CONSTRUCTION OF A BOILER

http://www.scribd.com/doc/48097342/Lecture-1-Boilers-introduction

1 BOILER PARTS

Shell
Tubes
Passes
Smoke box
Interior baffles
Nozzles
Openings and supports

1.1 PASSES

Placed at the edge of tubes to control the pass way / direction of the running fluid in
tubes.
May be 1-4 no. of passes that can be placed in fornt of tubes
Need to know maximum no. of passes which will generate higher efficiency

2 BOILER EFFICIENCY

Often substituted for Thermal efficiency or fuel-to-steam efficiency

It is a measure of the overall efficiency of the boiler. It accounts for the effectiveness
of the heat exchanger as well as radiation and convection losses
Key factors regarding efficiency:
1. Flue gas temperature
2. Fuel specifications
3. Excess air
4. Ambient air temperature
5. Radiation and convection losses

3 MEASUREMENT

3.1 DIRECT METHODS

Merits
Efficiency of boilers can be
promptly evaluated
Few parameters are required
for calculation

Demerits
Does not indicate why a
system has lower efficiency
Does not calculate various
losses that affect various
efficiency levels
Needs few instruments for Evaporation
ratio
and
monitoring
efficiency may mislead, if
steam is highly wet due to
water carryover.

3.2 INDIRECT METHOD TESTING

Direct method disadvtanges can be overcome by using an indirect method which

involves measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers
Efficiency can be calculated by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.
Another advantage is that errors in measurements does not make a significant change
in the efficiency. Eg. If boiler efficiency is 90%, an error of 1% will result in a
significant change in efficiency: 90 0.9 = 89.2 or 90.9.
Whereas indirect method error will be : Efficiency= 100- (10 0.1 )= 90 0.1 =
89.9 to 90.1

3.2.1 VARIOUS LOSSES

IN

BOILERS

Figure 1. Various losses in gas/liquid/solid fired boilers

The following losses apply for liquid/gas/solid fired boilers :

1. Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
3. Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
4. Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
5. Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
6. Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted losses (which are
difficult to measure and insignificant)
The following losses are applicable only for solid fuel fired boilers:
7. Unburn losses in fly ash (carbon)
8. Unburnt losses in bottom ash (carbon)
n

The boiler efficiency by indirect method= 100-

i=18

3.2.2 PRECAUTIONS

FOR INDIRECT METHOD

The efficiency test does not account for:

Stand by losses: efficiency test is carried out when boiler is operating under a steady
load. Therefore combustion efficiency doesnt take into account standby losses, which
occur between firing intervals.
Blow down loss:
3.2.3 TESTING

CONDITIONS

Burn the specified fuel(s) at required rate

Do testing while boiler is under steady load. Do not test during warm up of boilers
from cold condition
Obtain charts/tables for additional data
Determine general method of operation
Sample and analysis of fuel and ash
Ensure accuracy of sample in lab
Check type of blow down and method of measurement

3.3 MEASUREMENTS REQUIRED FOR DIRECT METHOD TESTING

Heat input and heat output: the measurement of heat input requires calorific value of
fuel and its flow rate (volumetric or mass)
These measurement can be obtained :
- For gaseous fuel
-

Fuel type

Flow rate measurement

Gaseous

Gas meter (needs to be

temperature/ pressure)

Liquid

A meter calibrated for the

particular oil

Solid

Measurement must be
based on mass

Calorific value
determination

4 BOILER EFFICIENCY BY INDIRECT METHOD

Table 1. Conversion formula for proximate analysis to ultimate analysis

Componen
t
%C
%H2
%N2

Formula
0.97C + 0.7(VM+0.1A) M(0.6-0.01M)
0.036C + 0.086(VM-0.1*A)- 0.0035M2
(1-0.02M)
2.10 0.020 VM

Where
C
A
V
M
M

= % fixed carbon
= % of ash
= % of volatile matter
= % of moisture.

Theoretical(stoichiometric) air fuel ratio and excess air supplied are to be determined first for
computing the boiler losses. The formula is given below for the same.
a) Theoretical air required for =
[ (11.6*C) + {34.8(H2-O2/8)}+(4.35*S)]/100
combustion
Where: C, H2, O2 and S are percentage of Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulphur present in fuel.
O2
b) % Excess air supplied(EA) =
* 100 (from flue gas analysis)
21O2
Normally O2 measurement is recommended. If O2
measurement is not available use CO2
(CO 2 )
t
100( CO 2 )

( CO 2 )a
7900[ t( CO 2 )a ]

=
Theoretical CO2
Where ( CO 2 )t
=
Actual CO2% measured in flue gas
( CO 2 )a
Moles of C
=
( CO 2 )t
Moles of N 2+ Moles of C
Wt . of N 2theoretical air Wt . of N 2fuel
Moles of N2
=
+
Mol. wt of N 2
Mol .Wt . of N 2
Moles of C

c) Actual mass of air supplied/ =

kg of fuel (AAS)

Wt . of C fuel
Mol . wt of C
(1+ EA/100) * theoretical air

4.1 DRY FLY GAS

This is the largest boiler loss and is calculated with the following:
L1

mCp(Tf Ta )
GCV of fuel

100

L1

= % Heat loss due to dry flue gas

= Mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel

=
combustion productions from fuel: CO2+
SO2+Nitrogen in fuel + Nitrogen in the actual mass
of air supplied + O2 in flue gas
Cp

= specific heat of flue gas in kCal/kg

Tf

= Flue gas temperature in C

Ta

= ambient temperature in C

4.2 HYDROGEN FLUE IN FUEL

Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H 2 in fuel. The water is converted to
steam and this carries away heat in the form of its latent heat
L2

9 H 2 (584+Cp(Tf Ta))
GCV of fuel

100

H2

= kg of hydrogen present in fuel on 1kg basis

Cp

= Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kgC

Tf

= Flue gas temp. in C

Ta

= Ambient temp. in C

584

= latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour

4.3 MOISTURE IN FUEL

L3=

M (584+Cp ( Tf Ta ))
GCV of fuel

100

= kg of moisture in fuel in 1 kg basis

Cp

= Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kgC

Tf

= Flue gas temp. in C

Ta

= Ambient temp. in C

584

= latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour

4.4 MOISTURE IN AIR

L 4=

AAS humidity factor Cp (Tf Ta)

GCV of fuel

100

AAS

= Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel

Humidity
factor
Cp

= kg of water/ kg of dry air

Tf

= Flue gas in temp. in C

Ta

= Ambient temp. in C (dry bulb)

= Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kgC

4.5 PARTIAL COMBUSTION OF C TO CO

4.6 SURFACE HEAT LOSSES

4.7 UNBURNT IN FLY ASH
Total ash collected
GCV of bottom ash
LT = kg of fuel burnt
GCV of fuel

100

4.8 UNBURNT IN BOTTOM ASH

LB

Total ash collected

GCV of bottom ash
kg of fuel burnt

GCV of fuel

100

5 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT TESTING

5.1 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

Need to analyse :
- Percentage of CO2/O2
- Percentage of CO
- Temperature

5.2 FLOW METER MEASUREMENTS

Re quire flow meter measurements for:

- Fuel
- Steam
- Feed water
- Condensate water
- Combustion air

5.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

-

Flue gas
Steam
Makeup water
Condensate return
Combustion air
Fuel
Boiler feed water

5.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

-

Steam
Fuel
Combustion air (primary and secondary)
Draft

5.5 WATER CONDITION

-

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

pH
Blow down rate and quantity

6 HOW TO INCREASE BOILER EFFICIENCY?

-

High boiler efficiency involves proper design of :

No. of boiler passes
Burner/ boiler compatibility
Repeatable air/ fuel ratio control
Heating surface
Pressure vessel design

6.1 NO. OF PASSES

Minimum of 1 pass, maximum of 4 passes in a boiler

Higher the no. of passes, greater the efficiency.
The more passes there are , the less fuel that is required which results in a low
fuel cost

6.2 BURNER AND BOILER COMPATABILITY

Boiler and burner manufacturers should be same in order ot ensure maximum

compatibility.

6.3 AIR TO FUEL RATIO

Needs to be proper for maximum efficiency of boiler

Air: fuel ratio needs to be uniform during firing order

6.4 HEATING SURFACE

Wider heating surface generates maximum efficiency of boiler.

Larger area, means more area available for production of steam

7 FACTORS AFFECTING BOILER PERFORMANCE

Various factors affecting boiler performance:
Periodical cleaning of boilers
Periodical soot blowing
Proper water treatment program and blowdown control
Draft control
Excess air control
Percentage loading of boiler
Steam generation pressure and temperature
Boiler insulation
Quality of fuel

8 BOILER BLOW DOWN

The main reason for boiler blow down is to remove two types of impurities: scum
and bottom deposits. Other reasons include:
1. Remove precipitates by chemical addition to boiler water
2. Remove solids, dirt, foam or oil molecules from boiler water. Done through
scum valve and process is known as scumming.
3. Reduce density of water by reducing water level
4. Remove excess water in case of emergency

Procedure: