Elektronika 1 5

ELEKTRONIKA 1
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Unbiased transistor
Three doped regions: emitter, base, and
collector
Two pn junctions: emitter-base and basecollector
NPN or PNP
Silicon or germanium
The bipolar junction transistor has 3 doped regions.
COLLECTOR (medium doping)
BASE (light doping)
EMITTER (heavy doping)
Biased transistor
Forward bias the emitter diode
Reverse bias the collector diode
In a properly biased NPN transistor, the emitter electrons

diffuse into the base and then go on to the collector.
RC
N
VCE
RB
VBB
VBE
VCC
Transistor currents
The ratio of collector current to base
current is current gain (dc or hFE)
Current gain is typically 100 to 300
IC
IB
IC
IB
IE
IE
Conventional flow
IC @ IE
IE = I C + IB
adc =
Electron flow
IC
IE
bdc =
IB << IC
IC
IB
The CE connection
The emitter is grounded or common
The base-emitter acts like a diode
The base-collector acts like a current
source that is equal to dc times the base
current
The common emitter connection has two loops:

the base loop and the collector loop.
RC
collector
loop
V
RB
CE
VCC
base loop
VBB
VBE
Subscript notation
When the subscripts are the same, the
voltage represents a source (VCC).
When the subscripts are different, the
voltage is between two points (VCE).
Single subscripts are used for node
voltages with ground serving as the
reference (VC).
Base curve
Graph similar to that of a diode
Diode approximations are used for
analysis (typically - ideal or second)
The base circuit is usually analyzed with the

same approximation used for diodes.
IB =
VBB - VBE
RC
RB
VCE
VCC
RB
VBB
VBE
A graph of IC versus VCE

(Note that each new value of IB presents a new curve.)
100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
0 mA
VCE in Volts
This set of curves is also called a family of curves.
Regions of operation
Active - - - used for linear amplification
Cutoff - - - used in switching applications
Saturation - - - used in switching
applications
Breakdown - - - can destroy the
transistor and should be avoided
Transistor circuit approximations

First: treat the base-emitter diode as ideal and
use bIB to determine IC. Use for
troubleshooting.
Second: correct for VBE and use bIB to
determine IC.
Third (and higher): correct for bulk resistance
and other effects. Usually accomplished by
computer simulation. Use for design work.
The first approximation:
VBE
ideal
bdcIB
VCE
The second approximation:
VBE = 0.7 V
bdcIB
VCE
IB =
IB =
VBB - VBE
RB
5 V - 0.7 V
= 43 mA
100 kW
RC
100 kW
VCC
RB
VBB
5V
VBE = 0.7 V
IC = bdc IB
IC = 100 x 43 mA = 4.3 mA
100 kW
RC
bdc = 100
RB
IB = 43 mA
VBB
5V
VCC
VRC = IC x RC
VRC = 4.3 mA x 1 kW = 4.3 V
100 kW
1 kW
IC = 4.3 mA
12 V
RB
IB = 43 mA
VBB
RC
5V
VCC
VCE = VCC - VRC
IC = 4.3 mA
VCE = 12 V - 4.3 V = 7.7 V

100 kW
1 kW
VCE
12 V
RB
IB = 43 mA
VBB
RC
5V
VCC
Reading transistor data sheets

Maximum ratings on voltage, current,
and power
Power transistors dissipate more than 1
watt
Temperature can change the value of a
transistors characteristics
Typical Breakdown Ratings

VCBO = 60 V
VCEO = 40 V
VEBO = 6 V
Note: these are reverse breakdown
ratings with one transistor leg open (e.g.
VCBO is voltage collector to base with
emitter open)
A graphic view of collector breakdown

14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
0
50
VCE in Volts
Typical Maximum Ratings
IC =
PD =
PD =
PD =
200 mA dc
o
250 mW (for TA = 60 C)
350 mW (for TA = 25 oC)
o
1W
(for TC = 60 C)
Data sheet hFE

On Characteristics
IC in mA
hFE(min)
0.1
1
10
50
100
40
70
100
60
30
hFE(max)
___
___
300
___
___
Chapter
Transistor Fundamentals
Current gain
Depends on:
Transistor
Collector current
Temperature
Base bias
Setting up a fixed value of base current
Base supply voltage (VBB) divided by base
resistor (RB)
VCE = VCC - ICRC

