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STAYED BRIDGES
Hassan I. Hegab(1), Osama M. Tawfik(2), Mohammed T. Nemir(3),
and Hesham E. Nour Eldeen(4)
ABSTRACT
A finite element formulation expressing both the geometric nonlinearity and time dependent
factors of cable stayed bridges is implemented. The formulation is used to design special software
NTDA which can perform a full geometric nonlinear time dependent analysis of prestressed
concrete cable stayed bridges. The considered time dependent factors are creep, shrinkage, aging
of concrete, and relaxation of prestressing steel. While the time independent ones are large
displacement, P-delta effect and sag of the stays. A numerical application is presented to
highlight the effect of time dependent factors.
Keywords: Cable Stayed Bridges, Creep , Geometric Nonlinear Analysis , Prestressed Concrete
, Shrinkage , Steel Relaxation ,Time Dependent Analysis .
1.
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this research is to present a full static geometric time dependent nonlinear
analysis of prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges. The time-dependent effects considered are
creep, shrinkage, and aging of concrete. Time-independent effects considered are large
displacements, P-delta effect in girders and pylons, and sag effect in cable stays. Moreover, both
time dependent and independent losses in the prestressing forces are included.
The main difference between this research and previous studies is that, whereas most of the
earlier works were devoted to geometric nonlinearity, time-dependent analysis, separately, the
present research accounts for their combination (9,13,17). Furthermore, it takes their interacting
relation into consideration.
A complete finite element formulation is implemented taking into account both of the geometric
nonlinearity and time dependent factors. Based on the formulated algorithm, computer software
NTDA is designed. NTDA can perform a complete geometric nonlinear time dependent analysis
of prestressed concrete cable stayed bridges along consequent observation times.
2.
The principle of superposition is considered valid if the following conditions are maintained (3,4,8):
i.
the stresses are less than 45% of the concrete strength.
ii.
appreciable reductions in strain magnitude due to unloading do not occur.
1
The structural behaviour of cable-stayed bridges is believed to be nonlinear, even time effects are
ignored. This is due to three main reasons of geometric nonlinearity, namely; large displacements
and P-delta effect of the deck and pylons, besides sag of the stay cables.
Both of large displacements and P-delta effect of the deck and pylons can be accounted for
through establishing a geometric stiffness matrix together with using an iterative procedure to
solve the nonlinear equations arising through the finite element analysis.
To account for the sag of the stays, the cable stay is idealised to a straight linear elastic element
using an equivalent modulus of elasticity. This concept was firstly introduced by Ernst and has
been verified by several other investigators (7,8,11,12,16). The equivalent modulus of elasticity E eq
is given by:
E eq =
where,
and
4.
(wc Lh ) (Ti + T f ) AE
1+
24Ti 2T f2
[2]
In addition to the geometric nonlinear effects, several time-dependent nonlinear effects influence
the behaviour of prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges. The time-dependent nonlinear effects
considered in this investigation are creep, shrinkage, aging of concrete, losses in the post
tensioning prestressing forces, and relaxation of prestressing steel.
4.1
Creep Strain Model
For constant uniaxial stress, , the strain may be written as:
(t j ) = .J (t j , t o ) + o (t j )
where,
[3]
And
ACI-209 (1) recommends the following expression to calculate the creep coefficient, (t j , t o ) :
(t j , t o ) =
(t j t o ) 0.6
10 + (t j t o ) 0.6
(t o )
[4]
where,
And
tj
( t ) = J ( t j ,t o ).d ( t o ) + o ( t j )
[6]
The numerical implementation of the integral ing Eq. 4 can be accomplished by using step-bystep time integration (18) as follows:
i
d ( i )
d ( j )
( i + 1 ) =
[ 1 + J ( t i +1 ,t i )] +
[ J ( t i +1 ,t j ) J ( t i ,t j )]
E( i )
E( j )
j =1
where,
[7]
and
j represents time intervals prior to i.
