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https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Carbohydrate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism
http://www.sparknotes.com/health/carbohydrates/section1/page/3/
http://www.diabetesforecast.org/2011/mar/how-the-body-usescarbohydrates-proteins-and-fats.html?referrer=https://www.google.com.ph/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar#Abnormality_in_blood_sugar_lev
els
http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/how-sugar-affects-diabetes
Sadava, Hellens. Life: The Science of Biology

Bicol University
College of Nursing
Legazpi City

Research Lec 2
(Carbohydrates)

Submitted by:
Erliz Faye B. Mayor
BSN 1-B

Submitted to:
Mrs. Noemi R. Madrid

1. Carbohydrates

A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting


of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a
hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with
the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could be different from n). Some
exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component
of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are
technically hydrates of carbon;structurally it is more accurate to view them
aspolyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms.
Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and
glycogen) and as structural components (e.g.,cellulose in plants
and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an
important component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD and NAD) and the
backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose

is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many


other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune
system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting,
and development.

2. Kinds of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are among the most abundant compounds on earth.
They are normally broken down into five major classifications of
carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Nucleotides
MONOSACCHARIDES

The word monosaccharide is derived from mono, meaning


"one", and saccharide, meaning "sugar". The common
monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Each simple
sugar has a cyclic structure and is composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in ratios of 1:2:1 respectively. Although each sugar
mainly exists as a cyclic compound, it is important to note that they
are all in equilibrium to a small extent with their linear forms.

While galactose and glucose are composed of six-membered


rings, fructose has only five carbon atoms bonded to each other in
ring form.
Glucose
Glucose is the main sugar metabolized by the body for energy.
The D-isomer of glucose predominates in nature and it is for this
reason that the enzymes in our body have adapted to binding this
form only. Since it is an important energy source, the concentration of
glucose in the bloodstream usually falls within a narrow range of 70 to
115mg/100 ml of blood. Sources of glucose include starch, the major
storage form of carbohydrate in plants.
Galactose
Galactose is nearly identical to glucose in structure except for one
hydroxyl group on carbon atom number four of the six-sided sugar.
Since it differs in only one position about all six asymmetric centers in
the linear form of the sugar, galactose is known as an epimer of
glucose. Galactose is not normally found in nature in large quantities,
however it combines with glucose to form lactose in milk. After being
absorbed by the body, galactose is converted into glucose by the liver
so that it can be used to provide energy for the body. Both galactose
and glucose are very stable in solution because they are able to
adopt chair and boat conformations.
Fructose
Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose, meaning it has the
same chemical formula but a completely different three-dimensional
structure. The main difference is that fructose is a ketone in its linear
form while glucose is an aldehyde. Through an intramolecular
addition reaction with the C-5 OH group, glucose forms a sixmembered ring while fructose forms a five-membered ring as seen in
Figure 1. Upon consumption, fructose is absorbed and converted into

glucose by the liver in the same manner as lactose. Sources of


fructose include fruit, honey and high-fructose corn syrup.
DISACCHARIDES

Disaccharides, meaning "two sugars", are commonly found in


nature as sucrose, lactose and maltose. They are formed by a
condensation reaction where one molecule of water condenses or is
released during the joining of two monosaccharides. The type of bond
that is formed between the two sugars is called a glycosidic bond.
Lactose

Lactose is a disaccharide formed through the condensation of


glucose and galactose. The bond formed between the two
monosaccharides is called a beta glycosidic bond (). The alpha
glycosidic bond, found in sucrose and maltose, differs from the beta
glycosidic bond only in the angle of formation between the two
sugars. Unfortunately, unlike alpha glycosidic bonds, beta-glycosidic
bonds are unable to be digested by some people. Therefore, many
people are lactose intolerant and suffer from intestinal cramping and
bloating due to the incomplete digestion of the substance.
Sucrose
Sucrose is an excellent preservative because it has no "reducing
end" or reactive group like the other sugars. Because glucose is
joined to the carbon atom labeled number two on fructose, neither
monosaccharide is able to open or react with other compounds in
solution. It is for this reason that sucrose is an excellent natural
preservative and is found in many jarred foods including jams. Other
natural sources of sucrose are found in plants such as sugar cane,
sugar beets, and maple syrup.
Maltose
Maltose is the final disaccharide and consists of two glucose
molecules joined by an alpha glycosidic bond. Maltose is an
interesting compound because of its use in alcohol production.
Through a process called fermentation, glucose, maltose and other
sugars are converted to ethanol by yeast cells in the absence of
oxygen. Through an analogous process, muscle cells convert glucose
into lactic acid to obtain energy while the body operates under
anaerobic conditions. Although maltose is uncommon in nature, it can
be formed through the breakdown of starch by the enzymes of the
mouth.
Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates that contain more than two simple sugars are called
oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, depending upon the length of
the structure. Oligosaccharides usually have between three and ten
sugar units while polysaccharides can have more than three
thousand units. These large structures are responsible for the storage
of glucose and other sugars in plants and animals.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Important oligosaccharides are raffinose and stachyose. Composed


of repeating units of galactose, glucose and fructose, these
oligosaccharides are of nutritional importance because they are found
in beans and legumes. Because of their unique glycosidic bonds,
raffinose and stachyose cannot be broken down into their simple
sugars. Therefore, they cannot be absorbed by the small intestine
and are often metabolized by bacteria in the large intestine to form
unwanted gaseous byproducts. Commercial enzyme preparations

such as Beano can be consumed before a meal rich in beans and


legumes in order to aid the small intestine in the breakdown of these
oligosaccharides.

POLYSACCHARIDES

Polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates are usually monomers


and consist of thousands of repeating glucose units. Naturally, they
allow for the storage of large quantities of glucose. Starch is the
major storage form of carbohydrate in plants and has two different
types: amylose and amylopectin. Although digestible alpha glycoisidic
bonds link both types of starch, each type is unique in their branching
of glucose. While amylose is a straight chain polymer, amylopectin is
highly branched. These differences account for the fact that
amylopectin can form stable starch gels which are able to retain
water while amylose is unable to do so. Therefore, amylopectin is
often used by manufacturers to produce many different kinds of thick
sauces and gravies. Sources of starch include potatoes, beans,
bread, pasta, rice and other bread products.

NUCLEOTIDES

Other sugars of importance are found in nucleotides such as


deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both RNA
and DNA are five sided cyclic sugars; however, RNA has one more
hydroxyl group than DNA. Glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in
the breakdown of glucose for energy, can be used for the synthesis of
these compounds.

3. Biological functions of Carbohydrates


Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:

Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose


Sparing the use of proteins for energy
Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
Biological recognition processes
Flavor and Sweeteners
Dietary fiber
Providing energy and regulating blood glucose

4. Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are widespread in our food. Exceptions are meat and


fish, which have no carbohydrate, and pure fats, such as vegetable
oils.Plant foods are our primary source of carbohydrate, and some,
such as grains, are the most concentrated.The best carbohydrate
foods are unprocessed whole foods, like fresh fruit, 100% juice,
whole grains, foods made with whole grains and many vegetables.
These foods also contain fiber, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants.
Foods made with refined grains have fewer of these nutrients. Foods
loaded with added sugars have few nutrients and can add excess
calories.
Rice

Barley

Cornmeal

Wheat

Flour

Couscous

Tortillas

Oats

Bulgur

Rye

Cereals

Buckwheat

Fruit

Pasta

Dried fruit: dates, raisins, etc

Noodles

Potatoes

Legumes: white beans,


black beans, kidney beans,
pinto beans, garbanzo
beans lentils

Quinoa
Sweet potatoes
Winter squash, like butternut
and acorn
Carrots and carrot juice

5. How your body uses carbohydrates?


Carbohydrates, on the other hand, can only be stored in limited
quantities, so the body is eager to use them for energy. "We think of
carbs as the [nutrient] that's used first," says Eric Westman, MD,
MHS, director of the Lifestyle Medicine Clinic at Duke University
Medical Center. "We can only store a day or two of carbs." The
carbohydrates in food are digested into small pieceseither glucose
or a sugar that is easily converted to glucosethat can be absorbed
through the small intestine's walls. After a quick stop in the liver,
glucose enters the circulatory system, causing blood glucose levels to
rise. The body's cells gobble up this mealtime bounty of glucose more
readily than fat, says Wylie-Rosett.
Once the cells have had their fill of glucose, the liver stores some of
the excess for distribution between meals should blood glucose levels
fall below a certain threshold. If there is leftover glucose beyond what
the liver can hold, it can be turned into fat for long-term storage so
none is wasted. When carbohydrates are scarce, the body runs
mainly on fats. If energy needs exceed those provided by fats in the
diet, the body must liquidate some of its fat tissue for energy.
While these fats are a welcome source of energy for most of the
body, a few types of cells, such as brain cells, have special needs.
These cells could easily run on glucose from the diet, but they can't
run on fatty acids directly. So under low-carbohydrate conditions,
these finicky cells need the body to make fat-like molecules called
ketone bodies. This is why a very-low-carbohydrate diet is sometimes
called "ketogenic." (Ketone bodies are also related to a dangerous
diabetic complication called ketoacidosis, which can occur if insulin
levels are far too low.) Ketone bodies could alone provide enough
energy for the parts of the body that can't metabolize fatty acids, but
some tissues still require at least some glucose, which isn't normally
made from fat. Instead, glucose can be made in the liver and kidneys
using protein from elsewhere in the body. But take care: If not enough

protein is provided by the diet, the body starts chewing on muscle


cellss

6. The Different Monosaccharides, disscharides and


complex carbohydrates
Monosaccharides and Disaccharides In the category of nutrients, there are
monomers and polymers. Monomers are the "building blocks" of large
macromolecules, or any molecule chain created through condensation
reactions. These are the polymers, three or more monomers bonded
together.
In the category of carbohydrates, there are monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosacchaides, and polysaccharides. Just from the
prefixes, you can tell that the monosaccharides are monomers, the
disaccharides are two bonded monomers (monosaccharides) and
oligosacchaides and polysaccharides are made up of many monomers
(monosaccharides). The monosaccharides are just a single carbon ring (in
the natural aqueous environment of an organism). The monosaccharides
include glucose, fructose, and galactose. The disaccharides are two carbon
rings bonded together by a glycosidic linkage in a condensation
(dehydration) reaction, which removes a molecule of water. Disaccharides
include maltose (glucose + glucose), lactose (glucose + galactose),
sucrose (glucose + fructose), and more.
When we consume food, we are taking in the large polysacchaides such as
starch and smaller molecules such as maltose. We take these long
molecules and digest them - break up their glycosidic linkages until they
are monosaccharides (monomers) that we can absorb throughout out
alimentary canal (usually in small intestine).
A monosaccharide is one saccharide (or sugar) molecule. An example of a
monosaccharide is glucose.
A disaccharide is two saccharides (sugars) bonded together through a
dehydration reaction. An example of a disaccharide is maltose which is two
glucose linked together. A polysaccharide is typically ten or more
saccharides bonded together. Cellulose is an example of a polysaccharide,
which is ten or more glucose linked together.

7. Factors to identify Carbohydrates

PROBLEM:
To determine whether a substance contains reducing sugars and/or polysaccharides by using
Benedicts reagent and iodine stain.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
Monosaccharides and some disaccharides react with Benedicts reagent to produce a colored
precipitate. Carbohydrates that react in this manner are called reducing sugars.

O
O

||

RC

R OH

RCR

\
H
aldehyde

ketone

hydroxyl

Reducing sugars are characterized by the presence of a free carbonyl group, either an aldehyde
or a ketone group, and hydroxyl groups.

//

H
|

H C OH

H C OH

C == O

HO C H

HO C H

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

||

||

glucose (dextrose)

fructose

Glucose (dextrose) and fructose are both reducing sugars. Is sucrose a reducing sugar?

CH2OH

| O
/H
H /
| /

CH2OH

| /

\ |

| /

O
/

H
\

|
\

| O |

|-
| \

HO\ OH

H /

\ H

\ | | /
H

\ | | / CH2OH

OH

OH

OH

sucrose

Oxidation occurs when a substance gains oxygen or loses electrons or hydrogen.


Reduction occurs when a substance loses oxygen or gains electrons or hydrogen.
O

//

//

RC

+ 1/2 O2

R-C

\
H

OH

In the Benedict's test, an oxidation reduction reaction takes place between the Benedict's re-agent
and the reducing sugar. Oxygen is transferred from the Benedict's reagent to the carbonyl group of
the reducing sugar. Since the Benedict's reagent loses oxygen, it is said to be reduced. Since the
carbonyl group of the reducing sugar gains oxygen, it is said to be oxidized
O
//
Benedicts reagent
(oxidized form)

+ RC
\
H
heat

->
O
//

Benedicts reagent
(reduced form)

+ RC
\
OH
(acid sugar)

This oxidation/reduction reaction changes the structure of the reducing sugar forming a colored
precipitate. The change in color is related to the initial concentration of the reducing sugar. See
Table 1. Heating the reactants significantly increases the rate of the reaction.

Table 1: Range of color changes in Benedicts reagent

Many polysaccharides can be distinguished from other carbohydrates by their reaction with iodine
stain. The three dimensional structure of many polysaccharides allows them to react with the iodine
stain to produce a particular color. Different polysaccharides have different three-dimensional
structures, and therefore produce somewhat different colors. See Table 2 below.

