e x a s ro a.Inthea:
14
- / d' l 36'x2
\ 1O 36'-
-- - 3- - - 33- }y
- !F !
38-
22-- f-f
Ir
!1
27- .70 42
~37
- 2 1 tt 3 7
Y. ':aaI 21
til s. Se fiOn
18 27 3 8
32 ,ptf 12 ell J,9. E-E.
,96 __!B
/ / .'. Vertical Section. S'ide 'levation. . r. {

} zo z3-
ar E' -,
3 zz 110 n 2S
z f 1 <lacketf 26 Tri 9er Forh yy

t 23 19 9 z Dale 27 TietggetShat"f
I . r 3 Breech Bloch 28 rillggerS'ha1t 1, +tent
\ 4 . Vent Busfarng 23 FircngJzllet
S Moe* Carrier 30 Pallet .5'harefr
Block SCo,7 31 Pallet Pin.

7 Xinge Pit 32 Firing Xandle
8 Xin e Pict Catcft 33 Furrcg Xandle Plug :- _ .3
1s 1 ,y 9 Is'xfractor 39 FiringXandCeSpring :_-
10 Xxtracfor Lever 35 FirinyXandlePlunger : .
-- 7 it Operatcnyleuet' 96 . YrrngXandleXab ;
Loaf' LuyI- Aloclr . 2 26
12 LeuerP[uot 37 FiifngXandleBrucket
13 Lover Aateh 38 Brrul..5 eat
v - a? ;3 If Leve'-Zaech Pivot 99 FirinyXandleS'ha11 19'

16 15 LeuerLatchS uriny f0 Xandle Return ASpTing Secfion .. Y.9 _xrecei 818. secfio OC.
1e BloehLatch i ShallR urncSiwzrzq Bloch- Ilnlomfred
17 Bkick.LatchSprinq 2 ?iYpirrn9 Collar
18 BCocRLatch Pivot 93 Trip Latch
16' x 1g \."=' 13 Ifrin Lock Case i Trv ;Latch. P&a ger
- -20 20 Lorh" gBoll Vu t Pm IS Tire Latch ASprzng
21 Locking Bolt Spring f6' .. gdjustin d'crerv
t j ee. v e1ezt.,Section. zz JYr rzgPlrt 17 e/teGt. t

1 f\ " y 2,4 FCren 'Pin ,Spring
:: 11 21 Firing.Spring cS'leeoe
F 25" ear
I . L----dnzdLe Head.
I .-
L"-----PdtaRxA'2~rtj
-- ~tder--=-J i -----
iianle
Ir~fyinderEnd 5'tadNt-- ---- /
RJecoil Cdnlrcllincq 7,eanccgm

TRPiE5/N6L/NV/P/'OTW'DN1/7
T,9,4L7P5S/A6L U6\ ' \ "'
TfIk 'L5/AN6L/A/A \
L/'Kv~z /5///A/T N
7
/ TVEP/A'6T&~ '/r6Tel
'/ ,14fff5/NV6 T6591'5UT- I 1'
7Th91I-Z275 mGL'? t/ ATC '7 5 C/OA'
0 / 8z -3 4 s 6 /4W[5
CL/55-36 O/Y/5/ON/ -2 OR' 7//A/-7

- -ass
- Cover PAT
-Base GCe'v Gmoove asd catlkirt j-g e

fRolaUmg Basid. (-,-Steel Shell.
I ~-Rase Del onalin9 S~ze, medium Caliber~
eaai
32 z zro U J
-lubicaingand Crimping Grooves..

rLoose Black Pozrde. -Ceninzd Tine.
6Stee1 Dia/lkrzrn. I r5?eel Case,.
Ij\ l icnlal Botrride. r$ee1-ead

I I liz ~~~icl
P, !j r; GuZtQ loIon I F;S
Bractket Fuze ,Seller
-A'-----APe~m FaiPI-CraorIndesz)
acid
_ ---- Corrector Worm Crose.
e. a -- . -arfactrrlWm withXno&
p ~------- -<AotarnPn tok
----- ag Wozwi ulr Cen
..---- CowfworWorm Case

--- CA Ring
<r // -- --..-- anyRngkrm Wfted
/ --- -----aetj'b Af.
1 / r-- Rztnfnoc
,Range form with Crank
-- --- rtrl~srm with Xnob
---- C/amptng.< and .4uds
-wan!dPhcze Setez'
_-angeRny--
Handle-- - -AdabngPfnA~.kk
(III0 .
Care inCzre
-- Corredf~me--- -P
-ig
-- a - ---- fmet
.firxr~hts Aa. 149 am!
-- =Panoramnicfl@1t
-, -- a~ruzc5rh 0 -
-------------
Ratche&_, --- - - -
E --- Pe--p----kt
, ~ 1Jtec i <Scate--- --
,wtJ-J --San-
-Pe &b t ----- e---------
I' - - - tereaLe 9
el ---------- -j-'---
-------------- SrL ep~n~-
-------------
AnsyoSrzo~creit -~e
Rea." ,Si g1t.

1 0. J 2 3 4. 3
1 -- e o ler-----------
scr2 ll yaca dl --
FI _ ptVh w
r t- - S
1 F F
-- - NL
A'tc~veler w-------
-----
1 17le 2 s G4
CZAss J6 -O//o22OM)Vr/N
PLATE I[
2/ s5tCOVD COMBINA7/ON FUZE MODEL. OF /907 M
F/1q I F1E 2
~-------------
0 I 2 INCHES.
r -,
1 623 67
- --
anfrn .Braclret -
Do~
Douie Trea.
e
.DouleTee
7'r1
---. necXa~edoz er
2 rber &de and JDeezr' l/ewes

iScale: - 3d 4a
Fuze
tS $erLa~c~A~rnge
7
, -Fzel',.etteLatch-- /
- - 'r~e ever - ' ee7 ~Lever -Latcrh 7
- e ------------
--- - -ejo'ro Door-----o
! t ---_- I;
to .Rai
Ot ----------
;7"oz ,poot"
-- f
--------
--
mr~rYZ --
Ior
D7'a-C1J
roSu
_--------------
or~io&ac_1?er C pitn -
' oo4 C 0
r_______ o' /Y--Ft,''slzradoor eeo y4rt
Caisop $de 'zdZ7al'19 s _

7 ti ~ 3-----5
'WUS
----------- ----
fi .r p uUYcs; l106. FEb6, ;3/ -

LL.A5536-0/YUOa,
1-:rn Brce
BrsZ ever---
i'tze,J5efl1er
Fuze,Yf1ter~racket
O2 8. 2 JO 202.4 28 32 ,36 40
Inces
---. 4uaro )fheeLziih ewer'
7 -- - - - -- -------
Hawd Rail---- ----- spare %'el--- ----
Paulin Sr c---- ,,we3t~eel Auppoi*-
BrakeSe grrren i- - %.r / Pe Yheliaslenbzg'- 7- ------ 1-------- --- - - -
crtoszrap----, 1 / I Apare)3PheeL Y4priaap
BrakreLea'cr, 7- T~ ~eai Ri.e

Lid Lg---
----- Zu'te!a*Backet *\-1" :

.I
I- I ,~-
{--3
Brac t.Box -- Od01 flBa,-11-\1
Bake Braces--Od \n"- -

Bra eanA ------- flL-------
Leoer~lodi-------- ------ Ax ie~lockj-

gyipa
--
3-inch tuun Balderl,' JYa Ak'del of 1902

- ,0 1/0 a 9O
60.3 --
$cezle 1L ches
,H.b rap.
Scatbracet / Hubbx Ii -Top okiela hinge.
// Reaotract odip-right~. ,i-igot seat.