The first term on the right side of Eq. 7 accounts for the summation of the instantaneous and
creep strain in the time interval i to (i+1). The summation term accounts for the creep increment
of strain over the time interval i to (i+1) due to all previous increments of stress. To avoid the
necessity of retrieving the entire stress history for each new time interval, Eq. 5 can be converted
to a rate-type creep law. This can be done by approximating the kernel ( J (t j , t i )) by the socalled degenerate kernel which takes the following form (3,4,5,7,8,17):
m
J (t j , t o ) = ai (t o ) 1 e
i =1
where,
( t j t o ) i
[8]
And
( t t ) /
( t t ) /
( t t ) /
1 e 2 o 1 1 e 2 o 2 K K 1 e 2 o m a2 ( t o ) J ( t 2 ,t o )
M =
[9.a]
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
( tn to ) / 1
( tn to ) / 2
( tn to ) / m a ( t ) J ( t ,t )
1 e
K K 1 e
1 e
m o n o
or symbolically;
[9.b]
[A]n,m {a}m,1 = {b}n,1
6.
Solve the above system of over-determinate equations using the method of least squares as
follows:
[A]Tm,n [A]n,m {a}m,1 = [A]Tm,n {b}n,1
[10]
7.
8.
[A]m ,n {b}n ,1
T
[11]
ai ( t ) , which is the ultimate creep strain, closely matches the ultimate creep strain.
( t t ) / i
The contributions of all ai ( t )1 e j o
terms are approximately equal.
The following coefficients, used by Van Zyl (18,20), Shushkewich (17), and Cluley (7,8) have been
found to have the best correlation with the ACI-209 (1) data and, henceforth, will be applied in
this investigation:
m=3
1 / 1 = 0.1
1 / 2 = 0.01
1 / 3 = 0.001
4.2
Shrinkage Strain Model
The shrinkage strain model, proposed by ACI-209(1) is a direct relation. This model is
mathematically easy to apply using a step-by-step numerical technique. ACI-209(1) recommends
the following expressions to calculate shrinkage strain at time t, from the start of drying time to:
(t t o )
sh (t , t o ) =
sh
(for moist curing)
35 + (t t o )
[12]
(t t o )
sh (t , t o ) =
sh
(for steam curing)
55 + (t t o )
where,
sh is the ultimate shrinkage.
The ultimate shrinkage depends on the age of the concrete member, relative humidity, member
thickness, and the composition of concrete. The procedure of calculating of the ultimate
shrinkage is detailed in ACI-209(1).
4.3
Aging of Concrete Model
Aging of concrete is intricately associated with creep and shrinkage. The most important effect of
aging is the changing stiffness of concrete over time. In general, this modification of stiffness is
represented by a modulus of elasticity, which is a function of time. ACI-209(1) recommends the
following two equations to expressed the increase the compressive strength and accordingly the
modulus of elasticity with regard to time.
E c (t o ) = 42.8 10 6 3 f cu 28
[13]
III
2.30
0.70
Moist
Steam
0.92
0.98
4.4
Losses in the Prestressing Forces
Losses of prestressing force depend on the properties of the materials used in the bridge, the
environment, and the stress levels at various loading stages. Accurate estimates of the
prestressing losses require recognition that losses resulting from different sources are
interdependent. Actual losses, greater or smaller than the computed values, have a little effect on
the design strength of the member. However, they affect the service load behaviour, i.e.
deflections, camber, and cracking load. At service loads, overestimation of prestressing losses
can be almost as underestimation, since the former can result in excessive camber and horizontal
movement.
In this investigation, the equations recommended by the AASHTO(2) are directly applied. The
considered prestressing forces losses are those resulting from friction, anchorage slip, and
relaxation of the tendons together with elastic shortening, creep, and shrinkage of the concrete
member.
4.5
Steel Relaxation Model
The phenomenon of the relaxation of the stay cables and prestressing steel is quite similar to the
creep of concrete. Stress relaxation of stay cables and prestressing steel is the loss in their stress
when they are prestressed and maintained at a constant strain for a period of time.
