Failure - Mechanisms - of - C-Steels - API - 571 - .Xls - Filename UTF-8''Failure Mechanisms of C-Steels (API 571)

All about Failure Mechanisms of C-steels according to API 571
Failure
Mechanism
Creep and
Stress
Rupture
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Mechanical
Fatigue
(API 571)
Corrosion
Fatigue
Cracking
(GALIOM)
consider
also Therm.
Vibration
Fatigue(API
Erosion/
ErosionCorrosion
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Description
Creep at Temperature
>370C depending on
material. Deformation
may lead to a rupture
Related Mechanism:
1.Short term overheat.
Stress Rupture
2. Reheat cracking
in heavy wall equipm.
sudden, unexpected
failure exposed to
cyclic stresses for an
extented period
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. All metals
2. Low creep
ductility
3. Cut of
remaining
life
Critical factors
related to service
1. Material
2. Load
3. Temperature
Affected
Units
1. Heater tubes
in fired heaters
2. Tube support
3. Other furnace
internals
4. HAZ
Appearance
Morphology
1. Hardening
2. Creep voids
at grain bound.
3. fissures
4. cracks
(bulging)
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Design
2. Material
Selection
4. PWHT
Inspection
Monitoring
Visual
UT,RT,EC,
WFMT
1. All metals
1. Geometrie
2. Stress level (Temp.)
3. Number of cycles
4. Material strength
5. Material Hardness
6. Material Mikrostruct.
1. small
nozzles
2. rotating
shafts on
pumps and
compressors
concentric
rings (waves)
emanating
from the crack
initiation site
1. Good Design
2. Material
Selection
3. Minimize
weld defects
4. use of UIT
5. Min. Stress
concentration
PT, MT and
SWUT
(shear wave
US testing)
Vibration
Monitoring
1.Velocity
2.Concentration of
impacting medium
3. Size and hardness
of impacting particles
4. Hardness and
corrosion resistance
5. Angle of impact
1. Bends
2. Tees
3. Reducers
4. Nozzles
5. Valves
6. Pumps
7. Heatexch.
localized loss
in thickness,
in the form of
pits, grooves,
waves, rounded
holes and
valleys
1. Geometry
2. Material
Selection
3. Surface
Hardening
4.Inhibitors
1. Visual
inspection
of suspected
areas
2. UT, RT
(metal loss)
2. Fatigue
limit
Related Mechanism: 3. Endurance

Vibration induced
limit
fatigue,Thermal fatigue
Erosion:
mechanical removal
of surface material
Erosion- Corrosion:
removing protective
films
Related Mechanism:
Cavitation, Fretting
1. All metals
2.Hardness
of the
surface
3. Free
corrosion
potential
(V)
Failure
Mechanism
Reheat
Cracking
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
1.Low alloy
steels
2. Loss of
toughness
3. Intergran.
cracking
Critical factors
related to service
1. Chemical composit.
2. Impurity elements
3. Grain size
4. Residual stresses
(cold working, welding)
5. Section thickness
6. Notches and stress
concentrations
Affected
Units
1. Heavy wall
vessels in areas
of high restraint
including
nozzle welds
and heavy wall
piping.
2. High strength
low alloy are
very susceptible
Appearance
Prevention
Morphology
Mitigation
Reheat cracking 1. Minimize
is intergranular restraint during
and can be
welding and
surface breaking PWHT.
or embedded
2. Small grain
depending on
size
the state of
3. UIT to weld
stress and
toe
geometry.
Galvanic
Corrosion
(API 571/
GALIOM)
occur at the junction

of dissimilar metals
when they are joined
together in a suitable
electrolyte.
Related Mechanism:
Soil corrosion
1. Free
corrosion
potential
1. Electrolyte
2. Two different
materials
(anode/cathode)
3. Electrical connection
between the anode and
cathode
any unit
where there
is a
conductive
fluid and
alloys are
coupled.
1. General
metal loss
2. Crevice
3. Groove
4. Pitting
Atmosph.
corrosion
(API 571/
GALIOM)
occur from moisture

associated with
atmospheric
conditions.
Marine environments
are most severe.
1. Free
corrosion
potential
1. Physical location
(marine)
2. Moisture
(humidity)
3. Temperature
1. any unit
2. under poor
coating
system
3. low temp.
4. not used
component
5. open to
atmosphere
Cracking of a metal
due to stress
relaxation during
PWHT or in service
at elevated temperat.
It is most often
observed in heavy wall
sections.
Related Mechanism:
Corrosion under
isulation
Inspection
Monitoring
1. Surface
cracks:UT,MT
2. Embedded
cracks: UT
1. no contact
1.Visual
2. Coating
inspection
(the more noble 2. UT
material should Thickness
be coated)
3. electric
insulating
4. cathodic
protection
1. general or
1. Surface
1.Visual
local metal loss preperation
inspection
2. Localized
and proper
2. UT
coating failure coating
Thickness
will tend to
application
promote
corrosion
Failure
Mechanism
Corrosion
under
Insulation
(CUI)
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Description
resulting from water
trapped under
insulation
fireproofing
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. Free
corrosion
potential
Critical factors
related to service
1. Design of insulation
system
2. Insulation typ
3. Temperature
4. Environment
Humidity, rainfall,
chlorides from marine
environment
5. Operating below the
water dew point
Affected
Units
1. any unit
Appearance
Morphology
often appears
as loose, flaky
scale covering
the corroded
component
Prevention
Mitigation
1. High quality
coating
2. Selection
of insulation
material
(closed-cell
foam glass
better than
mineral wool)
3. Calcium
Silicate insul.
contain
chlorides
4. inspection
plan
1. Free
corrosion
potential
1.Fluid Temperature
(increasing temp. tend
to increase corr.-rate
and fouling)
2. Type of water
(fresh, brackish, salt)
>60C for fresh, >46C
for brackish and salt
water cause scaling
3. Type of cooling syst.
cooling water
corrosion is
a concern
with watercooled heat
exchangers
and cooling
towers in all
applications
cooling water
corrosion can
result in many
different forms
of damage incl.
1. General corr.
when dissolved
oxygen is
present.
2. Local corr.
1.Proper design Inspection

2.Operat. Data depending
3.Chem.treatm. on the
4.Water velocity Morphology
5.Periodic
of Failure
mechanical
cleaning of tube
ID's and OD's
6. Minimize
stagnant areas
Related Mechanisms:
1. Atmospheric
corrosion
2. Crevice/Under
Deposit
Cooling
Water
Corrosion
(API 579/
GALIOM)
don't use
General or localized
corrosion caused by
dissolved salts,
gases, organic
compounds or
microbiological
activity
Related Mechanisms
1. Microbiologically
Inspection
Monitoring
1. Partial or
full stripping
2. UT-Thickn.
3. Real-time
Profile X-ray
for small bore
piping
4. Neutron
backscater
or IR
termography
identifying
wet insulation
5. Guided
wave UT
6. Deep
penetrating
Eddy-current
induced corrosion
(MIC)
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Cooling
Water
Corrosion
(API 579/
GALIOM)
don't use
Description
CO2
Corrosion
(API 571/
GALIOM)
(once-through, open
circulating, closed circ.)
Affected Mat.
Properties
from underdeposit, MIC
Critical factors
related to service
4. Oxygen content
(increasing oxygen
content tends to
increase corr.-rates)
5. Fluid velocities
<1m/s are likely to
result in fouling,
sedimendation and
increased corr.-rates.
6. Fouling occur from
mineral deposits, silt,
suspended organic
materials, corrosion
products, mill scale,
marine and mircrobiological growth
Affected
Units
Appearance
Morphology
3. Pitting corr.
4. MIC
5. SCC
6. Fouling
Prevention
Mitigation
Inspection
Monitoring
CO2 Corrosion results 1. Free

when CO2 dissolves
corrosion
1. Partial Pressure of
CO2. Increasing partial
1. Welds
1. Localized
1. Optimizing
1.VT, UT and
2. Bends
thinning and/or
Process data
RT inspection
in water to form
carbon acid (H2CO3)
The acid may lower
the pH and sufficient
quantities may
promote general
pressure of CO2
3. Reducer
pitting corrosion 2. Corrosion
techniques
result in lower pH
condensate and higher
rates of corrosion.
2. Corrosion occurs in
the liquid phase, often
at locations where CO2
4. Tees
5. Nozzles
(1.-5 are
turbulent
areas of flow
2. deep pitting
and grooving
in areas of
turbulence
should focus
on general
or local loss
in thickness
where water
2. Chloride stress
corrosion cracking
3. Galvanic corrosion
corrosion and/or
pitting corrosion
potential
condenses from the
regime)
6. Bottom of
inhibitors
in steam
condensate
systems.
3. material
selection
wetting
(300 series SS is anticipated.
Failure
Mechanism
continue
CO2
Corrosion
(API 571/
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
Related Mechanisms
1. Boiler water
condensate corrosion
2. Carbonate cracking
GALIOM)
vapor phase.
3. Increasing
temperature increase
pipe/
equipment
(as the
Critical factors
related to service
corrosion rate up to the
point where CO2 is
Affected
Units
density of
vaporized.
4.In absence of
moisture is CO2 a noncorrosive gas.
5. Whether or not free
water will be present
in crude oil and gas
depends upon factors
as the water cut, flow
regime and process
parameters.
Flue-Gas
Dew-Point
Corrosion
(API 579/
GALIOM)
1. Sulfur and chlorine C-Steel,

species in fuel will
C-Cr-Mo-St.
form sulfur dioxide,
sulfur trioxide and
hydrogen chloride
within the combustion
products.
2. At low enough
temperature, these
gases and the water
vapour in the flue gas
will condense to form
1. Concentration of
contaminants (sulfur and
chlorides) in the fuel
2. Operating Temp.
3. Dewpoint of sulfuric
acid depends on the
concentration of sulfur
trioxide (about 138C).
4. Dewpoint of hydrochloric acid (about 54C)
Appearance
Morphology
water is
larger than
of oil).
are highly
resistant)
4. increase of
2. Preferential
corrosion of
weld seams
Prevention
Mitigation
PH >6
Inspection
Monitoring
may require
angle probe
UT or RT.
7. Dead legs
8. Top surface
of the pipe if
condensation
in wet gas
systems is
anticipated
1. All fired
process heaters
and boilers that
burn fuels
in the economizer sections
and in the
stacks.
1. General
wastage often
with broad,
shallow pits,
depending on
the way the
sulfuric acid
condenses.
1. Wall thickness: UT
sulfurous acid, sulfuric

acid and hydrochloric
acid which can lead
to severe corrosion.
Failure
Mechanism
Microbiologically
Induced
Corrosion
(MIC)
(API 571)
Biological
Corrosion
(GALIOM)
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
corrosion caused by 1. Free
living organisms such corrosion
as bacteria, algae or potential
fungi. It often
associated with the
preence of tubercles
or slimy organic
substances
Related Mechanisms:
Cooling water
corrosion
Critical factors
related to service
1. Where water is
present
2. stagnant or low-flow
3. Organisms can
survive and grow under
severe conditions incl.
a. lack of oxygen
b. light or dark
c. high salinity
d. PH range: 0 to 12
e. Temperature: 0 to
235F (-17 to 113C)
4. Organisms thrive on
different nutrients incl.
inorganic substances
(e.g. sulfur, ammonia,
H2S) and organic
substances (e.g.
hydrocarbons, organic
acids). In addition, all
organisms require a
source of carbon,
nitrogen and phosphor.
for growth.
5. In-leakage of process
contaminants such as
Affected
Appearance
Units
Morphology
1. Heat
1. localized
exchangers
pitting under
2. Bottom water deposits or
of storage tanks tubercles that
3. Piping with
shield the
stagnant or
organisms.
low flow
2. cup-shaped
4. Piping in
pits
contact with
some soils
5. Open and not
used component
6. Product
storage tanks
and water
cooled heat
exchangers
in any unit
where cooling
water is not
properly treated
7. Fire water
systems
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Application
of biocides
2. minimize
low flow or
stagnant zones
3. Wrapping
and
cathodically
protecting
underground
structures
have been
effective in
preventing
MIC.
Inspection
Monitoring
1. Measuring
biocide
residual,
microbe
counts and
visual
appearance.
2. Special
probes have
been designed
to monitor for
evidence of
fouling which
may precede
or coincide
with MIC
damage
3. An increase
in the loss of
duty of a
heat exchang.
may be
indicative of
fouling and
potential MIC
4.VT, UT and
hydrocarbons or H2S
RT
may lead to a massive

increase in biofouling
and corrosion
Failure
Mechanism
Soil
Corrosion
don't use
Description
The deterioration of
metals exposed to
soils is refered to as
soil corrosion.
Related Mechanisms
Galvanic corrosion
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. Free
corrosion
potential
Critical factors
related to service
1. Temperature
2. Moisture
3. Oxygen
4. Soil resistivity
5. Soil type
6. Cathodic protection
7. Coating type,age,
condition
8. Soils having high
moisture content, high
dissolved salt concentr.
and high acidity are
usually the most
corrosive.
9. Soil-to-air interface
areas are often much
more susceptible to
corrosion than the rest
of the structure because
of moisture and oxygen
availability.
10. corrosion rates
increase with increasing
metal temperature
11. Other factors
a. galvanic corrosion
Affected
Units
1. Bottom of
storage tanks
2. Production
Separator
Appearance
Morphology
1.localized loss
due to pitting
2. Poor
condition of a
protective
coating is a
tell tale sign of
potential
corrosion
damage.
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Coating
2. Cathodic
protection
Inspection
Monitoring
1.Visual
inspection
2. UT, RT
b. dissimilar soils
c. stray currents
d. differential aeration
corrosion cells
e. MIC
Failure
Mechanism
Caustic
Corrosion
(API 579)
Caustic
Corrosion
and SCC
(GALIOM)
consider
also
Caustic
SCC
(API 579)
Description
Localized corrosion
due to the
concentration of
caustic or alkaline
salts
Related Mechanisms:
Steam Blanketing
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. Free
corrosion
potential
Critical factors
related to service
1. Presence of caustic
(NaOH or KOH)
2. Caustic is sometimes
added to process
streams for neutralizat.
3. Caustic solutions
for removal of sulfur
compounds
4. A concentrating
mechanism must exist
to built up the caustic
strength
5. Caustic may become
concentrated by
evaporation and
deposition
6. Exposure to high
solution strength caustic
can result in general
corrosion above 175F
(79C) and very high
corrosion rates above
200F (93C)
Affected
Units
1. Boilers
2. Steam
generating
equipments
incl. heat
exchangers
3. Where
caustic is added
to crude unit
charge
4. Accelerated
localized corr.
in preheat
exchangers,
furnace tubes
and transfer
lines, unless
the caustic is
effective mixed
in the oil stream
5. units use
caustic for
removing
sulfur
compounds.
Appearance
Prevention
Morphology
Mitigation
1.Localized
1. Design
metal loss
2. Process
which may
3. In process
appear as
equipment,
grooves in a
caustic
boiler tube or
injection
locally thinned facilities should
areas under
be designed
insulating
to allow proper
deposits
mixing and
2. Deposits may dilution
fill corroded
of caustic in
depressions
order to avoid
and mask
the
damage below. concentration
Probing suspect of caustic on
areas with a
hot metal
sharp instrument surface
may be required
3. Localized
gouging may
result along a
waterline where
corrosive
concentrate.
Inspection
Monitoring
1.For process
equipment,
UT thickness
gauging is
useful to
detect general
corrosion.
Localized
losses may
be difficult
to locate.
2. Injection
points should
be inspected
in acc. with
API 570
3. UT scans
and RT
4. Steam
generation
equipment
may require
visual inspect.
with the use a
boroscope.
In vertical tubes
circumferential
in horizontal at
the top or
longitudinal.
Failure
Mechanism
Oxidation
(API 571)
High
Temperat.
Corrosion
(GALIOM)
Description
Sulfidation
(API 571)
High Temp.
H2S
Corrosion
Corrosion of C-steel
resulting from their
reaction with sulfur
Oxygen reacts with

C-steel at high temp.
converting the metal
to oxide scale.
It is most often
present as oxygen in
the surrounding air
used for combustion
in fired heaters/boilers
Affected Mat.
Properties
C-Steel,
C-Cr-Steel
Critical factors
related to service
1. Temperatur >538C
2. Alloy Composition.
Affected
Appearance
Units
Morphology
fired heaters and 1. General
boilers as well 2. covered outas other
side surface
combustion
with oxide scale
equipment
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Material
selection
Inspection
Monitoring
UT
C-Steel,
C-Cr-Steel
1. Temperatur >260C
3. Concentration of
1.Heaters fired
with oil, gas
2. Boilers
1. Material
selection
UT,RT
1. Material
selection
Initial stage:
Hardness
EC
Advanced
stage:cracks
compounds in high
temp. environments.
(GALIOM)
Carburization
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Carbon is absorbed
into a material at
elevated temp. while
in contact with a
carbonaceous mater.
1.C-Steel,
C-Cr-Steel
2.loss of high
temperature
creep
or carburizing environ. ductility;
1. General
2. localized
3. high velocity
corrosive sulfur comp.

3. Piping
4. Sulfidation is primarily
caused by H2S
erosion-corr.
4. sulfide scale
1. Temperatur >593C
1.Fired heater
tubes
3. Carburizing environm.
or carbonaceous mater.
4. Hydrocarbons, CO,
CO2, methane,ethane
1. Increase of
hardness
2. loss in
ductility
3. volumetric
increase
RT,UT,MP
Failure
Mechanism
Decarburization
(API 579/
GALIOM)
Initially, carbon diffuse

into the component at
a high rate and then
tapper off as the depth
of carburization
increases.
Related: Metal dusting
3.loss of
ambient temp
mech. Prop.
4. loss of
weldability
5. loss of
corros. resis.
5. Low O2 or steam
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
1.C-Steels
C-Cr-Steels
2. loss in
room temp.
Critical factors
related to service
1. Time
2. Temperature
3. Carbon activity of the
process stream; gas
phase (H2, CO2 ) that
A condition where
steel loses strength
due the removal of
carbon and carbides
leaving only an iron
matrix. Decarburizat.
occurs during
exposure to high
temperatures, during
heat treatment, from
exposure to fire, or
from high temperature
service in a gas envir.
tensile
strength
3. loss in
creep
strength
has a low carbon activity

so that carbon in the
steel will diffuse to the
surface to react with gas
phase constituents.
Affected
Units
1. Components
exposed to
elevated temp.,
heat treated or
Appearance
Morphology
1.The decarbur.
layer will be free
of carbide
phases.
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Material
selection
Inspection
Monitoring
Hardness
see
Carburization
see
Carburization
see
Carburization
exposed to
fire.
2. Piping in hot
hydrogen service
3. fired heater
tubes
4. Pressure
vessel comp.
hot formed
Related Mechanism:
High temperature
Hydrogen Attack
(HTHA)
Metal
Dusting
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Metal dusting is a
see
form of carburization Carburization
resulting in accelerat.
localized pitting which
see
Carburization
see
Carburization
don't use
occurs in carburizing
gases and/or process
streams containing
carbon and hydrogen.
Pits usually form on
the surface and may
contain soot or
graphite dust.
Failure
Mechanism
Corrosion
Fatigue
(API 571)
Corrosion
Fatigue
cracking
(GALIOM)
consider
also
Thermal
and
Mechanical
Fatigue
of API 571
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
A form of fatigue
1. Free
cracking in which
corrosion
cracks develop under potential
the combined affects 2.Endurance
of cyclic loading and limit
corrosion.
Cracking often
initiates at a stress
concentration such as
a pit in the surface.
Cracking can initiate
at multiple sites.
Related Mechanisms:
Mechanical fatigue
Vibration induced
fatigue
Critical factors
related to service
1. Corrosive environment
2. Cyclic stresses
3. Cracking is more
likely to occur in
environments that
promote pitting or
localized corrosion
under cyclic stress due
to thermal stress,
vibration or differential
expansion
4. Contrary to a pure
mechanical fatigue,
there is no fatigue limit
load in corrosionassisted fatigue. Corr.
promotes failure at a
lower stress and number
of cycles than the
materials' normal
endurance limit in the
absence of corrosion
Affected
Units
1. Rotating
Equipment
2. Deaerators
3. Cyclic Boilers
4. any equipm.
subjected to
cyclic stresses
Appearance
Morphology
1. The fatigue
fracture is brittle
and the cracks
are most often
transgranular,
as in stresscorrosion
cracking, but not
branched, and
often results in
propagation of
multiple
parrallel cracks.
2. Fatigue
cracking will be
evidenced by
very little plastic
deformation
except that final
fracture may
occur by
mechanical
Prevention
Mitigation
1. Using
coatings and
and/or
inhibitors
2. Minimize
residual
welding and
fabrication
stresses
through PWHT.
3. Minimize
weld reinforcement by
grinding weld
contours
smooth.
Better is
Ultrasonic
Impact Treatm.
(UIT) or WIGdressing
Inspection
Monitoring
1. cracking
is generally
detected with
WFMT (wet
fluorescent
magnetic
particle testing
2. Many of the
cracks are
very tight and
difficult to
detect.
3. Cracking
may occur at
the
membranes
in the highly
stressed
regions,
particularly
corners at
buckstays.
and often results in

propagating of multiple
parallel cracks.
5. Cracks initiation sites
include concentrators
such as pits, notches,
surface defects,
changes in section or
fillet welds.
Failure
Mechanism
Caustic
Stress
Corrosion
Cracking
(Caustic
Embrittlement)
(API 571)
Caustic
Corrosion
and SCC
(GALIOM)
consider
also
Caustic
Corrosion
(API 571)
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
Caustic embrittlement 1. Free
is a form of stress
corrosion
corrosion cracking
potential
characterized by
surface-initiated
cracks that occur in
piping and equipment
exposed to caustic,
primarily adjacent to
non-PWHT'd welds
Related Mechanisms:
Amine cracking
Carbonate cracking
Critical factors
related to service
1. Caustic Strength
Cracking can occur at
low caustic levels if a
concentrating mechan.
is present.
Concentration can occur
as a result of alternating
wet and dry conditions,
localized hot spots or
high temperature steamout.
In such cases, caustic
concentrations of 50 to
100 ppm are sufficient
to cause cracking.
2. Metal Temperature
Crack propagation rates
increase dramatically
with temperature.
3. Stress Level
Stresses that promote
overload
accompanied
by plastic
deformation.
Affected
Appearance
Units
Morphology
1. Equipment
1. cracking
that handles
typically
caustic, incl.
propagates
H2S removal
parallel to the
units.
weld in adjacent
2. Equipment
base metal but
that uses
can also occur
caustic for
in the weld
neutralization
deposit or HAZ
in sulfuric acid 2. sometimes
and HF
described as a
alkylation units. spider web of
3. Caustic is
small cracks.
sometimes
3. oxide-filled
injected into the cracks
feed (Inlet) to the
crude tower
for chloride
control.
Prevention
Mitigation
1. PWHT
2. Steamout
of non-PWHT'd
carbon steel
piping and
equipment
should be
avoided.
Equipment
should be
water washed
before steamout.
3. Proper
design and
operation of the
injection
system is
required to
ensure that
caustic is
Inspection
Monitoring
1. Although
cracks may
be seen
visually, crack
detection is
best perfored
with WFMT
(wet flouresc.
magnetic
particle test.),
RT, ACFM
(alternating
current
magnetic
flux leakage
testing).
2.PT (Liquid
penetrant
testing) is not
effective for
finding tight,
cracking can be residual

