a)

State why cells need to transport ions and molecules across membranes.
3
b)
Describe the different methods cells use to transport materials across
membranes. 8
c)
Outline two biological examples of cross-membrane transport.
4

a)
Cells need to transport ions and molecules across membranes in order to:
i.
obtain nutrients, such as oxygen for respiration and amino acids for the
synthesis of proteins;
ii.
excrete metabolic wastes such as carbon dioxide, or remove undigested
nutrient materials;
iii.
secrete chemicals such as hormones, which have been synthesised inside
the cell;
iv.
change the polarity of the membranes, for example during resting and
action potential in a neurone;
v.
assist in the process of aerobic cell respiration and the synthesis of ATP by
chemiosmosis.
b)
Materials are transported across membranes in two general ways:
i.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT - materials move down a concentration gradient and
no energy is required;
ii.
ACTIVE PROCESSES - with use of energy provided by the cell, and often
against a concentration gradient.
There are 3 types of PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
DIFFUSION:
A few small, hydrophobic, non polar molecules, such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide can pass directly through the lipid bi-layer, according to their
concentration gradients. Materials will move from areas of high concentration to
areas of lower concentration. A few lipid-soluble chemicals like steroids can also
diffuse directly through the phospho-lipid bi-layer.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION:
Polar molecules and ions which cannot diffuse through the lipid bi-layer, may
pass through cross-membrane, protein, channel molecules. Sometimes these
proteins make conformational changes to open or close, in order to collect and
expel their cargo. Examples of materials carried in this way are glucose and
amino acids. Other integral membrane proteins are permanently open to smaller
ions such as Na+ and Cl-.
OSMOSIS:
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across semi-permeable membranes such as cell
membranes. In situations where the solutes of a water solution cannot diffuse
across a membrane, the solvent water is able to diffuse down its concentration

gradient and cross the membrane. Water will move out of a cell through the lipid
bi-layer if the solution on the inside is more dilute (ie has a higher water
potential) than the solution on the outside, and vice versa.

pto

b) contd
There are two types of active processes which require the release of energy from
ATP:
ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
Chemicals are moved against their concentration gradients, through crossmembrane channel proteins or pumps, which are often associated other proteins,
most especially the enzyme ATPase. The channel proteins may open or close as a
result of changes in the surrounding electrical or chemical environments. The
roots of plants can actively take up magnesium from the soil against the
concentration gradient, through channel proteins which are dependent also upon
the presence of calcium or potassium ions. Some protein pumps can carry
different ions in different directions. For instance the Na/K pumps of the cell
membranes of neurons can pump sodium ions in one direction and potassium in
the other, in order to maintain resting potential or allow action potential.
BULK TRANSPORT:
Cells may take in materials by ENDOCYTOSIS or expel materials by EXOCYTOSIS.
In both cases the materials which are being transported are enclosed in
membrane-bound vesicles which pinch inwards from the cell membrane or move
outwards from the cytoplasm, carrying secretions.
i) Endocytosis of solid materials is known as phagocytosis. An example is the
way phagocytic white blood cells engulf bacteria. The bacteria are transported
into the cytoplasm and are destroyed or digested inside the vesicles.
ii) Endocytosis of liquids is known as pinocytosis. Examples are the way in which
egg cells take up nutrients from other cells around them, and the passage of
digested nutrients into microvilli surrounding the intestine.
iii) Exocytosis is commonly how secretory cells expel hormones or other
synthesised materials into surrounding blood capillaries.
c)
Examples of cross-membrane transport methods:
1) Facilitated diffusion of glucose into a cell
Glucose will be present in the extra-cellular fluids in higher concentrations than
inside the cell. Integral membrane proteins bind with glucose molecules and this
causes the proteins to make a conformational change, which will 'flip' the glucose
to the inside of the cell. Once the glucose molecules are released into the
cytoplasm, the carrier proteins return to their original shape and may again
transport glucose molecules from the outside to the inside. The presence of
insulin may make more carrier proteins available and so increase the uptake of
glucose.
2) Sodium/Potassium pumps in the cells membranes of neurons
These protein pumps are combined with the enzyme ATPase, which is responsible
for the hydrolysis of ATP and the release of the energy required to drive the ions
against their concentration gradients. Three sodium ions are pumped out and two
potassium ions pumped back in by the same protein carrier. This helps maintain a

chemical and voltage difference which enables the passage of an action potential
along a neuron.