00 / 0/ rr-- vr ,--Right seat suopport.
-Rummer
ohead. r---Cover hinge-maole.
J00 0II - /~o~t
/r-Coe hine. female
0000 o Wing
nutand I OvO
/ --=Float.o
0000o so~u, o sud.-oIt (
k' o l- Trail handle-righot.
000 a-t- --
LatchC
han0dle0. o-c~ioa~~b~o
00 -LFt n ik cse
Eotoo
boooobel \\ Han\\dspikt
e bot.
- Letf o pp\ -To bot.late.d~pkef~eio
Ongo
- ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O
V-lobcoho
Utso."iotooo
ri ng k., o&
~~Po~ioob
> - - c o ot b o
Booob0 / / / Soo ooo /

Elsonod nut- J, / C
0
3c 0 H0 -peratig evr.
Book obo. 'I
aboo~bodto---Lefatal.
-
9Trntobnd "- -- S
o.3,oket-
&iliqhoue
Modeof1915 -Plan.
a IZ 16 ?F "4 B 4 46 40 44 46 Jz 56 1~tncnes.
Topshield.- - --/ ,' Tp rnd asenn
"Tunobn-Top oheldhn l9----\\\ j// . nipont.
pate ----- Q'.
Cradle rooeacie-- -'i~ute/
51aeld "prt
Sid minTuppr--- -. '-Meanshel-upper hlfi\\ ,,'
"I aocni htwe
/ / 'id stop.
Mai sid-oehlf -\/'/'pTop carriage.
Ele5tUIpfue -- ?:\' \ tt \ \ j,/ / // /occr.cop
Broke , 1
0-m- hcSe .' cr
S egenflt=-l--- \ . \\ 2 4 ,/id p
Ft heatop acet- /o$'Zone\shutter:
"-.
reaie bake ' "/, / Upearhandle.
cintad sidebh)-- 1 / '/ -- - al'pig
Pis ldnut- -- / / /l sankocket
eait brackiet.-,Knob / &scref6 ea'
ee. --- Tod orolis

\\,--- \ -exc_
. \h -- sightneteshank. ~ -s.--Elevatinrlag
Brokecroo. - -,--Berake slevr
Arkeo. - - -/ --- ,-'- pi ht seat

. Bto lt. - -i,-int
Al gst o .- 0 -Srlece
Laroltcha le.- ___~Lshwel
3--J/h outze Crtae.Mdo o 91.-et i tVe.

0 4 0 6 00 0 00 3 36 40 ---
48 -2 ---- Coer ine
i
JR8-Inch Howtfzsr CcrriaeaModel of 1915 .Liht side view)
Scale. A M '4 4 I
-I;--
e --
iI'
-
C'rIta1.t.Sut-nn
~e-sring
" i -
mcn
-- xo- /Mil
-
Q
II
r"- dll otto

e
00
O#It.ereupa0t0----
nerc.-xalop
pise.
.L4s5 ld Ctidr ier otndI.hng. - l endr t1-
Fron-cylnderhe-d-1 1 r / 0111 -r\ 0

r f III P n9- P-/ I er
rt rr//
Pu~o35 31
gland.- / o Q ern Cmel
h19d
Z44II 68 18Z 0bar. P P 1 i
4
Cross h~ -e 2X'?der_
4. 7-Inch .Ifowi/zer Carriage, 3ido~l of /908.

L eyznz iA kth Rear Iezv
a 4 4 N~ m -W M ,n e .*O 'E60 AuV

/ecodZCyznde &OuirriJy-Au~zaaor
t pri zirrap
S5tiru'p cOzer2
Iot,P~s of i'ecoiZZl zvze
_
'
II-
,?'cer21'err
5_nneCou
_ZOnerCuldv Pkilprin
tr Pe'i .~rtm
mndle IHead (k>usrzyn
Pis*on andJistonA)F? 7 Crezdleead7kxz9
/ /ll l- tirrup InnerRingy

lZ???
e
,pzFs5O2ZLiner
Gland lock- l - f.Crl ? adr 6 y/bz de-headir

Cradleead&sh&,
Pistontrod Mut - ' '"
Piston,Pod WasheJz 7_ __
7'istem ,F4'96Z vzd - - Fa- C-fldrhzd~e~
ClinderLiner R ..
-L--fCtvycPaawltl
Bra.~'e odi und _-

