Training PDF

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
ETAP New Features Brochure
2.
Creating a One-Line Diagram
3.
Load Flow Examples
4.
Short-Circuit Exercise
5.
Device Coordination (Star) Exercise
6.
Arc Flash Exercises
7.
Motor Acceleration Exercise
8.
Transient Stability Exercise
9.
Underground Raceway Systems Exercise
10.
Cable Pulling Exercise
11.
Harmonic Analysis Exercise
12.
Optimal Power Flow Exercises
13.
Optimal Capacitor Placement Exercise
14.
DC Exercises (DCLF, DCSC, BSD, CSD)
15.
Unbalanced Load Flow Exercise
ETAP Workshop Notes
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.
Page 1 of 2
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information purposes only. Examples and data used in the seminar are just that, examples, which are
being used to help the participants to gain knowledge of product, materials and services available. OTI
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representatives or agents (collectively called "OTI") be liable for special, incidental, consequential,
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ETAP Workshop Notes
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.
Page 2 of 2
Operation Technology, Inc.

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ISO 9001:2000
Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production,
Installation and Servicing - Registered Certification Number A3147 UL
Title
Titl 10 CFR 50,
50 A
Appendix
di B
United States Code of Federal Regulation
Quality Assurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and
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Title 10 CFR 21
United States Code of Federal Regulation
Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance

ANSI/IEEE 730.1 - 1989
IEEE Standard for Software Quality Assurance Plans
ANSI/ASME N45.2 - 1977

Quality Assurance Program Requirements for Nuclear Facilities
ASME NQA-1 (includes Subpart 2.7)

Qualityy Assurance Requirements
Q
q
for Nuclear Facilityy Applications
pp
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Q
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y Assurance Program
g
for Previouslyy Developed
p Software
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Cable
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Fire Wrap
HV Circuit Breaker
LV Circuit Breaker
Trip Device
Transmission Line
Phase Conductor
Ground Wire
Motor
Nameplate
CKT Model
Characteristic Model
Load Model
Fuse
Relay
Overload Heater
Solid State
Thermal Magnetic
Electro-Mechanical
Electro
Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector
Harmonics
Interruption Cost
Reliability Index
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C t lS
Control
System
t
D i
Device
Control Relay
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Contact
C t t
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Library
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Overload Heater (OLH)
All Other Libraries
% Deviation
Data
0
0
0
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0
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0
0
TCC Curve
1
3
0
3
1
3
3
3
3
N/A
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P d t
Product
Overview
AC Network
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: AC Network
ETAP Overview
One-Line Diagram
Mode Toolbar
Toolbar Format
System Toolbar
Dumpster
Study Case Toolbar
Project View
Message Log
Project Toolbar
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 2
Select Mode
Edit Mode: Drag/Drop &
Connect Elements
Study Mode: Load Flow,
Short-Circuit, etc.
Project View
Edit Toolbar
AC Elements
DC Elements
Instrument
Devices
System
Toolbar
One-Line Diagram
In Edit Mode
Help Line
Displays the
description for
every entry field.
Message Logger
View the latest
messages related to
ETAP Projects.
It can be expanded
or reduced.

Slide 3
Mode Toolbar Format

Slide 4
Analysis Toolbar Format

Analysis toolbars have the following sections:
1. Run the Calculation

2. Display Options
3. Display Alerts
4. View the Generated Reports
5. Stop the Calculation
6. Get On-Line Data
7. Get Archived Data
All ETAP analysis toolbars follow this general format.
Slide 5
Pointer
2W XFMR
Cable
Reactor
Bus
Trans. Line
Wind Turbine Gen
Impedance
Generator
MG Set
Induction Machine
Synch. Motor
Power Grid
Lumped Load
Static Load
Panels
Remote Connector
SVC
Composite Motor
Fuse
HVCB
Recloser
Overload Heater
SPST
Pointer
3W XFMR
Cable
Impedance
Converter
Battery
MOV
Capacitor
Harmonic Filter
Phase Adapter
Bus
Motor
Static Load
Lumped Load
Elementary Diagram
Composite
Motor
Composite Network
HVDC
Composite Network
CB
Contactor
LVCB
In-Line Overload Relay
SPDT
Instrumentation
Ground Grid
Display Options
Schedule Report Manager
SPST
UPS
Charger
Fuse
SPDT
VFD
Inverter

Slide 6
Current Transformer
Voltmeter
Potential Transformer
Ammeter
Multimeter
Voltage Relay 27 / 59
Reverse Power Relay
Frequency Relay 81
Solid State Trip Relay
Motor Relay
Overload Heater
Overcurrent Relay 50/51/67

Multi Function Relay
Taglink
Slide 7
Run Load Flow Calculation

RCAS
Display Options
Load Flow Alerts
Load Flow Report Manager
Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Load Flow Comparator
Load Flow Result

Analyzer
Slide 8
Run Unbalanced Load Flow

Display Options
Load Flow Alerts
Load Flow Report Manager
Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Load Flow Comparator

Slide 9
3-Phase SC Duty Calculation

1-Phase SC Duty Calculation
Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
to 4 Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
30 Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
Arc Flash Analysis (NFPA 70E & IEEE 1584)

Short-Circuit Display Options
Short-Circuit Alerts for Buses & PDs
Short-Circuit Report Manager

Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 10
3-Phase SC IEC Duty Calculation

1-Phase SC IEC Duty Calculation
909 Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
Transient IEC 363
Arc Flash Analysis (NFPA 70E & IEEE 1584)
Short-Circuit Display Options
Short-Circuit Alerts for Buses & PDs
Short-Circuit Report Manager
IEC 363 Plots / Export COMTRADE

Stop SC Calculations
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 11
Run Dynamic Motor Acceleration

Run Static Motor Starting
Motor Starting Display Options
Motor Starting Alerts
Motor Starting Report Manager
Motor Starting Plot Options
Stop Motor Starting Calculation
Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
Slide 12
Run Harmonic Load Flow Calculation

Run Frequency Scan
Harmonic Analysis Display Options
Harmonic Analysis Alerts
Harmonic Analysis Report Manager

Harmonic Analysis Plots
Stop HA Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 13
Run Transient Stability Calculation

TS Display Options
TS Alerts (Future)
TS Report Manager
TS Action List
Transient Stability Plots
Stop TS Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 14
Create STAR View

Append to STAR View
Run / Update SC Clipping kA
Sequence of Operation
Display Options
Report Manager
Device Settings Report
Stop Calculation
Sequence Viewer
Slide 15
Run Optimal Power Flow

OPF Display Options
OPF Report Manager

Stop OPF Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data

Slide 16
Run Reliability Assessment Calculation

RA Display Options
RA Report Manager
RA Plots
Stop RA Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data

Slide 17
Run Optimal Capacitor Placement

OCP Display Options
OCP Alerts
OCP Report Manager
OCP Plots
Stop OCP Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 18
Run DC Load Flow Calculation

DCLF Display Options
DCLF Report Manager
Stop DCLF Calculation
Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
Slide 19
Run DC Short-Circuit Calculation

DCSC Display Options
DCSC Report Manager
Stop DCSC Calculation
Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
Slide 20
Run Battery Sizing

Run Battery Discharge
Battery Size / Discharge
Display Options
DCBS / DCBD Report
Manager
Battery Discharge Plots
Stop DCBS/DCBD Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Slide 21
Create a New Presentation

Slide 22
Add Elements
Bus ID = (Default ID) + (A Unique Number) = Bus + 1 = Bus1

Slide 23
Connect Element - Bus

Place the cursor over the pin of an element (pin
appears in red).
Drag an element and place its pin on a bus.
Drop a new element with its pin on top of a bus.
Buses are considered to be one long pin.
Connections are always made from elements to
buses.
Relays cannot be connected to buses.

Only one pin of an element can be connected to
the same bus.
Slide 24
Connect Element - Element

Place the cursor on the pin of an element. Click
and drag the mouse to the element you want to
connect. When the latter elements pin turns red,
release the left button.
Drag & drop a protective device with its pin placed
on top of the pin of any branch or load element.
Drag & drop a protective device onto a connection.
Branches CANNOT be connected to each other;
PowerStation automatically inserts a bus between
them.
Slide 25

Branches CANNOT be connected to each other;
PowerStation automatically inserts a bus between
them.
Branches CANNOT be connected to loads, utilities,
composite motors, and composite networks.
Relays can only be connected to current

transformers (CT) or other relays.
You CANNOT directly connect two buses with a
connector or current transformer.

Slide 26

Slide 27
The Remote Connector

Slide 28
Insert Protective Devices
Example
A Circuit Breaker and Fuse are Inserted Between Bus1 and T1.

Slide 29
Move From Dumpster

Elements can be moved from the Dumpster
into the one-line diagram with the same IDs
by two methods:
Right-click on the one-line diagram and select
Move From
Click on Edit on the Menu Bar and select Move
From

Slide 30
Move From Dumpster

Rules:
Move From Dumpster can be done only in
Edit mode when Base Data is active.
Move CANNOT be done if there are no
Cells (element groups) in the Dumpster.
When you move a Dumpster Cell to the

one-line diagram, the desired cell needs to
be active and it gets deleted from the
Dumpster after being moved.
Slide 31
Move From Dumpster

Move any Dumpster Cell you desire by making it
active from the Dumpster presentation
Entire contents of a cell are moved
Move any Dumpster Cell into any Composite
Network (cannot move cells that contain buses and
branches into a composite motor)
Sections 1 and 2 of the Remote Connector must
be moved from the dumpster at the same time
IDs of the moved elements, along with the
connections, status, and properties are preserved
Slide 32
Creating a Project
Enter four new elements into the one-line diagram and proceed
to enter the input data for each element
Power Grid
1250 MVAsc
X/R = 120
Bus kV Rating
Bus 1 = 13.8
Bus 2 = 4.16
Transformer T1
20 MVA
%Z=6
X/R = 17
Lumped Load
5 MVA
% PF = 80
Rated kV= 4
70% Motor Load

Slide 33
Once all the elements have been

connected and the input data has
been entered, you may proceed
to run a Load Flow Calculation.

Slide 34
Enter four more elements into the

one-line diagram.
Extend the size of Bus2
Proceed to connect them and enter
the required LF data.
Cable
NEC EPR 133%
5.0kV Mag
3/C CU
Size= 4/0
Length=200ft
Transformer T2
MVA= 1
Typical %Z & X/R
Bus kV Rating
Bus3= 4.16
Bus4= 0.480
Lumped Load Lump2
MVA= 0.5
%PF=85
Rated kV = 0.46
50% Motor Load
Slide 35
Once all the elements have

been connected and the input
data has been entered, you
may proceed to run a Load
Flow Calculation.

Slide 36
Extend the length of Bus2

towards the right side.
Add a Generator Gen1

Rotate Gen1 180 using
<SHIFT+R>
Connect & proceed to enter
required input data for Load
Flow
Gen1
Rating:
5 MW
Voltage Control
%PF = 80
Generation Category:
Design
MW = 5
Qmax = 5
Qmin = 1

Slide 37
Once the Generator has been

connected and the input data has been
entered, you may proceed to run a Load
Flow Calculation.

Slide 38
1. Extend the length of Bus1

towards the right side.
2. Copy elements T1, Bus2,

Lump1, Cable1, T2, Bus4
and Lump2.
3. Move elements from
Dumpster and connect
them to Bus1.
4. Insert a normally open Tie

Breaker between Bus4 and
Bus5.

Slide 39
Rubber band both branches connected to Bus2 and

Bus7.
Cut all the highlighted elements.
Insert a Composite Network and connect between Bus2

and Bus7.
Open the Composite Network and move the elements
from the dumpster into the Network1 window.
Connect the cables back to their original buses.

Slide 40
Insert High Voltage Circuit Breakers at the indicated

locations.
Insert Low Voltage Circuit Breakers inside the

Composite network and place them before the
Lumped Loads.

Slide 41
3D Database
Slide 42
Study Conditions
Different Operating Requirements
Generator 1 in Voltage
Control Mode
Generator 1 in Swing Mode

Slide 43
Study Conditions
Different Loading Conditions
Summer Loading
Winter Loading

Slide 44
Study Conditions
Different Configurations
Configuration Normal
Configuration GenOFF

Slide 45
Study Conditions
Different Engineering Data
Revision Base
Revision Sub2a Mod

Slide 46
3-D Database
Configurations
Presentations
Symbol &
Annotation
Visibility,
Location,
& Size
CB, Fuse, Switch,

Load, & Motor
Status
Properties
Nameplate,
Rating, Loading,
Settings, Dimension, etc.
Base & Revision Data

Slide 47
Presentations
Symbol &
Annotation
Visibility,
Location,
& Size
One-Line Diagrams
Impedance Diagrams
Relay Diagrams
Physical Diagrams
Study Diagrams
Slide 48
Configurations
CB, Fuse, Switch,
Load, & Motor
Status

Slide 49
Properties
Properties
Nameplate,
Rating, Loading,
Settings, Dimension, etc.
Base & Revision Data

Slide 50
User Access Management

Group 1 Functions
Move Elements
Change Element Size
Change Element Symbol

Change Element Orientation
Edit Engineering Properties
Change Operating Status

Hide or Show Protective Devices
Autoroute Connections
Change Bus to Node Symbols
Purge Data Revisions
Merge Data Revisions to Other Revisions

Slide 51

Group 2 Functions
Add (Drop) Elements
Cut (Delete) Elements to Dumpster
Copy Elements from Dumpster
Paste Elements from Dumpster

Move Elements from Dumpster
Connect Elements
Purge Elements from Dumpster

Re-sizing Elements (UGS)
Merge Data Revision to Base Data
Graphical Adjustment of STAR
Views
Slide 52
Group 3 Functions
Change Phase/Ground mode in
Star View.
Compute Time Difference in Star
View.
View Alerts.
View Device Setting Reports.

Slide 53

Project Editor
Can
Cannot
Change Change
Project Data / Defaults
Base Data
Revision Data
Group 1 Changes
Group 2 Changes
Group 3 Changes
Configuration Status
Library Data
Library Path

Slide 54

Base Editor
Can Cannot
Change Change
Base Data
Revision Data
Group 1 Changes
Group 2 Changes
Group 3 Changes
Library Data
Library Path
X
X

Slide 55

Revision Editor
Can
Cannot
Change Change
Base Data
Revision Data
Group 1 Changes
Group 2 Changes
Group 3 Changes
Library Data
Library Path
X
X

Slide 56

Checker
Can
Check
Cannot
Change
Base Data
Revision Data
Group 1 Changes
Group 2 Changes
Group 3 Changes Can Change

Library Data
Library Path

Slide 57
Circuit Arrangements
Radial System
Loop System
Primary Selective System
Secondary Selective System

Slide 58
Radial System
Simple or Expanded Radial
Inverted tree
No duplications
Least Expensive
Simple in operation
Easy to analyze

Slide 59
Loop System
Interconnected / Open Point
Loads are tapped of the loop
Loop could be open or closed
More difficult for analysis
Reliable

Slide 60

Each transformer is supplied by two sources
Normal operation is to supply half the load
from one source
Manual or Automatic transfer of load
Recommended

Slide 61

Slide 62
Secondary Selective System

Each load can be supplied from either one of
the transformers
The tie breaker is usually normally open
If one of the transformers is out of service,
the tie breaker is closed and the total load is
supplied by the remaining transformer
Very reliable system

Slide 63
Load Flow Analysis
ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.
System Concepts
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 2
Power in Balanced 3-Phase

Systems S V I
*
LN
S3
3
3
S1
V LL I *
jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Leading Power Factor
Current and Voltage
Slide 3
Leading & Lagging Power

Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 4
3-Phase Per Unit System

kVA B
3kVB
IB
ZB
(kVB )
MVA B
3VI
3ZI
IB
SB
3VB
VB2
SB
ZB
If you have two bases:

Then you may calculate the other two
by using the relationships enclosed in
brackets. The different bases are:
IB (Base Current)
ZB (Base Impedance)
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)
I pu
I actual
IB
Zpu
Zactual
ZB
Vpu
Vactual
VB
Spu
Sactual
SB
ETAP selects for LF:

100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
To determine base voltage use:

1
B
kV
kVB2
N1
kVB2
N2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find

the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
Z pu
X pu
1
X
R
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 6
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14)
0.06478
0.06478
12.14
R pu
0.005336
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
Znpu
Zopu
o
B
n
B
V
V
% Z 100 Z pu
n
B
o
B
S
S
(5.33 10
j0.06478)
13.8
13.5
100
5
(0.1115 j1.3538)
11.15 j135.38
Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
VB
kVutility 13.5
4.0695
N1
3.31
N2
ZB
VB2
MVA
(4.0695) 2
100
0.165608
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Z pu
Zactual
ZB
% Z 100 Z pu
(0.1 j1)
0.1656
(0.6038 j6.0382)
60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 8
Load Flow Analysis
Slide 9
Load Flow Problem

Given
Load Power Consumption at all buses
Configuration
Power Production at each generator
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 10
Load Flow Studies

Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand
Steady State Stability Limits

MW & Mvar Losses
Slide 11
Size & Determine System

Equipment & Parameters
Cable / Feeder Capacity
Capacitor Size
Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting

Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings

Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
Generators Mvar Demand

Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Slide 12
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Slide 13
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Slide 14
Load Flow Calculation

Methods
1.
Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
2.
Low Requirements on initial values,

but slow in speed.
3.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Two sets of iteration equations: real

power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude.
Fast in speed, but low in solution

precision.
Better for radial systems and

systems with long lines.
Newton-Raphson Method
Fast in speed, but high requirement on

initial values.
First order derivative is used to speed up

calculation.
Slide 15
Load Nameplate Data
kVARated
FLA3
FLA1
kWRated
PF Eff
kVARated
3 kV
kVARated
kV
HP 0.7457
PF Eff
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %

loading conditions
kVA
PF
I3
I1
(kW ) 2 (kVar ) 2
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
1000
kV
1000
Slide 16
Constant Power Loads
In Load Flow calculations induction,

synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
The power output remains constant even

if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
The lump load power output behaves like

a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
Slide 17
Constant Impedance Loads

In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
Slide 18
Constant Current Loads

The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
Slide 19
Slide 20
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 21
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 22
Governor Operating Modes

Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generators power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Slide 23
Isochronous Mode
Slide 24
Droop Mode
Slide 25
Droop Mode
Slide 26
Droop Mode
Slide 27
Adjusting Steam Flow
Slide 28
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 29
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating

modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Droop Mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Droop Mode
Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
Droop Mode
AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
Slide 30
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)
Slide 31
Generator Capability Curve
Slide 32
Slide 33
Slide 34
Maximum & Minimum

Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit
Slide 35

Field Winding
Heating Limit
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Steady State Stability Curve
Slide 36
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 37
Power Flow
V*I
V1
V2
V2
1
2
jQ
V1*V2
*SIN(
X
P
V1
V *V
j 1 2 *COS(
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1
X
V1*V2
*COS( 1
X
V2
X
)
2
V2
X
Slide 38
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are

connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
I
I
V1 V 2 100 j0 (86.6 j50)

X
j5
10 j2.68
I
V1I* 100( 10 j2.68)

V2 I*
1000 j268
(86.6 j50)( 10 j2.68)
1000 j268
| I |2 X 10.352 5 536 var
Slide 39
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
X
sin
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V
X
2
2
0
Real Power Flow

Reactive Power Flow
Slide 40
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 13.5 kVNo min al 13.8

V%
kVCalculated
100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated
V%
4.03
kVNo min al
4.16
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41
Slide 42
Lump Load Negative

Loading
Slide 43
Load Flow Adjustments

Transformer Impedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Slide 44
Load Flow Study Case

Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
Individual
Global
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 45
Allowable Voltage Drop

NEC and ANSI C84.1
Slide 46
Load Flow Example 1

Part 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 47
Load Flow Example 1

Part 2
Slide 48
Load Flow Alerts
Slide 49
Equipment Overload Alerts

Bus Alerts
Monitor Continuous Amps
Cable
Reactor
Line
Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer
Monitor Maximum MVA Output
UPS/Panel
Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator
Monitor Generator Rated MW
Slide 50
Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker
Continuous rated Current
OverLoad
High Voltage Circuit Breaker
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches
OverLoad
Slide 51
If the Auto Display

feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.
Slide 52
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 53
Load Flow Convergence

Negative Impedance
Zero or Very Small Impedance
Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
Long Radial System Configurations

Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values
Slide 54
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
Slide 55
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.

