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Introduction
Research Question
Do the artificial sweeteners saccharin, aspartame, and sucralose have an effect on
common microbiota found in the human gut?
Research Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effects that artificial sweeteners
have on microbiota found in the human gut. Studies have shown that alterations made to
gut flora could possibly contribute to the development of a number of disorders, such as
heightened sensitivity to food allergens (Stefka et al., 2014), obesity, inflammatory bowel
disease, and diabetes (Guinane & Cotter, 2013). With this discovery, more research has been
performed in order to identify substances that may cause alterations to gut microbiota, and
some data shows that artificial sweeteners could contribute to this trend (Suez et al., 2015).
This experiment will determine if artificial sweeteners harm gut bacteria. If it is discovered
that dysbiosis does result from the use of artificial sweeteners, measures need to be taken to
inform consumers of these results and of the risks involving compromised gut flora.
Background Information
The first artificial sweetener, Saccharin, was discovered in the late 1800s and was
approved by the FDA a few decades later. Since then, more artificial sweeteners have been
discovered and approved by the FDA, including aspartame, acesulfame-K, sucralose, and
neotame (Gardner et al., 2012). These sweeteners serve as sweeter, cheaper alternatives to
sucrose, with many being less caloric than sugar, as well. This has caused many consumers to
switch from sugar to artificial sweeteners in order to lower calorie intake. However, studies

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are showing that these sweeteners could be altering commensal gut microbiota, which poses
a big risk for the overall health of consumers (Gardner et al., 2012).
There are 100 trillion bacteria in the human gut, all of which are involved in controlling
immune responses, protecting against infection, and facilitating metabolic processes. This
explains why gut microbiota is crucial to the overall health of individuals (Mercola, 2003).
Many environmental factors can play a role in the alteration of gut flora, including, but not
limited to, antibiotic use, diet, caesarean births, and increased antibacterial usage
(University of Chicago, 2014). There is a strong correlation that a change, more specifically a
decrease, in human gut bacteria can result in an increased chance to develop diseases or
conditions such as obesity, malnutrition, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),
encompassing ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohns disease (CD) (Guinane & Cotter, 2013).
In reviewing the gastrointestinal diseases associated with compromised gut
microbiota, notable increases in the prevalence of these disorders have been observed over
the course of the past forty years. This trend became prominent soon after the the second
artificial sweetener, aspartame, was approved by the FDA in 1981 (Gardner et al., 2012).
Considering diet plays a major role in maintaining healthy gut bacteria, the relationship
between artificial sweeteners and gastrointestinal disorders needs to be investigated further.
Aforementioned, diabetes is a common disease linked with gut bacteria. Often times,
as gut bacteria decrease, the chances of developing diabetes increase (Guinane & Cotter,
2013), considering gut microbiota is responsible for the metabolic processes of breaking
down sugars and harvesting energy (Musso, Gambino, 2010). The United States has seen a
major rise in diagnosed diabetes cases, seeing that the numbers have grown from 5.5 million

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diagnosed diabetics in 1980 to 22 million diagnosed diabetics in 2014 (CDC, 2015). Along with
an increase in diabetes over the past few decades is an increase in obesity and extreme
obesity. According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, as
of the late 1970s, about 32% of adults were overweight, 14% were obese, and 1% were
extremely obese. Later research revealed that as of 2010, 32% of adults were still overweight,
however the adult obesity percentage had increased to 32% and 6% of adults were now
extremely obese (National Institute of Health, 2012). Correlating to the same time period,
aspartame, more commonly known as Equal or Nutrasweet, was approved by the FDA in 1981
(Gardner et al., 2012).
Compromised gut bacteria has also been linked to the development of food allergies.
Gut microbiota serves to lessen sensitization to food allergens, but if these bacteria are
diminishing, the immune system is not able to function to its full capacity, resulting in the
development of food allergies (Stefka et al., 2014). From 1998-2007, food allergy rates in
children under the age of 18 rose a drastic 18% (Branum & Lukacs, 2008). Interestingly
enough, the FDAs approval of the sweetener sucralose, commonly known as Splenda, took
place in 1999, correlating to this rise in food allergies (Gardner et al., 2012). In this study,
saccharin, aspartame, and sucralose were used to examine the effects that sweeteners have
on gut bacteria.
Saccharin, bearing the chemical name of benzoic sulfimide, was discovered in 1879,
becoming the first artificial sweetener to be approved by the FDA. As the diet industry began
booming in the 1960s, saccharin began being used in low-calorie consumer products (Kte'pi,
2015), considering it has virtually no calories but maintains a sweetness level of 300 times

