Professional Documents
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org/wiki/Carbohydrate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism
http://www.sparknotes.com/health/carbohydrates/section1/page/3/
http://www.diabetesforecast.org/2011/mar/how-the-body-usescarbohydrates-proteins-and-fats.html?referrer=https://www.google.com.ph/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar#Abnormality_in_blood_sugar_lev
els
http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/how-sugar-affects-diabetes
Sadava, Hellens. Life: The Science of Biology
Bicol University
College of Nursing
Legazpi City
Research Lec 2
(Carbohydrates)
Submitted by:
Erliz Faye B. Mayor
BSN 1-B
Submitted to:
Mrs. Noemi R. Madrid
1. Carbohydrates
2. Kinds of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are among the most abundant compounds on earth.
They are normally broken down into five major classifications of
carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
Nucleotides
MONOSACCHARIDES
Carbohydrates that contain more than two simple sugars are called
oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, depending upon the length of
the structure. Oligosaccharides usually have between three and ten
sugar units while polysaccharides can have more than three
thousand units. These large structures are responsible for the storage
of glucose and other sugars in plants and animals.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
POLYSACCHARIDES
NUCLEOTIDES
4. Sources of Carbohydrates
Barley
Cornmeal
Wheat
Flour
Couscous
Tortillas
Oats
Bulgur
Rye
Cereals
Buckwheat
Fruit
Pasta
Noodles
Potatoes
Quinoa
Sweet potatoes
Winter squash, like butternut
and acorn
Carrots and carrot juice
PROBLEM:
To determine whether a substance contains reducing sugars and/or polysaccharides by using
Benedicts reagent and iodine stain.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
Monosaccharides and some disaccharides react with Benedicts reagent to produce a colored
precipitate. Carbohydrates that react in this manner are called reducing sugars.
O
O
||
RC
R OH
RCR
\
H
aldehyde
ketone
hydroxyl
Reducing sugars are characterized by the presence of a free carbonyl group, either an aldehyde
or a ketone group, and hydroxyl groups.
//
H
|
H C OH
H C OH
C == O
HO C H
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
||
||
glucose (dextrose)
fructose
Glucose (dextrose) and fructose are both reducing sugars. Is sucrose a reducing sugar?
CH2OH
| O
/H
H /
| /
CH2OH
| /
\ |
| /
O
/
H
\
|
\
| O |
|-
| \
HO\ OH
H /
\ H
\ | | /
H
\ | | / CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
sucrose
//
//
RC
+ 1/2 O2
R-C
\
H
OH
In the Benedict's test, an oxidation reduction reaction takes place between the Benedict's re-agent
and the reducing sugar. Oxygen is transferred from the Benedict's reagent to the carbonyl group of
the reducing sugar. Since the Benedict's reagent loses oxygen, it is said to be reduced. Since the
carbonyl group of the reducing sugar gains oxygen, it is said to be oxidized
O
//
Benedicts reagent
(oxidized form)
+ RC
\
H
heat
->
O
//
Benedicts reagent
(reduced form)
+ RC
\
OH
(acid sugar)
This oxidation/reduction reaction changes the structure of the reducing sugar forming a colored
precipitate. The change in color is related to the initial concentration of the reducing sugar. See
Table 1. Heating the reactants significantly increases the rate of the reaction.
Many polysaccharides can be distinguished from other carbohydrates by their reaction with iodine
stain. The three dimensional structure of many polysaccharides allows them to react with the iodine
stain to produce a particular color. Different polysaccharides have different three-dimensional
structures, and therefore produce somewhat different colors. See Table 2 below.
In this lab you will not need to identify specific polysaccharides (i.e., amylose, glycogen, and
cellulose) so it will not be necessary to distinguish between bluish-black, violet-brown, etc. You will
simply determine whether or not the test substance gives a positive or negative iodine test.
Table 2: Color Changes in iodine stain
Type of
Color Change in
Iodine Stain
Test Results
Polysaccharide
s Present
Yellowish/amber
None
Bluish black
Plant Starch
(amylose)
Dark reddish
brown
Glycogen
Violet brown to
reddish brown
Cellulose
HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of the problem and is made after carefully studying
and researching the problem. In real life, most hypotheses turn out to be unsupported by data,
which allows the scientist to form a new hypothesis to test. With each attempt the scientist gets
closer and closer to the solution to the problem. Form your own hypothesis about which
substances will contain reducing sugars and which substances contain polysaccharides. Record
your predictions in the table provided. Discuss your predictions with your partner. Is it possible
that some solutions might contain both reducing sugars and polysaccharides, or neither reducing
sugars nor polysaccharides?
MATERIALS:
Water bath
Test Solutions
Benedicts Solution
Iodine
Sharpie
PROCEDURE:
A. BENEDICTS TEST
1. Obtain 5 test tubes and a test tube rack. Label the test tubes using a permanent marker. Be sure to put
the labels on the glass, not the frosted region of the test tube.
2. Fill each test tube with 16 drops of the solution to be tested.
3. Table 3: Substances to be tested for presence of reducing sugars.
Test Tube
Solution to be Tested
Water
Glucose/Dextrose
Potato Solution
Honey Solution
Cornstarch Solution
Gelatin
Eggwhite Solution
Sweet Potato
10
Egg Yolk
4. Add 8 drops of Benedicts reagent and tap side of test tube to mix contents. The solutions should appear
blue in color.
5. Place the test tubes in hot water bath and heat for 3-5 minutes.
6. Remove carefully using the test tube rack to transport the test tubes.
7. Observe results and record in Data Table.
8. Wash the test tubes with soap and water.
B. IODINE TEST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Obtain 5 test tubes and place them in a test tube rack. Label the test tubes using a Sharpie.
Add 16 drops of the test solution in the appropriate test tube.
Add 4 drops of iodine solution.
Tap side of test tube to mix contents
Observe and record results in Data Table.
Wash the test tubes with soap and water.
CLEAN-UP
Wash the test tubes both inside AND outside with soap, water, & test tube brush, making sure to remove all labels.
Turn test tubes upside-down on the pegs of the test tube racks.
Wipe down the tabletop with 4-O-9 and a paper towel.
Remove gloves, goggles, and apron.
Wash hands.
8. Metabolism of carbohydrates
During the day, levels tend to be at their lowest just before meals. For
most people without diabetes, blood sugar levels before meals hover
around 70 to 80 mg/dL. For some people, 60 is normal; for others, 90.
If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite
over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the longterm health problems including heart disease, eye, kidney, and nerve
damage.
The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When
diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic
medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients,
treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will
be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to
managing the condition.Diet changes and exercise implementation may
also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.
Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood
glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to
have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as
long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the
time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value
higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion
since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP)
glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated
investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.