(Info Page, Quantity Field)
Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under

Voltage Condition)
Method 1 - Change Xfmr
300 kvar 3 Banks
Method 3 - Change Tap

Place LTC on Primary of T6
Select Bus8 for Control Bus
Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8

MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV
Select Update LTC in the

Study Case
Too Expensive and time

consuming
Bus Voltage Comes within

specified limits
Run LF
Slide 56
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Method 2 Add Capacitor
Add Switch to CAP1
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run Load Flow
Run LF
Var Contribution from the

Utility reduces
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Method 3 Xfmr MVA

Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Will notice decrease in the
contribution from the Utility
Slide 57
Panel Systems
Slide 58
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Slide 59
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 60
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 61
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
Slide 62
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage =

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:
For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 63
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

Slide 64
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Slide 65
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout
Slide 66
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 67
Rating Tab
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts
for a 3-phase load are
1200, enter W as 400
(=1200/3)
Slide 68
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 69
Protective Device Tab

Library Quick Pick LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick

Fuse
will
appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Slide 70
Feeder Tab
Slide 71
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Slide 72
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand Per Phase and Total
Slide 73
Output Report
Slide 74
Panel Code Factors

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done
for each types of load separately and then summed up
Slide 75
Transformer MVA Sizing
Transformer MVA Sizing

Based on ANSI C57 and IEC 60076 standards
Considers multiple cooling stages and transformer
types (3-phase & 1-phase)
Considers altitude correction factors
Considers temperature correction factors
Load variation
Considers short-circuit impedance requirements
Use connected load or operating load to size the
transformer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing
Slide 2
MVA Sizing Page

Transformer
MVA Loading
Correction
Factors & Load
Variation
Sizing Results
Section
Larger
Short-Circuit
Impedance
limits
Consider
Growth Factor
for Max. MVA
Required
Smaller
Impedance
Slide 3
Ambient temperature in degree Celsius
For air cooled transformers use the air
ambient temperature
For water cooled transformers use the water
temperature
Based on C57.92-1981 and IEC 76-2
Slide 4
Altitude Correction
Derate the transformer capacity based on
altitude of the installation
Derating starts above 1000 m or 3300 ft
Based on C57.92-1981 and IEC 76-2
800
meter
900
meter
1000
meter
1100
meter
1200
meter
Slide 5
Load Variation
Growth Factor
Allowance for future load growth
Load Factor
The ratio of the average load to the peak load
over a designated period of time
Load Factor = 100 x ( kWi x Ti ) / ( kWp x Tt )%
Load Factor = 100 x E / ( kWi x Tt )%
Slide 6
Where:
I = interval of time when the load is non-zero
kWi = load at interval i

Ti = number of hours of interval i
kWp = peak load
Tt = Ton + Toff
Ton = total hours when the load is on
Toff = total hours when the load is off

E = energy (kWh) consumed by load over the
interval
Slide 7
Short-Circuit Impedance
Size Requirement
Use Primary Short-Circuit kA and FLA to
Calculate Impedance
Primary 3-Phase FLA = MVA / (kVLL * 3)
Primary 1-Phase FLA= MVA / (kVprimary)
Zcalculated =100*(FLAprimary / ISC_primary)
Slide 8
Connected or Operating Load

Connected Load
Determine the radial load connected to the transformer
secondary
Can include spare loads for conservative results
Operating Load
PowerStations load flow program determines the power
flow through the transformer
Automatically updated in the transformer required MVA
field (load flow study case info page option)
Can determine loading in radial or looped systems
Slide 9
Sizing Results and

Automatic Updating
Sizing results include MVA and % Z for
Required Size (Actual calculated Size)
Next Standard Larger Size

Next Standard Smaller Size
Automatically Update the calculated rated

MVA, Max MVA and % Z into the Rating
page of the transformer
Slide 10
Transformer MVA Sizing Page

Update automatically
when you press these
buttons
Transformer Rating Page
Transformer Rating Page

Slide 11
Unit Transformer Sizing
Presented by Farrokh Shokooh

Unit Transformer Sizing

Based on IEEE C5F-116 Standard
Optimize unit transformer turn ratio
Consider system voltage variation
Consider generation station auxiliary load
Automatically detect generator, cable
impedance and bus nominal kV
Generator reactive vs. capacitive plots
Optimization reports
Slide 13
Transformer Tap Optimization

Page
Transformer
Impedance
Section
System kV
Information
Primary / Secondary
Cable Impedance
Generator
Information
Auxiliary Load
Information
Optimization
Results Section
Slide 14
Automatic System Parameter

Update
Slide 15
Primary Fixed Tap Editor

Use 0.1% Tap Step to obtain best
Optimization results
Set the maximum/minimum fixed tap range
Slide 16
MVAR Delivery Curve
Slide 17
Unit Transformer Tap

Optimization Reports
Input Data
Optimal Tap Position
Transformer Power Input and output at

different system voltage levels (system
voltage variation)
Generator Power Output at different system
voltage levels
Generator and System voltage at different
system voltage levels
Slide 18
Slide 19
Unbalanced Load Flow
Real Unbalanced Power

Systems
Distribution System
3-phase, 2-phase, and single-phase network
components
Unbalanced loads
Transmission System
Untransposed long transmission line
Abnormal operation with one phase out of service
Unbalanced loads (e.g., electrical railway traction
motors)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis
Slide 2
Harmful Effects of System

Unbalance
Overheating of generators
Nuisance tripping of protective relays
Increased real power losses
Transformer failure
Radio communication interference
Slide 3
Unbalance Factors/Indexes
System unbalance is considered by power
quality standards as a disturbance
Voltage/Current unbalance factors
Ratio of zero/negative sequence to positive

sequence
Voltage/Current unbalance indexes
Ratio of average values to maximum
deviation of average values
Slide 4
Unbalanced Load Flow

Analysis
Current Injection (CI) method
The most robust algorithm ever developed
Converge in less iterations than other

methods, especially for heavily loaded
systems
Sparse matrix technique
Unique modeling concepts

Slide 5
Sequence Models of
3-Phase Machines
Slide 6
Unique Concepts of
3-Phase Machines
Swing Machine
The specified magnitude and the phase angle of the
positive sequence voltage only at the swing machine
terminal
PV Machine
The specified total output of 3-phase real powers and
the magnitude of the positive sequence voltage
PQ Machine
The specified total outputs of 3-phase real and reactive
powers
Slide 7
Concepts of Load
Connections
Single-Phase Loads
Connected in the phase connection types of
AB, BC, CA, AN, BN or CN
Three-Phase Loads
Connected in Delta, Wye or Wye-G

The constant individual powers in Wye are
not allowed due to multiple solutions
Slide 8
Modeling Capabilities
A mixture of 3-phase, 2-phase and singlephase network components
3-phase machines with internal impedance
being considered
Built-in calculator for overhead line
impedances
Mutual coupling among overhead lines
Transformers combined with load tap
changers (LTC) and phase shifters
Slide 9
Modeling Capabilities
2-winding and 3-winding transformers of
various winding connections
Lumped loads consisting of constant power,
constant impedance and constant current
components
Generator exciters with AVR or Mvar / PF
controllers
Robust library of of commonly used
overhead transmission lines and cables
Slide 10
Study Case
Same pretense as Balanced Load Flow with
more detailed modeling, calculations, and
results
Slide 11
Output Results
State-of-the-art graphic display of
results
Graphical display of marginal and
critical under/over voltages
Alert View displays

limit violations
Slide 12
Reporting
Customized output reports using Crystal Reports
Individual phase and sequence voltage, current,
and power
Voltage drops, losses,

power flows, power
factor, voltage/current
unbalance factors, etc.
Slide 13
Example 1
Example 2
IEEE Four Node Test Feeder
Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Two line segments with a 3-phase
transformer bank connected between the two
segments
2. Data is specified for balanced and
unbalanced loading at the most remote node
3. Transformer is specified for different
connection testing
Slide 15
Slide 16
Example 3
IEEE 13 Node Test Feeder
Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Short and relatively highly loaded for a 4.16
kV feeder
2. Overhead lines with variety of phasing
3. Shunt capacitor banks
4. In-line transformer
5. Unbalanced loading
Slide 17
Slide 18
Short-Circuit
ANSI Standard
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI
Short-Circuit Analysis
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all
faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G
.87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition

is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Slide 2
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Slide 3
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Power Company Supply
In-Plant Generators
Transformers (using negative tolerance)
Reactors (using negative tolerance)

Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at
lower temperature limits)
Slide 4
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
Synchronous Motors
Induction Motors
Protective Devices
Y0 from Static Load and Line Cable

Slide 5
Elements That Contribute

Current to a Short-Circuit
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Slide 6
Elements Do Not Contribute

Current in PowerStation
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves
All Shunt Y Connected Branches
Slide 7
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
i(t)
v(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t
Slide 8
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L
Vm Sin( t
) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
i(t)
R
- t
Vm
Vm
sin( t
- )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 9
AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay
DC Current
Slide 10
AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)
Slide 11
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 12
Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay
Slide 13
ANSI Calculation Methods

1) The ANSI standards handle the AC Decay by varying
machine impedance during a fault.
ANSI
2) The ANSI standards handle the the dc

offset by applying multiplying factors. The
ANSI Terms for this current are:
Momentary Current
Close and Latch Current
First Cycle Asymmetrical Current
Slide 14
Sources and Models of Fault

Currents in ANSI Standards
Sources
Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Motors & Condensers
Induction Machines
Electric Utility Systems (Power Grids)
Models
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (Xd, Xd, Xd)
Slide 15
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.
Synchronous Motors &

Condensers
Act as a generator to supply fault
current. This current diminishes as the
magnetic field in the machine decays.
Induction Machines
Transient Reactance
Treated the same as synchronous

motors except they do not contribute to
the fault after 2 sec.
Subtransient Reactance
Electric Utility Systems
Synchronous Reactance
The fault current contribution tends to

remain constant.
Slide 16
Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current

and protective device duties at the cycle after the fault.
1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current
and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit
current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.
Slide 17
Reactance Representation for

Utility and Synchronous Machine
Cycle
1 to 4 Cycle
30 Cycle
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Hydro-Gen with
Amortisseur
winding
Xd
Xd
Xd
Hydro-Gen without
Amortisseur
winding
0.75*Xd
0.75*Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
1.5*Xd
Utility
Turbo Generator
Condenser
Synchronous
Motor
Slide 18
Reactance Representation for

Induction Machine
Cycle
1 to 4
Cycle
>1000 hp , <= 1800

rpm
Xd
1.5*Xd
>250, at 3600 rpm
Xd
1.5*Xd
All others, >= 50 hp
1.2*Xd
3.0*Xd
< 50 hp
1.67*Xd
Note: Xd = 1 / LRCpu
Slide 19
Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents

from Different Networks
Cycle Currents
(Subtransient
Network)
1 to 4 Cycle
Currents
(Transient Network)
HV Circuit Breaker
Closing and Latching

Capability
Interrupting
Capability
LV Circuit Breaker
Interrupting Capability
---
Fuse
Interrupting
Capability
SWGR / MCC
Bus Bracing
---
Relay
Instantaneous
Settings
---
---
30 Cycle currents are used for determining overcurrent settings.
Slide 20
Momentary Multiplying
Factor
MFm is calculated based on:
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)

Location of fault (Remote / Local generation)
Comparisons of Momentary capability (1/2 Cycle)
SC Current Duty
Device Rating
HV CB
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
C&L RMS
C&L RMS
HV Bus
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
LV Bus
Crest
Slide 21
Interrupting Multiplying
Factor
MFi is calculated based on:
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)

Location of Fault (Remote / Local generation)
Type and Rating of CB
Comparisons of Interrupting Capability (1 to 4

Cycle)
SC Current Duty
Device Rating
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*
Adj. Symmetrical RMS***
Symmetrical RMS
HV CB
LV CB & Fuse
Slide 22
HV CB Closing and
Latching Duty
Calculate Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Calculate X/R ratio and Multiplying factor MFm
Imom, rms, Asym = MFm * Imom, rms, sym
Slide 23
HV CB Interrupting Duty
Calculate 1 to 4 Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Determine Local and Remote contributions (A local contribution is
fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as remote).
Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MFi
NACD = IRemote / ITotal
ITotal = ILocal + IRemote
(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)

Calculate Iint, rms, adj = MFi * Iint, rms, Symm
Slide 24
HV CB Interrupting
Capability
CB Interrupting kA varies between Max kA and Rated kA
as applied kV changes MVAsc capability.
ETAPs comparison between CB Duty of Adj.
Symmetrical kA and CB capability of Adjusted Int. kA
verifies both symmetrical and asymmetrical rating.
The Option of C37.010-1999 standard allows user to

specify CPT.
Generator CB has higher DC rating and is always
compared against maximum through SC kA.
Slide 25
LV CB Interrupting Duty
LV CB take instantaneous action.
Calculate Cycle current Irms, Symm (If) from the

cycle network.
Calculate X/R ratio and MFi (based on CB type).
Calculate adjusted interrupting current Iadj, rms, symm =

MFi * Irms, Symm
Slide 26
Fuse Interrupting Duty

Calculate Cycle current Iint, rms, symm from Cycle Network.
Same procedure to calculate Iint, rms, asymm as for CB.
Slide 27
L-G Faults
Slide 28
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 29
Sequence Networks
Slide 30
L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
If
3 Ia 0
If
3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2 Z0
if Zg
Slide 31
L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections
Ia 2
I a1
If
3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2
Slide 32
L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
Ia 2
If
I a1 I a 0
VPrefault
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg
0 Ia
Slide 33
Transformer Zero Sequence Connections
Slide 34
Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1
Z2 & Z0
Z1
If this conditions are true then :

I f3
I f1
This may be the case if Generators or

Y/ Connected transform er are solidly
grounded.
Slide 35
Unbalanced Faults Display

& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults
One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
Slide 36
Slide 37
Slide 38
SC Study Case Info Page
Slide 39
SC Study Case Standard

Page
Slide 40
SC Study Case Adjustments

Page
Tolerance
Adjustments
Transformer
Impedance
Reactor
Resistance
Overload
Heater
Resistance
Length
Adjustments
Cable Length
Transmission
Line Length
Temperature
Corrections
Adjust Fault
Impedance
Transmission
Line Resistance
L-G fault
Impedance
Cable Resistance
Slide 41
Tolerance Adjustments
Z 'Transformer
Z Transformer * (1 Tolerance)
Length'Cable
LengthCable * (1 Tolerance)
Length'TransmissionLine
LengthTransmissionLine * (1 Tolerance)
Positive tolerance value is used for IEC Minimum If calculation.

Negative tolerance value is used for all other calculations.
Adjustments can be applied Individually or Globally
Slide 42
(234 .5 Tc )
R'Copper ' RBASE *
(234 .5 Tb )
(228 .1 Tc )
R' Alumi RBASE *
(228 .1 Tb )
RBASE
Resistance at base tempereature
R'
Resistance at operating temperature
Tb
Conductor base temperature in C
Tc
Conductor temperature limit in C
Temperature Correction can be applied

Individually or Globally
Slide 43
System for SC Study

Power Grid U1
X/R = 55
Transformers
T1 X/R
PS =12
PT =12
ST =12
T2 X/R = 12
Gen1
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Max Q = 9
Min Q = -3
Lump1
Y open grounded
Slide 44
System for SC Study
Tmin = 40, Tmax = 90
Slide 45
System for SC Study
Slide 46
Short-Circuit Alerts
Bus Alert
Protective Device Alert
Marginal Device Limit
Slide 47
Bus SC Rating
Type of Device
Monitored Parameter
Condition Reported
Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA
Bracing Asymmetrical
Momentary Asymmetrical. crest kA
Bracing Crest
Momentary Symmetrical. rms kA
Bracing Symmetrical
Bracing Asymmetrical
MV Bus (> 1000 Volts)
LV Bus (<1000Volts)
Protective Device Rating

Device Type
ANSI Monitored Parameters
IEC Monitored Parameters
LVCB
Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA
Breaking
Momentary C&L
Making
Momentary C&L Crest kA
N/A
Breaking
Fuse
Breaking
SPDT
Making
SPST Switches
Making
HV CB
Slide 48
3-Phase Duty SC Results

Run a 3-phase Duty SC calculation for a
fault on Bus4. The display shows the
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current.
Slide 49
Unbalance Fault Calculation
Slide 50
Short-Circuit Analysis
IEC Standard
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Slide 2
Types of Short-Circuit Faults
Slide 3
Types of Short-Circuit Faults

Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all
faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G
.87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition

is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Slide 4
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
i(t)
v(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t
Slide 5
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L
Vm Sin( t
) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
i(t)
R
- t
Vm
Vm
sin( t
- )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 6
AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay
DC Current
Slide 7
AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)
Slide 8
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 9
Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay
Slide 10
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation (IEC 909)
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current
(Ib)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)
Slide 11
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation Method
Ik = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by
equivalent Z
Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c
factor
XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on
cmax, component Z & operating conditions
Slide 12
Transformer Z Adjustment
KT -- Network XFMR
KS,KSO Unit XFMR for faults on system
side
KT,S,KT,SO Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary
system, not between Gen & XFMR
K=1 Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &
XFMR
Slide 13
Syn Machine Z Adjustment

KG Synchronous machine w/o unit XFMR
KS,KSO With unit XFMR for faults on
system side
KG,S,KG,SO With unit XFMR for faults in
auxiliary system, including points between
Gen & XFMR
Slide 14
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least
one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generators rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( I"k) without motors.
Slide 15
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 16
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition during which the
magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially
constant.
Slide 17
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 18
Factors Used in If Calc

calc ip based on Ik
calc ib for near-to-gen & not meshed network
q calc induction machine ib for near-to-gen & not

meshed network
Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting Ik for
near-to-gen & meshed network
min & max calc ik
Slide 19
IEC Short-Circuit Study Case
Slide 20
When these options
are selected
Maximum voltage factor is used
Minimum impedance is used (all negative
tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)
Slide 21
When this option is
selected
Minimum voltage factor is used
Maximum impedance is used (all positive
tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)
Slide 22
Voltage Factor (c)

Ratio between equivalent voltage &
nominal voltage
Required to account for:
Variations due to time & place
Transformer taps
Static loads & capacitances
Generator & motor subtransient behavior
Slide 23
Calculation Method
Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected
Slide 24
IEC SC 909 Calculation
Slide 25
Device Duty Comparison
Slide 26
Mesh & Non-Mesh If

ETAP automatically determines mesh & nonmeshed contributions according to individual
contributions
IEC Short Circuit Mesh Determination
Method 0, 1, or 2 (default)
Slide 27
L-G Faults
Slide 28
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 29
Sequence Networks
Slide 30
L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
If
3 Ia 0
If
3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2 Z0
if Zg
Slide 31
L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections
Ia 2
I a1
If
3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2
Slide 32
L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
Ia 2
If
I a1 I a 0
VPrefault
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg
0 Ia
Slide 33
Transformer Zero Sequence Connections
Slide 34
Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1
Z2 & Z0
Z1
If this conditions are true then :

I f3
I f1
This may be the case if Generators or

Y/ Connected transform er are solidly
grounded.
Slide 35
Zero Sequence Model

Branch susceptances and static
loads including capacitors will be
considered when this option is
checked
Recommended by IEC for
systems with isolated neutral,
resonant earthed neutrals &
earthed neutrals with earth fault
factor > 1.4
Slide 36

& Reports
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
Slide 37
Transient Fault Current

Total Fault Current Waveform
Slide 38

Percent DC Current Waveform
Slide 39

AC Component of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 40

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 41

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 42
IEC Transient Fault Current

Calculation
Slide 43

& Reports
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
Slide 44
Slide 45
Slide 46
Arc Flash Analysis
ETAP Workshop
Notes
1996-2009
Technology,
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Operation
Workshop
Notes: ArcInc.
Flash Analysis
Slide 1
Electrical Arc Hazards

Electrical Arcs can occur when a conductive
object gets too close to a high-amp current
source (energized conductor).
Arc Flash Burns
The arc can heat the air to temperatures as
high as 35,000 F, and vaporize metal.
Arc flash can cause severe skin burns by direct

heat exposure and by igniting clothing.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis
Slide 2
Electrical Arc Hazards

Arc Blast Impacts
The heating of the air and vaporization of metal
creates a pressure wave that can damage
hearing and cause memory loss (from
concussion) and other injuries. Flying metal
parts are also a hazard.
Falls
Electric shocks and arc blasts can cause falls,
especially from ladders or unguarded
scaffolding.
Slide 3
Definitions
Limited Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary not to be crossed by unqualified persons
unless escorted by qualified personnel.
Restricted Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons.
Shock protection is required.
Prohibited Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons. The
use of techniques that may require direct contact with
energized equipment.
Slide 4
Definitions
Flash Protection Boundary: Distance at which the
incident energy equals 1.2 Cal/cm^2.
Incident Energy: The amount of energy impressed on
a surface, a certain distance from the source,
generated during and electrical arc event.
Working Distance: The dimension between the
possible arc point and the head and body of a worker
positioned in place to perform the task.
Bolted fault current: A short-circuit contact between
two conductors at different potentials in which the
impedance between the conductors is zero.
Slide 5
Definitions
Available fault current: The electrical current that can
be provided by the serving utility and facility-owned
electrical generating devices and large electrical
motors considering the amount of impedance in the
current path.
Arcing fault current: A fault current flowing through an
electrical arc-plasma, also called arc fault current and
arc current.
Voltage (Nominal): A nominal value assigned to a
circuit or system for the purpose of designating its
voltage class (I.e. 120/240 V, 480Y/277 V, 600V, etc).
Slide 6
Regulating Authorities
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.132 (d) requires
employers to assess the workplace to
determine if hazards are present, or likely to be
present and select and have each employee
use the types of PPE that will protect them.
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.333 Requires employees
who are exposed to electrical shock hazard to
be qualified for the specific task that they are
performing and use the appropriate PPE
Slide 7
Regulating Authorities
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.335 (a)(1)(I): Protective
equipment for specific body parts
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.335 (a)(2)(I): use of Insulated
tools when working around energized equipment.
NEC 110.6: equipment must be marked to warn
qualified persons of potential electrical arc-flash
hazards.
NFPA 70E-2000 Part II Chapter 2, paragraph 2-1.3.3
states that arc-flash analysis must be performed in
order to determine the level of hazard and appropriate
PPE for given tasks.
Slide 8
Protection From Arc Flash Hazards

NFPA 70E 2004 Standard for Electrical Safety
Requirements for Employee Workplaces
IEEE 1584 2002 Guide for Performing Arc Flash

Hazard Calculations
Slide 9
Comparison of Arc Flash Standards

NFPA 70E-2000
IEEE 1584-2002
208 15 kV (Empirical)
Voltage Range
208 V 600 V
Current Range
16 kA 50 kA
0.7 kA to 106 kA
No limit
No Limit
Installations
Open Air,
Cubic Box
Open Air, Cubic Box,

Cable Bus
Working Distance
18 inches +
18 inches +
Cal/cm2 or J/cm2
Cal/cm2 or J/cm2
Arc Duration Range
Unit of Measure
15 kV+ (Lee Method)
Slide 10
Incident Energy Comparison

600 Volt Arc in Open Air Incident energy Exposure @ 18 in.
20
Calorie/cm^2
15
NFPA 70E-2000
IEEE 1584-2002
10
5
0
0
10
20
Fault clearing time (Cycles)
Incident energy exposure at a working distance of 18

for a 19.5 kA Arc @ 600 Volts (open air equipment)
Slide 11
600 Volt Arc in Closed Box Incident energy Exposure @ 18 in.
20
Calorie/cm^2
15
NFPA 70E-2000
IEEE 1584-2002
10
0
0
10
20
Fault clearing time (Cycles)
Incident energy exposure at a working distance of 18

for a 19.5 kA Arc @ 600 Volts (enclosed equipment)
Slide 12
NFPA Hazard Risk Determination

Quick Table (Table 3-3.9.1 of 2000 Ed)
Can you use them exclusively and still be in
compliance for Arc-Flash safety?
Developed based on outdated standard that only
covers 600 V systems
May result in unnecessary overprotection / under

protection
Best when used only in emergency situation for quick
evaluation of hazard level
Standard mandates a detail arc-flash analysis be
performed when the task is not specifically covered by
this table
Slide 13
General Steps for Performing

Arc Flash Analysis
Collect system information required for the Arc
Flash Calculation
Determine the system operating configuration
Calculate 3-Phase bolted fault currents
Calculate arcing fault current (IEEE only)
Determine arc clearing time (arc duration) -TCC

Slide 14
General Steps for Performing

Arc Flash Analysis
Calculate Incident Energy
Determine Flash Protection Boundary
Determine Hazard/Risk Category based on
NFPA 70E requirements
Select appropriate protective equipment
(PPE Matrix)
Slide 15
Data Collection for Arc Flash

Required Parameter
System Nominal Voltage
NFPA
70E
IEEE
1584
Gap Between Conductors
Distance X Factor
System Grounding
(Grounded/Ungrounded)
Open/Enclosed Equipment
Working Distance
Coordination Information (TCC)
Slide 16
Gap between Conductors
Slide 17
Additional Considerations
Up to date one-line-diagrams
Data similar to information required for Shortcircuit studies like MVAsc values of Utilitiy
including X/R, subtransient and transient
reactance, cable impedance, etc.
Include low voltage equipment which is often
not included in large systems
Slide 18
3-Phase Bolted Fault Current

Perform ANSI/IEC short circuit study that considers
the following:
3-phase bolted fault
cycle or 1-4 cycle fault current depending on the

type of device or system voltage
Include all cables & Overload heaters
Prefault voltage (nominal circuit voltage)

Short-circuit Calculation should be more accurate rather
than too conservative (faults may persist longer at lower
current levels which may translate into higher energy)
Slide 19
System Modes of Operation

Open or looped
One or more utility feeders in service
Utility interface substation secondary bus tie breaker
open or closed
Unit substation with one or two primary feeders
Unit substation with two transformers with secondary
tie opened or closed
MCC with one or two feeders, one or both energized.
Generators running in parallel with the utility supply or

in standby mode
Slide 20
Why use 3-Phase Faults

Line to Line faults quickly escalate into three- phase
faults
LV L-G faults in solidly grounded systems quickly
escalate into three phase faults
LV L-G faults in Ungrounded / High resistance

grounded systems do not release enough energy.
MV faults in low resistance or reactance grounded
systems should be cleared quickly, but worst case
scenario 3-phase fault should be considered
Slide 21
Standards for Short-Circuit

IEEE Std 141-1993 (IEEE Red Book)
IEEE Std 242-2001 (IEEE Buff Book)

ANSI (different standards like C37, etc)
IEC (60909, 60363, etc)
See ETAP help file for more standards
Slide 22
Arcing Current
In general, arcing current in systems below 15.0 kV will be less
than the 3-phase fault current because of arc impedance.
For buses with nominal kV in the range of 0.208 to 1.0 kV:
lg( Ia )
K 0.662 * lg( I bf ) 0.0966 *V
0.000526 * G
0.5588 *V * (lg( I bf )) 0.00304 * G * (lg( I bf ))
Slide 23
Arcing Current
For buses with nominal kV rating in the range of 1 to 15.0 kV:
lg( Ia ) 0.00402 0.983 * lg( I bf )
For buses with nominal kV rating greater than 15 kV, the

arcing current can be considered to be the same as the
bolted fault current:
Ia
I bf
Slide 24
Arc Duration LV CB
Slide 25
Arc Duration LV CB
Slide 26
Arc Duration for Fuses
Slide 27
Incident Energy
Empirical method (1.0 to 15.0 kV)
t
610
4.184 * C f * En
*
0.2
Dx
Lee method (higher than 15.0 kV)
2.142 *10 *V * I bf
t
2
D
Slide 28
Flash Protection Boundary

Empirical method (1.0 to 15.0 kV)
1.2
t
610
4.184 * C f * En
*
0.2
Dx
Lee method (higher than 15.0 kV)
1 .2
2.142 *10 *V * I bf
t
2
D
Slide 29
Hazard / Risk Categories

NFPA 70E 2000
Incident Energy
Exposure cal/cm2
Hazard Risk
Category
Total Weight
Oz/yd2
4.5 7
1.2
4.5 8
8 > cal/cm2
9 12
25> cal/cm2
16-20
24-30
1.2 > cal/cm2
5 > cal/cm2
cal/cm2
25
Slide 30
Personal Protective Equipment

PPE Matrix
Categories 0 and 1 Personal Clothing/Equipment Requirements

per Table 3-3.9.2 of NFPA 70E 2000
Slide 31
Category 0 (up to 1.2 Cal/cm2)

Shirt (Long-Sleeve)
Pants (Long)
Safety Glasses
V-Rated Gloves
Insulated Tools
Slide 32
Category 1 (1.2 up to 5.0 Cal/cm2)

Shirt (Long-Sleeve) FR
Pants (Long) FR
Safety Glasses FR
V-Rated Gloves
Insulated Tools
Hard Hat FR
Slide 33
Category 2 (5.0 up to 8.0 Cal/cm2)

Category 1 Requirements
plus
Extra Layer of Untreated
Natural fiber (Shirt &
Pants)
FR
FR
Leather Work Shoes
Slide 34
Category 3 (8 up to 25 Cal/cm2)
plus
Coveralls up to 2 Sets
Double Layer Switching

Hood
Hearing Protection
Slide 35
Category 4 (higher than 25 Cal/cm2)

plus
Flash Suit
Slide 36
PPE Incident Energy Rating

ATPV: is the defined as the incident energy on a fabric or
material that results in sufficient heat transfer through the
fabric or material to cause the onset of a second degree
burn.
EBT: is defined as the average of the five highest incident
energy exposures values below the Stoll curve where the
specimens do not exhibit breakopen. EBT is reported when
the ATPV cannot be determined due to FR fabric
breakopen.
HAF%: is the heat transfer capability of the fabric or
material
Slide 37
Stoll Curve
Slide 38
FR Equipment Layering
Slide 39
Example of Layered System

(100 HAF %)
E ' Ecalculated( cal / cm 2 ) *
100
Proposed PPE for Arc Fault with E = 22 Cal/cm^2
Proposed
Equipment
FR Shirt (long
Sleeve)
FR Raincoat
ATPV Rating
(cal/cm^2)
EBT
(cal/cm^2)
HAF %
85
10
18
70
Slide 40
Example of Layered System

(100 70)
E ' 22 *
100
6.6cal / cm
Energy that passes to second layer is higher than ATPV
EBT is too low for outer layer (possible breakopen)
Modified
Equipment
FR Shirt (long
Sleeve)
FR Raincoat
ATPV Rating
(cal/cm^2)
EBT
(cal/cm^2)
HAF %
85
15
22
70
Slide 41
Considerations for layering

ATPV rating of the equipment must be above
the calculated incident energy of the Arc for
single layer FR system
In multiple layer FR system there must be no
breakopen that reaches the innermost layer to
prevent possible ignition of such
NFPA example recommends
Slide 42
Example1
Arc Fault at
Location A
Arc Fault at
Location B
Slide 43
Slide 44
Example1
Fault at location B
Calculated incident energy = 0.784 Cal/cm2

(Relay B operates at 1.206 cycles + 5 cycles HVCB)
For a fault at location A
(Relay A operates at 2.406 cycles + 5 cycles HVCB)
Hence the Incident Energy to be considered for this system
should be 0.945 Cal/cm2 (the most conservative value).
Slide 45
Example 2
Arc Fault at
Location C
Arc Fault at
Location D
Slide 46
Slide 47
Example 2
Fault at location C:

(LVCB 15 operates in 0.150 sec.)
For a fault at location D:
(LVCB 16, 17 & 18 operate in 0.115 sec.)
Hence the Incident Energy to be considered for this system
should be 7.604 Cal/cm2 (the most conservative value).
Slide 48
Arc Flash Hazard Labels

Place labels at each location (cubicle)
Contain information that is clear and

communicates the danger level
Meet current format per ANSI Z535 2002
(safety symbols)
Slide 49
Examples of Safety Labels
Slide 50
Slide 51
Slide 52
ASTM Insulating Glove Voltage Classes

Types of Insulating Glove
Max. use voltage AC

(L-L) (V-Rating
field)
Class
500
00
kV 0.500 Bus kV
1000
0.500 kV < Bus kV 1.0 kV
7500
1.0 kV < Bus kV 7.5 kV
17000
7.5 kV < Bus kV 17.0 kV
26500
17.0 kV < Bus kV 26.5 kV
36000
26.5 kV < Bus kV 36.0 kV
Low Voltage Gloves
High Voltage Gloves
Bus nominal kV range
Slide 53
Solutions to Arc-Flash Problems

Infrared Analysis: which allow inspections of
the equipment to be made without exposure to
the equipment (inspections of load, connection,
component fatigue and overheating without
opening the equipment).
Remote Racking Systems: which allow the
racking of circuit breakers at a safe distance
and thus reducing the amount of incident
energy exposure.
Slide 54

Low Arc Flash Circuit Breakers : which are
designed to blow open the terminals in an
amount of time comparable to current limiting
fuses.
Arc-Flash Detecting Circuit Breakers:

devices which can sense a combination of
arcing current and the light emitted by an arc
(cause the main circuit breaker to open to
extinguish the fault).
Slide 55

Current Limiting Fuses: Fuses designed to
operate very fast at certain current levels. Will
work for a lot of situations, but they may
introduce coordination problems and nuisance
tripping.
De-energize When Possible : The best
strategy to protect against arc-flash dangers is
to de-energize the equipment if possible at all.
Slide 56

Replacing Switchgear with Arc Resistant
Switchgear
Adding a Secondary Relay that can trip the
Primary Breaker
De-energize When Possible : The best
strategy to protect against arc-flash dangers is
to de-energize the equipment if possible at all.
Slide 57
Arc Flash Analysis

Advanced Topics
Arc Flash Analysis - February 2007

ETAP Workshop
Notes
1996-2009
Technology,
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Operation
Workshop
Notes: ArcInc.
Flash Analysis
Slide 1
Topics
Differential Relays
Arc Flash Detectors

Maintenance Mode
Analysis of Results
Troubleshooting FCT problems
Slide 2
Differential Relays
Generator Differential Protection
Transformer Differential Protection

Bus Differential Protection
Slide 3
Gen Differential
Relay
Slide 4
Transformer
Differential Relay
Slide 5
Bus Differential
Relay
Slide 6
ETAP System
Slide 7
Slide 8
Arc Flash Detectors (Light)
Define the Enclosures

Define which Enclosures have Arc
Sensors
Determine the Definite time for Relay
to Trip
Combination of Overcurrent and Light
Detection
Slide 9
Enclosures
Slide 10
Light Sensor and

Overcurrent Relay
Combination
Slide 11
Light Sensor
Only
Slide 12
Maintenance Modes
Reduce the Fault Clearing Time (FCT)
Reduce the Incident Energy

Make Energized Work Safer
Slide 13
Slide 14
Maintenance
Mode
Normal
Operating
Mode
Slide 15
Normal
Operating
Mode
Slide 16
Normal
Operating
Mode
Slide 17
Maintenance
Mode
Slide 18
Maintenance
Mode
Slide 19
Analysis of Results
Consider all Configurations
Consider all Scenarios

Generate MS Excel Reports
Analyze Results for PDs and Buses

Determine the Worst-Case Incident Energy
Prepare the Data for Creating the Labels
Slide 20
Slide 21
Slide 22
Slide 23
Important Definitions
Bolted Fault Current: 3-Phase Short-circuit current
used to determine the arcing current
Arcing Current: current that flows in the event of an
arc fault and is typically less than the available SC
current
Source Protective Device: The upstream PD that
energizes a given bus. Multiple fed buses must have
multiple source PDs
FCT: Fault clearing time of the last protective device
to clear an arc fault (the FCT can only be determined
from source PDs
Slide 24
Why the FCT cannot be Determined

1. The protective device (PD) interlocks have not been
properly configured or library selection has not been
made for fuse relay, etc.
2. Arcing current is too low and source PD does not trip
3. The source PD is outside the search capability
4. The source PD is outside the reach of maximum
number of upstream search levels
Slide 25
Why the FCT cannot be Determined

5. The bolted Short-circuit current is outside the
range allowed by IEEE
6. The bus nominal kV is outside the range
allowed by IEEE
7. The user-defined bus FCT is set to zero
Slide 26
1.a PDS are missing
Slide 27
1.b PDS are missing Interlocks
Slide 28
2. Arcing Current is too Low
Slide 29
2.a Find the Arcing Current Contribution

To determine the arcing current you
need to take the ratio of the SC
contribution over the total SC
current. Multiply the total arcing
current times the ratio
(34.32 kA/35.3 kA)*24.26

kA = 23.58 kA
Now convert to the primary
base kV
23.58 kA * (0.48kV/13.2kV)
= 0.857 kA
Slide 30
2.b Plot the Arcing Current to find FCT
Slide 31
3. Source PD is outside search capability
Slide 32
4. Source PD is outside search capability
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Slide 33
5 & 6. IEEE Limitations
Bus Nominal kV is too low
Short-circuit current
is too low or too high
Slide 34
7. BUS UD FCT is set to zero
If the FCT cannot be

determined from Source PD
Etap will determine it from
the Bus
Slide 35
Protective Device Coordination

ETAP Star
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination
Agenda
Concepts & Applications
Star Overview
Features & Capabilities

Protective Device Type
TCC Curves
STAR Short-circuit
PD Sequence of Operation
Normalized TCC curves
Device Libraries
Slide 2
Definition
Overcurrent Coordination
A systematic study of current responsive
devices in an electrical power system.
Slide 3
Objective
To determine the ratings and settings of
fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
To isolate the fault or overloads.
Slide 4
Criteria
Economics
Available Measures of Fault
Operating Practices
Previous Experience
Slide 5
Design
Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the fault
or overload
Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
Interrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as
possible
Comply with all applicable standards and
codes
Plot the Time Current Characteristics of
different PDs
Slide 6
Analysis
When:
New electrical systems
Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
Coordination failure in an existing plant
Slide 7
Spectrum Of Currents
Load Current
Up to 100% of full-load
115-125% (mild overload)
Overcurrent
Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)
Fault Current
Fault condition
Ten times the full-load current and higher
Slide 8
Protection
Prevent injury to personnel
Minimize damage to components
Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system
Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit
Slide 9
Coordination
Limit the extent and duration of service
interruption
Selective fault isolation
Provide alternate circuits
Slide 10
Coordination
C
D B
t
A
I
Slide 11
Protection vs. Coordination

Coordination is not an exact science
Compromise between protection and
coordination
Reliability
Speed
Performance
Economics
Simplicity
Slide 12
Required Data
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)

Power Grid Settings
Generator Data
Transformer Data
Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data
Load Data
Fault Currents
Cable / Conductor Data

Bus / Switchgear Data
Instrument Transformer Data (CT, PT)
Protective Device (PD) Data
Manufacturer and type of protective devices (PDs)
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
Slide 13
Study Procedure
Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay
diagrams)
Obtain the available system current spectrum
(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
Determine the equipment protection guidelines
Select the appropriate devices / settings
Plot the fixed points (damage curves, )
Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
Analyze the results
Slide 14
Time Current Characteristics

TCC Curve / Plot / Graphs
4.5 x 5-cycle log-log graph
X-axis: Current (0.5 10,000 amperes)
Y-axis: Time (.01 1000 seconds)
Current Scaling (x1, x10, x100, x100)
Voltage Scaling (plot kV reference)

Use ETAP Star Auto-Scale
Slide 15
Slide 16
TCC Scaling Example

Situation:
A scaling factor of 10 @ 4.16 kV is selected for
TCC curve plots.
Question
What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV
and 13.8 kV TCC curves?
Slide 17
TCC Scaling Example

Solution
Slide 18
Fixed Points
Points or curves which do not change
regardless of protective device settings:
Cable damage curves
Cable ampacities
Transformer damage curves & inrush points
Motor starting curves
Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
SC maximum fault points
Slide 19
Capability / Damage Curves

2
It
I2t
I2 t
I22t
Motor
Xfmr
Cable
Gen
I
Slide 20
Cable Protection
Standards & References
IEEE Std 835-1994 IEEE Standard Power Cable
Ampacity Tables
IEEE Std 848-1996 IEEE Standard Procedure for the

Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
IEEE Std 738-1993 IEEE Standard for Calculating the
Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and
Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98
Slide 21
Cable Protection
The actual temperature rise of a cable when exposed to
a short circuit current for a known time is calculated by:
2
t
T2 234
0.0297log
T1 234
Where:
A= Conductor area in circular-mils
I = Short circuit current in amps
t = Time of short circuit in seconds
T1= Initial operation temperature (750C)
T2=Maximum short circuit temperature
(1500C)
Slide 22
Cable Short-Circuit Heating Limits

Recommended
temperature rise:
B) CU 75-200C
Slide 23
Shielded
Cable
The normal tape
width is 1
inches
Slide 24
NEC Section 110-14 C
(c) Temperature limitations. The temperature rating associated with the

ampacity of a conductor shall be so selected and coordinated as to not exceed
the lowest temperature rating of any connected termination, conductor, or
device. Conductors with temperature ratings higher than specified for
terminations shall be permitted to be used for ampacity adjustment, correction,
or both.
(1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
Exception No. 1: Conductors with higher temperature ratings shall be permitted
to be used, provided the ampacity of such conductors is determined based on
the 6O0C (1400F) ampacity of the conductor size used.
Exception No. 2: Equipment termination provisions shall be permitted to be
used with higher rated conductors at the ampacity of the higher rated
conductors, provided the equipment is listed and identified for use with the
higher rated conductors.
(2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).
Slide 25
Transformer Protection
National Electric Code 2002 Edition

C37.91-2000; IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
Power Transformers
C57.12.59; IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault
Current Duration.
C57.109-1985; IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed Transformer
Through-Fault-Current Duration
APPLIED PROCTIVE RELAYING; J.L. Blackburn; Westinghouse
Electric Corp; 1976
PROTECTIVE RELAYING, PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS;
J.L. Blackburn; Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1987
IEEE Std 242-1986; IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection
and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems
Slide 26
Transformer Category
ANSI/IEEE C-57.109
Minimum nameplate (kVA)

Category Single-phase Three-phase
I
5-500
15-500
II
501-1667
501-5000
III
1668-10,000 5001-30,000
IV
above 1000 above 30,000
Slide 27
Transformer Categories I, II
Slide 28
Transformer Categories III
Slide 29
Transformer
FLA
200
Thermal
I2t = 1250
t
(sec)
(D-D LL) 0.87
Infrequent Fault
(D-R LG) 0.58
Frequent Fault
Mechanical
K=(1/Z)2t
Inrush
2.5
Isc
25
I (pu)
Slide 30
Slide 31
MAXIMUM RATING OR SETTING FOR OVERCURRENT DEVICE
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Over 600 Volts
Over 600 Volts
600 Volts or Below
Transformer
Rated
Impedance
Circuit
Breaker
Setting
Fuse
Rating
Circuit
Breaker
Setting
Fuse
Rating
Circuit Breaker
Setting or Fuse
Rating
Not more than

6%
600 %
300 %
300 %
250%
125%
(250% supervised)
More than 6%
and not more
than 10%
400 %
300 %
250%
225%
125%
(250% supervised)
Any Location Non-Supervised
Table 450-3(a)
source: NEC
Slide 32
Turn on or inrush current
Oil Level
Internal transformer faults
Fans
External or through faults of major

magnitude
Oil Pumps
Pilot wire Device 85
Repeated large motor starts on the

transformer. The motor represents a
major portion or the transformers KVA
rating.
Fault withstand
Thermal protection hot spot, top of oil

temperature, winding temperature
Harmonics
Devices 26 & 49
Over current protection Device 50/51
Reverse over current Device 67
Ground current protection Device

50/51G
Gas accumulation Buckholz relay
Over voltage Device 59
Voltage or current balance Device 60
Tertiary Winding Protection if supplied
Differential Device 87
Over or under excitation volts/ Hz

Device 24
Sudden tank pressure Device 63
Relay Failure Scheme
Dissolved gas detection
Breaker Failure Scheme
Slide 33
Recommended Minimum
Protective system
Winding and/or power system Winding and/or power system

grounded neutral grounded
neutral ungrounded
Up to 10 MVA
Above 10 MVA
Up to 10 MVA
Above
10 MVA
Time over current
Instantaneous restricted
ground fault
Time delayed ground

fault
Differential
Gas detection
Over excitation
Overheating
Slide 34
Question
What is ANSI Shift Curve?
Slide 35
Answer
For delta-delta connected transformers, with
line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
For delta-wye connection, with single line-toground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)
Slide 36
Question
What is meant by Frequent and

Infrequent for transformers?
Slide 37
Infrequent Fault Incidence Zones for Category II & III Transformers

Source
Transformer primary-side protective device
(fuses, relayed circuit breakers, etc.) may be
selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Infrequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*
Category II or III Transformer

Fault will be cleared by transformer
primary-side protective device
Optional main secondary side protective device.
May be selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Fault will be cleared by transformer primary-side
protective device or by optional main secondaryside protection device
Feeder protective device
Frequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*
Fault will be cleared by

feeder protective device
Feeders
* Should be selected by reference to the frequent-fault-incidence protection curve or for

transformers serving industrial, commercial and institutional power systems with secondary-side
conductors enclosed in conduit, bus duct, etc., the feeder protective device may be selected by
reference to the infrequent-fault-incidence protection curve.
Source: IEEE C57
Slide 38
Motor Protection
IEEE Std 620-1996 IEEE Guide for the Presentation

of Thermal Limit Curves for Squirrel Cage Induction
Machines.
IEEE Std 1255-2000 IEEE Guide for Evaluation of

Torque Pulsations During Starting of Synchronous
Motors
ANSI/ IEEE C37.96-2000 Guide for AC Motor

Protection
The Art of Protective Relaying General Electric
Slide 39
Motor Protection
Motor Starting Curve
Thermal Protection
Locked Rotor Protection
Fault Protection
Slide 40
Motor Overload Protection

(NEC Art 430-32 Continuous-Duty Motors)
Thermal O/L (Device 49)

Motors with SF not less than 1.15
125% of FLA
Motors with temp. rise not over 40C

125% of FLA
All other motors

115% of FLA
Slide 41
Motor Protection Inst. Pickup

I
1
LOCKED
ROTOR
XS
Xd "
Recommended Instantaneous Setting:
RELAY PICK UP
I PICK UP
I LOCKED ROTOR
1.6 TO 2
If the recommended setting criteria cannot be met, or where more sensitive

protection is desired, the in-stantaneous relay (or a second relay) can be set
more sensitively if delayed by a timer. This permits the asymmetrical starting
component to decay out. A typical setting for this is:
RELAY PICK UP
I PICK UP
I LOCKED ROTOR
1.2 TO 1.2
with a time delay of 0.10 s (six cycles at 60 Hz)

Slide 42
Locked Rotor Protection

Thermal Locked Rotor (Device 51)
Starting Time (TS < TLR)
LRA
LRA sym
LRA asym (1.5-1.6 x LRA sym) + 10% margin
Slide 43
Fault Protection
(NEC Art / Table 430-52)
Non-Time Delay Fuses

300% of FLA
Dual Element (Time-Delay Fuses)

175% of FLA
Instantaneous Trip Breaker

800% - 1300% of FLA*
Inverse Time Breakers

250% of FLA
*can be set up to 1700% for Design B (energy efficient) Motor

Slide 44
Low Voltage Motor Protection

Usually pre-engineered (selected from
Catalogs)
Typically, motors larger than 2 Hp are
protected by combination starters
Overload / Short-circuit protection
Slide 45
Low-voltage Motor
Ratings
Continuous amperes
Range of ratings
9-250
Nominal voltage (V)
240-600
Horsepower
1.5-1000
00-9
Types of protection
Quantity
NEMA
designation
Overload: overload
relay elements
OL
Short circuit:
circuit breaker current
trip elements
CB
Fuses
FU
Undervoltage: inherent
with integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit
Ground fault (when

speci-fied): ground relay
with toroidal CT
Starter size (NEMA)
Slide 46
Minimum Required Sizes of a NEMA