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that of sugar (Yang, 2010). Saccharin is not metabolized by the body to harvest energy, thus
causing it to be considered a low-calorie sweetener (Ophardt, 2003). In the late 1970s,
however, saccharin faced a sudden downfall as researchers claimed to find links between
saccharin use and the development of cancer. This theory was disproved in 2000, but
saccharin never reached the level of popularity it had once had, being primarily
overshadowed by aspartame and sucralose (Kte'pi, 2015).
Aspartame is a low-calorie sweetener that is 200 times sweeter than sugar and is used
in nearly 6,000 products. The components of aspartame are broken down and digested
normally in the body, and these components are then released into the blood just like any
other food (Hudrich, 2005). Discovered in 1965 by James Schlatter, aspartame was approved
in 1981 as a safe alternative to cyclamates and saccharin, despite many claims that
aspartame could be linked to a variety of diseases (Vigue, 2016). Due to many rumors that
sparked aspartame related health concerns, it is one of the most studied artificial
sweeteners. However, numerous organizations such as the FDA, French Food Safety Agency,
the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Union, and Health Canada have reaffirmed
that aspartame is a safe alternative to sugar considering its components are digested
normally without any accumulation in the body (Hudrich, 2005). However, consumers are still
skeptical, causing some researchers to believe that further investigations need to be
conducted concerning the toxicity of aspartame. Considering this sweetener was approved
by the FDA in the early 1980s, there has been a lot of research and data collected concerning
aspartame over the past 30 years, so further research could could compare past studies to
what current data is showing (Frank, 2002).

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Sucralose was the first calorie-free sweetener synthesized from sucrose, which took
place in 1989 at Queen Elizabeth College, University of London, and was followed by FDA
approval in 1998. Sucralose is created by replacing sucrose hydroxyl groups with chlorine,
causing sucralose to have a sweetness of 600 times that of sugar. The structure of sucralose
also offers other beneficial characteristics, such as the ability to withstand high temperatures
and maintain sweetness over long periods of time, making it a more desirable sweetener.
Genevieve Frank from Penn State University elaborates on the Roberts Study (Roberts,
Renwick, Sims, & Snodin, 2000), where healthy males were administered 1 mg/kg of sucralose
orally and were then observed to see in what amounts and what time frame they excreted the
sucralose. Over a five day period, approximately 92.8% of the sucralose was found to be
excreted essentially unchanged. This finding implied that there was virtually no
accumulation of the sweetener in the body (Frank, 2002).
One bacteria found in the common human gut is E
scherichia coli (E. Coli). E. Coli was
discovered in 1885 by a scientist named Theodor Escherich, who identified the bacteria as an
aerobic gram negative bacteria. E
. Coli is crucial in the role of maintaining a healthy human
intestine; however if the bacteria is altered or escapes the intestine, it can cause major
damage to the human body. For example, if the bacteria escapes the intestinal tract, it could
potentially attack other parts of the body, such as the spine, causing meningitis. Meanwhile,
some strains of E. Coli carry toxins that may cause diarrhea, while others can dig into the
intestinal wall, also resulting in diarrhea. It is important to not diminish the E
. Coli found in
the human gut because this bacteria helps in digestion and production of nutrients, while

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also producing important vitamins that assist in blood clots (Adrian, 2016). We will be testing
E. Coli in our experiment, along with Enterococcus faecalis and Clostridium sporogenes.
Enterococcus faecalis (insert more information about E. faecalis).
Clostridium sporogenes (insert more information about C. sporogenes).
Considering most artificial sweeteners pass through the intestines and are excreted in
mostly the same form that they entered, the components of these artificial sweeteners comes
in direct contact with the gut microbiota. There have been some hypotheses that suggest
that since the artificial sweeteners come in direct contact with this microbiota, then this
could possibly contribute to dysbiosis of the gut flora. The Weizmann Institute of Science
designed an experiment to test these hypotheses by administering non-caloric artificial
sweeteners (NAS) to mice in order to measure the change in gut flora throughout the
duration of the experiment. The researchers found that their results collectively showed a
relationship between NAS consumption and the alteration of gut bacteria, which could
possibly contribute negative effects on metabolic processes vital (Suez et al., 2015).
Diminishing common gut flora such as E. coli, E. faecalis, and C. sporogenes may
potentially have negative effects on human health. Because of the results obtained in the
Suez study, artificial sweeteners could have an adverse impact on the beneficial bacterias
found in the human gut (Suez et al., 2015). As stated by Guinane and Cotter in 2013, a
decrease in human gut bacteria may result in an increased chance of developing numerous
diseases or conditions, including, but not limited to, obesity, malnutrition, diabetes,
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohns disease (CD) (Guinane &
Cotter, 2013). Thus, if artificial sweeteners are found to harm bacteria commonly found in the

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human gut, the consumers must be alerted of the risks they are taking by continuing to
consume the sweeteners.
Hypothesis
Artificial sweeteners will have negative effects on the growth of gut flora.

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References
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Gardner, C., Wylie-Rosett, J., Gidding, S. S., Steffen, L. M., Johnson, R. K., Reader, D.,
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