1 kW
RC
VCE
RB
VBB
12 V
12 V
VCC
Load line
Connects saturation current (ICsat) to
cutoff voltage (VCEcutoff )
A visual summary of all the possible
transistor operating points
VCC - VCE
IC =
RC
A graph of this equation

produces a load line.
100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
12 V
IC =
1 kW
1 kW
RC
Mental
short
RB
VBB
12 V
12 V
VCC
12 V
= 12 mA
IC =
1 kW
This is the
Saturation (maximum) current.
100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
1 kW
RB
VBB
Mental
open
12 V
12 V
RC
VCC
VCE(cutoff) = VCC
100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
Load line slope

Changing the collector supply voltage
while keeping the same collector
resistance produces two load lines
These load lines will have the same slope
but will have different saturation and
cutoff values
Same slope with new ICsat and VCEcutoff

100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
0 2 4 6
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
Changing RC:
1 kW
750
W
RC
VCE
RB
VBB
12 V
12 V
VCC
A smaller RC produces a higher value ICsat and

a steeper slope
100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
0 2 4 6
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
Operating point
Determined by:
Finding saturation current and cutoff
voltage points
Connecting points to produce a load line
The operating (Q) point is established by
the value of base current
A circuit can operate at any point on the load line.

100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
0 2 4 6
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
0 mA
The operating point is determined by the base current.

VBB - VBE
IB =
RB
3 kW
RC
12.7 V - 0.7 V
= 30 mA
IB =
500 kW
RB = 500 kW
VBB
15 V
12.7 V
VCC
The operating point is called the Q or quiescent point.

14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
100 mA
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
This Q point is in the linear region.
0 mA
Saturation and cutoff are non-linear operating points.

100 mA
14
12
10
IC in mA 8
6
4
2
80 mA
60 mA
40 mA
20 mA
0 2 4 6
8 10 12 14 16 18
0 mA
VCE in Volts
These Q points are used in switching applications.
Transistor circuits
Amplifying and switching
Amplifying Q point is in the active
region
Switching Q point switches between
saturation and cutoff
Recognizing saturation
Assume linear operation.
Perform calculations for currents and
voltages.
An impossible result means the
assumption is false.
An impossible result indicates saturation.
If the ratio of base to collector resistance
is 10:1, the transistor is saturated.
Base bias
The base current is established by VBB
and RB.
The collector current is b times larger in
linear circuits.
The transistor current gain will have a
large effect on the operating point.
Transistor current gain is unpredictable.
Transistor switch
Base bias is used
The Q point switches between saturation
and cutoff
Switching circuits, also called two-state
circuits, are used in digital applications
Transistor switch
+10 V
1 kW
Vout
10 kW
10V
Emitter bias
The bias resistor is moved from the base
to emitter circuit
Provides Q points that are immune to
current gain changes
Used for linear amplifiers
Emitter bias:
IE =
VBB - VBE
RE
= 1.95 mA
IC @ IE
11 kW
kW
15 V
VBB
5V
2.2 kW
RE
VC = 15 V - (1.95 mA)(1 kW) = 13.1 V

VCE = 13.1 V - 4.3 V = 8.8 V
RC
VCC
Comparing the bias methods

Base bias is subject to variations in
transistor current gain.
Base bias is subject to temperature
effects.
Emitter bias almost eliminates these
effects.
The transistor current gain is not
required when solving circuits with
emitter bias.
Chapter
Transistor Biasing
Voltage divider bias

Base circuit contains a voltage divider
Most widely used
Known as VDB
Voltage divider bias circuit
+VCC
R1
RC
R1 and R2 form
a voltage divider
R2
RE
+VCC
Divider analysis:
R1
VBB =
R2
R1 + R2
VCC
ASSUMPTION: The base

current is normally much
smaller than the divider current.
+VBB
R2
Now the circuit can be viewed this way:
+VCC
To complete the analysis:
VBB - VBE
IE =
RC
RE
IC @ IE
VC = VCC - ICRC
VCE = VC - VE
VBB
RE
The six-step process

1. Calculate the base voltage using the
voltage divider equation.
2. Subtract 0.7 V to get the emitter voltage.
3. Divide by emitter resistance to get the
emitter current.
4. Determine the drop across the collector
resistor.
The six-step process

(Continued)
5. Calculate the collector voltage by
subtracting the voltage across the
collector resistor from VCC.
6. Calculate the collector-emitter voltage by
subtracting the emitter voltage from the
collector voltage.
VDB analysis
The base current must be much smaller
than current through the divider
With the base voltage constant, the
circuit produces a stable Q point under
varying operational conditions
Is the divider a stiff source?
+VCC
R1
RC
Find the Thevenin

resistance.
RTH = R1 R2
R2
RE
A Thevenin model of the bias circuit:
+VCC
RC
RTH
VBB
RE
The 100:1 rule applied to the bias circuit:
+VCC
RTH < 0.01 RIN
RC
RTH
RIN
VBB
When this rule is met,

the divider is stiff.
RE
Firm voltage divider

Used because divider resistors (e.g. R1
and R2) in a stiff design would be too
small
The collector current will be about 10%
lower than the stiff value
Sometimes a firm divider is chosen.
R1 R2
+VCC
< 0.1 bdcRE
R1
RC
A closer approximation:
IE =
VBB - VBE
RE +
R1 R2
R2
bdc
RE
VDB load line and Q point