FUSE SIZE
CLASS J
FUSE
12
12
759
10
1251
15
15
15
1
2
3
3.4
0
0
12
12
12
12
531
468
10
10
875
772
15
15
15
15
15
15
6
7
4.8
12
12
332
10
547
20
20
15
10
7.6
12
12
209
10
345
20
20
15
15
11
12
10
144
360
30
25
20
20
10
14
10
283
439
35
30
25
30
15
21
10
189
292
50
40
30
45
20
27
10
227
347
70
50
40
60
25
34
276
407
80
70
50
70
30
40
346
2/0
610
100
70
60
90
40
52
266
2/0
469
150
110
90
110
50
65
2/0
375
4/0
530
175
150
100
125
60
77
2/0
317
4/0
447
200
175
125
150
75
96
4/0
358
250
393
250
200
150
200
100
124
250
304
350
375
350
250
200
250
125
156
2/0
350
298
500
355
400
300
250
350
150
180
4/0
500
307
750
356
450
350
300
400
MAXIMUM
LENGTH FOR 1%
VOLTAGE
DROP WITH
LARGER WIRE
NEXT
LARGEST
WIRE
SIZE
USE NEXT
LARGER GROUND
CONDUCTOR
2.1
MAXIMUM
LENGTH FOR 1%
VOLTAGE
DROP
MINIMUM
WIRE
SIZE
STARTER
SIZE
CIRCUIT BREAKER
SIZE
460V NEC FLC
MAXIMUM CONDUCTOR LENGTH FOR ABOVE AND

BELOW GROUND CONDUIT SYSTEMS. ABOVE GROUND
SYSTEMS HAVE DIRECT SOLAR EXPOSURE. 750 C
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE, 450 C AMBIENT
MOTOR HP
MINIMUM
SIZE
GROUNDING
CONDUCTOR
FOR A 50 % CURRENT CAPACITY
Combination Motor Starter System
250%
200%
150%
Slide 47
Required Data - Protection of a

Medium Voltage Motor
Rated full load current
Service factor
Locked rotor current
Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature
Minimum no load current
Starting power factor
Running power factor
Motor and connected load accelerating time
System phase rotation and nominal frequency
Type and location of resistance temperature devices (RTDs), if used
Expected fault current magnitudes
First cycle current
Maximum motor starts per hour
Slide 48
Medium-Voltage Class E Motor Controller

Ratings
Class El
Class E2 (with
(without
fuses)
fuses)
Nominal system voltage

Horsepower
Symmetrical MVA interrupting
capacity at nominal
system voltage
2300-6900
0-8000
25-75
Types of Protective Devices
Quantity
Overload, or locked Rotor,

or both:
Thermal overload relay
TOC relay
IOC relay plus time delay
2300-6900
0-8000
160-570
NEMA
Designation
Phase Balance
3
3
3
OL OC TR/O
Thermal overload relay
OL
TOC relay
OC
IOC relay plus time delay
TR/OC
Short Circuit:
Fuses, Class E2
IOC relay, Class E1
FU
OC
Ground Fault
TOC residual relay
Overcurrent relay with toroidal
CT
1
1
GP
Current balance relay
BC
Negative-sequence voltage 1
relay (per bus), or both
Undervoltage:
Inherent with integral
control supply and threewire control circuit, when
voltage falls suffi-ciently to
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
circuit
UV
Temperature:
Temperature relay,
operating from resistance
sensor or ther-mocouple in
stator winding
OL
GP
NEMA Class E1
medium voltage starter
NEMA Class E2 medium

voltage starter
Slide 49
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor
First half cycle current showing
current offset.
Beginning of run up current

showing load torque pulsations.
Slide 50
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor - Oscillographs
Motor pull in current showing motor

reaching synchronous speed
Slide 51
Thermal Limit Curve
Slide 52
Thermal Limit Curve

Typical
Curve
Slide 53
(49)
I2T
O/L
tLR
MCP
(51)
ts
200 HP
Starting Curve
MCP (50)
LRAs
LRAasym
Slide 54
Protective Devices
Fuse
Overload Heater
Thermal Magnetic
Low Voltage Solid State Trip
Electro-Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)

Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, )
Slide 55
Fuse (Power Fuse)

Non Adjustable Device (unless electronic)
Continuous and Interrupting Rating
Voltage Levels (Max kV)

Interrupting Rating (sym, asym)
Characteristic Curves
Min. Melting
Total Clearing
Application (rating type: R, E, X, )

Slide 56
Fuse Types
Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
Electronic Fuse (S&C Fault Fiter)
Slide 57
Total Clearing
Time Curve
Minimum Melting
Time Curve
Slide 58
Current Limiting Fuse

(CLF)
Limits the peak current of short-circuit
Reduces magnetic stresses (mechanical
damage)
Reduces thermal energy
Slide 59
Current Limiting Action
Current (peak amps)
Ip
ta = tc tm
Ip
ta = Arcing Time
tm = Melting Time
tc = Clearing Time
ta
tm
tc
Time
(cycles)
Ip = Peak Current
Ip = Peak Let-thru Current
Slide 60
Let-Through Chart
Peak Let-Through Amperes
7% PF (X/R = 14.3)
230,000
300 A
100 A
12,500
60 A
5,200
100,000
Symmetrical RMS Amperes

Slide 62
Fuse
Generally:
CLF is a better short-circuit protection
Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better
Overload protection
Electronic fuses are typically easier to
coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments
Slide 63
Selectivity Criteria
Typically:
Non-CLF:
140% of full load
CLF:
150% of full load
Safety Margin: 10% applied to Min

Melting (consult the fuse manufacturer)
Slide 64
Molded Case CB
Thermal-Magnetic
Types
Magnetic Only
Motor Circuit Protector
(MCP)
Integrally Fused (Limiters)
Current Limiting
High Interrupting Capacity
Non-Interchangeable Parts
Insulated Case (Interchange
Parts)
Frame Size
Poles
Trip Rating
Interrupting Capability
Voltage
Slide 65
MCCB
Slide 66
MCCB with SST Device
Slide 67
Thermal Maximum
Thermal Minimum
Magnetic
(instantaneous)
Slide 68
LVPCB
Voltage and Frequency Ratings
Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
Interrupting Rating
Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)

Fairly Simple to Coordinate
Phase / Ground Settings
Inst. Override
Slide 69
LT PU
CB 2
CB 1
LT Band
CB 2
480 kV
ST PU
CB 1
IT
ST Band
If =30 kA
Slide 70
Inst. Override
Slide 71
Overload Relay / Heater

Motor overload protection is provided by a
device that models the temperature rise of
the winding
When the temperature rise reaches a point
that will damage the motor, the motor is deenergized
Overload relays are either bimetallic, melting
alloy or electronic
Slide 72
Overload Heater (Mfr. Data)
Slide 73
Question
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?
Slide 74
Answer
At 600% Current Rating:
Class 10 for fast trip, 10
seconds or less
Class 20 for, 20 seconds or
less (commonly used)
20
There is also Class 15, 30

for long trip time (typically
provided with electronic
overload relays)
6
Slide 75
Answer
Slide 76
Overload Relay / Heater

When the temperature at the combination motor starter is more than
10 C (18 F) different than the temperature at the motor, ambient
temperature correction of the motor current is required.
An adjustment is required because the output that a motor can safely
deliver varies with temperature.
The motor can deliver its full rated horsepower at an ambient
temperature specified by the motor manufacturers, normally + 40 C. At
high temperatures (higher than + 40 C) less than 100% of the normal
rated current can be drawn from the motor without shortening the
insulation life.
At lower temperatures (less than + 40 C) more than 100% of the
normal rated current could be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
Slide 77
Overcurrent Relay
Time-Delay (51 I>)
Short-Time Instantaneous ( I>>)
Instantaneous (50 I>>>)
Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)
Application
Slide 78
Time-Overcurrent Unit
Ampere Tap Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT

Ratio
Multiples of A.T.
CT
IL
= IR/A.T. Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)
IR
51
Slide 80
Instantaneous Unit
Instantaneous Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x IT Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT

Ratio
Multiples of IT
CT
IL
= IR/IT Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x IT Setting)
IR
50
Slide 81
Relay Coordination
Time margins should be maintained between T/C
curves
Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state
relays
Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C

characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with
CLFs
Slide 82
Situation
4.16 kV
CT 800:5
50/51
Relay: IFC 53
CB
Cable
CU - EPR
1-3/C 500 kcmil
Isc = 30,000 A
DS
5 MVA
6%
Calculate Relay Setting (Tap, Inst. Tap & Time Dial)

For This System
Slide 83
Solution
Transformer:
IL
IR
5,000kVA
694 A
3 4.16kV
5
IL
4.338 A
800
IL
IR
I Inrsuh 12 694 8,328 A

Set Relay:
CT
125% 4.338 5.4 A

TAP
6 .0 A
(6/4.338 1.38)
TD 1
Inst (50) 8,328
5
800
52.1 A
55 A
Slide 84
Question
What T/C Coordination interval should be
maintained between relays?
Slide 85
Answer
B
t
A
CB Opening Time
+
Induction Disc Overtravel (0.1 sec)
+
Safety margin (0.2 sec w/o Inst. & 0.1 sec w/ Inst.)
I
Slide 86
Recloser
Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in succession
over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults don't cause
power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could cause damage
or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
It also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.
Slide 87
Recloser Types
Hydraulic
Electronic
Static Controller
Microprocessor Controller
Slide 88
Recloser Curves
Slide 89
Motor Starting
Dynamic Acceleration
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop
If Tst<Tload at s=1, then motor will not start
If Tm=Tload at s<sr, motor can not reach rated speed
Torque varies as (voltage)^2
Ensure that voltage drop will not disrupt other loads

Utility bus voltage >95%
3% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes visible
5% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes irritating
MCC bus voltage >80%
Generation bus voltage > 93%
Slide 2
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure motor feeders sized adequately
(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
LV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 5%
HV cable voltage drop at starting < 15%
HV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 3%
Maximum motor size that can be started across the line

Motor kW < 1/6 kW rating of generator (islanded)
For 6 MW of islanded generation, largest motor size < 1 MW
Slide 3
Motor Sizing
Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps
p = Pressure in psi
Q = fluid flow in gpm
n = efficiency
Centrifugal Pumps
H = fluid head in feet
Slide 4
Motor Types
Synchronous
Salient Pole
Round Rotor
Induction
Wound Rotor (slip-ring)
Single Cage CKT Model
Squirrel Cage (brushless)

Double Cage CKT Model
Slide 5
Induction Motor Advantages

Squirrel Cage
Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
Explosive proof
Wound Rotor
Higher starting torque
Lower starting current
Speed varied by using external resistances
Slide 6
Typical Rotor Construction
Rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed
Slide 7
Wound Rotor
Slide 8
Operation of Induction
Motor
AC applied to stator winding
Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields
Slide 9
Slip Frequency
Slip represents the inability of the rotor to
keep up with the stator magnetic field
Slip frequency
S = (s-n)/s
where s = 120f/P
n = mech speed
Slide 10
Static Start - Example
Slide 11
Static Start - Example
Slide 12
Service Factor
Slide 13
Inrush Current
Slide 14
Motor Torque Speed Curve
Slide 15
Resistance / Reactance
Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering
resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
Resistance by cross sectional area or
using higher resistivity material like brass.
Reactance by placing conductor deeper in
the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.
Slide 16
Rotor Bar Resistance

Increase Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Full Load Speed
Lower Efficiency
No Effect on Breakdown Torque
Slide 17
Rotor Bar Reactance

Lower Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Breakdown Torque
No effect on Full Load Conditions
Slide 18
Motor Torque Curves
Slide 19
Rotor Bar Design

Cross section Large (low
resistance) and positioned deep in
the rotor (high reactance).
(Starting Torque is normal and
starting current is low).
Double Deck with small conductor
of high resistance. During starting,
most current flows through the
upper deck due to high reactance
of lower deck. (Starting Torque is
high and starting current is low).
Slide 20
Rotor Bar Design

Bars are made of Brass or
similar high resistance
material. Bars are close to
surface to reduce leakage
reactance. (Starting torque is
high and starting current is
low).
Slide 21
Load Torque ID Fan
Slide 22
Load Torque FD Fan
Slide 23
Load Torque C. Pump
Slide 24
Double Cage Motor
Slide 25
Motor Full Load Torque

For example, 30 HP 1765 RPM Motor
Slide 26
Motor Efficiency
kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old 1/New)
$ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh
Slide 27
Acceleration Torque
Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits
Slide 28
Acceleration Torque
Slide 29
Operating Range
Motor, Generator, or Brake
Slide 30
Rated Conditions
Constant Power
Slide 31
Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance
Slide 32
Voltage Variation
Torque is proportional to V^2
Current is proportional to V
Slide 33
Frequency Variation
As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced
impedance.
Slide 34
Number of Poles Variation
As Pole number increases, peak torque shifts toward lower

speed as synchronous speed decreases.
Slide 35
Rotor Z Variation
Increasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower
speed.
Slide 36
Modeling of Elements
Switching motors Zlr, circuit model, or
characteristic model
Synch generator - constant voltage behind
Xd
Utility - constant voltage behind Xd
Branches Same as in Load Flow
Non-switching Load Same as Load flow

All elements must be initially energized,
including motors to start
Slide 37
Motor Modeling
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load
2. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant Impedance
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
Slide 38
Locked-Rotor Impedance
ZLR = RLR +j XLR
(10 25 %)
PFLR is much lower than operating PD.

Approximate starting PF of typical squirrel
cage induction motor:
Slide 39
Circuit Model I
Single Cage Rotor
Single1 constant rotor resistance and
reactance
Slide 40
Circuit Model II
Single Cage Rotor
Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and
reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]
Slide 41
Circuit Model III

Double Cage Rotor
DB1 integrated rotor cages
Slide 42
Circuit Model IV
Double Cage Rotor
DB2 independent rotor cages
Slide 43
Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip
Static Model
Slide 44
Calculation Methods I
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and

constant kVA load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Dynamic Motor Starting

Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
Slide 45
Calculation Methods II
Slide 46
Static versus Dynamic

Use Static Model When
Concerned with effect of motor starting on other
loads
Missing dynamic motor information
Use Dynamic Model When

Concerned with actual acceleration time
Concerned if motor will actually start
Slide 47
MS Simulation Features
Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
Switching on/off static load at specified loading
category
Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
Change grid or generator operating category
Simulate transformer LTC operation
Simulate global load transition
Simulate various types of starting devices

Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration
Slide 48
Automatic Alert
Starting motor terminal V

Motor acceleration failure
Motor thermal damage
Generator rating
Generator engine continuous
& peak rating
Generator exciter peak rating
Bus voltage
Starting motor bus
Grid/generator bus
HV, MV, and LV bus
User definable minimum time
span
Slide 49
Starting Devices Types

Auto-Transformer
Y/D Winding
Stator Resistor
Partial Wing
Stator Reactor
Soft Starter
Capacitor at Bus
Stator Current Limit
Capacitor at Motor
Terminal
Stator Current Control
Rotor External Resistor
Torque Control
Voltage Control
Rotor External Reactor

Slide 50
Starting Device
Comparison of starting conditions
Slide 51
Starting Device AutoXFMR
C4 and C3 closed initially

C4 opened, C2 is closed with C3 still closed. Finally C3 is open
Slide 52
Starting Device AutoXFMR

Autotransformer
Slide 53
Starting Device YD Start
During Y connection Vs = VL / 3
Phase current Iy = Id / 3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
Slide 54
Starting Device Rotor R
Slide 55
Starting Device Stator R

Resistor
Slide 56
Starting Device Stator X

Reactor
Slide 57
Transformer LTC Modeling

LTC operations can be simulated in motor
starting studies
Use global or individual Tit and Tot
Slide 58
MOV Modeling I
Represented as an impedance load during
operation
Each stage has own impedance based on I, pf, Vr
User specifies duration and load current for each stage
Operation type depends on MOV status

Open statusclosing operation
Close statusopening operation
Slide 59
MOV Modeling II
Five stages of operation
Opening
Closing
Acceleration
Acceleration
No load
Unseating
Travel
Stall
No load
Travel
Seating
Stall
Without hammer blow Skip No Load period

With a micro switch Skip Stall period
Operating stage time extended if Vmtr < Vlimit
Slide 60
MOV Closing
With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing
Slide 61
MOV Opening
With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening
Slide 62
MOV Voltage Limit

Effect of Voltage Limit Violation
Slide 63
Parameter Estimation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation
Induction Machine Models(1)

Equivalent Circuit Model
Rs
Xs
Xr
Xm
Single Cage
Rr/s
Rs
Xs
Xr1
Xr2
Rr1/s
Rr2/s
Xm
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation
Double Cage
Slide 2

Static-State Study Model
Motor Acceleration Analysis
V
IZ eq (s)
Dynamic Study Model

Transient Stability Analysis
V
T0
( Rs
dE
dt
jX ) I
E
j( X s
X ) I
jT0 sE
Slide 3

Short-Circuit Study Model
Short-Circuit Current Contribution
I sc
E
X
The Analysis Models Related to Motor

Circuit Parameters
Slide 4
Methods
On-Line Estimation
Measurements
(Speed, I, V)
Parameter
Estimator
Off-Line Estimation
Nameplate Data
(Characteristics)
Parameter
Estimator
Slide 5
ETAP Parameter Estimation

Module (PE)
Using Nameplate Data or Motor
Characteristics Curves
Applicable for Single Cage Circuit Model
Slide 6
How to Use PE (1)

Prepare Input Data from Motor Nameplate
Full-Load:
IFL, sFL, PFFL, EFFFL
Locked-Rotor: ILR, PFLR, TLR

Max Torque:
Tmax
Slide 7
How to Use PE (2)

Prepare Input Data from Motor
Characteristics Curves
Slide 8
How to Use PE (3)

PE Module Editor
Slide 9
How to Use PE (4)

Set Proper Solution Parameters
Slide 10
Results
Slide 11
Update Motor Data
Slide 12
Transient Stability
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transient Stability
Time Frame of Power

System Dynamic Phenomena
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability
Slide 2
Introduction
TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic
Stability
Electromechanical Phenomenon
All synchronous machines must remain in
synchronism with one another
TS is no longer only the utilitys concern
Co-generation plants face TS problems
Slide 3
Analogy
Which vehicles will pushed hardest?

How much energy gained by each vehicle?
Which direction will they move?
Height of the hill must they climb to go over?

Slide 4
Introduction (contd)
System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Critical Separation Time (CST)

Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Slide 5
Causes of Instability
Short-circuits
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and generation
Slide 6
Consequences of Instability
Synchronous machine slip poles
generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
Interruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout

Slide 7
Synchronous Machines
Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
air = air-gap flux

Fr = rotor field MMF
= rotor angle
Slide 8
Swing Equation
Slide 9
Synchronous Machines
(contd)
Swing Equation
= inertia constant
= damping constant
Pmech
= input mechanical power
Pelec
= output electrical power
Slide 10
Rotor Angle Responses
Case 1: Steady-state stable

Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Slide 11
Power and Rotor Angle

(Classical 2-Machine
Example)
Slide 12

(contd)
Slide 13

(Parallel Lines)
Slide 14
Both Lines In Service
Slide 15
One Line Out of Service
Slide 16
Equal Area Criterion
Slide 17
Equal Area Criterion
Slide 18
Equal Area - Stable
Slide 19
Equal Area Unstable
Slide 20
Equal Area - Unstable
Slide 21
Power System Stability

Limit
Steady-State Stability Limit
After small disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady state operating
condition identical or close to the predisturbance
Limit: < 90
Slide 22
Power System Stability

Limit (cond)
Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
Limit: < 180 during swing
Slide 23
Generator Modeling
Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model
Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator

(AVR)
Prime Mover and Speed Governor
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
Slide 24
Generator Modeling (cond)

Typical synchronous machine data
Slide 25
Factors Influencing TS
Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.
Reactance Pmax
Duration of the fault clearing time.