Bred'e ,zrin9 i'&erreA zd--
i5nzA e . 0n
Bra.fe Sv /y~r~
.Bra~eSvrinCover,' d-
-
ov Plate
Top Carr'a e Frm Clz - _ -

6k ieldSuppoorzng 17n Z-"~
Elezizn4 7-Worm Bevel Gear
,Akdel of/ 9o?

I xI A I'7~~
-Piot f It Lah'
II
4717, ohwi zer Carriay, An-&'of94 -pa~r.
0o4 Q RIY6 cV " 2d X .W r 44 .0V.J' so 60 6 W /AY/L

ector
/JLZz'eCir,
/6r6ark/lzfer
___ ear~etazner.Washer
FZafe47n'r 1~froa', d}n~
\--- nrkeBeamFucrum
0 ~--Be X
Brnke
Guard .Sield .dupporting .RnqZe.
- Bmke~ever 4a'47A?
47Inch Ilbwilzer @zrriaqe, Model of 1908.
0 1 4 6 8 kb /1 WMA5 'NB j'v Z2 14 2 1a9x 3?31 ' 04 1~24e46 /M7113

Top $h /eld :lbpx Sield -8MC--.
Hood 'Top Shield 8Ai2Gke.
Main. &'/eld Arace
Panorami/c A'~t
Rar J.' ht ,Eraoket ~,wport

CradleBand ,Pr,,t Cradle .8and,-Resn.
A7,0ou/de- ~MaM:
-t - ~-----
6s -*en3,on ARail' 4'evewa. A7ner and Outen

AxtenJOn ,RailPinl.- ~5'eat
--- ~-
~222Z ~ I
Ma/nZ 44,/e/d
flo Ru_--
Ta Tmie
Parnoramic sS~'9 9d Case:-
A,z'ron." - *Apr-on, Latch. 7>h2il Prop -- cdczde ,9tzme.

Aprnon ZLa/chAF/"h. brake .Shat Amacket. 7az PropBraakee i- 4orade eve.
7--nc
Gn ezCarria-
0 t C /P /6 70
Sid e/1[euat zz
1d JPJ6 X4044 /862P2660 64 52 72 f8 # a.L A
A da
7X A?/.
[,/
,
JoaMs. Ia
SINitg 6~e'ment, ,.aye Quadrant.Cs
B~ B.pusr; \ / lta7h9d Ouadragir
/ /Remit J7dicatdr
/1 flr1ny anodle
// %,/ /ponye anti ead4"tafr
/// /Spoong 9ta/)',Fstein
/ ,/ / / ne Wl .xe
]; r /1 j~ / / irre ZLatk'k tr tmr
Linr ,/
7
'\\ "oeWy Loch' Cvr Plate
3,unre d ,7osneelton-- - -- -- /
.ZTOMBox Cover Plate
Brake Rod Bprlll.9Plunger- -' f //7 Tool1 Box 7bio Plate
Brae Rod ,So7-lny Case ---- "/ Elevaztingy ixd Weel
Bnoke Rod Bndl iAztmidhstb "ol
47:Inch GU 'nCarriage, kModel of /9OJ-la.