that result from welding
or from cold working
(such as bending and
forming) as well as
applied stresses.
(Temp. and Stress
causing caustic embritt.
see Fig.4-85).
Failure
Mechanism
Ammonia
Stress
Corrosion
Cracking
(API 571)
Ammonia
Corrosion
and SCC
(GALIOM)
Description
Hydrogen
Embrittlem.
(HE)
(API 571/
A loss in ductility of
high strength steels
due to the penetration
of atomic hydrogen
Carbon steel is
susceptible to SCC
in anhydrous
ammonia.
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. Harness
> 225 BHN
Related Mechanism:
not applicable
1.Loss of
ductility
2. C-Steel
with 22 HRC
Critical factors
related to service
1. Anhydrous ammonia
with < 0.2% water will
cause cracking in
C-Steels.
2. PWHT eliminates
susceptibility of most
common steels (< 70
ksi =482 Mpa)
3. Contamination with
air or oxygen increases
tendency toward
cracking
Affected
Units
1. Ammonia is
present as a
process
contaminant
in some
services or may
be intentionally
added as an
acid neutralizer
2. ammonia
storage tanks,
piping and
equipment in
ammonia
refrigeration
units.
Three conditions must
1.Mild steel
be satisfied:
for vessels and
1. Critical concentration piping in most
of hydrogen within steel. refining, process
properly
dispersed
before
entering the
high-temp.
crude preheat
system.
scale-filled
cracks and
should not be
used for
detection.
3. Crack
depths with
shear wave
UT (SWUT)
Appearance
Morphology
1. Cracking will
occur at
exposed nonPWHT welds
and HAZ
Prevention
Inspection
Mitigation
Monitoring
1. PWHT
1. WFMT
2. Addition of
welds inside
small quantit. tanks
of water to the 2. External
ammonia (0.2% UT Shear
3. Hardness
wave
225 BHN
4. prevent
ingress of
oxygen into
storage
facilities.
1.Cracking due
to HE can
initiate subsurface, but in
1. Use lower
strength steels
2. PWHT
3. Use low
1. For suface
cracking
use PT
(liquid penetr.
GALIOM)
can lead to brittle

cracking. HE can
occur during
manufacturing,
welding, or from
Hydrogen can come from applications

Welding-if wet electrode have low hardare used.
ness and are
High temper. Hydrogen usually not
gas atmospheres.
susceptible to
Wet H2S or HF acid.
HE (Pipe and
services that can

charge hydrogen into
If the partial pressure

of H2S in the gas is
the steel in an
aqueous, corrosive,
or a gaseous
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Hydrogen
Embrittlem.
(HE)
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Description
Amine
Corrosion
0,3 kPa (0,05 psi)

SSC (Sulfide stress
most cases is
hydrogen, dry
surface breaking electrodes and
2. HE occurs
preheating
at locations of
methods.
high residual or
testing), MT
(magnetic
particle test.)
or WFMT
(wet flouresc.
tri-axial stresses
Pressure vessel (notches,
magn. Part.
testing)
steels classified restraint) and

as P-No.1,
where the
Group 1 and 2. microstructure
2. UT may
also be useful
in finding HE
Affected Mat.
Properties
Critical factors
related to service
cracking)- resistant
steels, selected using
Annex A.2 of ISO 15156
Part 2, shall not show
HE.
2. Strength level and
microstructure must be
susceptible to
embrittlement. SSCresistant steels shall
not show HE.
3. A stress above the
threshold of HE must be
present from residual
stresses and/or applied
stresses.
Affected
Units
in Section IX of
ASME Boiler a.
Pressure vessel
code.
2. HAZ of welds
if not PWHT is
done.
3. Bolts and
springs made
of high stength
steel are very
prone to HE.
Appearance
Prevention
Morphology
Mitigation
is conducive,
such as in weld
HAZ's (22 HRC
is acceptable).
Inspection
Monitoring
cracks.
3. RT often is
not sufficiently
sensitive to
detect HE
cracks
general and/or local
Primarily
1. Type of amine used
General uniform 1. proper
1. visual and
corrosion that occurs
C-steel
From most aggressiv to
1. all units to
remove H2S,
thinning,
UT Thickness
environment.
Related Mechanisms:
1. hydrogen flaking
2. underbead cracking
3. delayed cracking
4. hydrogen assisted
cracking
5. hydrogen induced
cracking.
6. Sulfide stress
cracking
7. Hydrogen stress
corrosion cracking
operation
(API 571/
GALIOM)
least: MEA,DGA,DIPA,
DEA,MDEA
2. Amin-Concentration
>2% HSAS
3. Temperature
Corr. Rates increase
with Temperature
CO2 and
localized
mercaptans
corrosion or
(a sulfur-contain localized
organic comp.) underdeposit
2. Regenerator attack.
reboiler and
Localized if the
regenerator
velocity is high
2. temperature
limits
3. Oxygen
inleakage
causes high
corrosion rates
and contributes
2. UT scans
or profile
radiography
are used for
external
inspection.
3. hot areas
4. Process stream
velocity. Corrosion is
generally uniform
however high velocities
3.The rich amine or with

side of the lean/ turbulence.
reach exchanger
hot lean amine
to HSAS.
4. Filtration
of solids and
hydrocarbons
such as the
reboiler feed
and return
line, the hot
Affected Mat.
Properties
Critical factors
related to service
(>2 m/s for rich amine
and >6 m/s for lean
amine) and turbulence
will cause localized
thickness loss.
Affected
Appearance
Units
Morphology
piping, hot rich
amine piping,
the amine
solution pumps,
reclaimer
Prevention
Mitigation
from amine
solution.
5. Corrosion
inhibitors
Inspection
Monitoring
lean/rich
amine piping,
the stripper
overhead
condenser
piping.
principally on carbon
steel in amine treating
processes.
Corrosion is not
caused by the amine
itself, but results from
dissolved acid gases
(CO2 and H2S), amine
degradation products,
Heat Stable Amine
Salts (HSAS) and
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Amine
Corrosion
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Description
Ammonium
Bisulfide
Corrosion
Aggressive corrosion
occuring in hydro
processing reactor
Carbon
steel is
less
1. NH4HS-concentration 1. NH4HS salts
(Alkaline
Sour
Water)
(API 571/
GALIOM)
effluent streams and

in units handling
alkaline sour water
(localized corrosion).
resistant
other contaminants.
Related Mechanisms:
Amine stress corr.
cracking
Related mechanisms:
Erosion/Erosion corr.
1.General
metal loss with
potential for
1. Flow regime 1. UT scans

2. Relation
and/or RT
between
profile thickn.
effluent streams
lead to underdeposit
when temperat.
corrosion and fouling.
drop to within
3. Oxygen and iron in
the range of
the wash water injected 49 to 66C.
into hydroprocessing
2. Fouling and/
reactor effluent can lead or velocity
extremely high
localized rates
of wall loss if
turbulent flow
> 2 wt%.
2. Low velocity
may result in
concentration
and velocity.
3. velocity
between
3 and 6 m/s.
4. C-steel may
be suceptible
to increased corrosion
extremely
to high corr.
< 2 wt% solutions not

generally corrosive.
2. NH4HS salt deposits
precipitate in
the reactor
accelerated
of high and
low velocity
areas.
2. UT
downstream
of control
valves at high
NH4HS
and fouling.
corr. may be
localized underfound at:
deposit corr. if
air cooler head insufficient
exchanger tubes water is
inlet and outlet available to
piping.
dissolve the
NH4HS salts
3. Piping into
and out of the
that precipitated
reactor effluent 3. Heat
separators.
exchangers
4. Vapor line
may show
from the high
plugging and
rates >8 wt% concentrat.

5. Properly
3. RFEC
design and
(remote field
maintain water eddy current
wash injection testing) and
with low oxygen flux leakage
content.
inspection of
steel air
cooler tubes.
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Ammonium
Bisulfide
Corrosion
(Alkaline
Sour
Water)
(API 571/
GALIOM)
Ammonium
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
Critical factors
related to service
Affected
Units
pressure
separators.
5. Hydrocarbon
lines from
reactor effluent
separators due
to entrained
sour water.etc.
Appearance
Prevention
Morphology
Mitigation
loss of duty due
to fouling.
Inspection
Monitoring
General or localized
1. Free
1. Crude tower
1.The salts have 1. Crude Unit:
1. Accumulat.
Chloride
Corrosion
(API 571)
corrosion, often
pitting, normally occur
under ammonium
chloride or amine salt
deposits, often in the
absence of a free
water phase
corrosion
potential
2. PRE
(Pitting
resistant
equivalent)
1. Concentration:
(NH3, HCl, H2O or
overheads:
tower top, top
trays, overhead
piping, exchang.
may be subject
to fouling and
corrosion.
a whitish,
greenish or
brownish
appearance.
Water washing
and/or steamout
will remove
of ammonium
chloride salts
can be very
localized and
the resulting
corrosion may
be difficult to
don't use
amine salts)
2. Temperature:
Ammonium chloride
salts may precipitate
from high temperature
streams as the they are
a.Limit salts by
limiting
chlorides in the
tower feed
through
desalting and/
or the addition
Related Mechanisms:
HCl corrosion
cooled, and may corrode Deposits may

piping and equipment
occur in low
at temperature well
flow zones due
above the water dewpoint to ammonia and
(149C).
or amine
3. Ammonium chloride
chloride salts
salts are hygroscopic,
condensing
and readily absorb water from the vapor
A small amount of water phase.
can lead to very
2. Hydroprocess
aggressive corrosion
Reactor effluent
(>100mpy or >2,5 mm/y streams.
4. Some neutralizing
amines react with
deposits so that
evidence of
fouling may not
be evident
during an internal visual
inspection.
2. Corrosion
underneath the
salts is typically
very localized
and results in
pitting.
3. Corrosion
of caustic to
detect.
the desalted
2. RT, UT
crude.
tickness
b. A water
Monitoring
wash may be
required in the
crude tower
overhead line
to flush the
salt deposits.
c. Filming
amine inhibitor
are often added
to control corr.
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Ammonium
Chloride
Corrosion
(API 571)
Description
Affected Mat.
Properties
Critical factors
Affected
related to service
Units
chlorides to form amine
hydrochlorides that can
act in a simular fashion.
5. Corr. Rates increase
with increasing temp.
Appearance
Morphology
rates can be
extremely high
Prevention
Inspection
Mitigation
Monitoring
2.Hydroprocess
a.Limit
chlorides in the
hydrocarbon
feed to the
reactor and the
make-up
hydrogen
supply.
High Temp.
H2/H2S
The presence of
hydrogen in H2S
C-Steel,
1. Temperatur >260C
1. Hydro-
1. General
1. Material
C-Cr-Steel
processing
Corrosion
streams increase the
Cr-Mo-Steel
3. Prensence of H2
(API 571/
severity of high temp.
4. Concentration of H2S
GALIOM)
sulfide corrosion.
When H2 is present in
selection
UT,RT
don't use
significant quantities,
corrosion rates are
higher than those
associated with high
temp. sulfidation in the
absence of H2.
Related Mechanism:
Sulfidation
Sour Water
Corrosion
(Acidic)
Corrosion of steel due C-Steel

to acidic sour water
cointaining H2S at a
(API 571/
GALIOM)
pH between 4.5 and 7.

CO2 may also be
present. Sour water
containing significant
amounts of ammonia,
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Sour Water
Corrosion
Description
(Acidic)
(API 571/
GALIOM)
side the scope of this

mechanism.
chlorides or cyanides
may significantly
affect pH but are out-
Affected Mat.
Properties
1. H2S content
2. pH
3. Velocity
4. O2 concentration
5. <4.5 pH corrosion
6. >4.5 pH thin FeS
layer limits corr. Rate
a thicker, porous FeS
Critical factors
Affected
related to service
Units
layer can promote
pitting under sulfide
deposits.
7. HCl and CO2 lower pH
8. Ammonia significantly
increases pH (alkalin
sour water and ammonia
bisulfide corrosion)
9. The presence of air or
oxidants may increase
the corrosion und
usually pitting or under
deposits.
1. General
Thinning
2. Localized
1. Material
selection
UT,RT
Prevention
Mitigation
Inspection
Monitoring
3. under deposit
Appearance
Morphology
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.2.8
Table 4-2
Figure:4-9, 4-10
API 579: G.3.5
Subsurface Crack.
and Microfissuring
Microvoid Format.
API 571:
Chapter: 4.2.16
Fig. 4-29 to 34
API 579:
G.3.4 Surface
connected
cracking
API 571:
Chapter:4.2.14
Table: 4-3
Fig. 4-23,-24,-25
API 579:
G.3.3 Localized
metal loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapt.: 4.2.19
API 579:
G.3.4./3.5.
Surface and Subsurface Cracking
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.1
Table: 4-4
Fig. 4-36/-37
API 579: G.3.3
General or local
metal loss, Pitting
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.2
API 579: G.3.3
General or local
metal loss, Pitting
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.3
Fig. 4-38/-39
API 579: G.3.3
General or local
metal loss, Pitting
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.4
Fig. 4-40
API 579:
G.3.2. General
G.3.3. Localized
Metal Loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.6
Fig.: 4-41 to 44
API 579:
G.3.2 General
G.3.3 Localized
Metal Loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.7
API 579:
G.3.3 Localized
Metal Loss
een designed
An increase
eat exchang.
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.8
Fig.: 4-45 to -50
API 579:
G.3.3 Localized
Metal Loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.3.9
Fig.: 4-51 to -53
sual inspect.
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter:4.3.10
Fig.: 4-54 to 55
API 570:
Chapter:5.3.1
Injection points
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter 4.4.1
Table 4-6:
Corrosion Rates
Fig. 4-62 to 4.64
API 579:
G.3.2. General
metal loss
API 571:4.4.2
Fig. 4-65/66
Corr.-Rates
Fig. 4-67
API 579/G.3.2/3
General/Localized
Metal loss
API 571: 4.4.3
Fig.4-68/69
API 579/G.3.6
Metallurgical
Changes
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter 4.4.4
API 579: G.3.6
Metallurgical
Changes
see
Carburization
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.5.2
Fig.: 4-83 to 84
API 579:
G.3.4 Surface
connected
cracking
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.5.3
Fig.4-85 to 92
API 579: G.3.4
Surface connect.
cracking
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 4.5.4
Fig.: 4-93 to 95
API 579: G.3.4
Surface connect.
cracking
API 571:
Chapter: 4.5.6
Fig. 4-99
ISO 15156-1/2
Petroleum and
natural gas
industriesMaterials for use
in H2S containing
environments in
oil and gas
production
Part 1:
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
General principles
for selection of
cracking-resistant
materials.
Part 2:
cracking-resistant
carbon and low
alloy steels, and
the use of cast
irons
API 579:
G.2. Pre-Service
Deficiencies
G.3.5 Subsurface
Cracking
API 571:
Chapter: 5.1.1
Fig. 5.1
API 579: G.3.3
Localized metal
loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 5.1.1.2
Fig.: 5-2
API 579:G.3.3
Localized Metal
Loss
rrosion may
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:
Chapter: 5.1.1.3
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
API 571:5.1.1.5
Fig. 5-3/4
Corr.-Rates
Tab. 5-1
API 579/G.3.2
General
Metal loss
API 571:5.1.1.10
API 579:G.3.2/3
General and
Localized metal
loss
Remarks acc. to
API 571 and 579
Explanation of Failure Mechanisms

Failure
Mechanism
Creep and
Stress
Rupture
Thermal
Fatigue
Short Term
Overheating
Stress Rup.
Erosion/
ErosionCorrosion
Cavitation
Failure
Mechanism
Mechanical
Fatigue
VibrationInduced
Fatigue
Reheat
Cracking
Galvanic
Corrosion
Atmospher.
Corrosion
Failure
Mechanism
Corrosion
Under
Insulation
Cooling
Water
Corrosion
Boiler
Water
Condensate
Corrosion
CO2
Corrosion
Flue Gas
Dew Point
Corrosion
Biological
Corrosion
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Biological
Corrosion
Caustic
Corrosion
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburization
Failure
Mechanism
Decarburization
Metal
Dusting
Fuel Ash
Corrosion
Corrosion
Fatigue
Caustic
SCC
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Caustic
SCC
Ammonia
SCC
Hydrogen
Embrittlement (HE)
Failure
Mechanism
Amin
Corrosion
Ammonium
Bisulfide
Corrosion
(Alkaline
Sour Water
High Temp
H2/H2S
Corrosion
Sour Water
Corrosion
(Acidic)
Failure
Mechanism
Amine
SCC
Wet H2S
Blistering
Sulfide
Stress
Cracking
(SSC)
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Sulfide
Stress
Cracking
(SSC)
Stress
Corrosion
Cracking
(SCC)
Hydrogen
Induced
Cracking
(HIC)
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Hydrogen
Induced
Cracking
(HIC)
Stress
Oriented
Hydrogen
Induced
Cracking
(SOHIC)
Soft Zone
Cracking
(SZC)
Crevice
Corrosion
Failure
Mechanism
continue
Crevice
Corrosion
Explanation of Failure Mechanisms

Explanation
At high temperature, metal components can slowly and continuously deform under load below the yield stress. This time dependent deformation
of stressed components is known as creep. The initial stages of creep damage can only be identified by scanning electron microscope
metallography. Creep voids typically shows up at the grain boundaries and in later stages form fissure and than cracks. Threshold Temperature
for Creep: 370C for C-Steel and 400C to 425C for C-Mo and Cr-Mo-Steels.
Thermal fatigue is the result of cyclic stresses caused by variations in temperature. The process starts on the surface in areas of high local
stresses caused by notches (such as the toe of a weld) and sharp corners (such as the intersection of a nozzle with a vessel shell) and other
stress concentrations may serve as initiation sites. The Process starts with locally movement of dislocations, blocking of dislocations on the
grain boadaries, plastically deformation of local grains, creating of intrusions and extrusions, generating of corr. layers on the free surfaces of
in- and extrusions in case of corrosive environment (Corrosion Fatigue). These are the initial stages of cracks. The cracks can be blocked
through strengthening on tip of the cracks. Time of failure is a funktion of the magnitude of the stress and the number of cycles and decreases
with increasing stress and increasing cycles.
Permanent deformation occuring at relatively low stress levels as a result of localized overheating.This usually results in buging and eventually
failure by stress rupture (Explanation: see Creep and Stress Rupture).
Stress Rup.
In general, wear failures or Erosion may be defined as damage to a solid surface caused by the removal or displacement of material by the
mechanical action of a contacting solid, liquid, or gas. The term abrasive erosion is sometimes used to describe erosion in which the solid
particles move nearly parallel to the solid surface. The term impingement- or impact-erosion is used to desribe erosion in which the relative
motion of the solid particles is nearly normal to the solid surface. The collision at high speed of liquid droplets with a solid surface results in a
form of liquid erosion called liquid-impingement erosion. The high-velocity impact of a drop of liquid against a solid surface produces two effects
that results in damage to the surface: high pressure, which is generated in the area of the impact, and liquid flow along the surface at high speed
radially from the area of impact, which occurs as the initial pressure pulse subsides (water hammer pressure:liquid density x acoustic velocity of
the liquid x impact velocity). For example, for water impaction at 480 m/s =1728 km/h this pressure is about 1100 Mpa - considerably above
the yield strenght of many alloys. This value is somewhat reduced by the compressibility of the surface.
If gas-filled bubbles (or cavities) formed in a low-pressure region (suction side of a pump) pass into a region of higher pressure (pressure side of
a pump), their growth will be reversed, and they will collapse and disappear as the vapor condenses or the gas is resissolved in the liquid. A
vapor-filled cavity will implode, collapsing very rapidly. The collapse of cavities (bubbles) produces the damages to materials. Almost all of the
energy of the collapse will be used to compress the surrounding liquid. Only when the vapor pressure is high compared to ambient pressure or
when the dissolved-gas content is high.
Explanation
Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation that occurs when a component is exposed to cyclical stresses for an extended period,
often resulting in sudden, unexpected failure (Explanation: see Thermal Fatigue).
A form of mechanical fatigue in which cracks are produced as the results of dynamic loading due to vibration, water hammer (see Erosion), or
unstable fluid flow (Explanation: see Thermal Fatigue)
Cracking of a metal due to stress relaxation during PWHT or in service at elevated temperatures. It is most often observed in heavy wall sections.
Reheat Cracking (or Stress- relief embrittlement) results in the loss of toughness within the HAZ and/or the weld metal as a result of stress
relieving of a welded structure. Reheat cracking is also thought to be caused by the same mechanisms and leads to intergranular cracking within
the weld zone upon stress relieving. Both phenomena (loss of toughness and intergranular cracking) have been observed only in those alloy
systems that undergo precipitation hardening. These system include low-alloy structural and pressure vessel steels, ferritic creep -resisting
steels, austenitic SS, and some nickel-base alloys. During welding, the HAZ is exposed to high temperatures, ranging up to the melting point
of the alloy. At these temperatures, existing precipitates in the base metal (in steels, carbides, and nitrides) are taken into solution, and grain
coarsening occurs. During cooling, some precipitation takes place at grain boundaries or within the grains, but the majority of the precipitates
remain in solution. Subsequent exposure at stress-relieving temperatures causes precipitation in the HAZ, leading to significant strengthening.
This results in the loss of toughness in the HAZ. Residual stresses in the structure are relieved through creep deformation. However, the
strengthening of precipitates of the grain interiors tends to concentrate creep strain at grain boundaries, leading to intergranular cracking.
Galvanic Corrosion is a form of corrosion that can occur at the junction of dissimilar metals when they are joined together in a suitable
electrolyte, such as a moist or aqueous environment, or soils containing moisture. The less noble metal is more active and acts as Anode, i.e.
it dissolves. The more noble metal acts as Cathode, i.e. it remains intact. The Role of oxygen in Galvanic Corrosion: Oxygen is the most
corrosive gas in the presence of water. The maximum solubility of O 2 in water is 8 ppm, i.e. sparingly soluble. The reduction of oxygen at the
cathode site, keeps the cyclic corrosion process on going. The corrosion rate depends on the rate of diffusion of O 2 to the cathode site.
(H20 + 1/2O2 + e- = 2OH- ). The overall corrosion rate of O2 is about 72 times higher than CO2 and 200 times higher than H2S at low
concentrations (<2 ppm O2 and <200ppm H2S) and 400 times higher at high concentrations (8 ppm O 2 and 800ppm H2S)
A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions. Marine environments are most severe. New C-steel
built in wet marine atmosphere a less protective layer Fe 2O3, etc. With the time the thickness will be thicker and more brittleness.
Marine environments can be very corrosive 0.5 mm/year as specialy in the splash zone (riser), at coating failures (see Corrosion Under Insulation)
or in Crevices/Under Deposits.
Explanation
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural components resulting from water trapped under insulation or fireproofing. This is a special
case of crevice Corrosion (Explanation: see Crevice/ Under Deposit)
General or localized corrosion caused by dissolved salts, gases, organic compounds or microbiological activity. Cooling water corrosion and
fouling are closely related and should be considered together. Fouling may occur from mineral deposits (hardness), silt, suspended organic
materials, corrosion products, mill scale, marine and microbiological growth.
Cooling water corrosion can result in many different forms of damage including general corrosion, pitting corrosion, MIC, SCC, and fouling.
Explanation for C-Steel: see Crevice/Under Deposit
General corrosion and pitting in the boiler system and condensate return piping. Corrosion in boiler feedwater and condensate return system is
usually the result of dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Explanation: see CO2 corrosion
CO2 gas is soluble in water, the solubility increases with temperature and pressure, CO 2 dissolves in water forming carbonic acids
( CO2 + H2O = H2CO3). Carbonic acid reduces the pH of water (H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3-). The produced acidity (H+ ions) drives on the hydrogen
evolution reaction at the cathode site, thus the cyclic corrosion process continues. CO 2 corrosion is termed "sweet". CO2 corrosion
promote uniform, pitting and mesa attack. A partial pressure of <3 psi will be not corrosive, 3-30psi may indicate corrosion, >30 psi corrosion.
Sulfur and chlorine species in fuel will form sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide and hydrogen chloride within the combustion products. At low enough
temperatures, these gases and the water vapor in the flue gas will condense to form sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid which can
lead to severe corrosion.
These organism affect corrosion processes on metals by directly influencing anodic and cathodic reactions, by affecting protective surface films
on metals, by producing corrosive substances and by producing solid deposits. These organisms include microscopic forms, such as bacteria,
and macroscopic types, such as algae and barnacles. Microscopic and macroscopic organismus have been observed to live and reproduce in
medium with ph values between 0 and 11, at temperatures between 0 and 80C and under pressure up to 103 MP (15 000 psi). Thus, biological
activity may influence corrosion in a variety of environments, incl. soil, seet and seawater, crude oil and petroleum products. Marine organisms,
such as barnacles and mussels, attach themselves to many surfaces; they grow and effectively seal off a small part of the surface from the
environment. This is termed fouling, or bio-fouling.Concentration cells form underneath the barnacles and produce deep pits. Fouling on risers
(Tidal and submerged zone) or in heat exchangers that use seawater as a coolant. Rapid fluid flow tends to suppress fouling, whereas rapid
Explanation
accumulation occurs a low fluit rates (during shutdown periods). Colonies of Sulfate-reducing Bacteria (SRB), grow only in absence of oxygen
SRB utilize O-atoms of SO42- radical to oxidize the organic compounds. This step requires H-atoms. At cathode site: Cathodic depolarization
SO42- + 8H (ads) =(SRB) HS- + 3H2O + OHAt anode site: Fe2+ + HS- = FeS (iron sulfide) + H+ Explanation: see Crevice/Under Deposit
The corrosion resistance of C-Steel is usually acceptable up to concentration of about 70% caustic (NaOH or KOH) at 80C, exept for the
problem of Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking. However, the corrosion rate increases rapidly with temperature, reaching more than 12.5 mm/year
at 100C. This can cause high rates with steam-traced carbon steel piping, for example, when static rather than flowing conditions prevail.
Oxygen reacts with C-Steel, C-Cr-Steels at high temperature converting the metal to oxide scale. It is most often present as oxygen in the
surrounding air (20%) used for combustion in fired heaters and boilers. API 571 Table 4-6: Estimated Corrosion Rates for Oxidation
Corrosion resulting from their reaction with sulfur compounds in high temperature environments. Sulfur is present in crude in the form of elementar
Sulfur, H2S, Aliphatic Sulfides, Aromatic Sulfides, Polysulfids, Disulfides, Mercaptans. If heated >350C produce H 2S. The attack is chemical
rather the electrochemical, i.e. independent of the presence of water: Fe + H 2S = FeS + H2
API 571 Figure 4-65: Corrosion Rates of different C-Steel, C-Cr-Steel and SS between 232 and 427C for 0.5 wt % Sulfur.
Carburization and Decurburization of Steel: Various species can react with the carbon contained in a steel, influencing the carbon level of the
steel. Because the strength is in most cases directly linked with the carbon content (interstitional Carbon atoms expand the crystalstructure and make it more difficult for dislocations to move), any change of the carbon concentration will have an effect on the mechanical
properties of the steel. Carburization is an increase of the carbon content to the steel. This results in a higher strenght and hardness but also in
embrittlement. For chromium-containing alloy this can also result in a decreases of the corrosion resistance. C built Cr-Carbides,i.e. the .
dissolved Cr are reduced. Species that can change the carbon level are: Hydrogen (Decarburization), CO,CO 2 (Decarburization and Carburization),
Methane (Carburization >700C), ethane, etc.
Explanation
Carburization and Decurburization of Steel: Various species can react with the carbon contained in a steel, influencing the carbon level of the
steel. Because the strength is in most cases directly linked with the carbon content (interstitional Carbon atoms in the expand the crystalstructure and make it more difficult for dislocations to move), any change of the carbon concentration will have an effect on the mechanical
properties of the steel. Decarburization is a decrease of the carbon content of the steel. The decreasing carbon content causes a degradation
of the mechanical properties, as the hardness as well as the strength decrease. However, the elongation of the metal when subjecteted to a
tensile stress increases.
Decarburization by Hydrogen see High Temp. Hydrogen Attack (HTHA):
In situations where oxidizing and reducing conditions do alternate, metal dusting can occur. During the reducing period Caburization takes
place to a limited depth at breaks in the protective oxide scale. After switching to the oxidizing situation the carbon is burned out and the metal is
oxidized leaving a shallow pit. The final metal oxide powder is taken down stream by the gas flow. Metal dusting is a form of rapid localized
degradation that occurs in environments containing carbon and hydrogen compounds, but almost no oxygen. Due to Carburization of the metal
iron carbides can form which ultimately, if enough carbon is available, can decompose into iron and Graphite. These products can act as
catalysts for the decomposition of Carbon monooxide (CO) into Carbon and Oxygen, resulting in localizied accelerated attack and the production
of voluminous amounts of Carbon, Iron, Iron Carbides and other Carbides.
Fuel ash corrosion is accelerated high temperature wastage of materials that occurs when contaimants in the fuel form deposits and melt on the
metal surface of fired heaters, boilers and gas tubines. Corrosion typically occurs with fuel oil that is contaminated with a combination of sulfur,
sodium, potassium and/or vanadium. The resulting molten salts (slags) dissolve the surface oxide and enhance the transport of oxygen to the
surface to re-form the iron oxide at the expense of the tube wall or component.
(Explanation: see Thermal Fatigue).
Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking by surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to caustic,
primarily adjacent to non-PWHT'd welds.Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaoH) and caustic potash (KOH) solutions is a
function of caustic strength, metal temperature and stress levels. Increasing caustic concentration and increasing temperatures increase the
likelihood and severity of cracking. Cracking can occur at low caustic levels if a stress concentrating mechanism is present. In such cases,
caustic concentr. of 50 to 100 ppm are sufficient to cause cracking. Stresses that promote cracking can be residual that result from welding or
from cold working (such as bending and forming) as well as applied stresses. Crack propagation rates increase dramatically with temperature
and can sometimes grow through wall in a matter of hours or days during temperature excursions, especially if conditions promote caustic
concentration. Concentrations can occur as a result of alternating wet and dry conditions, localized hot spots or high temperature steamout.
Explanation
Caustic stress corrosion cracking typically propagates parallel to the weld in adjacent base metal but can also occur in the weld deposit or HAZ.
The pattern of cracking observed on the steel surface is sometimes described as a spider web of small cracks which often initiate at or interconnect with weld-related flaws that serve as local stress raisers. (see also Explanation: SCC)
API 571 Figure 4-85: Recommended operating limits for C-Steels in caustic service
C-Steel is susceptible to SCC in anhydrous (<0.2% water). Consiteration must be given to vapor spaces could have less than 0.2% water
present due to partitioning of ammonia in water phase. (Explanation: see SCC)
Also known as hydrogen flaking, underbead cracking, delayed cracking, hydrogen assisted cracking, hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). SSC and
Hydrogen Stress Cracking -HF are closely related forms of hydrogen embrittlement.
Three conditions must be satisfied:
a. Hydrogen must be present at a critical concentration within the steel.
b. The strength level and microstructure of the steel must be susceptible to embrittlement (see ISO 15156-2)
c. A stress above the threshold for HE must be present from residual stresses and/or applied stresses.
The hydrogen can come from Welding, Pickling, Service in high temperature hydrogen gas atmospheres, wet H 2S or HF acid services and CP.
A few ppm of hydrogen dissolved in steel can cause hairline cracking and loss of tensile ductility. Even when the quantity of gas in solution is
too small to reduce ductility, hydrogen-induced delayed fracture, sometimes called static fatigue, may occur. Hairline cracking usually follows
prior-austenitic grain boundaries and seems to occur when the damaging effect of dissolved hydrogen is superimposed on the stresses that
accompany the austenitic-to-martensite transformation. Steels with tensile strenght <690 Mpa =100ksi appear to be resistant to HE, and the
structures made with such steels have been used in service without serious problems in various environments that do not contain H 2S.
For H2S environment see explanation of SSC, SSC and HIC.
Mechanism:
The electrochemical conditions at the tip of a pit or an advancing crack are not the some as those of the bulk solution (see crevice corrosion).
In a laboratory study, when wedge-opening loading specimens were exposed to sodium chloride solutions, the pH value of the solution at the
crack tip was measured to be about 3.5 regardless of that of the bulk solution. At the crack tip, where diffusion is limited, the pH value of the
solution is lowered by the acidic hydrolysis reaction, and in such a low-pH solution, the cathodic partial reaction is the reduction of the hydrogen
ion. As a result, nascent (atomar) hydrogen is generated at the tip of the pit or crack and absorbed into the metal. It has also been shown that
hydrogen can be generated at the cracktips even when an anodic potential is applied to the bulk metal.
Explanation
Amine corrosion refers to the general and/or localized corrosion that occurs principally on C-Steel in amine treating processes (H2S,CO 2 and
Mercaptans Removal). Corrosion is not caused by the amine itself, but results from dissolved acid gases (CO 2 and H2S), amin degradation
products, Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS) and other contaminations.
Lean amine solutions (like MDEA: methyldiethanolamine) are general not corrosive because they have either low conductivity and or high pH.
However, an excessive accumulation of HSAS above about 2%, depending on the amine, can significantly in crease corrosion rates. Corrosion
rates increase with increasing temperature, particularly in rich amine service, like MEA (monoethaolamine). Temperatures above about 104C
can result in acid gas flashing and severe localized corrosion if the pressure drop is high enough.
Process stream velocity will influence the amine corrosion rate and nature of attack. Corrosion is generally uniform however high velocities and
turbulence will cause localized thickness losses. For carbon steel, common velocity limits are generally limited to 1 to 2 m/s for rich amine
(MEA) and about 6 m/s for lean amine (MDEA).
Aggressive corrosion occuring in units handling alkaline sour water (Ammonium Bisulfide NH 4HS)
Ammonium Bisulfide (NH4HS) concentration, velocity and/or localized turbulence, pH, temperature are critical factors. Below 2 wt % solutions
are not generally corrosive. NH4HS salt deposits lead to underdeposit corrosion and fouling.
Amin Units: High concentrations of NH4HS may be found in regenerator overheads and reflux piping depending on unit operation.
The Presence of hydrogen in H2S streams increases the severity of high temperature sulfide corrosion at temperature above about 260C. This
form of sulfidation usually results in a uniform loss in thickness associated with hot circuits in hydroprocessing units. Corrosion will appear as
a uniform loss in thickness from the process side and is accompanied by the formation of an iron sulfide scale. Scale is about 5 times the
volume of lost metal and may be in multiple layers. API 571 Fig. 5-3/4 Corrosion rates in H 2/H2S service
Corrosion of steel due to acidic sour water containing H 2S at a pH between 4.5 and 7.0. CO 2 may also be present. Sour waters containing
significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or cyanides may significantly affect pH but are outside of the scope of this mechanism.
H2S content, pH, temperature, velocity and oxygen concentration are all critical factors.
H2S is soluble in water, its aqueous solution behaves as a week acid H 2S = H+ + HS-. H2S corrosion is called "Sour". Role of H2S in corrosion:
The produced acidity (H+ ions) drives on the hydrogen evolution reaction at the cathode site, thus the cyclic corrosion process continues.
Combination of H2S and CO2 is more aggressive than H2S alone. Combination of H2S and O2 is highly corrosive.
The overall corrosion rate of O2 is about 72 times higher than CO2 and 200 times higher than H2S at low concentrations (<2 ppm O2 and
<200ppm H2S) and 400 times higher at high concentrations (8 ppm O 2 and 800ppm H2S)
Explanation
Amin SCC is a form of Alkaline SCC. Caustic SCC and Carbonate SCC are two other forms of Alkaline SCC (ASCC) that are similar in appearance.The critical factors are the level of tensile stress, amine concentration and temperature.Cracking is more likely to occur in lean MEA and DEA
service but is also found in most amines including MDEA and DIPA (ADIP). It is most often found at or adjacent to non-PWHT'd C-Steel weldments or in highly cold worked parts. The appearance of the cracks on the surface may be similar to those caused by wet H 2S cracking.
Explanation: see SSC
Hydrogen-induced blistering is most prevalent in low-strenght alloys, and it is observed in metals that have been exposed to hydrogen-charging
conditions, for example, acid pickling or corrosion in environments containing hydrogen sulfide. When hydrogen is absorbed into metal and
diffuses inward, it can precipitate as molecular hydrogen H 2 at internal voids, laminations, matrix interfaces, and it can built up pressure great
enough to produce internal cracks. If these cracks are just below the surface, the hydrogen-gas pressure in the cracks can lift up and bulge out
the exterior layer of the metal so that it resembles a blister.
Corrosion-generated hydrogen causes blistering of steel in oil-well equipment and in petroleum-storage and refinery equipment. In storage vessels
blistering is generally at the bottom or in the vapor space where water is present.
The hydrogen is generated on the surface of the steel because of a corrosion reaction. Iron reacts with H 2S to form Fe2S3 and H+ . This hydrogen
is generated in atomic form on the surface, where it can combine to form H 2 and leave the surface as bubbles or the H+ can diffuse into the steel.
This latter process may result in hydrogen enbrittlement (HE) or SSC . It is important to note that water be present for this mechanism to
occur; without it, SSC will not be observed, because the ionization of the hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) is required.
Factors that influence SSC:
a) H2S Concentration
In general, lower H2S concentration take longer to promote cracking than higher concentrations; lower concentrations also require high-strength
materials before SSC is ovserve.
b) Effect to pH
With decreasing pH, the corrosion rate of the steel tends to increase, which causes more hydrogen to be produced. It is generally agreed that
increasing the pH above 8 is beneficial in reducing the tendency toward SSC. During drilling operations in sour reservoirs, the pH is usually
maintained in the 10 to 11 rage, thus providing the opportunity to use high-strength steels.
c) Temperature
As temperatures increases, the resistance to SSC also increases. This is due to a reduction in the hydrogen-permeation rate at elevated
temperatures. This effect allows materials that are susceptible to SSC at room temperature to be used at elevated temperature. It has been found
Explanation
that SSC is most severe at room temperature below room temperature, resistance to SSC again begins to increase.
d) Strength Level (< 22 HRC)
The microstructure of the steel is very important and essentially controls the observed SSC properties. It has been found that the microstructure
that provides the best SSC resistance is that of tempered martensite; other transformation products reduce SSC resistance. Consequently, it is
very important to ensure through hardening in the component. It is common practice when quenching tubular products for this application to
implement both side quenches.
d) Cold-Work
It is widely known that cold work can adversely affect the SSC resistant of materials. The hardness is locally increased, and residual stresses
can also be generated. Hardness that greatly exceed 22 HRC (some as high as 40 HRC have been measured) can be produced by inproper
straightening and handling. Even idendification stamping has been reported to cause enough cold work to initiate SSC.
e) Stress (applied and residual)
Threaded connections: High stress, stress concentrations
With this mechanism of degradation, a tensile stress is required (like SSC), together with a susceptible material and an environment that
promotes cracking. In the oil and gas industries, the material that are most generally found to be susceptible to SSC are austenitic stainless
steel and nickel-base alloys are used in oil and gas production because they form protective films and therefore have very low corrosion rate.
Mechanism:
Chloride ions (Cl-), either in combination with hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) or alone, can attack this film, causing smallpits to form. These small pits
act as anodes, while the remainder of the oxide film acts as a cathode; the unfavorable area ratio causes the pit to grow. Also, the solution inside
the pit (see Mechanism of Hydrogen Embrittlement HE) is acidified because of the corrosion reaction, which also tends to increase the
corrosion rate. Finally, a crack is initiated at the base of the pits because of the stress concentration, and propagation occurs because of the
tensile stress. The crack often grows along grain boundaries because grain boundaries are electrochemically more active than the bulk grain.
Chloride SCC is usually observed at temperature exceeding 65 to 95C.
Factors that influence SCC: Temperature, Chloride Concentration, H 2S concentration, Elementar Sulfur, pH and PRE (Pitting Resistance
Equivalent).
HIC is also called stepwise cracking or blister cracking. HIC is primarily found in lower-strength steels, typically with tensile strengths less than
about 550 MPA (80 ksi), primarily found in line-pipe steels.
In GUPCO rehab project we use: A 106 B (60 ksi), SA 105 (70 ksi), 516 Gr.70 (70 ksi), A 234 WPB (60 ksi), API 5L Gr.B and X42 (60 ksi),
API Gr.X52 (66 ksi) and API Gr. X60 (75 ksi).
Explanation
Mechanism:
This type of degradation also begins with a reaction between steel and hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) in the presence of water. Again, hydrogen atoms
enter the steel, but with HIC, as opposed to SCC, these hydrogen atoms combine to form H2-gas at internal defects. These internal
discontinuities can be hard spots of low-temperature transformation products or laminations. However, manganese sulfide inclusions are the
primary site for this to occur. These inclusions tend to become elongated during pipe manufacture and give rise to high stresses at the tip of the
inclusion when hydrogen gas forms there. As cracks initiate and propagate, they begin to link up with others, and a series of stepwise cracks
can propagate through the material.
Factors that affect HIC:
Concentration of H2S, Shape control of MnS, Addition of Calcium makes the sulfides spherical, Reducing of S-content, Addition of Cu up to
about 0.25% (no tensile stress required).
Staggered small cracks formed approximately perpendicular to the principal stress (residual or applied) resulting in a "ladder-like" crack array
linking pre-existing HIC's. The mode of cracking can be catogorized as SSC caused by a combination of external stress and the local
strain around HIC's. SOHIC is related to SSC and HIC/SWC. It has been observed in plate form and parent material of longitudinally welded
pipe and in the HAZ of welds in pressure vessels. They have caused sudden failures in parents steels (SOHIC) and in the HAZ of welds (SOHIC
and Soft Zone Cracking (SZC)). The presence of sulfur or oxygen in the service environment is thought to increase the probability of damage by
these mechanisms.
Form of SSC that may occur when steel contains a local "soft zone" of low yield strength material. Under service loads, soft zones may yield
and accumulate plastic strain locally, increasing the SSC susceptibility to cracking of an otherwise SSC -resistant material. Such soft zones are
typically associated with welds in carbon steels.
A crevice in a metal surface at a joint between two metallic surfaces or between a metallic and a nonmetallic surface or a crevice beneath a
particle of solid matter on a metallic surface provides conditions that are conducive to the development of the type of concentration- cell corrosion
called crevice corrosion. Crevice corrosion can progress very rapidly. For example, a sheet of stainless steel can be cut (corroded) into two
pieces simply by wrapping a rubber band around it, then immersing the sheet in seawater or dilute ferric chloride solution (FeCl 3 ).
The open surface will pit slowly, but the metal under the rubber band will be attacked rapidly for as long as the crevice between the rubber and
the steel surface exists. In a metal-ion concentration cell, the accelerated corrosion occurs at the edge of or slightly outside of a crevice. In an
oxygen-concentration cell, the accelerated corrosion usually occurs within the crivice between the mating surfaces.
Explanation
Mechanism of Concentration-Cell Corrosion (Crevice Corrosion):
If a piece of metal is immersed in a electrolyte and there is a difference in concentration of one or more dissolved compounds or gases in the
electrolyte, two areas of metal in contact with solution differing in concentration will ordinarily differ in solution potential, forming a concentration
cell (see also HE).
Failure Mechanisms: Comparison of GALIOM, API 571 and others

Failure Mechanisms
Discription of the Failure
Failure Mechanism of GALIOM
acc.following Standards
Mechan. and Metallurg. Failures

Graphitization
Softening (Spheroidization)
Temper Embrittlement
Strain Aging
885F (474C) Embrittlement
Sigma Phase Embrittlement
Brittle Fracture
Creep/Stress Rupture
Thermal Fatigue
Short Term Overheating-Stress Rupture
Steam Blanketing
Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW)Cracking
Thermal Shock
Errosion/ Erosion-Corrosion
Cavitation
Mechanical Fatigue
Vibration-Induced Fatigue
Refractory Degradation
Reheat Cracking
Uniform or Localized Metal Loss
Galvanic Corrosion
Atmospheric Corrosion
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Cooling Water Corrosion
Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
Flue Gas Dew Point Corrosion
Microbiologically Induced Corr. (MIC)
Remarks to the Failure Mechanisms

of GALIOM
API 571
Spheroidization & Graphitization
Better: Graphitization
API 571
Spheroidization & Graphitization
Better: Softening (Spheroidization)
API 571
API 571
Strain Aging
API 571
885F(474C) Embrittlement
API 571
Sigma & Chi Phase Embrittlement
API 571
Brittle Fracture
API 571
Creep-Stress Rupture
API 571
Thermal Fatigue Cracking
Better: Thermal Fatigue
API 571
Erosion-Solids and Erosion Droplets
API 571 incl. impact from solids, liquids, vapor or any combinations
API 571
Cavitation
Better: Sigma Phase Embrittlement
API 571
API 571
API 571
API 571
API 571
API 571
API 571
API 571
Reheat Cracking
API 571
Galvanic CR
API 571
API 571
CR Under Insulation/Fireproofing
Better: Corrosion Under Insulation
API 571
Cooling Water CR
Better: Cooling Water Corrosion
API 571
Boiler Water/Condensate CR
Better: Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion
API 571
CO2 Cr
Better: CO2 Corrosion
API 571
Flue Gas Dew Point CR
Better: Flue Gas Dew Point Corrosion
API 571
Biological Corrosion
Biological Corrosion include Biofouling, MIC and SRB Corrosion
Better: Galvanic Corrosion
Soil Corrosion
Failure Mechanisms
API 571
Soil Corrosion

Caustic Corrosion
Dealloying
Graphitic Corrosion
High Temperatur Corr.(400F/204)
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburization
Decarburization
Metal Dusting
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Nitriding
Environment -Assisted Cracking
Chloride Stress Corr. Cracking
Corrosion Fatigue
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)
Hydrogen Embrittlement

of GALIOM
API 571
API 571
Dealloying
API 571
API 571
API 571
High Temperature Corrosion

High Temperature H2S Corrosion
API 571
Carburization
API 571
De-Carburization
API 571
Metal Dusting
Better: Sulfidation
API 571
API 571
Nitriding
API 571
Chloride Stress CR Cracking (SCC)
Better: Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking or Chloride SCC
API 571
CR Fatigue Cracking
Better: Corrosion Fatigue Cracking
API 571
Caustic CR and Stress CR Cracking
are different mechanism/morphology and probability of failure (POF)
API 571
Ammonia CR and SCC
API 571
Liquid Metal Embrittlement Cracking
API 571
API 571
Amine CR
Better: Amine Corrosion
API 571
Ammonia Bisulfide CR
Better: Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion
API 571
HCl CR
Better: Hydrochlorid Acid (HCl) Corrosion
API 571
High Temp. H2/H2S Corrosion
Better: Liquid Metal Embrittlement
Refining Industry Failure

Amine Corrosion
Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion
(Alkaline Sour Water)
Ammonium Chloride Corrosion
Hydrochlorid Acid (HCl) Corrosion
API 571
Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion

Naphthenic Acid Corrosion (NAC)
Failure Mechanisms
API 571
Hydrofluoric Acid CR
Better: Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion
API 571
Naphtenic Acid CR
Better: Naphtenic Acid Corrosion