Fault time Rotor Acceleration Kinetic Energy
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator Inertia.
Inertia Rate of change of Angle Kinetic Energy
Generator Internal Voltage
Internal Voltage Pmax
Slide 26
Factors Influencing TS
Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance
Loading Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration
Generator Internal Reactance

Reactance Peak Power Initial Rotor Angle
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator Output During Fault

Function of Fault Location and Type of Fault
Slide 27
Solution to Stability
Problems
Improve system design
Increase synchronizing power
Design and selection of rotating equipment

Use of induction machines
Increase moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics
Slide 28
Problems
Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
High Speed Fault Clearing
Dynamic Braking
Regulate Shunt Compensation
Steam Turbine Fast Valving
Generator Tripping
Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines
Slide 29
Problems
HVDC Link Control
Current Injection from VSI devices
Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
Add system protections
Fast fault clearance
Load Shedding
System separation
Slide 30
User-Defined Dynamic
Models (UDM)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models
UDM
UDM is a tool that allows a client to create
his own dynamic models.
Governor UDM
Generator
Network
Exciter UDM
Slide 2
Power System Dynamic

Models
Energy Conversion Models
- Synchronous Machine Models
- Induction Machine Models

Controller Models
- Turbine/Governor Models
- Exciter/AVR Models
- Power System Stabilizer (PSS) Modes
Slide 3
ETAP Dynamic Model

Library
Having Most Popular IEEE Standard Models
Cannot Cover All Types of Models
Difficult to Update Existing Models
Slide 4
Benefits of Using UDM

Create Client Own Dynamic Models
Flexible to Update or Revise Existing Models
Shorten Development Time Cycle
Slide 5
How UDM Works with

ETAP(1)
Using ETAP Library Models (Built-in)
t = t + t
Slide 6
How UDM Works with

ETAP(2)
Using UDM
UDM Engine
Input Interface
Governor UDM
Exciter UDM
PSS UDM
Output Interface
t = t + t
Slide 7
How to Create UDM File

Using SimuLink(MatLab) Interface to Create
Transfer Block Diagrams
Using ETAP GUI (Future)

SimuLink
Interface
ETAP
GUI
UDM Transfer
Block Diagram
UDM
Compiler
UDM File
Slide 8
Create UDM Transfer Block

Diagram Using Simulink (1)
Manufacturer Governor/Exciter Control Block Diagram
Example: GE Exciter/AVR IEEE Type AC7B Model
Slide 9
Create UDM Transfer Block Diagram Using

Simulink (2)
Simulink Transfer Function Block Diagram (IEEE Exciter Type AC7B)
Slide 10
Create UDM Transfer Block Diagram Using

Simulink (3)
Slide 11
The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(1)
Recognized SimuLink Blocks
Slide 12
The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(2)
Key Words for UDM Input/Output Variable Names
in SimuLink
Slide 13
The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(3)
in SimuLink
Slide 14
The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(3)
in SimuLink
Slide 15
How to Use UDM (1)

Save UDM Files to UDM Folder Under
PowerStation
Slide 16
How to Use UDM (2)

Load UDM Files in ETAP Generator Editor
Slide 17
How to Use UDM (3)

Compile UDM File
Click Compile UDM Button to Open UDM Compile Editor
Slide 18
How to Use UDM (4)

Select Initialization Method
Initializing State Variables of UDM Transfer Blocks According to
Operation Conditions
Direct Method
Solve an Algebra Equation

Suitable for a Single Integrator Model
Take Less Time
Slide 19
How to Use UDM (5)

Select Initialization Method
Iterative Method
Solve a Set of Differential Equations
Suitable for a Multi-Integrators Model
Take Longer Time
Slide 20
How to Use UDM (6)

Compile UDM Template File to Equation File
Click Compile Button to Open UDM System Data Editor
Slide 21
How to Use UDM (7)

Test UDM
Click Test Model Button to Open Test Mode Editor
Slide 22
How to Use UDM (8)

Test Type and System
Governor UDM
Line
Generator
Exciter UDM
Load
Slide 23
How to Use UDM (9)

Test Results
Slide 24
How to Use UDM (10)

Close UDM Editor
Ready to Run Transient Stability Analysis
Slide 25
Harmonic Analysis
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Harmonics
Types of Power Quality

Problems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics
Slide 2
Waveform Distortion
Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
DC Offset
Harmonics
Interharmonics
Notching
Noise
Slide 3
Harmonics
One special category of power quality
problems
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents
present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)
Slide 4
Nonlinear Loads
Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double
Slide 5
Fourier Representation
Any periodic
waveform can be
expressed as a sum
of sinusoids
The sum of the
sinusoids is referred
to as Fourier Series
(6-pulse)
2 3
I ac
1
cos3 t
5
I d (cos t
I h cos(h t
1
1
1
cos7 t
cos11 t
cos13 t
7
11
13
h 1
Slide 6
Harmonic Sources
Utilities (Power Grid)
Known as Background Harmonic
Pollution from other irresponsible customers

SVC, HVDC, FACTS,
Usually a voltage source
Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractionalpitch winding) and Saturation
Usually a voltage source
Slide 7
Harmonic Sources (contd)

Transformers
Due to magnetizing branch saturation
Only at lightly loaded condition
Usually a current source
Power Electronic Devices

Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,
FACTS,
Due to switching actions

Either a voltage source or a current source
Slide 8
Harmonic Sources (contd)

Other Non-Linear Loads
Arc furnaces, discharge lighting,
Due to unstable and non-linear process

Either a voltage source or a current source
In general, any load that is applied to a

power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current
Slide 9
Harmonic I and V
Slide 10
Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge
lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)
Slide 11
Phase Angle Relationship

Fundamental Frequency
Slide 12

Third Order
Slide 13

Fifth Order
Seventh Order
Slide 14
Order vs. Sequence
Slide 15
Slide 16
(contd)
Slide 17
Harmonic Spectrum
Slide 18
Harmonic-Related Problems
Motors and Generators
Increased heating due to iron and copper losses
Reduced efficiency and torque
Higher audible noise

Cogging or crawling
Mechanical oscillations
Slide 19
(contd)
Transformers
Parasitic heating
Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses
Capacitors (var compensators)

Possibility of system resonance
Increased heating and voltage stress
Shortened capacitor life
Slide 20
(contd)
Power Cables
Involved in system resonance
Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
Heating and derating
Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)

Overheating
Fuses
Blowing
Slide 21
(contd)
Switchgears
Increased heating and losses
Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
Shortened insulation components life
Relays
Possibility of misoperation
Metering
Affected readings
Slide 22
(contd)
Communication Systems
Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)

Misoperation
System
Resonance (serial and parallel)
Poor power factor
Slide 23
Parallel Resonance
Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop
Slide 24
Parallel Resonance
Slide 25
Capacitor Banks
Slide 26
Capacitor Banks
Slide 27
Capacitor Banks
Say, Seventh Harmonic Current = 5% of 1100A = 55 A
Slide 28
Capacitor Banks
Resistance = 1% including cable and transformer

CAF = X/R = 7*0.0069/0.0012 =40.25
Resonant Current = 55*40.25 = 2214 A
Slide 29
Parallel Resonance (contd)

Cause:
Source inductance resonates with

capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse

operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
Slide 30
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor
(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and
current
Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
For an ideal system THD = 0%
Potential heating value of the harmonics relative

to the fundamental
Slide 31
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
Fi 2
THD
F1
Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
Slide 32
Harmonic Distortion
Example
Find THD for this waveform
Slide 33
Harmonic Example
Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum
Slide 34
Adjustable Speed Drive

Current Distortion
Slide 35
Adjustable Speed Drive

Voltage Distortion
Slide 36
Harmonic Distortion
Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
IHD
Fi
F1
Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total

- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero
Fi 2
RMS
1
Slide 37
Harmonic Distortion
Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device
ASUM
Fi
1
Slide 38
Harmonic Distortion
Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
Weighted THD
Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range
Current TIF shows impact on adjacent

communication systems
2
Wi Fi
TIF
1
2
Fi
1
Slide 39
Harmonic Distortion
I*T Product (I*T)
A product current components (fundamental
and harmonics) and weighting factors

H
( I h Th )2
I T
h 1
where Ih = current component

Th= weighting factor
h = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
H = maximum harmonic order to account
Slide 40
Triplen Harmonics
Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, )
Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
Overloading and TIF problems
Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral
Slide 41
Triplen Harmonics
Slide 42
Winding Connections
Delta winding provides ampere turn balance
Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
When currents are balanced Triplens
behave as Zero Sequence currents
Used in Utility Distribution Substations
Delta winding connected to Transmission
Balanced Triplens can flow

Present in equal proportions on both sides
Many loads are served in this fashion
Slide 43
Implications
Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a phantom delta tertiary winding
Slide 44
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
Motors and Machines
Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance
Lines and Cables

Series impedance for low frequencies
Long line correction including transposition and

distributed capacitance
Slide 45
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis (contd)
Transformers
Leakage impedance
Magnetizing impedance
Loads
Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance
Slide 46
Reducing System
Harmonics
Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
Least expensive
Slide 47
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Increase Pulse Numbers
Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems
Slide 48
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
In ETAP
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor
Slide 49
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used
Slide 50
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Add Active Filters
Instantly adapts to changing source and load
conditions
Costly
MVA Limitation
Slide 51
Voltage Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
519):
Bus Voltage
Individual
Total Voltage
Distortion
Distortion
(%)
THD (%)
69 kV and below
3.0
5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV
1.5
2.5
161.001 and above
1.0
1.5
At
PCC
In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:
Slide 52
Current Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for General
Distribution Systems (IEEE 519):
Slide 53
Underground Raceway
Systems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems
Raceway Systems
Slide 2
Cable Derating Analysis

Determines the proper size of cables to carry
the specified loads for new systems.
Calculates maximum cable ampacities for
specific scenarios.
Examines cable temperatures and
ampacities for existing systems to determine
operating and emergency limits.
Slide 3
Cable Derating Analysis

NEC Accepted Neher-McGrath Method
IEC 287 Method
Steady-state temperature calculation
Uniform-ampacity cable ampacity calculation
Uniform-temperature cable ampacity calculation
Cable sizing
Transient temperature calculation
Slide 4
Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Cable Ampacity is the current a conductor can carry
continuously under the conditions of use without
exceeding its temperature rating.
Heat is generated when current is carried by a

conductor since it must pass through the electrical
resistance of the conductor.
Watts = I2R
Slide 5
Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Various thermal barriers:
1. Conductor insulation
2. Air inside a duct

3. Duct wall
4. Soil surrounding an underground duct

5. Additional thermal insulation applied such as
polyurethane
Slide 6
Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Heat Transfer Equation
The rate of heat transfer is directly dependent on the difference
in temperature between the conductor (Tc) and the ambient
temperature (Ta)
Tc Ta (I 2 R).RHO
RHO is thermal resistance in degrees Centigrade-cm/watt
Rearranging the terms for I:
( TC
TA )
( R RHO)
Slide 7
Heat Flow Model
Slide 8
Heat Flow Model

(Generalized)
Installation under an isolated
condition
Installation of groups of three
or six circuits
RHO of Soil = 90
Ta = 20 oC
Slide 9
Heat Transfer Problem

Ultimate Unchanged Surrounding Environment
Adjustment Factor
Heat Flow
Immediate Surrounding Environment
(Actual Installation Conditions)
In actual practice, the surrounding medium in which the cables

are to be installed rarely match those conditions under which
the stated ampacities apply.
Slide 10
Adjustment Factor
Cable Derating is based on a concept of an adjustment
(multiplying) factor that is applied against base ampacity.
The multiplying factor takes into account the differences in the
cables actual installation conditions from the base conditions.
I' F x I
I = Allowable cable ampacity for the actual installation conditions
F = Cable Ampacity Adjustment Factor
I = Base Ampacity specified by cable manufacturer or NEC under an
isolated condition with a soil thermal resistively (RHO) of 90 and a
specified ambient temperature
Slide 11
Adjustment Factor
Composition
F Ft x F x Fg
th
Ft = Adjustment factor to account for the
differences in the ambient and
conductor temperatures from the
base case
Fth = Adjustment factor to account for the
difference in the soil thermal
resistivity from RHO of 90
Fg = Adjustment factor to account for
cable grouping
Slide 12
Duct Bank Example

I = 375 Amps 350 MCM
I = 450 Amps 500 MCM
Ft = 0.82
Ta from 20 C to 30 C
Tc from 90 C to 75 C
Fth = 0.9 RHO of 90 to 120
Fg = 0.479 350 MCM Cable
Fg = 0.478 500 MCM Cable
350 MCM
F = 0.82 x 0.90 x 0.479 = 0.354
500 MCM
F = 0.82 x 0.90 x 0.478 = 0.354
I = 375 x 0.354 = 133 Amps
I = 450 x 0.353 = 159 Amps
Slide 13
Neher-McGrath Equation
I
Tc
Ta
Td
Rdc
Tc
Rca
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Tc (Ta Td)
Rca'
Ampacity (kA)
I
Rdc (1 Tc)
Conductor temperature (Deg C)
Ambient Temperature (Deg C)
Conductor temperature rise due to dielectric loss (Deg C)
Conductor dc resistance (/ft)
Loss increment due to conductor skin & proximity effects
Thermal resistance between conductor & ambience (-ft)
(1+Tc) is a multiplier used to convert direct current resistance (Rdc) to

alternating current resistance or impedance. For wire sizes smaller than No. 2,
this term becomes insignificant.
TD compensates for heat generated in the jacket and insulation for higher
voltages. It is insignificant for voltages below 2kV.
Slide 14
Neher-McGrath Example
Calculate ampacity of 3/C concentric stranded XHHW insulated copper

cable enclosed in a 1 inch steel conduit. Ta = 40 C
t = insulation thickness
2t = 2 x 0.045 in. = 0.09 in. [NEC Table 310-13]
DC
0.292
[NEC Table 8, Chapter 9]
DI
0.09
0.292
DI
0.382
Ri
0.012 400 log
Ri
0.56
From N-M Table VII

From N-M Table VII
a
3.2
1 Inch Rigid Steel Conduit ID = 1.049 in.

OD
DI
DC
0.19
1.315
From N-M Table VII
Ds
2.16 DI
Ds
0.825
Slide 15
Neher-McGrath Example
Rsd
( n a)
Ds b
Rsd
9.457
Emissivity
E
0.95
Emissivity
Ds2
1.315 Conduit OD
Emissivity
9.5 ( n)
RE
[ 1 1.7 Ds2 ( E 0.41) ]
RE 7.054
Rca
Ri
Rca
17.071
RE
Rdc75
194
Rdc90
Rdc75
Rdc90
203.402
I
I
Rsd
( 234.5
( 234.5
90)
75)
( 90 40)
( 203.5 Rca)
0.12 kA with Ta = 30, I = 131 Amps
(Table 310-16 lists 130 Amps, Ta=30)
Slide 16
Cable Sizing
Determines the minimum size for each cable that will carry the
specified load current without violating the cable temperature
limit.
The sizing calculation is an
iterative process involving
adjustment of the cable size
and temperature.
Able to lock-in specific
cable sizes that cannot be
changed.
Slide 17
Cable Sizing Example

1.
2.
3.
Load WKSHOP-EX4
Run Load Flow
Update Cable Load Amp
(Study Case)
Slide 18
Cable Sizing Based Voltage Drop

Set Voltage Drop = 2%
Operating Current = 140 A
Optimal Size is Calculated
One Size Smaller is Displayed
Slide 19
Cable Sizing Based on Ampacity

Operating Current = 140 A
Optimal Size is Calculated
One Size Smaller is Displayed
Slide 20
New UGS Presentations

Project Editor Presentation Underground
Raceways - Right-Click Create New
Double-click
to change
presentation
properties
Select UGS Mode Click New Presentation
Slide 21
UGS Presentation
UGS presentation is
conceptually a cross-section
of cable raceways.
Each UGS presentation is a
different cross-section of the
underground system.
If you delete a raceway from a UGS presentation
into the Dumpster, the raceway can be added to
other UGS presentations as an existing raceway.
In UGS, each presentation acts independently from
each other.
Slide 22
UGS Edit Toolbar
Existing Heat Sources

Existing Cables
Existing Duct Bank RWs
Existing Direct Buried RWs

New Conduits for
Duct Banks RWs
Display Options
New Heat Sources

New Cables
New Duct Bank RWs
New Direct Buried RWs

New Locations for
Direct Buried RWs
Slide 23
UGS Components
Heat Source
New Duct Bank RW1
Existing Cable - Pump Cable

Cable 5 cannot fit inside this
conduit and is placed outside
the conduit
Slide 24
Inserting Cables
Three main methods for adding cables to the existing
conduits:
1. Drag the cable from OLV
using Ctrl+Shift Key
2. Use the Existing Cable button

from the UGS Toolbar
3. Use the Routing Page from
the Cable Editor
Slide 25
Cable Representation
3 Conductor / Cable and
3 Conductor / Phase
Symbol: 1, 2 and 3
1 Conductor / Cable and
1 Conductor / Phase
Symbol: 1A, 1B, 1C
Single Phase Cable
Symbol: 1F, 1R
DC Cable
Symbol: 1P, 1N
Slide 26
UGS Example
Duct Bank
X and Y = 30
Width = 15 Height = 8
Conduit
Conduit Size = 4
Y = 3.35
Pump Cable
From OLV
New Cable
5 kV Kerite 1/C
Operating Load = 200 Amps
Run Steady-State Temp Calc
Slide 27
UGS Large Example
Slide 28
Steady-State Calculation
Calculation Pre-Requisite: All cables have been carrying the specified load
long enough that the heat flow has reached its steady-state and no more
changes of temperature will occur throughout the raceway system.
The cable temperature calculated is dependent on raceway system

configuration, cable loading, and the location of each particular cable.
Slide 29
Alarms and Warnings
Calculated 88.3 C is greater

Calculated 109 C is greater
Slide 30
Multiple Presentations
Same Cables and Heat Source
Slide 31
Uniform Ampacity Ampacity Calculation

Approach is based on the equal loading criterion for ampacity calculations.
Calculations determine the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in
the system are equally loaded to the same percentage of their base loading.
Calculation Procedure
1. Determine initial loading level based on base ampacity.
2 Calculate cable temperature as in steady-state temperature calculation.
3. Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit.
If the temperature of the hottest cable is within close range of the temperature limit, the solution has been
reached. If not, adjust the cable loading uniformly at the same percentage, either increasing or decreasing
the loading in order to make the highest cable temperature come closer to the temperature limit. Then go
to back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
The cable allowable current is updated by the calculated ampacity.
Slide 32
Uniform Temperature Ampacity Calculation

Approach is based on the equal temperature criterion for ampacity calculations.
Determines the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in the system have their
temperature within a small range of the temperature limit.
In the case where these conductors are not located in the same conduit/location, they may not have the
same temperature. When this situation occurs, the temperature of the hottest conductor in this cable
branch will be used to represent this cable branch.
Calculation Procedure
1. Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2. Calculate cable temperature as in the steady-state temperature calculation.
3. Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit.

If temperature values of all cables are within close range of temperature limit, the solution has been
reached. If not, load change required for the cable temperature to approach the temperature limit based
on the gradient of cable temperature change is determined.
Slide 33
Cable Sizing Calculation

The Cable Sizing Calculation determines the minimum size of each
cable that will carry the specified load current without violating the cable
temperature limit.
Only the available cable sizes within
the cable library for each selected
conductor will be considered.
Cables may be excluded if the potential
size of the cable cannot vary.
The calculation is an iterative process;
adjusting the cable size and then calculating
cable temperatures.
Once a solution is reached, calculation results will be reported in the
output report. Cables will automatically be changed to the new sizes if
the Update Size option is checked in the Study Case.
Slide 34
Transient Temperature Calculation

Calculates and then plots cable temperature variations as a function of time in accordance to load changes.
(Table of Ampacity versus Time)
Provides a tool to verify operation conditions of the
raceway systems against the cable short-time or
emergency temperature limits.
Transient temperature calculations can be used to

determine the cable peak temperatures during a shorttime interval (usually less than a day), and compare
them against maximum allowable temperatures,
resulting in a more flexible and economical design of
your raceway systems.
The transient temperature calculations are based upon a dynamic thermal model of the raceway system,
constructed mainly from thermal resistance, thermal capacitance, and heat sources.
Thermal resistance is used to represent different thermal layers from cable conductor to ambient soil.
Thermal capacitance is used to represent the capability of each layer to absorb heat.
Slide 35
Example From NEC
Slide 36
NEC Duct Bank (Detail 2)

Depth= 30 in
Fill RHO = 60
1kV NEC Rubber2
1/C CU 3-phase
Magnetic
Class = 100%
Size = 350 AWG
Load = 284.5 Amps
per phase
Slide 37
NEC Duct Bank (Detail 3)

Depth = 30 in
Fill RHO = 60
1kVNEC Rubber2
1/C CU 3-phase
Magnetic
Class = 100%
Size = 750 AWG
Load = 334.9Amps
per phase
Slide 38
(Detail 2) in ETAP
Slide 39
Results for Detail 2
Slide 40
NEC (Detail 3) in ETAP
Slide 41
Results for Detail 3
Slide 42
Cable Pulling
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling
Key Features
Integrated with one-line diagram cables
Integrated with underground raceway cables
Pull multiple cables
Allow any pull geometry (3D graphical

display)
ETAP cable library integration
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling
Slide 2
Cable Pulling Integration

Cable Pulling Presentation
One-Line Diagram
Underground Raceway System
Slide 3
Multiple Cable Pulls
Slide 4
Capabilities
Reduction factors for calculating allowable
tension when pulling multiple cables
Evaluate possible conduit jamming
Tolerance for cable weights and outside
diameters
Summary and alert windows
Slide 5
Cable Pulling Features

Calculate forward and reverse pull
Calculate pulling tensions at all bend points
Calculate maximum tension limited by
sidewall pressures
Maximum allowable pulling tension
Conduit percent fill

Cradled and triangular cable configurations
Slide 6
Cable Pulling Definitions

Cradled or triangular
Slide 7
Cable Jamming
Jamming
No Jamming
No Jamming
Slide 8
Sidewall Pressure
Tension at Conduit Bend
Slide 9
Create a Cable Pulling

Presentation
Right-click on the Cable Pulling Systems
folder (project editor window)
To open the cable pulling presentation,
double-click on it
Bring cable from one-line diagram
Same cable exists on underground raceway
system
Slide 10
Slide 11
Cable Pulling Example

Conduit size =
4
Horizontal
Angles
Summary and Alert Window
Slide 14
Cable Pulling Reports
Slide 15
How to Fix Problems

Increase the bend radius at location Loc0
from 2 ft. to 3 ft.
Increase the bend radius at location Loc3
from 2 ft. to 3 ft.
Slide 16
New Results
Slide 17
Optimal Power Flow

(OPF)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow
Table of Contents
Review of Load Flow Solution
Optimal Power Flow Approach
Comparison of LF and OPF

Optimization Examples
Power Balance Equation
Control Variables
Objective Functions
Other Constraints
OPF Study Case Editor
Slide 2
Review of Load Flow

Solution
Given generation, loading and control
settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC, Capacitor
Bank, )
Solve bus voltages and branch flows
Check over/under voltage, device

overloading conditions
Reset controls and run Load Flow again
Iterative process
Slide 3
Optimal Power Flow

Approach
Given control setting ranges
Specify bus voltage and branch loading
constraints
Select optimization objectives (Min. P
Losses, Min. Q Losses, )
Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control
settings
Direct solution
Slide 4
Comparison of LF and OPF
Slide 5
Optimization Example 1
Objective function: Min. y(x) = 20x2 80x10
Control variable x range: 0
10
Non-constrained
1400
1200
1000
Y
800
600
400
Solution Found
200
0
-200 0
10
15
Slide 6
Control variable x range: 0 x 10
Balance equation y = 60x 100
Constrained (Solution Found)
1400
1200
1000
Y
800
600
400
Solution Found
200
0
-200 0
10
15
Slide 7
Control variable x range: 0 x 10
Balance equation y = 20x 300
Constrained (No Solution)
1400
1200
1000
Solution not
found!
(Infeasible)
800
600
400
200
0
-200 0
10
15
-400
X
Slide 8
Power Balance Equation

Pgen Pload Ploss = 0
Qgen Qload Qloss = 0
P=0
and
Q=0
Load Flow Solves

Power Balance Equation Only
Slide 9
Control Variables
Load Tap Changer (LTC) Settings

Generator AVR Settings
Generator MW Generation
Series or Shunt VAR Compensator Settings
Phase Shift Transformer Tap Positions
Switched Capacitor Settings
Load Shedding
DC Line Flow
Slide 10
Objective Functions
Minimize Real Power Losses
- To minimize real power losses in the system
Minimize Reactive Power Losses

- To minimize reactive power losses in the system
Minimize Swing Bus Power

- To minimize real power generation at the swing
bus(s)
Slide 11
Objective Functions
Minimize Shunt var Devices
- To minimize var generation from available shunt
var control devices
Minimize Fuel Cost

- To minimize total generation fuel cost
Minimize Series Compensation

- To minimize var generation from available
series var control devices
Slide 12
Objective Functions
Minimize Load Shedding
- To minimize load to be shed from the available
bus load shed schedule
Minimize Control Movement

- To minimize total number of controls
Minimize Control Adjustment

- To minimize overall adjustment from all controls
Slide 13
Objective Functions
Maximize Voltage Security Index
AllBuses
Vi Vi ,avg
dVi
Voltage Security Index
2n
Where,
Vi ,avg
Vi ,max
Vi ,min
2
dVi
Vi ,max
Vi ,min
2
Slide 14
Objective Functions
Maximize Line Flow Security Index
AllBranches
Line Flow Security Index

i
Si
Si
2n
Where, d S i is the line rating
Flat Voltage Profile

- Voltage Magnitude difference between all
buses is minimum
Slide 15
Other Constraints
Bus Voltage Constraints
Branch Flow Constraints
Interface Flow Constraints

Slide 16

(Objectives)
Slide 17

(Controls)
Slide 18

(Controls)
Slide 19

(Controls)
Slide 20

(Controls)
Slide 21

(Constraints)
Slide 22

(Constraints)
Slide 23
Optimal Capacitor
Placement
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement
Problem of Var Flow in

Power Systems
Loads and delivery apparatus (e.g., lines
and transformers) are inductive in nature
Most power systems operate at a lagging
power factor
Resulting system capacity reduced, system
loss increased and system voltage
decreased
Slide 2
Purposes of Shunt
Capacitor Applications
Var support Primary benefit for
transmission systems and secondary benefit
for distribution systems
Voltage control Primary benefit for both
transmission and distribution systems
System capacity increase Secondary
benefit for transmission systems and primary
benefit for distribution systems
Slide 3
Purposes of Shunt
Capacitor Applications
System power loss reduction Secondary
benefit for transmission systems and primary
benefit for distribution systems
Billing charge reduction Not applied to
transmission systems but a primary benefit
for distribution systems
Slide 4
General Process for Placing

Shunt Capacitors
Determine bank size in kvar
Determine connection location
Determine a control method

Determine a connection type (wye or delta)
Slide 5
General Methods for

Capacitor Placement
Rules of Thumb
Power Flow
Based
Optimal
Slide 6
Optimal Capacitor
Placement in ETAP
Genetic Algorithm - Use Genetic method to
find optimal (sub optimal) solution
Expert System Initialization- Use power
system knowledge to find a good initial
solution
Slide 7
Genetic Algorithm
An optimization technique based on the
theory of nature selection
An iterative procedure that maintains a
constant-size population of candidate
solutions
Coding, initialization, fitness evaluation,

selection, crossover, mutation
Slide 8
ETAP OCP Capabilities

Find capacitors best location and bank size
Minimize the total cost of installation and operation
Handle radial or meshed balanced networks (PS
5.0)
User selectable capacitor placement purpose
Global or individual constraints
Slide 9

Analysis capacitor control method and
review capacitor impact on the system with
load duration setting
Speed and precision ratio control by users

Determine available capacitor installation
locations by users
Slide 10

Determine maximum capacitor size using
maximum load and determine switchblade
capacitor size using minimum load
Use average or source energy cost
Focus on saving during the whole planning
period
Slide 11
Display Results
LF results for maximum loads
New capacitor locations and sizes
Slide 12
Plot Results
Loss reduction savings during the planning
period
Capacitor operation cost during the planning
period
Profit during the planning period
Slide 13
Report Results
Load Flow related reports
Capacitor locations and sizes

Load flow results for maximum, average and
minimum loads
Branch capacity release
Slide 14
Example
Run NR Load Flow and look at bus voltages
(critical under voltage is set to 95% and
marginal under voltage is set to 98%)
Switch to OCP mode and look at the study
case settings
Run OCP and look at the voltage
improvements
Slide 15
Ground Grid Systems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems
Need for Grounding Grids

Currents flow into the grounding grid from:
Lightning Arrester Operations
Switching Surge Flashover of Insulators
Line-Ground Fault from Connected Bus

Line-Ground Fault from Connected Line
Slide 2
Objectives
Human and animal safety
Carry and dissipate current into earth under
normal and fault conditions
Grounding for lightning impulses and surges
Low resistance to ground for protective
relays
Slide 3
Construction
Slide 4
Common Definitions
Earth Current
Ground Fault Current
Ground Potential Rise
Step Voltage
Touch Voltage
Slide 5
Step 1 Soil Analysis

Done at a number of places in the substation
Several layers with different resistivity
Lateral surface changes are more gradual
than vertical changes
Wenner Four-Pin Method
Slide 6
Wenner Four-Pin Method
4 aR
a
2a
a2
a
4b 2
a2
b2
Slide 7
Step 2 Grid Area

Area should be as large as possible
Increasing area is more effective than
adding additional conductor to reduce grid
resistance
Outer conductor should be placed on the
boundary of substation
Fence should be placed a minimum of 3 feet
inside
Square, rectangular, triangular, T-shaped, or
L-shaped grids
Slide 8
Step 3 Ground Fault

Currents
L-G fault on substation bus or transmission
line
Interested in maximum amount of fault
current expected to flow into the ground grid
Determine maximum symmetrical rms fault
current
Slide 9
Slide 10
Slide 11
Slide 12
Slide 13
Symmetrical Grid Current

Ig
S f * (3I o )
Io = Symmetrical rms value of Zero

Sequence fault current in amperes
Transmission Systems Model Maximum Io
for L-G fault for present and ultimate
configuration
Distribution Systems Model future fault
current with suitable growth factor (1.1)
Slide 14
Decrement Factor
Accounts for the asymmetrical fault current
AC component does not decay with time but

remains at its initial value
Calculated from time duration of fault and X
over R ratio
Transmission Systems Use fastest
clearing relay + breaker time
Distribution and Industrial Systems Use
worst case backup clearing time
Slide 15
Typical Shock Situations
Slide 16
Design Procedure Summary

Use network of bare conductors buried in the
earth
Encompass all area within the substation
fence and extend at least 3 feet outside
Perform soil resistivity test
Surface material at least 4 inches
Determine fault current using short circuit

Determine maximum clearing time
Slide 17
Design Procedure Summary

Size conductors
Conductor should be buried a minimum of

18 inches to 59.1 inches
Vertical ground rods should be at least 8 ft.
long
Determine if touch and step voltages are
below tolerable limits
Few iterations may be required to determine
correct grid design
Slide 18
Ground Rod Length

Three schools of thought
Length of 10ft is adequate
Length of 40ft is required to reach water table
Longest possible rod depth should be used
Slide 19
IEEE Methods
Empirical method; limited applications
Handles 2 layers plus protective surface

material (1 layer for touch potential)
Rectangular and triangular shapes only, with
vertical and horizontal conductors
One ground grid only
Rods; but arrangements are not flexible
Calculates required parameters

Slide 20
Finite Element Method

Handles 2 layers plus a protective surface
material
Any shape
Multiple interconnected ground grids
Rod location modeled in detail
Calculates required parameters at all points

Graphic potential profile
Slide 21
Typical IEEE Grid
Slide 22
IEEE Grid Description

40 ft. X 40 ft. square grid with 8 conductors
along X-axis and 8 conductors along Y-axis
Depth = 1.5 ft., 4/0 copper-clad steel wire

1 rod in each grid corner, diameter = 0.5 in.,
length = 8 ft. same material as conductor
Slide 23
FEM Grid Example
Slide 24
Step Potential Profile
Slide 25
Touch Potential Profile
Slide 26
Absolute Potential Profile
Slide 27
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop

1996-2009
Notes: Operation
Real-TimeTechnology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time
ETAP Real-Time
ETAP Real-Time
Maintenance
Operations
Financial
Engineering
Planning
As a component of the Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) system, ETAP optimizes the exchange of
information between diverse tiers of an organization
while channeling domain sensitive information.
ETAP Real-Time
Market Solutions
Oil & Chemical Refineries

Oil Production Fields
Oil Platforms
Mining
Cement & Paper Facilities
Manufacturing Plants
Generation Plants
Switchgear & Relay Manufacturers
Distribution Systems
Transmission Systems
ETAP Real-Time
Real-Time Objectives
Support Normal Operation

Support Transient Conditions
Prevent Downtime
Minimize System Losses
Minimize Energy Costs
Train & Assist Operators
Prevent Outage Due to Operator Error
Safe Operation & Avoid Penalties
Improve Equipment Life Time
Provide Data Accessibility
ETAP Real-Time
Advantages
One Centralized Solution
Knowledge of System Topology, Ratings, & Limits
Intelligent One-Line Diagram
Powerful Electrical Calculation Engines
Smart Optimization Engines
Enforce Complex Time-Dependent Logic
Capability to Predict System Response

User-Friendly Graphical Interface
ETAP Real-Time
Architecture Requirements
Seamless Integration
Enterprise-Wide Access
Robust Client/Server
Windows Platform
Multi-Redundant Server Multi-Tiered User

Access Management
OPC Interface
ODBC/SQL Compliant
Fast Data Transfer
Fast Calculation Time
Scalable Modular
Design
Hardware Independent
ETAP Real-Time
V&V Requirements
ISO 9001 Certified

ETAP Real-Time
System Architecture
ETAP Real-Time
System Architecture
ETAP Real-Time
ETAP Real-Time
Multi Server-Client Architect

ETAP Servers
ETAP Consoles
System
ETAP Real-Time
Protocols & Standards

MMS
T103
ModBus
NetDDE
NetBeui
UCA
DNP
IPX/SPX (Netware)
ICCP
TCP/IP
IEC 60870
OPC
IEC 61850
ETAP Real-Time
Power System Monitoring

& Simulation
Advanced Monitoring
Energy Accounting
Real-Time Simulation
Event Playback
Load Forecasting
Advanced Monitoring
Intelligent Graphical One-Line & User-Interface
Voltage, Current, Power, Energy, Frequency,
Tap Settings, Switching Status, Operating
Modes,
State Estimation & Load Distribution
Operation, Process & Performance Monitoring
Alarm & Notification Management
On-Demand Control
Trending
Advanced Monitoring
Monitoring Capabilities
Multi-Console Server/Client Monitoring
Graphical Monitoring via ETAP One-Line Diagram
Visual Monitoring via Watch Windows (MMI)
Archived (Historical) Data Retrieval / Display
Electrical & Non-Electrical Metering Tags

OPC Interface Layer
Multi-Access Levels
Virtual Monitoring
Virtual Monitoring
Virtual Monitoring
Standard Monitoring Systems

Shortcomings
Display Data on Static Images and Objects
High Costs to Setup & Maintenance MMI
Require Hardware for Every Monitored Point
Modifications Require New Static Images
Does Not Recognize Bad Data
Lack Electrical Intelligence
Primitive Data Reconciliation

Advanced Monitoring
Advanced Monitoring
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
Workshop Notes: Real-Time
Advanced Monitoring
Load
Estimator /
Distributor
Advanced Monitoring
State Estimator
Load Estimator / Distributor
Error Detection
Global (Server) & Local Alarm & Warning

Alarm & Warning Acknowledgement
Equipment Overload Detection

Over-Voltage & Under-Voltage Detection
Graphical Notification via One-Line Diagrams
Pinned Data (Override Monitored Data)
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
Advanced Monitoring
Flow Rate /
Pressure
RPM
Daily Energy
Consumption
(Max/Min)
Process & Performance

Monitoring
GIS System Interface
Energy Accounting
Energy Tariff Builder

Customizable Reports
Real-Time Energy Cost Tracker
Cost & Consumption Summary
Energy Accounting
Energy Accounting
Simulate Circuit Breaker Operation

Identify Potential Operating Problems
Simulate Motor Starting & Load Change

Predict Operating Time of Protective Devices
Predict System Response Based on
Operator Actions
Perform What If Operating Scenarios
Simulate Real-Time & Archived Data

Operator Assistance & Training
Simulation Modules
Load Flow
Sequence-of-Operation
Motor Acceleration
Harmonics
Short-Circuit ANSI/IEC
Transient Stability
Arc Flash
Reliability Assessment
Device Coordination &

Selectivity
More...
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
Real-Time
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
Event Playback
Replay Archived Historian Data

Investigate Cause & Effect
Explore Alternative Actions
Replay What If Scenarios
Event Playback
Event Playback
Playback Forward
Playback Reverse
Set Speed/Scan Rate

Pause
Step Forward
Step Reverse
Next Event
Previous Event
Scan Forward
Scan Reverse
Display Options
Event Playback
Event Playback
Improve Operator Knowledge
Predict System Behavior On-Demand
Load Forecasting
Adaptive Bus Load Forecasting

Real-Time Trending
Load Profile Library
Forecasting Scenario Archiving
Load Forecasting
Load Forecasting
Predict Loading Up to Seven Days Ahead
Forecast Multiple Load Areas per Individual Meters
User-Adjustable Weather Variables & Load Profiles
Revise Forecasts Based on Loading & Weather
Conditions
Pattern & Load Profile Libraries
Import & Export Historical Forecast Data

Unlimited Forecast Views
Load Forecasting
Adaptive Forecasting
Load Forecasting
Trending
Load Forecasting
Trending
View Up to 20 Trends in One Window
Create & View Unlimited Trend Windows
Auto-Scale Trends & Auto-Center Plots
Movable Cross-Hair for Reading Data Values
Zooming, Scrolling Backward / Forward in Time
Choose Background, Grid, & Plot Styles

Overlap Different Time Frames in a Single View
Automatic Generation Control

Economic Dispatch
Supervisory / Advisory Control
Interchange Scheduling Management
Spin Reserve Management

P+jQ
P1+jQ1
Gen1
Load 1
Load 2
P2+jQ2
Gen2
Load 3
P3+jQ3
Gen3
P+jQ
Load 4
Load 5
Pn+jQn
Load 6
Genn
Initial Condition

P1+jQ1
P+jQ
Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
Gen2
Load 3
P3+jQ3
Gen3
Load 4
P+jQ
Load 5
Pn+jQn
Load 6
Genn
Optimized Condition

Major Capabilities of EMS
Handle Multi-Area Control
Perform Load Frequency Control

Optimize Generation Levels
Coordinate MW & Mvar Generation
Automate System Operation
Meet NERC Performance Standard

Saving Objectives
Reduce Demand & Energy Costs
Automatic Interchange Control
Improve System Operation & Stability
Increase Equipment Life Time
Increase System Capacity
Maintain Frequency at the Scheduled Value

Maintain Net Scheduled Power Interchanges
Operate System with Adequate Security & Economy

Maintain Scheduled Power Exchange
Minimize Operating Costs

Main Components of AGC
Primary Control
Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load
Secondary Control
Control tie-line flows to meet schedules
Generation Power (MW & Mvar) Sharing

Adjust AVR and Governor Set Points
Identify and Close on Incoming Generator

Identify and Open on Generator Stop Command

Secondary Control

Area Control Error (ACE)
Difference between actual flow out of an area and
the scheduled flow, plus a frequency component
ACE = Pinterchange Pscheduled + 10f

Ideally, ACE should be always zero
Because the load is constantly changing,

generation must constantly be changed to chase
the ACE

Control Flow Chart
AGC?
No
ED?
No
Calculate ACE
{ Fuel Costs,
Flow Constraints,
MW Limits,
}
Do ED
{ New
Base
Generation
Settings }
Do MW
Sharing
{ Scheduled Frequency,
Scheduled Interchange,
Measured Frequency,
Measured Interchange,
}
Calculate
MW Change
Distribute
MW
Do MW
Sharing
{ New Generation Settings }
G1
G2
Gn

Control Function Block Diagram

Primary Generation Control
Freq.
Freq.
Isoch
P = - 1/R f
Droop
F1
P1 = Pload P2
Gen. 1
MW
P2
MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Isoch
Droop
F1
P1 = Pload
Gen. 1
MW
P2 = Pload
MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Droop
Droop
F1
P1 = Pload
Gen. 1
MW
P2 = Pload
MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Droop
Droop
F1
F2
P1 = Pload MW
Gen. 1
P2 = Pload MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Droop
Droop
F1
F2
P1 = Pload MW
Gen. 1
P2 = Pload MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Isoch
Isoch
F1
P1 = Pload P2
Gen. 1
MW
P2
MW
Gen. 2

Freq.
Freq.
Isoch
Isoch
F1
EMS Action
P1 = Pload MW
P2 = Pload
Gen. 1
Gen. 2
MW

Control Selections

Define Control Areas and Zones

Use AGC to Achieve
Minimize Area Control Error (ACE)
Minimize Operating Costs

Maintain Generation at Fixed (Base load) Values
Ramp Generation in a Linear Fashion per
Interchange Schedule
Economic Dispatch
Minimize Fuel Costs

Optimize Energy Costs
Fast Solution
Robust Algorithms
Economic Dispatch
Generating Cost
Generation Dispatch
Economic Dispatch
Optimization Control
Optimization Objectives

Control Movement Constraints
User-Definable Constraints (Macros)
Energy Costs (Generation & Exchange Power)

Economic Dispatch
Economic Dispatch
Detailed Nonlinear Cost Function Modeling
Considers All Losses (cable, transmission lines,
transformer, etc.)
Maintains Adequate Reserve Margins
Considers Line Constraints
Economic Dispatch
Generation Constraints to Maintain Adequate
Online Reserves
Transmission Line Congestion Limits to Prevent
Overloads
Incremental Heat Rate Characteristics for Each
Generation Unit
Detailed Nonlinear Cost Function Modeling
Supervisory Control
Automation
Requirements
Auto Ctrl
Real-Time
Data
System
System
Topology
Supervisory Control
System Automation
Supervisory & Advisory Control
Software-Based User-Defined System Logic
Simple or Complex Breaker Interlock Logic
User-Friendly Logic
C# Logic
Active Inhibition Control of Load & Generation

Permissive Control of Load & Generation
Supervisory Control
Operation & Process Control
Evaluate Control System Settings
Reduce Control System Commissioning Time
Design More Efficient & Robust Controls

Operator Training for Emergency Situations
User-Defined Dynamic Models
Interchange Scheduling
Tariff Analyzer
Rate Structure Builder
Transaction Scheduling
Transaction Contract
Invoicing
Create Detailed Buy & Sell Transaction
Schedules
Detailed Energy Transaction Reports for
User-Defined Period of Time
Evaluate Energy Cost for Multiple Transactions
per Location (Regions, Areas, Zones)
Transaction Management Tools
Energy Cost Analysis & Reporting
Graphical & Tabular Transaction & Cost Views
Reserve Management
Operating Reserve Analysis
Spinning Reserve
Non-Spinning Reserve
Fuel Pressure
Reserve Capacity Monitoring

Notification of Inadequate Reserve
Predict Operating Reserve
Unit Commitment Based on Load Forecast Data
Determines Startup and Shutdown Times
Consider Economical & Security Operation Considerations
Reserve Management
Monitor & Manage Power Reserves & Maintain Reliability

Reserve Management
Identify System-Wide Reserve Capacity
Requirements
Monitor & Maintain Regulating, Contingency,
Interruptible Imports, & On-Demand Reserves
Easily Replace Generating Capacity & Energy
Lost Due to Forced Outages
Compensate for Curtailment of Interruptible
Imports from Other Areas
Ensure Reliable System Operation
Load Preservation
Load Restoration
Load Shedding Validation

Objectives
Operation Dependent
Fast Response
Optimal Load Shedding

Why Load Shed
Partial loss of energy source due to a disturbance
(Generators and/or Utility Connections)

Best combination (also minimum) load that must be
removed to keep the system operational
Load Shedding Protection is Essential

Critical loads with limited power supply

Improper Load Shedding
Shed Too Much Load
Loss of Critical Process
Total Loss of Production

Safety & Environmental Concerns
$$$

Conventional Methods
A. Breaker Interlock Scheme
B. Under-Frequency Relay (81)
C. PLC-Based Load Shedding
Load Preservation
Optimal Load Preservation
Fast Response Time
Reliable Operation
Minimum Load Shedding

Fault
Detection
(50)
CB
Trip
Trigger
Signal
to CB
Fault
Clearing
Local
PLC
10
10
Trigger
Received
by PLC
Remote
PLCs
Time
ms
60
20
70
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
60
Time
ms
70
120
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
20
Trigger
Received
by PLCs
Time
ms
Fast Load Shedding


Fault
Detection
(50)
CB
Trip
Trigger
Signal
to CB
Fault
Clearing
Local
PLC
0.5
0.5
Trigger
Received
by PLC
Remote
PLCs
Time
Cy
3.5
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
3.5
Time
Cy
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
1
Trigger
Received
by PLCs
Time
Cy
Fast Load Shedding


Fault
Detection
(50)
CB
Trip
Trigger
Signal
to CB
Fault
Clearing
Local
PLC
Trigger
Received
by PLC
Remote
PLCs
Time
ms
56
11
61
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
26
Time
ms
31
81
PLC
Output
Triggers
Load
CB
Open
11
Trigger
Received
by PLCs
Time
ms
Actual Load Shedding


ILS vs. Frequency Relay LS


ILS vs. PLC Based LS
Load Restoration
Restart Inhibition
Logical Load Sequencer
Load Restoration Priority
Load Restoration

Monitor & Compare the Following Parameters:
System Frequency
Available Spinning Reserve
Starting & Operating Voltages
User-Defined Logic
Alternate Source Detection
System Configuration Status
Interlock & Switching Sequence Logics


Confirm Load Shedding Actions
Simulate ILS Recommendations
Integrated Stability Knowledge Base

Conditions & Triggers Can Be Simulated:
Loss of Generation
Under-Frequency
Mechanical Failures
Steam Pressure Decay

Other Conditions Leading to Load Shed

Breaker Interlock Scheme
Shed load larger

than maximum
import power

Breaker Interlock Scheme
Advantages
Fast action
Simple to implement
Limitations
Fixed load priority
Only one stage of load shedding

Usually more loads are shed than needed
Modifications are costly and impractical
Can result in complete system shutdown

Under-Frequency Relay (81)
Shed fixed load

based on 81 relay
settings

Stage
1
2
Frequency Delay
Hz
Sec.
58.5
0.25
57.5
2.00
MW
Shed
10
30

Features
Detects after effects of disturbances
Detects frequency & rate of change

Can have multiple stage settings
Settings are based on analysis
Fixed settings (10% of load for .5 Hz drop)


Limitations
Slow response time
Lack of knowledge about system loading

Lack of knowledge about the disturbance
Lack of knowledge about spin reserve
Analysis knowledge is always lost


PLC-Based Load Shedding
Shed load based on the PLC tables


Advantages
Access to system loading
Access to system generation

Access to CB operating status
Knowledge about spin reserve

Limitations
Lack of system topology / connectivity / islanding
Lack of system islanding conditions
Load priority is predefined and fixed

Slow response - initiation from frequency relays
Drop load based on the frequency relay settings
Fixed logic calculations are preformed at PLC

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
P+jQ
Gen
Load 2
Load 3
Normal Operation 0 Spin Reserve

Load 1
j QG
j QL
Load 2
Gen
P=0
Load 3
3-Phase Fault for 5 Cycles

Load 1
P + j Q
Load 2
Gen
P > P
Q >> Q
Load 3
Power Inrush after Fault Clearance

Load 1
P+jQ
Load 2
Gen
Load 3
Slow Load Shedding

Load 1
P+jQ
Load 2
Gen
Load 3
Fast Load Shedding

Needs for Optimal Solution
Requires Intelligence to Recognize
System Topology
Configuration
Operating Status
Generation Level
Power Exchange
Operating Load
Spin Reserve
Disturbance Type & Location
Transient Response to Disturbances

P+jQ
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
P2 + jQ2
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
P4 + jQ4
P + j Q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
P6 + jQ6
Load 6
Study Condition

P+jQ
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
P2 + jQ2
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
P4 + jQ4
P + j Q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
P6 + jQ6
Load 6
Study Condition

p+jq
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
p + j q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
Load 6
Study Condition

p+jq
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
p + j q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

p+jq
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
p + j q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

p+jq
P1 + jQ1
Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
P3 + jQ3
Load 3
p + j q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

Load 1
Gen1
Load 2
Load 3
p + j q
Gen2
Load 4
P5 + jQ5
Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

Objective
Shed Minimum Load
Dependencies

Generation Level
Spin Reserve
System Configuration
System Loading
Load Distribution
Operation Constraints
Individual Circuit Breaker Loading

How to Achieve Objectives
Fast Load Shedding (less than 100ms)
Optimal Combinations of Loads (CBs)

Neural Network + Direct Logic
Knowledge Base
Direct User-Definable Logic
Multiple Subsystems

ILS Knowledge Base
Hundreds of TS Studies Stored
System Knowledge is Never Lost

Key Features
User-Defined Load Priority
User-Defined Load Groups
Unlimited Load Shedding Schedules
Operator Friendly Interface

On-Line Testing to Validate ILS Actions
User-Defined Trigger Inhibition

Operator Alerts

ILS Operator Friendly Interface
Operator Display
Load MW
Loads to Shed
Spinning Reserve
Required Load to Shed

Active Triggers


Optimal CB Combination


ILS Load Shed Verification



ILS Configuration

ILS Normal Operation
ILS Server

PLC Based Backup Operation
System Data
X
Frequency Relay
ILS Server

ILS Response
Response to Mechanical & Electrical Disturbances
Generator Breaker Trip
Utility Main Breaker Trip
Fuel Availability
Process Alarms
Faults in the System
Spinning Reserve Availability
User-Customizable Triggers

ILS Project One-Line

ILS Project - Communication
Substation Automation
Switching Management
Load Management
Substation Automation
Flexible Automation
Programmable Logic Editor
Online Control
Benefits of iSub
Minimize Outages
Reduces Operating & Maintenance Costs
Enhance Information Management

Improve Productivity
Improve Asset Management
Automatic Supervision of Interlocks
Graphical Presentations of Safety Procedures
Local & Global Alarm & Warnings
Detect Fault Location - Distribution Systems
Equipment Diagnostics
Intelligent Interlocking System
Diagnostics of Disturbances
Automation with Supervisory & Advisory Control
Substation Control via Operator

Enforce Complex Logic for Device Protection &
Coordination
Programmable Logic Editor with Online Compiling
& Execution
Automatic Generation of Switching Sequences
Enterprise-Wide View of System
Automated Retrieval of All Data from the Substation
Security Control with Multiple Access Levels

Supporting Third Party SCADA Technology
Automation Applications
Automatic Voltage
Control
Capacitor Control
Algorithm
Synchronism
Tap Position Monitoring
Substation Maintenance
Mode
Load & Bus Transfer
Fault Detection
Load Curtailment
Sequence of Event
Recorder
Predictive Maintenance Through Analysis of
Operating Conditions
Sophisticated Built-In Control & Protection
Algorithms
Enables Integration of Protective Systems

Provides Remote Data Retrieval & Setting
Capability
Common Database
Web-Enabled Design
Arc Flash Analysis

in Real-Time
Arc Flash Analysis

in Real-Time
Switching Management
Switching Sequence Management
Safety & Security Procedures

Interlock Logic Evaluator
Switching Plan Validation
User-Friendly Switching Plan Builder
Point & Click Selection of Switching Device from

the One-Line Diagrams
Graphical Display of Selected Switching Devices
Multi-Level Switching Request Approval
Assignment of User-Definable & Interlock Logic

per Each Switching Device
Checking of Select Switching Plans Against
Forbidden or Potentially Hazardous Actions
Unlimited Switching Plans Each with an Unlimited
Number of Switching Actions
Switching Order Reports Include Switching Mode,
Start / Stop Time, & Nature of Work
Simulate & Evaluate Switching Plans in All States
Prior to Execution
System Switching
Required for Scheduled Outage & Restoration
Required for Feeder Balancing & Load Transfer
Critical Steps in System Operations

Switching Errors Resulting in Serious
Consequences
Management Tool Needed to Reduce Cost for
Preparing Sequence
Management Tool Needed to Predict Results of

Executing a Sequence
ETAP SSM Features
An Integral Tool to PSMS
Specify Sequence from User-Friendly Spreadsheet
Specify Sequence from OLV Operations

Build in Interlock Logic for Switching Devices
Use-Defined System Logic for Au-to Switching
Based on System Operating Conditions
Auto & Step Simulation to Test A Sequence &
Predict Result Real Time System Data
On-Line Execution of Switching Sequences
Switching Sequence Editor
Spreadsheet Editor to
Create & Modify Sequence.
Action on Switching Devices
and System Logic &
Procedures.
Actions Sorted Automatically by Groups
and Delay Time.
Editing Functions for Rearranging and
Modifying Sequences.
Create Sequence from OLV
Sequence Builder to Create Sequence

Graphically from OLV.
Add & Rearrange Actions by Mouse Click.
Rearrange Sequence from OLV or Editor.
OLV Shows System Configuration Changes as
Sequence Being Modified.
Build in Device Interlock
Embed System Control Logic
and System Procedure in a
Sequence
Use System Procedure for
Non-Switching Actions
(Checking, Lock, & Logging)
Use Control Logic to

Implement Automatic Switching based on System
Operating Conditions
Build in Device Interlock
Complicated Interlock Logic
Specified in Switching Device
Pre-Condition Logic based on
Status of Other Devices and
System Operating Conditions
Post-Action Logic to Chain Switching Actions
Pre-Condition Logic and Post-Action Logic
Specified Separately for Open & Closing Actions
Switching Sequence Simulation
Step & Auto
Execution of
Sequence
Logic Alert and

Operating Alert
Execute Actions form System Control Logic
Execute Actions from Interlock Post-Actions
Predict Effect of Each Switching Action
OLV Display of System Configuration & Operating
Conditions.
On-Line Sequence Execution
380 kV Substation
230 kV Substation
69 kV Substation
Double-End Substation
Load Management
Demand-Side Management
Time-of-Use Load Shifting

Intelligent Load Management
Intelligent Load Management
Reduce Energy Costs
Reduce Peak MWh Costs
Reduce Mvar & Power Factor Penalties
Increase Equipment Life

Shared Decision Making Process
Load 7
Load 6 Load 6
MW
Load 5 Load 5 Load 5 Load 7
Load 4 Load 4 Load 4 Load 4 Load 4

Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3

Time
Shed 1
MW
Hold 1 Hold 1,6

Block 6 Shed 3
Hold 1
Start 3
Start 1
Load 6 Load 6
Load 4 Load 5 Load 5 Load 7 Load 7


Time

Load 1
Shift 6
Shed 1
Hold 1 Hold 1,6

Block 6 Shed 3
Hold 1
Start 3
Start 1
Shift 6
MW

Time

Load 1
ETAP Real-Time
ETAP Real-Time
ETAP Real-Time
Operation
Maintenance
Planning

Irvine, California
ETAP Real-Time
Monitor
Simulate
Operate
Analyze
Predict
Optimize
Manage
Control
ETAP Real -Time
ETAP Real-Time

ETAP Real -Time
ETAP Real-Time
Maintenance
Operations
Financial
Engineering
Planning
As a component of the Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) system, ETAP optimizes the exchange of
information between diverse tiers of an organization
while channeling domain sensitive information.
Market Solutions
Oil Refineries
Oil Platforms
Oil Production Fields
Chemical Plants
Mining
Manufacturing Plants
Health Care Facilities
Generation Plants
Data Centers
Switchgear & Relay Manufacturers
ETAP Real -Time
Objectives
Optimize Operation
Prevent Downtime
Minimize Energy Costs
Predict System Response
Train & Assist Operators
Prevent Outage Due to Operator Error
Safe Operation & Avoid Penalties
Improve Equipment Life Time
Provide Data Accessibility
ETAP Real -Time
ETAP Real-Time Users

COCO
ETAP Real -Time
OTI Test Lab
ETAP Real -Time
System Architecture
ETAP Real -Time
Bring Your ETAP To Life
ETAP Real -Time
Client Server Architect
Windows 2000 / XP, Multitasking

ETAP Real -Time
Protocols & Standards

MMS
T103
ModBus
NetDDE
NetBeui
UCA
DNP
IPX/SPX (Netware)
ICCP
TCP/IP
IEC870
OPC
ETAP Real -Time
ETAP Real -Time

Virtual Monitoring
Advanced Monitoring
Online Control
Event Playback
Trending
Alarm & Warning
Energy Cost Analysis
Monitoring Capabilities
Multi-Console Server/Client Monitoring
Graphical Monitoring via ETAP One-Line Diagram
Visual Monitoring via Watch Windows (MMI)
Archived (Historical) Data Retrieval / Display
Electrical & Non-Electrical Metering Tags
OPC Interface Layer
Multi-Access Levels
Advantages of ETAP
Intelligence
Simple to Modify the System
Option to Override Monitored Data
Online Switching & Breaker Operation
Visual Monitoring (MMI) by Watch Windows
Advanced Monitoring
State Estimator
Load Estimator / Distributor
Error Detection
Global (Server) & Local Alarm & Warning
Alarm & Warning Acknowledgement
Equipment Overload Detection
Over-Voltage & Under-Voltage Detection
Graphical Notification via One-Line Diagrams
Pinned Data (Override Monitored Data)
Predict System Behavior to Operator Actions
Open/Close Circuit Breakers
Reject Generators
Load Impact & Ramping
Accelerate Motors
Protective Device Sequence-of-Operation
Conduct Engineering Analysis

Using Actual Operating Loading, Generation, &
Configuration
Event Playback
Improve Operator Knowledge
Predict System Behavior On-Demand

Intelligent Energy Management
Demand-Site Management
System Optimization & Automation

Real-Time Data
Optimization
Requirements
EMS
System
Control
System Topology

Auto Control Overload, OverVoltage & UnderVoltage
Auto Control Generation, LTC, Shunt Capacitor,
Generation MW & Mvar Averaging with $ Constraints
Peak Shaving
Minimize Mvar & Power Factor Penalties
Active Inhibition & Permissive Control of Load & Generation
Optimize Spin Reserve
Maximize Voltage Security Index


Optimization Control
Optimization Objectives
Control Movement Constraints
User-Definable Constraints (Macros)
Energy Costs (Generation & Exchange Power)
Savings
Reduce Energy Costs
Reduce Peak MWh Costs
Reduce Mvar / Power Factor Penalties
Increase Equipment Life Time

Fast Load Shedding Action
Optimal Circuit Breaker Combinations

Why Load Shed
Total or Partial Loss of Energy Source
(Generators and/or Utility Connections)
Electrical Disturbances
Consequences of Improper Load Shed

Shed Too Much Load (Loss of Critical Process)
Total Loss of Production
Safety & Environmental Concerns
$$$

Objective
Shed Minimum Load
Dependencies

Generation Level
Spin Reserve
System Configuration
System Loading
Load Distribution
Operation Constraints
Individual Circuit Breaker Loading

How to Achieve Objectives
Fast Load Shedding (less than 100ms)
Optimal Combinations of Loads (CBs)
Neural Network + Direct Logic
Knowledge Base
Direct User-Definable Logic
Multiple Subsystems
ILS Knowledge Base

Hundreds of TS Studies Stored
System Knowledge is Never Lost



Key Features
User-Defined Load Priority

User-Defined Load Groups
Operator Friendly Interface
On-Line Testing to Validate ILS Actions
User-Defined Trigger Inhibition
Operator Alerts
Load
MW
Shed
Load
Req. to
Shed
16.00
ILS Group1
7.22
2.00
4.57
ILS Group2
3.25
PLC Based
7.22
2.00
4.57
8.23
17.04
-1.04
22.02
-6.02
ILS Operator Friendly Interface

Operator Display
Load MW
Loads to Shed
Spinning Reserve
Required Load to Shed
Active Triggers

ILS Configuration
ILS Normal Operation
ILS Server
PLC Based Backup Operation

System Data
X
Frequency Relay
ILS Server
ILS Response
Response to Mechanical & Electrical Disturbances
Generator Breaker Trip
Utility Main Breaker Trip
Fuel Availability
Process Alarms
Faults in the System
Spinning Reserve Availability
User-Customizable Triggers
ETAP Real-Time Users
COCO
ETAP Real -Time
Data Exchange
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange
ETAP Data Exchange

Easy Setup
Intelligent Mapping
Expert Support
International Standards
Flexible Operation
User Friendly
Slide 2
ETAP Data Exchange

Key Features
Import/Export Data
Data Synchronization
Automatic Diagram Generator
Intelligent Error Checking

GIS Map Interface
Real-Time Data Exchange
Slide 3
ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 1
Data Import
Message Log
Elements
&
External Project
Connections
ETAP Database
Conversion
Exceptions
XML
ETAP
PowerStation
Project File
Slide 4
ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 2
One-Way Synchronization
Message Log
Elements &
Connections
Exceptions
XML
Data
Mapping
External Project
ETAP Data
Exchange
ETAP
Add, Modify, &

Delete Actions
User
Confirmation
Existing Data
Slide 5
ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 3
Two-Way Synchronization
Message Log
Elements &
Connections
Data
Mapping
External Project
ETAP Data
Exchange
Exceptions
XML
ETAP
Add, Modify, &

Delete Actions
Existing Data
User
Confirmation
Slide 6
ETAP Data Exchange

Database Mapping
Equipment
Equipment
Attributes
ETAP
Element
ETAP
Element
Properties
Slide 7
GIS Key Features

Map GIS Equipment to ETAP
Integration with ETAP Projects
Use ETAP Analysis Tools
Display Analysis Results on GIS Maps
Slide 8
GIS Capabilities
Database mapping via a graphic user
interface
Display unlimited GIS presentations
Perform add, modify, or delete actions
View modifications and accept/reject action

via graphical user interface
Use map tools (zoom, pan, )
Full control of analysis results displayed on
the GIS map
Slide 9
GIS Data Exchange
Slide 10
GIS Data Exchange
Slide 11
GIS Data Exchange
Slide 12
ETAP GIS Benefits

Reduce cost by significantly reducing hours
needed to perform system studies
Avoid duplicate/incorrect data entry
Direct communication with ESRI

Geodatabase and map documents
Slide 13
ETAP GIS Benefits

Enter data in GIS and/or ETAP
Flexibility to use all ETAP modules for

analysis
Multi-level graphical display of GIS and
ETAP data
Slide 14
DC Load Flow
DC Short-Circuit
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit
Why DC System Studies?

DC systems play an ever increasing role in:
Substation and generating station instrumentation
and control systems (IEEE Std 946)
Class 1E power system for nuclear power
generation station providing power to reactor trip
system and engineered safety features
(IEEE Std 308)
Provide back-up energy for emergencies in
hospital, generation station, production line, data
processing and communication, etc.
(IEEE Std 446 Orange Book)
Slide 2
Why DC System Studies?

Due to the importance of DC systems,
it must be:
Reliable Having redundant sources and
can operate under single failure in the
system
Adequate Capable of providing sufficient

power at required system voltage in
specified time duration
Slide 3
Type of Studies
Load Flow Determine system operating
conditions and verify equipment continuous ratings
Short-Circuit Calculation Determine system SC
current and verify equipment SC capability
Battery Sizing and Discharge Calculation (IEEE
Std 485) Determine sufficient battery size to
provide required power in specified time duration
Control System Diagram, Vd Calc Determine

and verify sufficient voltage for control circuit
operation
Slide 4
DC System Elements
DC System Source
Charger/Converter and Battery
DC System Loads
Static Load, DC Motor, Lump Load , and DC Elementary
Diagram
DC System Branch
Cable and Impedance
DC System Other Elements

Bus and Node, DC Converter, DC Composite Motor, and
Inverter
Slide 5
Purpose of DC LF Study
To determine system operating conditions -bus voltages, branch flows, and power
provided by various sources
To verify equipment continuous ratings
Slide 6
LF -- Battery Model
Constant voltage source behind battery
resistance .
Active voltage source if Vbus < Vrate
Inactive voltage source if Vbus > Vrate
Slide 7
LF -- Charger Model
Constant voltage source, if I < Imax
Constant current source, if I > Imax,
injecting Imax into system
Inactive if Vout < Vbus
Constant power load to AC system
Slide 8
LF -- Inverter Model
Constant voltage source to AC system
Constant power load to DC system
Slide 9
LF -- UPS Model
If auction diode option is checked, then DC
system provides power to UPS AC load if
Vdc > Vac.
If auction diode option is not checked
and UPS AC input bus is energized, then UPS
becomes a source to DC system, similar to a
charger.
and UPS AC input bus is not energized, then DC
system provides power to UPS AC load.
Constant power load to DC system

Slide 10
LF -- DC Converter Model
Constant voltage source to output bus, if
I<Imax
Constant current source to output bus, if
I>Imax, injecting Imax into the bus
Constant current load to the input bus
Inactive if Vout < Vbus
Slide 11
LF -- Load Model
Motor
Constant P load, if Vmin <V<Vmax;
Constant Z load, otherwise
Static Load
Constant resistance load
Lumped Load
Constant power, resistance, current load
Elementary Diagram Load

Constant resistance load
Slide 12
Constant Power Loads

DC Motor
DC Lumped Load (motor
load part)
Inverter
UPS
Slide 13
Constant Impedance Loads

Static Load
DC Elementary
Diagram Editor
DC Lumped Load
(static load part)
Slide 14

The current remains constant even if
the voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used
to test Battery discharge capacity.
DC Lump load can be used to
represent constant current load.
Slide 15
LF -- Branch Model
Cable
Constant resistance at maximum operating
temperature
Impedance
Constant resistance
Slide 16
LF- Adjustments
Cable Length Tolerance
Positive adjustment for DCLF & DCBS
Negative adjustment for DCSC
Cable Resistance based on Temperature

Copper / Aluminum
Use Maximum Temperature for DCLF & DCBS
Use Minimum Temperature for DCSC
Slide 17
Purpose of DC SC Study
To determine short-circuit fault currents and
fault contributions from different sources.
Maximum fault current
System equivalent impedance at fault location
Time constant for SC current rise
To verify protective equipment capability.
Slide 18
SC -- Battery Model
Constant voltage source -- (Voc) behind
battery resistance
Voc may be calculated based on battery specific
gravity (SG)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) from library
User-Defined value (% Vpc)
Constant current source

Ksc * One_Min_Discharge_Current
Slide 19
SC -- Charger Model
Constant voltage source behind AC system
impedance (converted to DC side)
Constant current source, Ksc * Ifl
Slide 20
SC -- UPS & Inverter Model

UPS -- Constant current source
Ksc * Ifl
Inverter -- Not considered in DC short-circuit

study
Slide 21
SC -- DC Converter Model
Constant current source, Ksc * Ifl, to faults
on output side of the system
Short-circuit contribution calculation stops at
DC converters
Slide 22
SC -- Load Model
Motor constant voltage behind transient
impedance
Static load and ED load are considered in
calculation
Slide 23
SC -- Branch Model
Cable
Constant resistance at minimum operating
temperature
Impedance
Constant resistance
Slide 24
Battery Sizing &

Discharge
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge
When does a battery kick in?

Load in DC System exceeds the battery
charger capacity
Output of the battery charger is interrupted
AC Power is lost [generally the worst case

scenario]
Slide 2
IEEE 485- Definitions

Battery Duty Cycle
The load that the battery is expected to supply for a
specified period of time (sum of all individual loads)
Cell Size
Rated capacity of a lead acid battery or number of
positive plates in a cell
Period
Time interval for which the load is assumed to be
constant
Vpc
Volts per cell (individual cell voltage)
Slide 3
Types of Loads
Constant Power
As battery voltage decreases, their current increases.
Constant Resistance
As battery voltage decreases, their current also
decreases.
Constant Current
Load current is invariant to battery voltage changes.
Slide 4
Duty Cycle Classification

Continuous Load (Non-Random)
Non-random loads
Normally carried by the battery charger
Includes lighting, converters, indicating lights,
communications systems, continuously operating motors
Non-Continuous Load (Random or Non-Random)

Emergency pumps
MOV operations
Critical ventilation system motors
Fire protection systems actuators
Slide 5
Duty Cycle Classification

Momentary Loads (Random or Non-Random)
Loads with duration that do not exceed more than
one minute
MOV with stroke of less than a minute
Field flashing of generators
Motor starting currents
Inrush currents (solenoids, relay coils, etc)
Slide 6
Individual Load Duty Cycles

Static Loads
Motor loads
DC Lump Loads
Elementary Elementary Diagram
DC to AC Inverters
Slide 7
Guidelines for Battery Duty

Cycles
All duty cycle periods (constant load) must
be higher or equal to one minute
First identify the non-random load battery

duty cycle
Find worst case scenario
Include the random load duty cycle
Final battery duty cycle becomes a
conservative combination of the two
Slide 8
Duty Cycle Example A
Slide 9
Duty Cycle Example B
Slide 10
Battery Modeling
Battery voltage based on manufacturer
battery discharge characteristic curves
Enter battery characteristic curves in battery
library
Interpolation / extrapolation is performed to
obtain battery size and discharge voltage
profile
Different interpolation methods to obtain Vpc
Slide 11
Battery Characteristic Curves
1.5
1000.00
1.6
Time (min.)
1.67
1.75
100.00
1.78
1.81
10.00
1.84
1.88
1.92
1.00
10.00
100.00
1000.00
1.96
Amps per Positive Plate

Slide 12
Interpolation Methods
Slide 13
Battery Sizing Study Case

Load Summation
Adds all the load duty cycles
Generally more conservative for systems with more
constant resistance loads
Load Flow Method

Adds all the load duty cycles, but performs a load flow
calculation at every time step to account for system
losses (more realistic results)
Generally more conservative for systems with more
constant power loads
Load model type based on load type or duty cycle type
Slide 14
Load Duty Cycles

5 different system duty cycles
Correction factors
Battery minimum temperature
Aging compensation
Initial capacity
Design margin
Voltage Requirements
Maximum system voltage deviation (charging voltage)
Minimum system voltage deviation (depends on final
Vpc)
Battery minimum discharge voltage (final Vpc)
Slide 15
Battery Discharge Page

Vd Calculation Parameters
Time step and maximum voltage limit
Correction Factors
Same as battery sizing (no design margin)
Load Flow Parameters

Iterations
Precision
Initial conditions and motor load handling
Slide 16
Duty Cycle Span Options

Options
Two Existing Options Moved from Ini File to Study Case
New Option Added One-minute Span for Battery only
One-minute Span for Battery only

Calculating Battery Discharging Current Use One-Minute
Spanned Duty Cycle To Get Conservative Battery Voltage
Calculating System Voltage Use Battery Voltage Calculated
above to Run Load Flow with User Specified Duty Cycle for
Individual Loads To Get More Accurate System Voltage
Profile
Slide 17
Displayed Results
Tabulated results for battery voltage, bus
voltage and power flows through the entire
system
One-line diagram displayed results (similar
to DC load flow)
Complete set of plots that include battery
voltage, current, discharged AH and system
flows
Slide 18
Things to Consider
Obtain as many battery characteristic curves
as possible
Obtain specific curves for battery model and
type
Understand limitations of interpolation
methods
Use most conservative approach for your
system (load flow method or load
summation)
Slide 19
Control System Diagram

(CSD)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System
Control System Elements

Switchgear Protection and Control Circuit
Circuit breaker trip and closing coils
Circuit breaker closing spring charging motors

Relays coils and timer
Motor Starter, Speed Control, and Protection

Starter coil circuit
Control relays
Can be either AC or DC control circuit
Slide 2
Control System Elements

Miscellaneous DC Loads
Relays
Solenoids
Other Purpose
Auxiliary devices and special control circuits
Regulator and regulating systems
Slide 3
CSD Modes
Edit Mode
Add/Delete Elements
Change Connections
Modify Engineering Data
Simulation Mode
Run Simulations Simulation Triggered by Manual Action or
Clicking the Run Button
Update Source Duty Cycle
Generate Event View, Alert View, and Report
Slide 4
CSD Setup
CSD Elements
Device Coil, Solenoid, General Load and Light
Contact Fixed and Form-C; Macro-Controlled Contact
Branch Wire and Impedance
Bus and Node
PD CB and Fuse
CSD Source
Elementary Diagram (ED) brought in from DC System
Each ED can be placed in only one CSD
Slide 5
Control Cable Schedule

Control Cable Schedule
Cable Used only in Control System Diagram
Can Have Multiple Wires for Different Wires in CSD
Assigned, Reserved, and Available Wire
Parameter Entered from Editor or Retrieved from Library
Parameter Change Affects All Wires
Wire Impedance Value

Editor Entered Data
Cable Library Data Data Cashed in at Selection Time
Control Cable Schedule Data Dynamically Retrieved from
Cable Schedule
Dynamically Linked to Library Dynamically Retrieving Data
from Library at Calculation Time
Slide 6
Solenoids & Relays
Slide 7
Device Property
Device Rating
Burden Rating and Inrush Rating
Burden Rating Can be Constant P, Z, or I
Inrush Rating Always Modeled as Constant Z
Inrush Duration length of Time Applying Inrush Rating
Vpickup & Vdropout Editor and Study Case Options
Device Duty Cycle

Model Device as a Time Varying Load
Each Section Can be Constant P, Z, or I Model Motor in CSD
Device Model Type

Option in Study Case
If Duty Cycle Is Used, a Device Draws Current When It is
Energized and Amp > 0 by Duty Cycle
Slide 8
Control Logic
Control Logic Setup
A Coil/Solenoid Can Control State of Multiple Contacts
Library Contact, Library Overwrite Contact & User Defined Contact
Macro Controlled Contact Time Varying Switch
Contact Property
Data Hold by Controlling Device
Top Time Taken for Contact Switching to Off-Normal State
when V >= Vpickup is maintained for controlling device.
Trelease Time Taken for Contact Retuning to Normal State
when V <= Vdeopout is maintanined for controlling device.
Each contact has its own Top and Trelealse
Special Conditions
If Duty Cycle Model Used for a Device, Control Logical Does
Not Apply.
Slide 9
CSD Simulation
Initial Steady State
Switching Device in Specified State, Macro-Controlled Contact
in Initial State, and Contact In Normal State
CSD Find Initial Steady state
V Limit Not Checked When Switching Mode
V Limit Checked When Clicking Run Button
Simulations
CSD Behaves as A Simulator
One Action Triggering Simulation From Current Steady State
to Next Steady State
When Run Button Clicked, Simulation Starts from the Initial
Steady State and Then Simulate Duty Cycle Actions
Slide 10
Simulation Method
Two Methods by CSD
Sequence of Operation Simulation
Sequence Simulation with Vd Calculation
Features
Seq Vd
Op
Logical Simulation
Device Model Options
Voltage Drop Calculation and Reporting
CSD Source Voltage
Vpickup & Vdropout Checking & Reporting
Composite CSD Duty Cycle Updating
As Part of Battery Discharge Calculation
Slide 11
Study Case Options

Device Model
Global Options Rating or Duty Cycle
Individual Editor Options
Device Voltage Limit

For Vpickup and Vdropout
Global Option Provided due to Lack of Data from Manufacturers
CSD Source Voltage Options

ED Rated V, Terminal Bus V, Battery Discharge V
Alert
Voltage Alert Base Defined in Voltage Limit Section
Current Alert for Device, Contact, and Wire
Adjustment
R Adjustment for Contact and PDs
Temperature Adjustment for Wire R
Length Adjustment for Wire
Burden Rating Adjustment for Coil and Solenoid
Slide 12
Simulation Result Report

Event View
Detailed Steps of Sequence Simulation
State Changes of Each Element
Voltage Check Results
Alert View
Critical and Marginal Violation of Pickup and Dropout Voltage
Critical and Marginal Current Violation of Devices, Contact, and
Wire
Alerts are Generated only for Simulation with Vd Calculation
Crystal Report
Input Data
Voltage Drop and Power Flow Report for Each Step
All Alerts
Report is Generated only for Simulation with Vd Calculation
Slide 13
Duty Cycle Update

Composite CSD Duty Cycle Update
Update to the Specified Duty Cycle Category
Initial Time Shift to Set to New Time Reference
CSD Source Voltage

Modeled as Constant Voltage Source for a Time Moment
Can Use Bus Voltage Calculated by Battery Discharge Value
not Saved When Closing Project
Time Offset for Adjusting Time Reference
Slide 14
Configuration & Revision

Configuration
Configuration Is Not Supported in CSD
Revision
Revision is Not Supported for All the Data in Device Contact
Page
Revision May Not Be Supported for Cable Schedule Data and
Wire Impedance Page Data
All Other CSD Data Are Supported by Revision
Slide 15
Composite CSD Duty Cycle in ED

Duty Cycle Entered in ED Editor
Each Section Can Be Constant P, Z, or I
Load Sections Can Overlap in Time
Random and Non-Random Load
Duty Cycle Updated Individually from CSD Simulation

Run CSD Simulation to Update ED Duty Cycle
Time Reference Adjustable for Individual CSD
May Be Time Consuming
Slide 16
CSD Vd Calculation in BS
CSD Vd Calculation
Option to Perform Vd Calculation in BS Study Case
Vd Calculation Conducted for Each CSD with Bus Voltage from BS
Vd Calc Results for all CSDs Saved in One Report
CSD Vd Alert Also Available
All CSDs Use Same Time Reference as Battery Discharge
Bus Voltage from Battery Discharge

Bus Voltage Profile Saved Each Time Battery Discharge
Conducted
Bus Voltage Profile Available for Individual CSD Simulation with
Different Time Reference
Bus Voltage Profile Not Saved When Closing Project File
Slide 17
Auto-Calc CSD Duty Cycle in BS

CSD Duty Cycle Calc in Battery Discharge
Each CSD Duty Cycle Calculated
Device Model Specified In Study Case
Vpickup & Vdropout Checked in Calculation
CSD Duty Cycle Updated to ED Separated by Load Type (P, Z, I)
Special Considerations
Switching Events Must Be Triggered by Macro Controlled
Switch
Slide 18
Reliability Assessment
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment
Power System Reliability

Analysis
Reliability
The probability of a system performing its

function adequately for the period of time and
operation conditions intended
Adequacy
Sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy
customer demand
Security
Ability of the system to respond favorably to
disturbances arising within that system
Slide 2

Analysis
Used in system planning and operation
Reliability Assessment for:
Generation station and generation capacity
Composite generation and transmission system

Distribution system
Substation and switching stations

Protection system
Slide 3

Analysis
Various Indices to Measure Reliability
Customer Interruption Frequency
Customer Interruption Duration

Customer Curtailment Power/Energy Not
Served
Reliability Worth Study
Minimize Total Cost: Reliability Cost and
Consumer Interruption Cost
Slide 4
Distribution System Reliability

Analysis
Concerned with availability and quality of power
supply at each customers service entrance
Adequacy Analysis
Statistics show that failures in distribution systems
contribute as much as 90% towards the
unavailability of supply to a load as compared with
other parts of electric power systems
Slide 5
Reliability Analysis Using ETAP

Assesses distribution system reliability level for
radial and looped systems with a very efficient
algorithm
Considers single and double contingencies
Assesses reliability level for system and each load
point based on component failure model and
system configuration
Performs sensitivity analysis to identify the optimal
location to make greatest improvement on system
reliability at minimum cost
Slide 6
Single & Double Contingencies

Consider a system with two or more parallel
branches.
In case of Single Contingency Analysis failure of

only one branch at a time is considered.
In case of Double Contingency Analysis

simultaneous failure of two branches at a time is
also considered in addition to failure of one branch
at a time.
Slide 7
Single & Double Contingency

Example
Single Contingency:
Failure of T5 or T6 at
a time is considered.
Double Contingency
Simultaneous failure
of T5 & T6 and failure
of T5 or T6 at a time is
considered.
Slide 8
Component Model
A
P-
- Active Failure Rate (No of Failures/Year)
Causes the operation of the protection devices around

the failed component, i.e. a short-circuit fault
Failed component itself (and those components that are

directly connected to this failed component) restores to
service after repair or replacement
Passive Failure Rate (No of Failures/Year)
Does not cause the operation of protection around the

failed component, i.e. an open circuit fault
Failed component itself restores to service after repair

or replacement
Slide 9
Component Model
Mean Time To Repair in hours (MTTR)
Time required to repair a component outage
and/or restore the system to its normal operating
state
Mean Repair Rate (No of repairs per year) ( )
= 8760/MTTR
Mean Time To Failure (years) (MTTF):

MTTF = 1.0/(
A+ P)
Slide 10
Component Model
Mean Time Between Failure (Year) (MTBF)
MTBF = MTTF + MTTR/8760
Forced Outage Rate (Unavailability) (FOR)
FOR = MTTR/(MTBF*8760)
Switching Time
Time in hours for isolating a fault occurred at the
component
Assume that CB/Fuse trip a fault instantaneously
Time for replacing a failed element by a spare one,
in hours rP
Slide 11
Single-Component Concepts
Two-State Model
A two-state up/down representation is used for
the operation/repair cycle of a component (such
as lines, cables, transformers, breakers, fuses,
switches, loads and busbars)
=(
UP
Up
A+ P)
..
DOWN
Down
..
MTTF
MTTF
MTTR
MTTR
Slide 12
Model for Components in

Series/Parallel
Two Components in Series
Component 1
Component 2
1, r1
sys
rsys
1
r
11
2, r2
2
r ( r )( r )
2 2 11 2 2
sys
r
11
r
22
sys
Slide 13
Model for Components in

Series/Parallel
Two Components in Parallel
Component 1
1, r1
2, r2
(r r )
12 1 2
sys 1 r
r
11 2 2
(r r )
12 1 2
rr
rsys 1 2
r r
1 2
Component 2
Slide 14
System Modeling
Fault Current Interruption
Only overcurrent protection devices (CB and
fuse) can interrupt fault current
Fault current interruption is assumed to be
instantaneous
Assumed to have no effect on components with
multiple source connection and isolated from
fault by CB/fuses
Slide 15
System Modeling
Fault Isolation
All switching devices can isolate faults. CBs and
fuses isolate fault instantaneously
Switches isolate fault at switching time of the
faulted component
Switching time for a load is equal to that of the
closest component
Slide 16
System Modeling
Normally Open Tie: Open tie PD can be closed
(switching time) to provide back up power
Two terminal buses should be energized
Can have several PDs connected in series and
with one or more open
Slide 17
Library for Reliability Analysis

Component Reliability
Data for each type of component - transformer,
bus, line, etc.
Active Failure Rate

Passive Failure Rate
Repair Time
Switching Time
Replacement Time
Typical data from IEEE Standard

Slide 18

Sector Customer Interruption Cost
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is used
to divide customers into seven categories of
large user, industrial, commercial, agriculture,
residential, government & institutions and office
& buildings.
Sector Customer Damage Functions (SCDF) are
interruption costs for several discrete outage
durations.
Slide 19

A log-log interpolation of the cost data is used
where the interruption duration lies between two
separate times.
If fault duration is outside the range, a linear
extrapolation with the same slope as that
between the two largest durations are used to
calculate the interruption cost.
Slide 20

Indices
Average Failure Rate at Load Point i,
i
i(f/yr)
j Ne e, j
- The average failure rate of element j (or element

combination j, such as double contingency).
Ne - The total number of the elements whose faults will
interrupt load point i.
e,j
Annual Outage Duration at Load Point i, Ui(hr/yr)

U
r
e
,
j
ij
j Ne
rij --Failure duration at load point i due to a failed element j.
Slide 21

Indices
Average Outage Duration at Load Point, ri(hr)
r U /
i i i
Expected Energy Not Supplied Index at Load Point, EENSi

(MWhr/yr)
EENSi P Ui
i
Pi - the average load of load point i.
Expected Interruption Cost Index at Load Point, ECOSTi

(k$/yr)
ECOST P
f (r )
i i j Ne ij e, j
Where f(rij) is the SCDF.
The EENS and ECOST for a bus are calculated based on loads that
are directly connected to that bus due to the outage of that bus.
Slide 22

Indices
Interrupted Energy Assessment Rate Index at Load Point,
IEARi ($/kWhr)
IEARi
ECOSTi
EENSi
System Average Interruption Frequency Index, SAIFI

(f/customer.yr)
N
i i
N
i
SAIFI Total number of customer interrupti ons

Total number of customer served
Where N is the number of customers at load point i
System Average Interruption Duration Index, SAIDI

(hr/customer.yr)
SAIDI
Sum of customer interrupti on durations

UN
i i
N
i
Slide 23

Indices
Customer Average Interruption Duration Index,
CAIDI(hr/customer interruption)
CAIDI Sum of customer interrupti on duration s
Total number of customer interrupti ons
UN
i i
N
i i
Average Service Availability Index, ASAI(pu)

ASAI
Customer hours of available service

Customer hours demanded
N 8760
NU
i
i i
N 8760
i
Where 8760 is the number of hours in a calendar year

Slide 24

Indices
Average Service Unavailability Index, ASUI(pu)
ASUI 1 ASAI
System Expected Energy Not Supplied Index, EENS (MWhr/yr)

EENS = Total energy not supplied by the system =
EENSi
System Expected Interruption Cost Index, ECOST(k$/yr)

ECOST =
ECOSTi
Slide 25

Indices
Average Energy Not Supplied Index, AENS
(MWhr/customer.yr)
AENS
Total energy not supplied by the system

System Interrupted
IEAR($/kWhr)
Energy
Assessment
EENS
i
N
i
Rate
Index,
IEAR ECOST
EENS
Slide 26
RA Example 1 Using ETAP
Slide 27

Data:
Active failure rate for breakers:

Passive failure rate for breakers:
failure/year
Failure rate for Bus, Utility:
a=
0.003 failure/year
p=
0.002
= 0.001 failure/year
MTTR for breakers: 30 hours

MTTR for buses, utility: 2 hours
Slide 28

Reliability Indices at LP1:
The main bus would be de-energized if:
CB1 fails actively OR passively
CB2 and CB3 fail actively
Utility fails
Main bus itself fails
Failure rate for the main bus:

LP1
p CB1
a CB 2
a CB 3
Utility
Main Bus
0.005 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.001

0.013 failure / year
Slide 29

Annual unavailability for the main bus:
U LP1
MTTR CB1
MTTR CB 3
a CB 3
MTTR Main Bus
p CB1
MTTR CB 2
MTTRUtility
a CB 2
Utility
Main Bus
30 0.005 30 0.003 30 0.003 2 0.001 2 0.001

0.334 hour / year
Time to replace the main bus:
rLP1
0.334
0.013
25 .692 hours
Slide 30

Results for the Single Contingency case
Slide 31

Results for the Double Contingency case
Slide 32

Calculations for the Double Contingency case:
For simplicity for hand calculations:
Failure rates for the breakers connecting the transformers to the buses are
taken to be zero
Failure rates of the two transformers are taken to be 1; MTTR = 200 hr.
Therefore the failure rate at Bus 2 due to double contingency:
(r1 r2 )
8760
1r1
2 r2
8760
1 2
double
1 1 (200 200)
8760
1 200 1 200
1
8760
0.0436681 failures / year
Slide 33

Calculations for the Double Contingency case:
Failure rate for the single contingency case:
sin gle
U1
CB1
CB1
A
MainBus
Bus 2
CB 6
0.011 failures / year

Therefore total failure rate at Bus 2 :
Bus 2
double
sin gle
0.0436681 0.011 0.0546681 failures / year
Slide 34
Slide 35
Wind Turbine Generator
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator
Wind Turbine Generators

Wind turbine generator (WTG) converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy
Wind turbine rotor supplies fluctuating
mechanical power (torque)
Slide 2
Traditional Wind Turbine
Slide 3
Generating Voltage
WTG > 150 kW generate 0.69 kV or higher
Step-up transformer (outside or inside
tower) raises the voltage to 10-30 kV
Slide 4
Generator Technology
Induction Generator
Induction generator with
variable rotor resistant
Doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG)
Converter interfaced
gearless, multi pole
Slide 5
Doubly Fed Generator
Slide 6
Doubly Fed Generator

Variable Speed Operation => Higher wind energy
capture
Can absorb or generate reactive power
Lower transient torques
More complex electrical design and control
Slide 7
Rotor Designs
Two blades are cheaper but do

not last as long
Three blades are more stable
and last longer
Options include:
Upwind vs downwind
Passive vs active yaw
Common option chosen is to
direct the rotor upwind of the
tower with a tail vane
Slide 8
Rotor Diameter Vs. Output Power
Slide 9
Wind Power
The lift force (only) turns windmill blades
for useful power output
Windmill is a fan running backwards.
The pitch of the blade causes a difference

in air pressure on either side.
Difference in air pressure provides the lift
force (similar to aircraft), and causes the
rotors to turn.
Slide 10
Wind Drag
If the angle of attack of a blade is too large,
the wind simply pushes against the blade,
exerting a drag force but no lift. When the
drag is too great, a stall occurs.
Wind turbines are designed to operate in
winds up to 35 mph, but must be able to
survive 100 mph gales.
Random turbulent winds create strong
torques that can fatigue the structure.
Slide 11
Power Curve
Electrical Power output at
different wind speeds
Field measurements
Site complexity makes it
difficult to produce power
curves exactly
Does not provide power at a
certain average wind speed
Slide 12
Power Extracted From Wind
Slide 13
Power Extracted From Wind
Cp is the fraction of the upstream wind

power which is captured by the rotor
blades
Slide 14
Example 1.65 MW Turbine

Swept Area = A = 5281 m2
4.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 295 KW
5.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 538 KW
6.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 888 KW
Slide 15
Example
Calculate how much more power is
available at a site where the wind speed is
12 mph than where it is 10 mph
P ~ V3
P2 /P1 = (V2 / V1)3
P2 = (12/10)3 * P1 = 1.73 * P1
1.7 x the power (almost a factor of 2

increase), with only 2 mph increase in wind
speed!
Slide 16
Power Coefficient
Efficiency of wind to electric energy
conversion
Power Output W/ m2 = Power Curve / Rotor
Area
Electrical Output / Wind Input
Depends on pitch angle and AOA
Depends upon ratio of downstream to
upstream wind speeds (Vo/V)
Slide 17
Power Coefficient
Theoretical maximum value of 0.59
Slide 18
Cp Curves
Maximum power generated at P1 max and P2 max
Slide 19
Speed Control
To capture more energy
To protect the rotor, generator and electronic
equipment from overloading
When generator is disconnected, rotor speed may

increase to levels causing mechanical damage
Slide 20
Speed Control Regions

Cut-in Speed
Optimum Constant Cp
Speed-Limited
Power-Limited
Cut-out speed
Slide 21
Pitch Control
Large horizontal axis turbines
Pitch is varied to hold Cp at largest value possible
up to rated speed of the turbine
Varied to reduce Cp while power in the wind (Pw)

increases
Slide 22
Wind Turbine Model
Slide 23
Wind Model
Slide 24
Converter Control
Slide 25
Simulated Turbine Operation

Vc = Wind Velocity
RPM = Rotor Speed
Cp = Power Coefficient
PE = Electrical Power
Slide 26
Power Height Relationship
Slide 27
Power Height Relationship

Wind speed increases with height
Conservative Approximation:
V2 = (H2/H1)
V1
is the Roughness exponent

Smooth terrain value (water or ice): 0.10
Rough terrain value (suburb woodlands): 0.25
Grasslands: 0.14
Slide 28
Hybrid System
Slide 29
Diesel Wind Interaction

Over-sized Diesel
Engine presents driving torque only to syn. gen
Diesel engine maintains balance of power
Increase in wind power means reduction in diesel output
When wind power output exceeds load requirement, the
diesel starts motoring
Small braking torque comes from engine compression
Rotor speed of the diesel increases
Slide 30
Diesel Wind Interaction

T = 2.5 sec
WTG (225 kW)
Genset (55 / 400 kW)
T=4 sec
Load reduced to 100 kW
Frequency runaway
Shunt Load to be added
Water heater, battery charger

Non-critical load
Minimum diesel power ~ 15% of rated load
Slide 31
Operating Data
Slide 32

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ETAP New Features Brochure

Creating a One-Line Diagram

Load Flow Examples

Device Coordination (Star) Exercise

Arc Flash Exercises

Motor Acceleration Exercise

Transient Stability Exercise

Underground Raceway Systems Exercise

Cable Pulling Exercise

Harmonic Analysis Exercise

Optimal Power Flow Exercises

Optimal Capacitor Placement Exercise

DC Exercises (DCLF, DCSC, BSD, CSD)

Unbalanced Load Flow Exercise

ETAP Workshop Notes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Workshop Notes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Operation Technology, Inc.

Operation Technology, Inc.

Over 70 Sales Offices & Support Centers

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ETAP Enterprise Solution

Energy Management System

Electrical Transient Analyzer Program

Nuclear QA Program 1991

ETAP Services & Support

Operation Technology, Inc.

Research & Development Projects

System Planning, Analysis & Optimization

Dynamic Parameter Tuning (Field Measurement)

Third-Party Data Conversion & Synchronization

Project Consultation & Training

Extensive Knowledge of ETAP

ETAP Users World

Operation Technology, Inc.

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Workshops / Training

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Who Uses ETAP?

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Metals & Mining

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Oil & Gas

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Top 10 Design Firms

80% Have Standardized on ETAP

Quality Assurance Standards

Operation Technology, Inc.

Quality Assurance Standards

ANSI/ASME N45.2 - 1977

ASME NQA-1 (includes Subpart 2.7)