0 4 81 6 2601426 St 6 40 44 4652 5656 6468. 72 76 08564 66 626100614p660511
,SealeInche.
--- f
17-IchG nCariage, IModel of /905 Vertical &C11fl3.n
- -------------
o 0 0 0C 0 0pp
. Pstor BaeAa t
.. .\
RalfBLtd
S~le)7,MP A '1/IlrflOrO' / inner Grunter
e RclSrtaysl! /
Noo-loo 'r t\ \ \rtiig3 .
S5writn iRodYoke
s SirtngRod
Pl{9AVst
Cylinder\
,2eceit / sutddo~te(oeoRectt
4rp o \ \ \n trrpne
.Spr
,91Rod
Outer C'eupterSStirtruprtOuter
P18"Re
tor I
\ a
_ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _---' _-r
'; .N -. _ _ _ _ -- _ _
.ius: rr .-
Cylinder Head
PFlIty a dD' tv Stay-"' /-oI ._ 1 -u1i
Recoi t~n ecil u ,nTraversing Bracket

Gauner Fecat Bufer Look Bolt Cast yq
a ; ,/ / - Taver,^tng7rans6o, Re'ar
/7ZTnaoer lgayTo om Bc>ket
,r- -
H
_7 _.._._ --- a~m e'enlny7ronorn 6 Teot-BoxFront T>-anm
o~ rnySSai4'4eliordsn In Aett Recol.
A4 6 1 6 20a 6 36 0400 32
5046 64
66 6 2 2 6 B91
227 064IOB262
.Scale E'd 02 4 !t
280818 2W066460Y 001 4
A3 380364442 44
-- Soile -t . i
C4LkYNGWIRE~ SAX DETOAW/iNG PUJ1 MEDIL4W (~4LIB(R.
--BASE COVER
~- -,SASE- GROOVEd
COVER 6WOOV & CAL 7M WORE. -BAJE DE J'NG FUSE MEDK44 CALIBER.
BASE COVER.- -
COMMON STEEL SHE'LL MODEL: OF /905.
r--LOOJE BLA0( POW4DER. r--STEEL HEAD.

STEEL DIAPHRAGM.---- dASECCWD CmOMBINAN FUZE.
1 r BRADJ COVER.
1I
- 11..-
SHRAPNEL.
/06RI/N P RCUSJS/Ofit PRIMER. CAR TRIDG CASE.

S$O / 2 3 4 $ 6 7 6 /0 1IAV /,x
aide -Wo. etRaAee I/
To~p CrngeClip* -- _- ---- - ---- Flp.
Center" A9i1e Pate.__ ,_
- __ 2ouelet-ee 4 A
-Pole deodva
LL
. -ockn Dna
______ n etree
To Crrae-_ ___-_Rller
Pintle olt___-_Pole
Tipper t t ~
-_-- - ---- PteAotwingi
Pintis.------------e late
P/ntle Ri2t v_--

\ \ -__POze .$.Cket Clamp
Pntle BotCekrfl-'X / i , > \ L__ _Pole4'oekt Pin
--- Po/e 4'ocket 2o
47-Inch G6un arnd 6 Inch Houritzer Limber.

R W .RT
Model of 1905.
43cael
6-Iizdi ]owvilie~r Carriage.M4odel qo//908.
LefI EZ'i-'aliornad artial2, 'ear kUeu
04 S3 / 4 2Kp
t K 0 444B'.S?.1 rP _ 7 b bAt_WJ~ 4<
6-Inch Ho izer Carriage ~Afodel of /908 - Flant_
O 4 R / 16 20 7420 J7 JA 4044 432i 60 61 ; 0
80 54 8,f12 CoL/.
l
t3'Ztndor rdead
ter Reciwudb
ingWormBeariny
macto
Barror54opaan.
BrakeBeareBracket1
PintSe... Zrqvavr Inner flat.-,-

Jrent 7>ue'einy Lock
4wd4 & raeckt
Trave~t9yZock
6-hrh Hojtlzer Gzrrziz . Jfdel of /W!

7ertical Sectins.
f 846I
I ".M x xna -WINpjea
j 47. eis J7 Ovpa=cs.
Hrandwheel)
rigH
Tnn'erstngF
lirnflsing.YcvezDustG
Reinforcet
7taversin KMechanism
Section.
anion Jhaff Catch.

r ear.57eeve.
Retainer
2k' Return .)ecnan~m.

&ctzpit_
_/ -- OLevelSBuAer - -- __)--//
- -- Lvl earlzt--.-'
Pee h-- -
\- cnMS
ule/-----/d.'r -.
\ - cm~ 6eZ>I9 ---- - /
\ - .e
bg4Leel~o-'a-_ - '
1 Sele &emy----
g'A-s
0 2 4 6 0B 10 12 14 16
Scl Ee -F -Iches
C r. . lr. fcar.
0 ,J. /2 /6 dM 88 1 .6 . 448 S8 S.6 6?

#WRE
d CALILK/A'4' f?//9 DA(4AW6~ AaLF2E MA9/d49 ~g/Rf ,f
C6/I'~' l'4'/POOii'
CO!/EiP c 'oiE & CA!/L1Y'/N oE-rory ri vG f'a'F 41EOiv41 &(1/BfP.
CO0t/dO/V STEEL SHELL M4ODEL OF /907
'SCOND8 COM/NAT/ON /U'Z1
COI/Ff C/MP/A4;' , 9OOVL',
LOOSE 8/AC/f' PO Y$R ~P&4'E7

5//I9A4/4/EL . BLRE
TIN FOIL. -POIYO.E,9 844.5

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Army Field Artillery

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Army Service Schools

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PROVISIONAL SECOND LIEUTENANTS

THE ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS

Preparedin Department Field Artillery

Fort Leavenworth Kansas:

Capt. Sharp. Capt. Seaman Capt. Miller

1st Lecture No. 1 Equitation F.A.D.R. Pars. 1-56; 115-130.

25th TACTICAL WALK

*No equitation artillery section hitched in riding hall.

TOOLS-DISMOUNTING BREECHBLOCK, ETC.

FILLING CYLINDERS, ETC.

DISMOUNTING RECOIL SPRINGS

TOthedismount* counter recoil springs and cylinder, bring

erally, tools for the purpose of repairing damage within the

ASSEMBLING SPRINGS AND CYLINDER

THE appliances used for laying the three-inch field piece

The Panaromic Sight May be Used as a Range Finder

The Range Quadrant

The Clinometer or Angle of Site Scale on the Range

Use of the Quadrant

FIELD ADJUSTMENT OF SIGHTS AND FUZE

The Range Quadrant

If errors exist in fuze setters they should be disas-

with a 110 grain percussion primer. The primer is so

Care of Cartridge Cases

On wheels and packs 2121 464 312 180 336 168

In advance supply depots 2121 464 312 360 336 336

At base or in arsenals 425 928 624 540 672 504

Total available 850 1856* 1248 1080 1344 1008

FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS

The Battery Commander's Ruler

CARE AND CLEANING OF ARTILLERY

Disassembling and Assembling

Repairs and Adjustments

Cleaning After Firing

Painting Artillery Materiel

The Wheeled Materiel

TELEPHONE AND BUZZER

Adjustments and Location of Faults

COMPUTATION OF FIRING DATA

Obtaining Firing Data Without Instruments

A FEW appproximate methods of computing elements of

1. TO FIND THE ANGLE OF DEPARTURE (AD)

2. TO FIND THE TIME OF FLIGHT (t), in seconds,

3. TO FIND THE MAXIMUM ORDINATE (MO)

5. TO FIND THE HEIGHT OF TRAJECTORY (HT)

6. TO FIND THE ANGLE OF FALL (AF) :

8. TO FIND THE REMAINING VELOCITY (RV) at

9. TO FIND THE MINIMUM RANGE (MR) that will

CLEARING THE CREST:

10. TO DETERMINE THE SIGHT (SI) to guns at a

Suppose that a battery commander desired to fire at

2. On hot days, especially when ground is moist, an

ARTILLERY PANORAMIC SKETCHING

III. General Use of Spaces

(e) When the necessary computations have been made,

1. Do not try to show too much. A sketch gains in

VI. Conventional Signs

VII. Principles of Perspective

1. Objects nearby appear larger than those in the -dis-

VIII. Application of Principles of Perspective

1-4 Backstrap and crupper, complete-_______ _- 1 1