Phenol (Carbonic Acid) Corrosion
Phosphoric Acid Corrosion
Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)
Sulfuric Acid Corrosion
Environment-Assisted Cracking
Polythionic Acid Stress Corr. Cracking
Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Wet H2S Blistering
Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC)
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)
Stepwise Cracking (SWC)
Stress Orient. Hydr. Induc. Cr.(SOHIC)
Soft Zone Cracking (SZC)
Hydrogen Stress Cracking-HF
Galv. Induc. Hydr. Stress Cr.(GHSC)
Carbonate Stress Corr. Cracking
Other Mechanisms
High Temp. Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
Titanium Hydriding
of GALIOM
API 571
Phenol/NMP Corrosion
Better: Phenol (Carbonic Acid) Corrosion
API 571
API 571
Sour Water Corrosion
API 571
API 571
Polythonic Stress Corrosion Cracking
Better: Polythonic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking
API 571
Amine Stress CR Cracking
Better: Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking or Amine SCC
Sulfide Stress Cracking
Better: Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC)
Better: Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)
API 571
ISO 15156
ISO 15156, API 571
ISO 15156, API 571
ISO 15156
ISO 15156, API 571
Stress oriented Hydr. Induc. Cracking (SOHIC)
ISO 15156
ISO 15156, API 571
Hydrofluoric Acid Cracking
Better: Hydrogen Stress Cracking-HF
ISO 15156
API 571
Carbonate Stress CR Cracking
API 571
High Temperature H2 Attack
Better: High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
API 571
Hydriding
Blistering
Better: Titanium Hydriding (other hydrogen diffuses: HIC, SSC,etc)

Blistering include Coating-, Deposit-, Delamination und pressure (H 2)
Brittleness due to high temp. aging
Should be removed: already incl. in Temper and 885F Embrittlement
Carbide precipitate embrittlement
Should be removed: already incl. Brittle Fracture (Intergranular)
Chloride/Sodium Hypochlorite CR
Chloride and Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl) wastewater treatment
Creep Cracking
Should be removed: already incl. Creep-Stress Rupture
Crevice/ Under deposit
Crevice/Under deposit incl. Cooling Water, MIC, Caustic,Amine-Corr.
Failure Mechanisms
Cyanide Stress Cracking (HCN)
Cyanide are respons. for accelerated corr. and H-charging of steel
Fatigue
Fatigue incl. Corrosion- Thermal- and Mechanical Fatigue (API 571)
Flue Gas CR
Flue Gas Corr. Incl. Flue Gas Dew Point and Flue Ash Corrosion
H2/H2S Sulfidation
of GALIOM
Should be removed: already incl. in High Temper. H2S corrosion
Hardening
Hardening can be a prerequisite of a failure mechanism like aging
Hot Oxidation
Should be removed: no difference to "High temperature Oxidation"
Hydrogen Attack
Should be removed: already incl. in HIC, SSC, HSC, SOHIC,GHSC,
Incipient Melting
Injection point CR
If do not know the chemicals (no failure mechanism)
Inorganic Chloride CR
Should be removed: already incl. in HCl Corrosion, Chloride SCC,

Ammonium Chlorid Corrosion
Organic Chloride CR
Should be removed: or Literature Examples shall be given
Organic Sulfur CR
Mercaptans are a group of sulfur-containing organic chem. Subst.
Oxygen Pitting/Carbonic Acid Corrosion
Should be removed: already incl. in Phenol (Carbonic Acid) Corr.
Overload (Plastic Collapse)
also buckling
Polysulfide- Water Corrosion
Should be removed: already incl. in Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion

Sliding Wear
Better: Fretting or Fretting Corrosion
Softening due to overaging
Should be removed: already incl. in Graphitization, Softening, Temper

Embrittlement, Strain Aging
Thermal ratcheting
Wet H2S Corrosion
Should be used for general or localized Corrosion
Wet H2S Cracking
Should be removed: already incl. in Hydrogen Embrittlement, Wet

H2S Blistering, SSC, HIC, SCC,etc.
Failure Mechanisms affecting to C- and low alloy Steel/ different units at the oil and gas production and refining industry
Failure Mechanisms
Graphitation
Softening
Strain Aging
Brittle fracture
Thermal Fatigue
Steam Blanketing
Thermal Shock
Cavitation
Mechanical Fatigue
Reheat Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
Components
oil/gas
Parameter
product. Vacuum Coker
Heater
Heater
Heater
vessel walls
vessels
Heater-tubes
Heater
Heater
Heater
Crude
Delayed Fluid cat.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
cracking
Catalytic
Hydro-
small pipes/nozz
x
x
x
x
PWHT thick wall
heat exchanger
x
x
x
x
x
Pumps
small pipes/nozz
low temp.
water trapped
Head exchanger
Feedwater heat
Feedwater heat
fired Heater
Tanks,etc.
x
x
x
Sulfur
Treating Recover
Sour water
Isomeri
stripper
zation
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Bend, Velocity
Alkylation Amine
Reforming process. HF/Sulfur
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Soil Corrosion
Failure Mechanisms
Caustic Corrosion
Dealloying
Graphitic Corrosion
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburisation
Decarburization
Metal Dusting
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Nitriding
Corrosion Fatigue
Tanks
Components
oil/gas
Parameter
Caustic+Heater
Crude
Delayed Fluid cat.

cracking
Catalytic
Hydro-
Alkylation Amine
Sulfur
Treating Recover
Sour water
Isomeri
stripper
zation
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
overhead cond.
x
x
x
HAZ,welding
reboiler
x
x
cyclic heater
HAZ,Heater
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Amine Corrosion
air cooler
Crude, Hydropr.
x
x
Piping high temp
Crude, Hydropr.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Failure Mechanisms
Wet H2S Blistering
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced
Cracking (SOHIC)
Hydrogen Stress Cracking -HF
Galvanically induced Hydrogen Stress
Cracking (GHSC)
Other Mechanisms
Titanium Hydriding
x
x
Components
oil/gas
Parameter
x
x
HAZ
wet H2S
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
wet H2S
wet H2S
HAZ,wet H2S
wet H2S
HAZ,wet HF
Catalytic
Hydro-
Alkylation Amine
below scrubber
x
x
x
x
Sour water
Isomeri
stripper
zation
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
water treatm.
Sulfur
Treating Recover
x
x

cracking
x
x
HAZ,wet H2S
Delayed Fluid cat.
HAZ
PH 4,5-7,H2S
Blistering
Crude
Fatigue
Flue Gas CR
Failure Mechanisms
Heater
oil/gas
Injection unit
all Compon.
wet H2S
x
x
x
x
x
Crude
Parameter
Organic Sulfur CR
Wet H2S Corrosion
Components
Hardening
Injection point CR
x
x
Delayed Fluid cat.

cracking
Catalytic
Hydro-
Alkylation Amine
Sulfur
Treating Recover
Sour water
Isomeri
stripper
zation
ng industry
Hydrogen
Reforming
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Hydrogen
Reforming
Hydrogen
Reforming
x
x
Hydrogen
Reforming
Failure Mechanisms: shall used and Influence Parameter

Failure Mechanisms (FM)
of API 571/ISO 15156
Graphitation
Softening
Strain Aging
Brittle fracture
Thermal Fatigue
Steam Blanketing
Thermal Shock
Cavitation
Mechanical Fatigue
Reheat Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
FM
FM
affected units,etc
used
HAZ, Heater
no
>427
Heater
no
440/760
HAZ, Heater
no
343/593
vessel walls
no
no
316/540
no
538/954
vessels
press.
water
Temp.
cut
psi
H2 S
psi
CO2
psi
dissolv.
susp.
Chemic.
PH
Fe
Solids
Inject.
no
Heater-tubes
>370
Heater
no
swing93
Heater
no
Heater
no
no
no
Bend, Velocity
Pumps
no
small pipes/nozz
small pipes/nozz
no
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
no
PWHT thick wall
heat exchanger
low temp.
water trapped
heat exchanger
no
Feedwater heat
no
Feedwater heat
fired Heater
Tanks,etc.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Soil Corrosion

Caustic Corrosion
Dealloying
Graphitic Corrosion
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburisation
Decarburization
Metal Dusting
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Nitriding
Corrosion Fatigue
Tanks
no
FM
FM
water
affected units,etc
used
press.
Temp.
cut%
Caustic+Heater
psi
H2 S
psi
CO2
psi
dissolv.
susp.
Chemic.
PH
Fe
Solids
Inject.
x
x
x
x
x
x
no
no
Heater
>482
Heater
>260
Heater
>593
x
x
Heater
Heater
no
482/816
Heater
no
>538
no
>316
no
cyclic heater
no
HAZ,Heater
overhead cond.
x
x
x
x
x
no
<0.2
x
x
HAZ,welding
reboiler
air cooler
Crude, Hydropr.
no
Crude, Hydropr.
no
x
x
Piping high temp
no
>260

Amine Corrosion
x
x
x
x


Wet H2S Blistering
Cracking (SOHIC)
Cracking (GHSC)
Other Mechanisms
Titanium Hydriding
no
Crude high temp
no
FM
FM
affected units,etc
used
phenol extraction
no
polymerization
PH 4,5-7,H2S
no
HAZ
water
press.
Temp.
cut
psi
H2 S
psi
CO2
psi
dissolv.
susp.
Chemic.
PH
Fe
Solids
Inject.
x
x
x
x
<7/>7
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
no
HAZ
wet H2S
no
RT/150
HAZ,wet H2S
no
<82
<8
wet H2S
wet H2S
no
HAZ,wet H2S
x
no
x
x
RT/150
wet H2S
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
HAZ,wet HF
no
HAZ
no
no
Blistering
pipe, vessel
no
no
no
water treatm.
no
heatexchanger
stripper
no
x
x
x
x
x
x

RT/150
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Fatigue
Flue Gas CR

Injection point CR
heater,nozz.
no
Heater
no
psi
H2 S
psi
CO2
psi
dissolv.
susp.
Chemic.
PH
Fe
Solids
Inject.
FM
FM
water
used
press.
Temp.
cut
no
x
x
x
x
Injection unit
no
all Compon.
wet H2S
no
no
>538
affected units,etc
Organic Sulfur CR
Wet H2S Corrosion
Failure Mechanisms: affected Material, Locations, Inspection methods

FM
FM
Material
affected units,etc used

Graphitation
Softening
Strain Aging
Brittle fracture
Thermal Fatigue
Steam Blanketing
Thermal Shock
Cavitation
Mechanical Fatigue
Reheat Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
HAZ, Heater
no
C-/0.5Mo Steel
Heater
no
C-/0.5Mo -9Cr
HAZ, Heater
no
2.25Cr-1Mo
vessel walls
no
C-/0.5Mo Steel
no
Stainless St.
no
Stainless St.
vessels
no
C-Steel
Heater-tubes
C-/Cr-Mo St.
Heater
no
C-Steel
Heater
no
C-/Cr-Mo Steel
Heater
no
C-/Cr-Mo Steel
no
C-Steel/SS
no
C-Steel
Bend, Velocity
C-Steel
Pumps
no
C-Steel
small pipes/nozz
C-Steel
small pipes/nozz
no
C-Steel
no
PWHT thick wall
C-/Cr-Mo Steel
heat exchanger
Steel/Cooper
low temp.
C-Steel
water trapped
C-Steel
heat exchanger
no
C-Steel
Feedwater heat.
no
C-Steel
Feedwater heat.
C-Steel
fired Heater
C-Steel
Tanks,heat ex.
C-Steel
Soil Corrosion
Tanks
no
C-Steel
FM
FM
Material