The effect of relaxation on stays and prestressing steel is commonly evaluated by a relaxation
test. The relaxation under constant strain as in a constant length test is referred to as intrinsic
relaxation, f pr . The intrinsic relaxation at any time for low relaxation strands is expressed by(3,9)
f pr
f po
where:
log (r t o ) f po
0.55
f
45
py
[15]
5.
5.1
The deck and pylons of the bridge are idealised to three-dimensional beam-column elements. The
beam-column element used is a two-nodes element with seven degrees of freedom at each node,
three displacements, three rotations, and the warping of the cross section (11,12,14,16).
To account for the P-delta effect, the elastic stiffness matrix [K E ] is modified by a geometric
stiffness matrix [K G ] to get the tangent stiffness matrix [K T ] ,
[KT ] = [K E ] + [K G ]
[16]
Moreover, the analysis is carried out in an iterative procedure to account for the large
displacements developed in cable-stayed bridges due to their inherent slenderness (11,12, 16).
The applied elastic stiffness matrix takes into account the linear torsional-flexural interaction,
while the geometric stiffness matrix takes into account the nonlinear torsional-flexural interaction
together with the P-delta effect. These two matrices are originally derived by M. Nemir(14) for
open sections and developed by H. Nour Eldeen to adopt the behaviour of box sections(16). The
same matrices are used by H. Hegab et al.(1112)
5.2
Implementation for Creep Strain
The numerical implementation of creep strain in beams is accomplished with the application of
the following general equations during each time step (3,4,7,8),
( t r t r 1 ) = i ( t r 1 ) 1 e ( t r t r 1 ) / i
i ( t r
i ( t o
where,
and
i =1
) = i ( t r 1 )e ( t r t r 1 ) / i
[17.a]
+ ai ( t r 1 )( t r 1 )
[17.b]
[17.c]
)=0
t r is the time in days at the end of the current time interval,
t r 1 is the time in days at the end of the previous time interval,
(t r t r 1 ) is the creep strain increment over the current time interval,
i (t r 1 ) is the hidden material value which stores the past stress history,
i is the retardation time which serves to adjust the creep curve so as to fit
the ACI committee 209 (1) data or the experimental values if available,
ai (t r 1 ) is the pseudo-elastic modulus which is analogous to Youngs
modulus,
(t r 1 ) is a step function change in stress at time t r 1 .
N ( t r t r 1 ) = iN ( t r 1 ) 1 e ( t r t r 1 ) / i
i =1
where,
And
[18.a]
N ( t r 1 )
iN ( t r ) = iN ( t r 1 )e ( t r t r 1 ) / i + ai ( t r 1 )
Ac
[18.b]
iN ( t o ) = 0
[18.c]
N
N
Ac
Equivalent joint loads due to the axial creep strain in Eq. 18.a are found as follows:
N ( t r ) = N ( t r t r 1 ) Ac Ec ( t r 1 )
where,
And
N
Ec
[19]
M ( t r t r 1 ) = iM ( t r 1 ) 1 e ( t r t r 1 ) / i
i =1
where,
[20.a]
M ( t r 1 )
iM ( t r ) = iM ( t r 1 )e ( t r t r 1 ) / i + ai ( t r 1 )
Ic
[20.b]
iM ( t o ) = 0
[20.c]
M
M
where,
[21]
5.3
Implementation for Shrinkage Strain
Effect of shrinkage is performed by using equivalent nodal forces, which requires an incremental
time analysis. Accordingly, the following rectification of Eq. 12 is essential:
For concrete which has been moist cured for 7 days:
t
t r 1
( sh )u
[22.a]
sh ( t r ) = r
35 + t r 35 + t r 1
[22.b]
[23.a]
[23.b]
The authenticity and relevance of the analysis of a prestressed concrete member rests, first and
foremost, on the appropriate modelling of the tendon. Several different modelling schemes are
used to represent prestressing tendons.
In this investigation, prestressing tendons are modelled using a discrete modelling scheme(6). In
this scheme the tendon is modelled with a truss element connected to the beam-column element
through rigid links as shown in Fig. 1.
tendon element
rigid link
i
ei
ej
rigid link
j
beam-column elemnent
Fig. 1: Tendon idealization
In this modelling scheme, there is an implicit interaction between the deformation of the hosting
concrete segment and the force in the tendon, irrespective of the cause of deformation. As a
result, this scheme, directly, accounts for the losses due to creep and shrinkage.
5.5
Implementation for Aging of Concrete
Aging is accounted for by modifying the modulus of elasticity of the concrete as a function of
time. ACI-209(1) proposed the interpolation functions for the modulus of elasticity as explained
by Eqs. 13 and 14.
5.6
Stay Cable Modelling
Based on the concept of equivalent modulus of elasticity, stays are idealised to cable elements.
Consequently, the stiffness matrix in local coordinates for the cable element is given by(11,12,16):
AE eq 1 1
[24]
K=
L 1 1
where, Eeq is the equivalent modulus of elasticity defined by Eq. 2.
6.
COMPUTER PROGRAM
Based on the derived mathematical modelling of the time-dependent and independent factors, a
computer program NTDA is designed and programmed in FORTRAN Power station
environment. NTDA is an innovative designed software which can perform full time dependent
geometric nonlinear analysis together with stage analysis, however stage analysis is out of the
scope of this investigation. The combination of all these factors is the most important advantage
which gives NTDA the superiority over most of the available commercial software that can
perform time-dependent analysis.
7.
NUMERICAL APPLICATION
For the sake of numerical studies, a quite long span cable stayed bridge is chosen. The general
arrangement of the bridge is shown on Fig. 2. The bridge is analysed applying the finite element
formulation presented hereinbefore and using the designed computer program NTDA to perform
the analyses.
Dim. In Meters
Fig 2: General arrangement of the bridge and cross section of the deck
7.1.
Geometric Nonlinear Time-Independent Analysis
In this case of analysis, all the time dependent factors are suppressed and only the geometric
nonlinear factors are activated. The bridge is analysed under the effect of the permanent applied
load (henceforth it will be abbreviated as PAL). This PAL consists of the combination of dead
load (DL), superimposed dead load (SDL), and the prestressing forces induced in the stays.
7.2.
Geometric Nonlinear Time-Dependent Analysis
In this case of analysis, all the geometric nonlinear factors together with the time dependent
factors are activated and exercised. The bridge is checked at several intermediate observation
times. The last observation time is set after twenty years of construction.
7.3.
Comparisons Between The Two Different Analyses
To have a complete clear understanding of the effect of the time dependent factors, the following
categorised numerical comparisons are organised. The comparisons are performed between the
two cases of analyses as mentioned hereinbefore, namely; geometric nonlinear time independent
analysis and geometric nonlinear time dependent analysis. The comparisons are derived with
regard to deck vertical deflections, deck normal stresses, stay forces, and pylon elastic shortening.
7.3.1 Comparison of Deck Vertical Deflection
This comparison demonstrates that while the time factors affect strongly the vertical
displacement along the deck, time dependent factors preserve the configuration of the deformed
shape of the deck. This effect is very remarkable within the distance possessing high deflection
values where it goes to an increase of 40%. Fig. 3.b shows the details of this comparison.
A) General arangement
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
Vl. displacement
one stage analysis discarding time effect
-300
-250
-200
-100
100
-50
(mm)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
A) General arangement
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-5
-10
-15
.. instantaneous analysis
-300
-250
-200
-100
-50
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
With respect to areas of further research the following points should be considered:
1. Research into the refinement of creep and shrinkage predictions would help to fine tune
analyses such as that performed by the program developed for this research
2. Other areas of further research would be in developing computer routines which
automatically optimise the adjustments for camber and post-tensioning force levels which
are currently performed on an interactive basic in the program used for this research.
3. Investigation for the cases when the cracked sections are allowed to be used in the deck
and the properties of the cross section vary due to the cracking is required.
4. Research for time dependent analysis of cable stayed bridges with composite deck cross
section is suggested.
5. Numerical studies for the cases of having materials with different time dependent
parameters composing the bridge, such as steel deck with concrete pylons.
Geometric nonlinear time independent analysis
6000
5000
Stay Force KN
4000
3000
2000
1000
33
31
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
0
Stay No.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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