VDB is derived from emitter bias
The Q point is immune to changes in
current gain
The Q point is moved by varying the
emitter resistor
VDB load line and Q point
+10V
IC
1.1 mA
Q (RE = 1 kW)
3.6 kW
10 kW
Q (RE = 2.2 kW)
0.5 mA
4.9 V
7.1 V
VCE
2.2 kW
1 kW
Two-supply stiff emitter bias:

IE =
VEE - 0.7 V
10 V
3.6 kW
RE
Assume 0 V
-0.7 V
2.7 kW
IE =
2 V - 0.7 V
1 kW
2V
= 1.3 mA
1 kW
Find the voltages:

10 V
3.6 kW
VC = 10 V - (1.3 mA)(3.6 kW) = 5.32 V

VCE = 5.32 V - (-0.7 V) = 6.02 V
2.7 kW
1 kW
2V
+VCC
Base bias:
RB
The least predictable

Q point moves with replacement
Q point moves with temperature
Not practical
RC
+VCC
Emitter-feedback bias:
RB
RC
Better than base bias

Q point still moves
Not popular
RE
+VCC
Collector-feedback bias:
RB
Better than emitter-feedback bias

Q point still moves
Some applications because of circuit
simplicity
RC
+VCC
Collector- and emitter

-feedback bias:
RB
Better than emitter-feedback bias

Not as good as voltage-divider bias
Limited application
RC
RE
Two-supply emitter bias:
Very stable
Requires 2 supplies
Note: Also called TSEB

+VCC
Voltage divider bias:

R1
Very stable
Requires 1 supply
The most popular
R2
Note: Also called VDB

RC
RE
PNP transistor
The base is n-type material
The collector and emitter are p-type
material
The emitter arrow points in
Can be used with a negative power
supply
PNP transistor symbol

and current flow
IB
IC
IB
IE
Electron flow
IC
IE
Conventional flow
-VCC
PNP Biasing with a

negative supply
R1
R2
RC
RE
+VEE
PNP Biasing with a

positive supply
R2
R1
RE
RC

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ELEKTRONIKA 1

Bipolar Junction Transistors

The bipolar junction transistor has 3 doped regions.

COLLECTOR (medium doping)

BASE (light doping)

EMITTER (heavy doping)

In a properly biased NPN transistor, the emitter electrons

The common emitter connection has two loops:

The base circuit is usually analyzed with the

A graph of IC versus VCE

Transistor circuit approximations

The first approximation:

The second approximation:

VCE = VCC - VRC

VCE = 12 V - 4.3 V = 7.7 V

Reading transistor data sheets

Typical Breakdown Ratings

A graphic view of collector breakdown

Typical Maximum Ratings

Data sheet hFE

VCE = VCC - ICRC

A graph of this equation

Load line slope

Same slope with new ICsat and VCEcutoff

A smaller RC produces a higher value ICsat and

A circuit can operate at any point on the load line.

The operating point is determined by the base current.

The operating point is called the Q or quiescent point.

Saturation and cutoff are non-linear operating points.

VC = 15 V - (1.95 mA)(1 kW) = 13.1 V

Comparing the bias methods

Voltage divider bias

Voltage divider bias circuit

ASSUMPTION: The base

Now the circuit can be viewed this way:

The six-step process

The six-step process

Is the divider a stiff source?

Find the Thevenin

A Thevenin model of the bias circuit:

The 100:1 rule applied to the bias circuit:

RTH < 0.01 RIN

When this rule is met,

Firm voltage divider

Sometimes a firm divider is chosen.

< 0.1 bdcRE

VDB load line and Q point

VDB load line and Q point

Q (RE = 2.2 kW)

Two-supply stiff emitter bias:

Find the voltages:

VC = 10 V - (1.3 mA)(3.6 kW) = 5.32 V

The least predictable

Better than base bias

Better than emitter-feedback bias

Collector- and emitter

Better than emitter-feedback bias

Two-supply emitter bias:

Note: Also called TSEB

Voltage divider bias:

Note: Also called VDB

PNP transistor symbol

PNP Biasing with a