In this lab you will not need to identify specific polysaccharides (i.e., amylose, glycogen, and
cellulose) so it will not be necessary to distinguish between bluish-black, violet-brown, etc. You will
simply determine whether or not the test substance gives a positive or negative iodine test.
Table 2: Color Changes in iodine stain
Type of
Color Change in
Iodine Stain

Test Results

Polysaccharide
s Present

Yellowish/amber

None

Bluish black

Plant Starch
(amylose)

Dark reddish
brown

Glycogen

Violet brown to
reddish brown

Cellulose

HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of the problem and is made after carefully studying
and researching the problem. In real life, most hypotheses turn out to be unsupported by data,
which allows the scientist to form a new hypothesis to test. With each attempt the scientist gets
closer and closer to the solution to the problem. Form your own hypothesis about which
substances will contain reducing sugars and which substances contain polysaccharides. Record
your predictions in the table provided. Discuss your predictions with your partner. Is it possible
that some solutions might contain both reducing sugars and polysaccharides, or neither reducing
sugars nor polysaccharides?

MATERIALS:
Water bath

Test Solutions

Test tube rack with test tubes

Benedicts Solution

Test tube holder

Iodine

Sharpie

PROCEDURE:
A. BENEDICTS TEST

1. Obtain 5 test tubes and a test tube rack. Label the test tubes using a permanent marker. Be sure to put
the labels on the glass, not the frosted region of the test tube.
2. Fill each test tube with 16 drops of the solution to be tested.
3. Table 3: Substances to be tested for presence of reducing sugars.

Test Tube

Solution to be Tested

Water

Glucose/Dextrose

Potato Solution

Table Sugar Solution

Honey Solution

Cornstarch Solution

Gelatin

Eggwhite Solution

Sweet Potato

10

Egg Yolk

4. Add 8 drops of Benedicts reagent and tap side of test tube to mix contents. The solutions should appear
blue in color.
5. Place the test tubes in hot water bath and heat for 3-5 minutes.
6. Remove carefully using the test tube rack to transport the test tubes.
7. Observe results and record in Data Table.
8. Wash the test tubes with soap and water.

B. IODINE TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Obtain 5 test tubes and place them in a test tube rack. Label the test tubes using a Sharpie.
Add 16 drops of the test solution in the appropriate test tube.
Add 4 drops of iodine solution.
Tap side of test tube to mix contents
Observe and record results in Data Table.
Wash the test tubes with soap and water.

CLEAN-UP

Wash the test tubes both inside AND outside with soap, water, & test tube brush, making sure to remove all labels.
Turn test tubes upside-down on the pegs of the test tube racks.
Wipe down the tabletop with 4-O-9 and a paper towel.
Remove gloves, goggles, and apron.
Wash hands.

8. Metabolism of carbohydrates

Carbon fixation, or photosynthesis, in which CO2 is reduced to


carbohydrate.
Glycolysis - the oxidation metabolism of glucose molecules to
obtain ATP and pyruvate[9]
a. Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle, also known
as the citric acid cycle, in aerobic organisms after moving
through pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.[10]
The pentose phosphate pathway, which acts in the conversion
of hexoses into pentoses and in NADPH regeneration.
[11]
NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents
oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many
biomolecules.
Glycogenesis - the conversion of excess glucose
into glycogen as a cellular storage mechanism; this prevents
excessive osmotic pressure buildup inside the cell
Glycogenolysis - the breakdown of glycogen into glucose,
which provides a glucose supply for glucose-dependent tissues.
Gluconeogenesis - de novo synthesis of glucose molecules
from simple organic compounds. An example in humans is the
conversion of a few amino acids in cellular protein to glucose.
Catabolism - is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to
extract energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of
monosaccharide catabolism: glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

9. Blood Sugar Level


A normal sugar level is less than 100 mg/dL after not eating (fasting)
for at least 8 hours. And it's less than 140 mg/dL 2 hours after eating.

During the day, levels tend to be at their lowest just before meals. For
most people without diabetes, blood sugar levels before meals hover
around 70 to 80 mg/dL. For some people, 60 is normal; for others, 90.

10. Abnormalities brought by the sugar counts


High blood sugar

If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite
over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the longterm health problems including heart disease, eye, kidney, and nerve
damage.
The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When
diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic
medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients,
treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will
be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to
managing the condition.Diet changes and exercise implementation may
also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.
Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood
glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to
have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as
long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the
time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value
higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion
since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP)
glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated
investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.

Low blood sugar

If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition


called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired
mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg
muscles; pale complexion; sweating; paranoid or aggressive mentality
and loss of consciousness.
Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after
extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dl) must be quick and effective to
prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion
or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dl) loss of
consciousness and seizures. It is far more dangerous to have too little
glucose in the blood than too much, at least temporarily. In healthy
individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite
effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in
diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment . Hypoglycemic
episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in
severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical
assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even
death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.

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