Caustic Corrosion
Dealloying
Graphitic Corrosion
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburisation
Decarburization
Metal Dusting
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Nitriding
Corrosion Fatigue
Caustic+Heater
C-Steel
no
no
cast iron
Heater
C-/Cr- Steel
Heater
C-/Cr- Steel
Heater
C/Cr-Steel
Heater
C/Cr-Steel
Heater
no
C/Cr-Steel
Heater
no
C/Cr-Steel
no
C/Cr-Mo Steel
no
SS, Ni-base
cyclic heater
no
C/Cr-Steel
HAZ,Heater
C/Cr-Steel
overhead cond.
C-Steel
no
C-Steel
HAZ,welding
C-Steel

Amine Corrosion
reboiler
C-Steel
air cooler
C-Steel
Crude, Hydropr.
no
C-Steel
Crude, Hydropr.
no
C-Steel
Piping high temp
no
C-Steel

no
Crude high temp
no
FM
FM
Material

Wet H2S Blistering
Cracking (SOHIC)
Cracking (GHSC)
Other Mechanisms
Titanium Hydriding
phenol extraction
no
polymerization
no
overhead syst.
C-Steel
HAZ
C-Steel
no
HAZ
C-Steel
wet H2S
no
C-Steel
C-Steel
HAZ,wet H2S
no
wet H2S
C-Steel
wet H2S
no
C-Steel
HAZ,wet H2S
C-Steel
wet H2S
no
C-Steel
HAZ,wet HF
no
Amine proc.
no
no
Blistering
pipe, vessel
no
no
no
water treatm.
no
heat exchanger
stripper
no

Boiler tubes
C-Steel
C/Cr-Mo Steel
C-Steel
Fatigue
heater,nozz.
no
C-Steel
Flue Gas CR
fired Heater
no
C-Steel
FM
FM
Material

Injection point CR
Injection unit
Organic Sulfur CR
Wet H2S Corrosion
no
no
all Compon.
wet H2S
no
no
s, Inspection methods
Location
of Falures
HAZ and regions with signif. plastic deformation (work hardening or bending): metallograpic exam
Fired heater tubes; metallographic observation, a reduction of tensile strength and/or hardness
can be identified by upward shift of ductile-brittle transition temperatue (Charpy V-notch impact test)
Mostly older (pre 1980), cold worked without stress relieving, vessels walls; metallographic exam.
Thick wall equipment, with low Charpy-values, high ductile-brittle transition temprature
HAZ, Nozzles, dissimilar materials (ferritic to austenitic welds), in heater tubes, if signif. Bulging
Notches, Weld toes, nozz. to vessel shell, stress concentr., mix point hot and cold streams;MT,PT
Flame impingement or local overheating; Bulging and Distortion of tubes, VT, EC,IRIS
All steam-generating units including fired boilers
Bend, Tee, Reducer, Nozzles, Outlets in Vessels, Heat exchanger tubes, scrapers,etc.; VT,UT,RT
Pumps
vibration from adjacent equipment or wind to small nozzles, pipes; PT, MT and SWUT
socket welds and small bore piping, bypass lines,heat exchanger;PT,MT
HAZ and/or weld metal heavy wall vessel sections incl. nozzles, stress concentration;UT,MT
The more active mat. can suffer general, crevice, groove or pitting (Steel-tubesheet, buffles);VT, UT
Piping and equipment with operating temper. suff. low to allow moisture to be present; VT,UT
high moisture areas down-wind from cooling tower, near steam vents, deluge systems;UT,RT
water-cooled heat exch. and cooling towers, velocities < 1m/s, dead spots or stagnant areas;EC,IRIS
In closed heater and economizers piiting corr., in condensate return system smooth grooving;EC,IRIS
Bottom if wetted, top of pipe if condensation, elbows, tees, weld root; VT,UT,RT
All fired process heaters and boilers that burn fuels containing sulfur, economizer section;UT
water is always/sometimes present, stagnant, low -flow conditions,S,ammonia, H2S,etc.,pitting:VT,UT
Tank bottom, General and localized Corrosion: VT,UT
Location
of Falures
Boiler, steam gen. equipment, heat exch., Inspect. Points (API 570), Local.Corr.;VT,UT,RT,boroscope
Presence of air, outside of furnace tubes, internal furnace components;general corr.;UT

piping in sulfur-containing (>0.2%) streams, heaters fired with oil, gas;general and localized;UT,RT
high gas phase carbon activity and low O2 or steam, heater tubes;increase harness,cracks;EC,UT,RT
low gas phase carbon activity, excessive overheating (fire); furnace tube OD, decreasing hardn.
metal dusting is a form of carburization; furnace tube OD; compression wave UT
fuel oil with sulfur, sodium, potassium and vanadium, melting on surfaces of fired heaters;VT, UT
high temp. process stream containing high partial pressure nitrogen such ammonia or cyanides
ID of tubes, opposite buckstay attachment on the OD ( stress concentration);UT

HAZ, Heat transfer equipment, Caustic treating section, caustic service, mercaptan treatm.;VT,EC,RT,
overhead condensat. where ammonia is a neutralizer;WFMT welds inside tanks, UT shear wave-outs.
where surface is wetted by lower-melting liquid metal ( Zinc, Indium, Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Copp.)
a few ppm of H diss.(wet electr., pickling, wet H 2S, HF acid), thick wall; PT,MT,WFMT,UT,RT
Amine treat. units, low velocity general and at high velocity or under deposit localized corr.;VT,UT
Sour water stripper and amine regenerator overhead system; general and localized/turbul.;UT,RT
Amin trea units, under ammonium chloride or amine salt deposits, general and local corr.;RT,UT
dew point corrosion, overhead stream of a distillation, fractionation or stripping tower;gen.,loc;UT,RT
in H2S streams at >260C sulfide corrosion. Uniform corr.;UT,VT and RT
Location
of Falures
PH 4,5-7,H2S; general, localized underdeposit:UT scan, profile RT

Caustic treating section, reboiler, overhead systems, effluent lines,waste water treatm.,velocity;UT,RT
HAZ in lean amine serv. incl. contactors, absorbers, stripp., regenerators, heat ex.:VT,WFMT,ACFM
on the ID,OD or within the wall thickness of pipes or pressure vessels;VT
Weld cover passes and attachment welds which are not tempered, HAZ, high hardness;WFMT,EC,RT
vapor recovery system, sour water stripper and amine regenerator overhead system; VT,WFMT
vapor recovery system, sour water stripper and amine regenerator overhead system; VT,WFMT
HAZ, vapor recovery system, sour water stripper amine regenerator overhead syst.;VT,WFTM,EC
Form of SSC, occur when Steels contain a local "soft zone" in the HAZ;WFMT, EC, RT
Not PWHT, HAZ, near weld , weld, PH >7.6
Blistering include Coating-, Deposit-, Delamination und Pressure (H 2)

if do not know the chemicals of waste water treatment Chlorine or NaOCl
Crevice/Under deposit incl. Cooling Water-, MIC-, Caustic-,Amine-, Ammonium Bisulfide-Corrosion
vapor recovery system, sour water stripper and amine regenerator overhead system (see wet H 2S)
see thermal-, mechanical and corrosion fatigue

see flue gas dew point and flue ash corrosion
Location
of Falures
If do not know the chemicals (no failure mechanism) use Injection point Corrosion (see API 570)
Mercaptans are a group of sulfur-containing organic chem. Subst. (see caustic corrosion/cracking)
Should be used for general or localized H2S Corrosion
Failure Mechanisms affecting to C-,low alloy Steel and Copper/ different units at the oil and gas production
Graphitation
Softening
Strain Aging
Brittle fracture
Thermal Fatigue
Steam Blanketing
Thermal Shock
Cavitation
Mechanical Fatigue
Reheat Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
CO2 Corrosion
FM
FM
used
need
HAZ, Heater
no
Heater
no
HAZ, Heater
no
vessel walls
no
Steam
Steam
Heating Cooling Cooling
Water
Condensate
water
Treatm.
Steam
Steam
Condensate
Water
no
no
vessels
no
Heater-tubes
Heater
Heater
Heater
no
no
no
Bend, Velocity
Pumps
no
small pipes/nozz
small pipes/nozz
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
no
PWHT thick wall
heat exchanger
low temp.
water trapped
heat exchanger
Feedwater heat
Feedwater heat
fired Heater
Tanks,etc.
x
x
x
x
Soil Corrosion

Caustic Corrosion
Dealloying (selective leaching)
Graphitic Corrosion
Oxidation
Sulfidation
Carburisation
Decarburization
Metal Dusting
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Nitriding
Corrosion Fatigue
Tanks
no
FM
FM
used
need
Caustic+Heater
x
no
Steam
Water
Condensate
water
Treatm.
x
x
Steam
Steam
Condensate
Water
no
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
Heater
x
no
no
cyclic heater
HAZ,Heater
overhead cond.
x
no
HAZ,welding

Amine Corrosion
Steam
reboiler
air cooler
Crude, Hydropr.
Crude, Hydropr.
Piping high temp
x
x


Wet H2S Blistering
Cracking (SOHIC)
Cracking (GHSC)
Other Mechanisms
Titanium Hydriding
no
Crude high temp
no
FM
FM
Steam
Water
used
need
Condensate
water
Treatm.
phenol extraction
no
polymerization
PH 4,5-7,H2S
no
HAZ
Steam
Condensate
Water
no
HAZ
wet H2S
HAZ,wet H2S
no
wet H2S
wet H2S
HAZ,wet H2S
x
x
HAZ,wet HF
no
HAZ
no
x
Blistering
pipe, vessel
water treatm.
heatexchanger
stripper
Steam
wet H2S
Steam
Fatigue
Flue Gas CR

Injection point CR
heater,nozz.
Heater
FM
FM
used
need
Injection unit
all Compon.
wet H2S
Organic Sulfur CR
Wet H2S Corrosion
Steam
Steam
Water
Condensate
water
Treatm.
Steam
Steam
Condensate
Water
Water
Treatm.
Water
Treatm.
Water
Treatm.
Water
Treatm.

Failure - Mechanisms - of - C-Steels - API - 571 - .Xls - Filename UTF-8''Failure Mechanisms of C-Steels (API 571)

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Failure - Mechanisms - of - C-Steels - API - 571 - .Xls - Filename UTF-8''Failure Mechanisms of C-Steels (API 571)

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All about Failure Mechanisms of C-steels according to API 571

Related Mechanism: 3. Endurance

occur at the junction

occur from moisture

1.Proper design Inspection

from underdeposit, MIC

CO2 Corrosion results 1. Free

pitting corrosion 2. Corrosion

condenses from the

1. Sulfur and chlorine C-Steel,

sulfurous acid, sulfuric

may lead to a massive

Oxygen reacts with

or carburizing environ. ductility;

corrosive sulfur comp.

Initially, carbon diffuse

has a low carbon activity

and often results in

cracking can be residual

can lead to brittle

Hydrogen can come from applications

services that can

If the partial pressure

0,3 kPa (0,05 psi)

steels classified restraint) and

general and/or local

1. Type of amine used

General uniform 1. proper

corrosion that occurs

From most aggressiv to

3.The rich amine or with

1. NH4HS-concentration 1. NH4HS salts

effluent streams and

1. Flow regime 1. UT scans

< 2 wt% solutions not

rates >8 wt% concentrat.

1.The salts have 1. Crude Unit:

cooled, and may corrode Deposits may

streams increase the

severity of high temp.

Corrosion of steel due C-Steel

pH between 4.5 and 7.

side the scope of this

Explanation of Failure Mechanisms

Explanation of Failure Mechanisms

when the dissolved-gas content is high.

Failure Mechanisms: Comparison of GALIOM, API 571 and others

Discription of the Failure

Failure Mechanism of GALIOM

Mechan. and Metallurg. Failures

Remarks to the Failure Mechanisms

Spheroidization & Graphitization

Spheroidization & Graphitization

Better: Softening (Spheroidization)

Sigma & Chi Phase Embrittlement

Thermal Fatigue Cracking

Better: Thermal Fatigue

Erosion-Solids and Erosion Droplets

Better: Sigma Phase Embrittlement

Better: Corrosion Under Insulation

Better: Cooling Water Corrosion

Better: Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion