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Audrey Decou
Thierry Sempere
University of Cambridge
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Gerhard Wrner
Georg-August-Universitt Gttingen
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Sedimentary Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s e d g e o
Abt. Sedimentologie / Umweltgeologie, Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Universitt Gttingen, Goldschmidtstr. 3, D-37077 Gttingen, Germany
Abt. Geochemie, Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Universitt Gttingen, Goldschmidtstr. 1, D-37077 Gttingen, Germany
INGEMMET, Av. Canada 1470, San Borja, Lima 41, Peru
d
Universit de Toulouse, UPS (OMP), IRD, LMTG, 14 av. Edouard Belin, F- 31400 Toulouse, France
e
ISTerre, IRD, University of Grenoble 1, 1381 rue de la Piscine, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble, cedex 9, France
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 15 September 2010
Received in revised form 7 February 2011
Accepted 11 February 2011
Available online 21 February 2011
Editor: G.J. Weltje
Keywords:
Andes
Cenozoic, provenance analysis
Heavy minerals
Geochemistry
Amphibole
FeTi oxide
a b s t r a c t
A large sedimentary forearc basin developed in Cenozoic times between the present-day Coastal Cordillera
and the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes, called Moquegua basin in southern Peru. The basin is lled by
Moquegua Group deposits (~50 to 4 Ma) comprising mostly siliciclastic mudstones, sandstones and
conglomerates as well as volcanic intercalations. Several facies changes both, along orogenic strike and
through time, are described and have led to subdivision into four sedimentary units (Moquegua A, B, C and D).
In this paper we present a rened stratigraphic scheme of the Moquegua Group combined with the rst
provenance analysis of the Moquegua basin based on (i) semi-quantitative analysis of heavy mineral
abundance, (ii) electron microprobe (EMP) and laser ablation (LA) ICP-MS analyses of single detrital
amphibole and FeTi oxide grains, and (iii) comparative analysis of the different potential source rocks to
clearly identify the most likely sources. Results allow us to reconstruct sediment provenance and to relate
changes of the erosion-sedimentation system in the Moquegua basin to the evolution of the Andean orogen.
At ~ 50 to ~ 40 Ma the Moquegua basin was close to sea level and fed by low energy rivers transporting mainly
metamorphic basement and Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary detritus from local and distal sources. The latter
might be as far as the present Eastern Cordillera. From ~ 35 Ma on the distal sediment sources were cut off by
the uplift of the Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera leading to higher energy uvial systems and increasing
importance of local sources, especially the relevant volcanic arcs. From 25 Ma on volcanic arc rocks became
the predominant sources for Moquegua Group sediments. The 10 Ma time lag observed between the onset
of uplift-induced facies and provenance changes (at ~ 35 Ma) and the onset of intense magmatic activity
(at ~ 25 Ma) suggests that magmatic addition was not the main driver for crustal thickening and uplift in the
Central Andes during latest Eocene to Oligocene time.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Central Andes are currently the world's largest mountain belt to
have been built by subduction-related processes (Isacks, 1988; Sempere
et al., 2008) but the detailed history of its evolution, in particular the
interplay between tectonic and climatic effects, still remains poorly
known. Generally, two major pulses of surface uplift are described. One
during Oligocene to Early Miocene (Isacks, 1988; Allmendinger et al.,
1997; Sempere et al., 2008) and a second one in the late Miocene
(Schildgen et al., 2007; Thouret et al., 2007; Garzione et al., 2008;
Sempere et al., 2008; Schildgen et al., 2009). Crustal thickening and
related surface uplift are generally accepted to have started about MidEocene to Late Oligocene time but was asynchronous along and across
56
Fig. 1. a) Location of the study area in of southern Peru within the highly segmented Andes Cordillera (after Sempere et al., 2002). b) Geomorphology of the Central Andean Orocline
in southern Peru. Grey boxes show the four areas studied here.
57
Fig. 2. Geological map of southern Peru (modied after INGEMMET: project GR1-Geology of the south Coast and Western Slope of the Western Cordillera). Outcrop areas of
Proterozoic metamorphic basement (which includes gneiss and amphibolite) are mostly located in the Coastal Cordillera but some occur in the Western Cordillera. Paleozoic strata
mostly outcrop in the Eastern Cordillera. Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous strata (which include mature quartzarenites) crop out in most part of the study area.
58
Fig. 3. Evolution through time of the position of the migrating volcanic arcs in southern Peru from ~ 300 Ma to Recent (Mamani et al., 2010).
59
Fig. 4. Stratigraphic aspects of the Moquegua Group: (a) general overview of the succession in the Majes valley, including an ignimbrite dated between 16 and 14 Ma (ArAr on
feldspar; Thouret et al., 2007 and Schildgen et al., 2009; yellow level; see text); (b) the MoqA/MoqB boundary near Huancarqui (Majes valley); (c) the MoqB/MoqC boundary
between Moquegua and Ilo; (d) the MoqD unit near Punta Colorada (Majes valley). West longitudes and south latitudes for each picture are indicated in grey boxes.
member whose whitish coloration contrasts with the underlying redmudstone facies usually dominant in the MoqA unit. Because this
whitish member includes reworked tuffaceous material, it reects
Fig. 5. Compilation of composite stratigraphic columns from each studied area. Sections from MoqD in Moquegua and Caravel are re-drawn after (Flores et al., 2004; Cruzado, 2005),
respectively. Cuno Cuno, Majes and MoqB/C from Moquegua sections were drawn based on our eld observations. Black open circles show location of analysed sandstone samples.
60
Fig. 6. Schematic view of basin stratigraphy including the different volcanic pulses and major ignimbrite occurrence (white lines) through time.
61
Table 1
Summary of heavy-mineral compositions of potential source rocks and Moquegua Group sandstones. Number of analyzed samples is in brackets. Abbreviations for minerals: opq:
opaque minerals; zr: zircon; apa: apatite; rut: rutile; tur: tourmaline; grt: garnet; a. amp: altered amphibole; f. amp: fresh amphibole; px: pyroxene. Symbols: o = absent, x =
present, xx = common, xxx = abundant. Colored elds highlight occurrence of key minerals for provenance analysis (blue: tourmaline; pink: garnet; dark green: altered
amphibole; light green: fresh amphibole; grey: pyroxene).
Lithology
opq
zr
apa
rut
tur
grt
a.amp
f.amp
px
Potential
source rocks:
x
x
x
x
xx
o
xx
x
x
x
o-x
x
x
x
o
o
x - xx
o
o
o
x
x
o-x
o-x
xxx
xx
xx
xx
o
x
x - xx
x
xx
o
o - xx
o
x - xx
x
x
x - xx
x - xx
xx
o
o
o-x
o
o
x
o
o
o
o
xx
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
xx
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
xxx
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
xxx
o
xx
xx - xxx
xxx
o
xx - xxx
o-x
xx - xxx
xx
o
xx - xxx
o
o
o
o-x
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
xxx
o
xxx
xxx
x
xxx
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Moquegua
Group
sediments:
MoqD (3)
top MoqC (4)
MoqC (8)
base MoqC (5)
top MoqB (5)
MoqB (7)
base MoqB (6)
top MoqA (1)
MoqA (3)
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x
x
o-x
x
xx
x - xx
x - xx
x - xx
x - xx
x - xx
x
x-x
xx
x
x
xx
x
xx
x
o
x
o
o
o-x
o
o
o-x
o
xx
o-x
o
o
o-x
o
o
o-x
o-x
xxx
o-x
o
o
o-x
o-x
o
o-x
xx
xxx
xx
o
o-x
o-x
x - xx
o - xx
o - xx
xx
o
o
x - xx
x - xx
x - xx
o-x
o-x
o
o
o
o
xxx
xx - xxx
xx - xxx
o - xx
o-x
o
o
o
o
C2
C1
62
Fig. 7. The most relevant heavy minerals used for provenance analysis: (a) fresh amphiboles and (e) euhedral zircons, from the 24 to 10 Ma Huaylillas arc; (b) pyroxenes from the
3024 Ma Tacaza arc; (c) rounded zircons, (d) tourmaline, and (f) rutile, from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous quartzarenites; (g) garnet from the Proterozoic metamorphic
basement; (h) an altered amphibole from the ~ 9145 Toquepala arc.
The MoqC unit (~ 3015 Ma) mainly contains altered and fresh
amphiboles and a high amount of pyroxenes, completed by zircon and
apatite and a minor content of garnet and tourmaline (Table 1). The
main sources for this unit appear to be fresh volcanic rocks from the
4510 Ma arcs as well as the Coastal Batholith and/or 9145 Ma
Toquepala arc rocks (the latter two supplying altered amphiboles).
Due to the small amount of garnet, tourmaline and rutile the
Proterozoic gneiss basement and Mesozoic sediments are a negligible
source for MoqC. Like with MoqB there is a striking transition within
MoqC: at its base (C1) HM spectra are very similar to topmost
MoqB samples, whereas upsection (C2) the contribution from older
arc/basement rocks decrease and young volcanics become the almost
exclusive source rocks.
The MoqD unit is dominated by pyroxenes and fresh amphiboles.
The most likely major source rocks are thus the pyroxene-rich
andesites erupted during the 454 Ma interval and the freshamphibole-rich 243 Ma-old arc ignimbrites (Table 1). All three
MoqD samples show an absence of garnet, rutile, tourmaline and
altered amphibole which precludes the basement, Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous quartzarenites, Coastal Batholith and 9145 Ma
volcanic arc as a source. However, eld observations reveal rare
presence of quartzarenites and intrusive rocks pebbles within the
MoqD unit. This may indicate that Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
quartzarenites, Coastal Batholith and 9145 Ma Toquepala arc rocks
are still minor sources for MoqD and that rutile, tourmaline and
altered amphibole are much too rare compared to pyroxenes and
fresh amphibole abundance to be detected. However, an alternative
and more likely explanation is that quartzarenite pebbles were
recycled from older Moquegua units and did not derive directly from
exposed rock and thus do not signicantly contribute to the smallsized heavy mineral fraction. The same explanation holds for rare
clasts of intrusive rocks occasionally observed in the MoqD units.
5.2. Single grain geochemistry
5.2.1. Amphibole major-element chemistry
Amphiboles are good candidates for provenance analysis because
they are present in a large variety of rocks. Chemical analyses of singlegrain amphibole allow to reliably distinguish between different
potential source rocks (Morton, 1991; Cronin et al., 1996; Lee et al.,
2002; Mange and Morton, 2007). According to the standard amphibole
classication (Leake et al., 1997), all amphiboles from all potential
source rocks in our study are calcic amphiboles. The calcic amphibole
classication further divides into two groups depending on whether
Na+ K in the A site is higher or lower than 0.5 atom per formula (apfu)
(Fig. 8). Amphiboles from basement gneisses and 4524 Ma volcanic arc
rocks belong to the rst group (Fig. 8a), whereas amphiboles from
amphibolites, Coastal Batholith, as well as 9130 Ma and 103 Ma-old
volcanic rocks belong to the second (Fig. 8b). Magnesio-hastingsite is
present only in rocks from the 4524 Ma arcs and the Proterozoic
basement gneisses (Fig. 8a). Magnesio-hornblende-type amphiboles
are present in rocks from 103 Ma and 9130 Ma-old volcanic arcs,
Coastal Batholith and Proterozoic basement amphibolites (Fig. 8b).
Tschermakite-, ferro-tschermakite- and ferro-hornblende-type amphiboles are present in rocks from 45 to 30 Ma-old arc and Coastal Batholith
whereas actinolite-type is present only in some of the 9145 Ma
Toquepala volcanic arc rocks (Fig. 8b).
The composition of amphiboles extracted from the three younger
stratigraphic units of the Moquegua Group (MoqA unit has yielded no
amphibole) in the four sections are plotted on the amphibole
compositional elds recognized for the individual potential source
units (Fig. 8). All three stratigraphic units are composed of a mixture
of magnesio-hastingsite-, magnesio-hornblende- and tschermakitetype amphiboles with only very few exceptions. An important
proportion of amphibole grains from the sediments plot outside of
the amphibole compositional elds for the potential source rocks
63
studied here. Since tschermakites are typical for high-grade metamorphic rocks (Deer et al., 1997), these are most likely coming from
the Proterozoic basement. The relatively small number of basement
samples studied here to dene the basement amphibolite eld
appears to be not sufciently representative. Igneous amphiboles
generally form under similar PT conditions and from magmas of
similar composition. By contrast, precursors to metamorphic rocks
are compositionally very diverse and metamorphic conditions for
amphibole growth are highly variable. Therefore it should be expected
that metamorphic amphiboles show a much larger compositional
spread compared to igneous amphiboles. Accordingly, amphiboles
from igneous source rocks can be represented by a relatively small set
of source rock samples. The fact that a large portion of basementderived amphiboles falls outside the eld for metamorphic source
rocks (Fig. 8b) is thus likely due to the small number of basement
samples used for reference.
The major-element ratios composition of amphiboles highlights
clear differences in amphibole chemistry for the different sources
(Fig. 9). Amphibole composition from the sampled potential source
rocks show a large variety which allow the drawing of compositional
elds where N95% of the data (of each potential source) are plotting.
In Fig. 9 are plotted FeO/MgO vs. TiO2/Al2O3 ratios which highlight
two distinct end member composition elds; one containing the
metamorphic basement and Coastal Batholith (II, light grey) and a
second with Tacaza and Lower Barroso arc (I, dark grey) amphibole
compositions. Moreover, the grey square and black diamond-shape
represent the 9145 Ma Toquepala and 4530 Ma AndahuaylasAnta
arc, respectively.
The chemical composition of amphiboles extracted from MoqB,
MoqC, and MoqD units sediments are compared to the amphibole
composition of potential source rocks. According to Fig. 9, a clear
difference in provenance for MoqB, MoqC and MoqD is observed.
About 50% of MoqB amphibole data fall into the eld II indicating an
input from the metamorphic basement and the 19060 Ma Coastal
Batholith. The other 50% suggest a provenance from the 9145 Ma
Toquepala and 4530 Ma Andahuaylas-Anta arc. Regarding MoqC
data, 37% show a metamorphic basement and 19060 Ma Coastal
Batholith provenance whereas 24% indicate a 3024 Ma Tacaza and
103 Ma Lower Barroso arc input. Amphibole analysis from MoqD
unit demonstrate a major provenance from 3024 Ma Tacaza and
103 Ma Lower Barroso arc with 55% of the data falling into the eld I
and a minor input from metamorphic basement and 19060 Ma
Coastal Batholith with 16% of the data falling into eld II. About 30% of
the amphibole composition data from MoqC and MoqD fall outside of
the two dened elds, this suggests a most likely minor provenance
from the 9145 Ma Toquepala and 4530 Ma AndahuaylasAnta arc.
5.2.2. Amphibole REE chemistry
Rare Earth Elements are excellent geochemical tracers because
different minerals have distinct REE concentration patterns. Such
patterns are imprinted onto magmatic rocks during processes involving
melt-crystal equilibrium. For the Central Andes, for example Mamani
et al. (2010) have shown that igneous rocks are characterized by
systematic variations in REE patterns through time. These changes were
best identied by the Sm/Yb ratio and reect the increasing role of
garnet in processes of magmatic differentiation and assimilation during
increased crustal thickening. Amphiboles from igneous rocks prior to
crustal thickening (i.e. N20 Ma) should then be distinct in their REE
patterns, for example they should have lower Sm/Yb ratios compared to
those from younger rocks. We will try to exploit these characteristics of
amphibole REE chemistry below.
Single-grain amphiboles from potential source rocks were analyzed
by LA-ICPMS for rare-earth elements (REE), and group into two elds
(Fig. 10). The rst eld (dark grey) corresponds to rocks older than
45 Ma, namely the ~9145 Ma-old arc rocks (plutonic and volcanic
rocks) and the metamorphic basement. The second eld (light grey)
64
Fig. 8. Classication of calcic amphiboles from potential source rocks (envelopes) and Moquegua Group sediments (symbols) (a: for (Na + K)a N 0.5; b: for (Na + K)a b 0.5; after
(Leake et al., 1997)). Values are in atom per formula. Number of analysed samples is in brackets.
65
Fig. 9. FeO/MgO vs. TiO2/Al2O3 ratio compositions of single-grain amphiboles from the
potential source rocks and Moquegua Group sediments. Number of analyzed samples is
in brackets.
corresponds to 3010 Ma-old arc rocks. These two elds are clearly
distinguished by their REE ratios: older rocks (intrusive N45 Ma and
metamorphic basement) have low Sm/Yb and Dy/Yb while amphiboles
from source rocks younger than 30 Ma have higher Sm/Yb and Dy/Yb.
The REE data of amphiboles extracted from the three younger
stratigraphic units of the Moquegua Group in the four sections underline
that amphiboles from the lower part of the MoqB unit are mainly
derived from the metamorphic basement and ~9145 Ma arc rocks.
However, amphiboles from the upper part of the MoqB (Fig. 10) show
high Sm/Yb and Dy/Yb ratios which are more similar to those found in
younger 3010 Ma-old arc rocks suggesting that arc rocks with similar
characteristics were exposed before 30 Ma (most probably the
Andahuaylas-Anta arc (4530 Ma), Fig. 3) (Mamani et al., 2010). High
Sm/Yb and Dy/Yb ratios represent magmatic evolution in a thick crust
(Mamani et al., 2010) thus our mineral REE data suggest a crustal
thickening starting between ~ 45 and ~ 30 Ma, during the MoqB
deposition. With respect to Eu/Eu* and La/Sm the difference between
the two main groups is less clear. But in the case of La/Sm, the ratio is
variable in amphiboles from older rocks but lower and more restricted
in younger igneous source rocks. Amphiboles from the MoqC (Cuno
Cuno, Majes valley, Moquegua) and MoqD (Majes valley) unit are
dominated by a strong contribution from 30 to 10 Ma-old arc rocks with
Fig. 10. Plots of REE ratios concerning amphiboles from potential source rocks and
Moquegua Group sediments: (a) La/Sm vs. Sm/Yb diagram; (b) Dy/Yb vs. Sm/Yb
diagram; (c) Eu/Eu* vs. Sm/Yb diagram. Colored symbols refer to amphiboles from
Moquegua Group sediments, whereas grey elds represent those from potential source
rocks. Number of analyzed samples is in brackets.
only a small signal from the metamorphic basement and ~9145 Ma-old
arc rocks (Fig. 10). The latter completely disappeared during MoqD
deposition.
5.2.3. FeTi oxide chemistry
Several authors have demonstrated the potential of FeTi oxide
minerals as provenance indicators, despite the complexity of their
multi-phase composition (Basu and Molinaroli, 1989; Grigsby, 1990;
Dill, 2006; Martinez-Monasterio et al., 2006). However, among the
66
Fig. 11. Electron-microprobe backscattered images of common FeTi oxides from potential source rocks: (a) homogeneous magnetite grain; (b) thick ilmenite lamellae; (c) and
(d) typical grain showing ilmenitehematite exsolution; (e) typical trellis-type grain and (f) grain with magnetiteulvspinel reaction found only in 103 Ma-old arc ignimbrites.
FeTi oxide grains extracted from the sediments and analyzed in this
study, only a few were fresh and homogeneous, most grains are a
mixture of hematite, magnetite, ulvspinel and ilmenite (Fig. 11).
Therefore, FeTi oxides may provide only a rough image of the potential
source rocks. However, throughout all measured source rocks and
texturalcompositional varieties of oxides there is a marked difference
between b30 Ma arc rocks (N0.01 apfu in Mg) and N45 Ma arcs and
basement rocks (b0.01 apfu in Mg). One sample from the Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous quartzarenites yield a compositional eld intermediate
to these endmembers but slightly more overlapping with the b30 Ma
arc compositional eld (Fig. 12). More than 80% of the MoqA FeTi
oxides correlate with the N45 Ma compositional eld, whereas 20%
correlate with the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous quartzarenite eld.
The latter partly overlap the b30 Ma arc compositional eld which
cannot be source for MoqA unit due to its younger age. Around 40% of
the MoqB FeTi oxide compositions data correlate with the N45 Ma-old
compositional eld, whereas 60% correlate with those of Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous quartzarenites and b30 Ma arc compositional elds.
Among the latter, about 30% plot in the b30 Ma eld but outside the
quartzarenite eld which suggests origin from volcanic arcs younger
than 30 Ma. This can be explained by the existence of a volcanic arc older
than 30 Ma which was active during the MoqB deposition, i.e. the
AndahuaylasAnta (4530 Ma) arc (see above). More than 80% of the
MoqC FeTi oxide composition data correlate with the b30 Ma volcanic
arc and Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous quartzarenites compositional
eld, whereas only 20% plot into the N45 Ma compositional eld.
Moreover, among the latter, more than 50% plot in the b30 Ma eld but
outside the quartzarenites eld. In agreement with the amphibole data,
67
Fig. 12. Variations in major-element composition for single grains of FeTi oxides from the potential source rocks and Moquegua Group sediments. Coordinates are in atom per
formula (apfu). Number of analyzed samples is in brackets.
quartzarenites and b30 Ma-old arc compositional elds but more than
70% of the grains plot in the b30 Ma eld but outside the quartzarenites
eld which implies a major provenance from the younger volcanic arcs.
68
6. Discussion
Results from heavy mineral petrography (i.e. presence/absence and
relative abundance) and geochemical data (major and rare earth
elements of amphibole and Fe-Ti oxide) are combined to infer a more
detailed picture of the provenance of the Moquegua Group siliciclastics.
A compilation of the suggested provenance evolution through time is
given in Fig. 12. For a given Moquegua unit the source rocks do not
change systematically for the four investigated areas from North
(Caravel) to South (Moquegua). However, local deviations from the
general picture are possible and addressed below. We will rst
summarize the general provenance pattern and then discuss individual
units and breaks in detail.
The MoqA unit (~50 to ~40 Ma) was deposited only in the
northwestern part of the Moquegua forearc basin. Although the Coastal
Batholith partly underlies and surrounds the sub-basin MoqA, the
sediments deposited there (from Caravel and Majes sections) appear to
have been dominantly derived from the Proterozoic metamorphic
basement and Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous sedimentary rocks (even
intrusions of the Coastal Batholith into these units play no signicant
role). The base of MoqB (~40 to 30 Ma) is still dominated by these same
source rocks , however, there is a signicant additional input from the
Coastal Batholith and/or 9145 Ma Toquepala arc rocks as indicated by
frequent (altered) amphiboles in the HM spectra (Fig. 13; Table 1). In
the middle and upper parts of MoqB a decreasing input from these four
source units is recognized and an increase in fresh amphiboles and
pyroxenes is observed (Table 1), indicating a contribution from younger
magmatic arcs (Fig. 13). Because Tacaza (3024 Ma) and Huaylillas
(2410 Ma) arcs are too young to have contributed to MoqB sediments,
a contribution from the relatively distant Andahuaylas-Anta arc
Fig. 13. Source rocks for each Moquegua unit (MoqA, MoqB, MoqC and MoqD) in each studied section (Caravel, Cuno Cuno, Majes and Moquegua). Thickness of bars is related to the
estimated contribution of each source in each unit.
69
Fig. 14. Evolution of the uplift of the Andes with time according to literature data from (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000; Anders et al., 2002; Garzione et al., 2008; Sempere et al., 2008).
Colored eld represent deposition of Moquegua Group siliciclastic sediments. The green line represents an arbitrary elevation at ~ 35 Ma illustrating that the distal sediment sources
were cut off by growing relief in the Western Cordillera (see text). Abbreviations for morphological units: CC: Coastal Cordillera, Moq. Group: Moquegua Group, WC: Western
Cordillera, EC: Eastern Cordillera.
70
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