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Why Robust?
When we design a control system, our ultimate goal is to control a
particular system in a real environment.
When we design the control system we make numerous
assumptions about the system and then we describe the system with
some sort of mathematical model.
Using a mathematical model permits us to make predictions about
how the system will behave, and we can use any number of
simulation tools and analytical techniques to make those predictions.
Any model incorporates two important problems that are often
encountered: a disturbance signal is added to the control input to
the plant. That can account for wind gusts in airplanes, changes in
ambient temperature in ovens, etc., and noise that is added to the
sensor output.
2
D(s) Disturbance
+
R(s) Prefilter
GP(s)
+
-
Controller
GC(s)
Plant
G(s)
Y(s)
Output
+
Sensor
1
N(s)
Noise
Y ( s)
T ( s ) / T ( s) T / T
; S (sensitivity)
R( s)
G ( s ) / G ( s ) G / G
G ( s)
T G
1
G
T ( s)
; STG
.
.
1 GH ( s )
G T 1 GH 2 G / 1 GH
T ( s)
STG
1
Less S for larger GH
1 G (s) H (s)
5
T
SH
T H G
H
GH
.
H T 1 GH G / 1 GH 1 GH
T
SG
T
S Sri .
s ri s 1
i 1
System sensitivity is : ST
The root is r1 1
ST ; ST Sri
R(s)
s 1
+
1/s+
Y(s)
T ( s)
s sk
We know from Eq. (4.12) that
1
ss 1
T
SK
2
1 GH ( s) s s K
R(s)
+
K/s(s+1)
Y(s)
S GT
1
s2
2
1 GGC ( s ) s b2 s b1
T (s)
b2 s b1
s 2 b2 s b1
GC(s)
G(s)
Controller
b1+b2s
Plant
1/s2
Y(s)
Bode Plot
Frequency response plots of linear systems are often displayed in the form of
logarithmic plots, called Bode plots, where the horizontal axis represents the
frequency on a logarithmic scale (base 10) and the vertical axis represents the
amplitude ratio or phase of the frequency response function.
10
11
One of the advantages of the feedback system is the reduction of the steadystate error of the system.
The steady-state error of the closed loop system is usually several orders of
magnitude smaller than the error of the open-loop system.
The system actuating signal, which is a measure of the system error, is denoted
as Ea(s).
R(s)
Ea(s)
G(s)
Y(s)
H(s)
E ( s ) R( s ) Y ( s ) R( s )
G( s)
1
R( s) When H ( s) 1
1 GH ( s) 1 G( s)
12
Compensator
A feedback control system that provides an optimum performance
without any necessary adjustments is rare. Usually it is important to
compromise among the many conflicting and demanding
specifications and to adjust the system parameters to provide
suitable and acceptable performance when it is not possible to
obtain all the desired specifications.
The alteration or adjustments of a control system in order to provide
a suitable performance is called compensation.
A compensator is an additional component or circuit that is inserted
into control system to compensate for a deficient performance.
The transfer function of a compensator is designated as GC(s) and
the compensator may be placed in a suitable location within the
structure of the system.
13
14
K s 1
2
s s 1 0
4
2 K s 2
0
ss 4
The multiplicative gain parameter is 2 K . To determine the locus of roots for the gain 0 K (Step3)
we locate the poles and zeros on the real axis.
Step 4 : The angle criterion is satisfied on the real axis between th e points 0 and - 2, because the angle p1
at the origin is 180 o , and the angle from the zero and pole p 2 at s - 4 is zero degrees.
The locus begins at the poles and ends at the zeros.
Step 5 : Find the number of separate loci (equal to the number of poles).
Step 6 : The root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real axis.
Step 7 : The loci proceed to the zeros at infinity along asymptotes centered at A and with angle A .
Step 8 : Determine the point at which the locus crosses the imaginary axis.
Step 9 : Determine the breakway point on the real axis.
Step 10 : Determine the angle of departure of the locus from a pole and the angle of arrival at a zero.
15
Example
z1=-3+j1
R(s)
+
Controller
GC(s)
G( s)
1
s 2s 3
Plant
G(s)
Y(s)
j2
-z1
T (S )
G( s)GC ( s)
K 3s z1 s z1
1 G( s)GC ( s) s r2 s r1 s r1
j1
-2
-1
-z1
16
Analysis of Robustness
S ystemgoals : Small tracking error [e(t ) r (t ) y (t )] for an input r (t )
and keep the output y (t ) small for a disturbance d (t ).
Sensor noise n(t ) must be small to r (t ) so r n
S ( s ) [1 GC ( s )G ( s )]1. The closed - loop transfer function
GC ( s )G ( s )
T ( s)
; When GP ( s ) 1, then S ( s ) T ( s ) 1; Better S ( s ) small.
1 GC ( s )G ( s )
Prefilter +
GP(s)
-
Controller
GC(s)
+
+
Sensor
1
Plant
G(s)
Y(s)
Output
+ N(s)
Noise
17
PID Controllers
PID stands for Proportional, Integral, Derivative. One form of controller
widely used in industrial process is called a three term, or PID controller.
This controller has a transfer function:
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time
and will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady state error. An integral
control (KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it
may make the transient response worse. A derivative control (KD) will
have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.
KI
KDs
s
The controller provides a proportional term, an integration term, and a derivative term
de(t )
u (t ) K p e(t ) K I e(t )dt K D
dt
GC (t ) K p
19
e(t)
ki/s
u(t)
+
kis
e(t )
K D se(t )
s
e(t ) r (t ) y (t ) is the error between th e reference signal
u (t ) K p e(t ) K I
E (s)
s
20
r(t)
e(t)
R(s)+
E(s)
PID
Controller
u(t)
U(s)
y(t)
System
Y(s)
Gsys ( s)GPID ( s)
Y ( s)
G(s)
R( s) 1 Gsys ( s)GPID ( s)
21
22
Inverting amplifier
Vo (t )
R2
VS (t )
R1
Figur
e 8.5
23
Op-amp Integrator
Z 2 ( s)
Z1 ( s)
Vout ( s)
Z 2 ( s)
1
G( s)
Vs ( s)
Z1 ( s)
RS C F s
Figure
8.30
24
Op-amp Differentiator
The operational differentiator performs the differentiation of the input signal. The
current through the input capacitor is CS dvs(t)/dt. That is the output voltage is
proportional to the derivative of the input voltage with respect to time, and
Vo(t) = _RFCS dvs(t)/dt
Z 2 ( s)
G( s)
Figure 8.35Z ( s )
1
Vo ( s)
Z ( s)
2
_ RF C S s
VS ( s)
Z1 ( s)
25
R2
C2
R1
Z1(s)
vo(t)
vs(t)
G(s)
Vo ( s)
R C s 1R2C2 s 1
1 1
VS ( s )
R1C2 s
R2C1s 2
R1C1 R2C2
1
s
R1C2
R1C2
s
KDs2 KPs KI
R C R2C2
1
GPID ( s)
; KP 1 1
; KI
; K D R2C1
s
R1C2
R1C2
26
27
K 3 s 2 K1s K 2
K2
GC (t ) K1
K3s
s
s
K 3 s 2 as b
K s z1 s z 2
3
s
s
Where a K1 / K 3 ; and b K 2 / K 3 . Accordingl y the PID introduces
a transfer function w ith one pole at the origin and two zeros that can be
located anywhere in the left - hand s - plane
28
Root Locus
Root locus begins at the poles and ends at the zeros.
G ( s)
s 2s 5
Assume we use a PID controller with complex zeros, we can plot the root locus. As K3 of
the controller increases, the complex roots approaches the zero. The closed loop transfer function is
G ( s )GC ( s )GP ( s )
K 3 s z1 s z1
K G (s)
T ( s)
GP ( s) 3 P
1 G ( s )GC ( s )
( s r2 )s r1 ( s r1 )
( s r2 )
Because the zeros and the complex roots are approximat ely equal. Setting GP ( s ) 1, we have
T ( s)
K3
K3
; If K 3 is large, the system will have a fast response and zero steady state error.
s r2 s K 3
K3 increasing
r2
z1
r1
j4
j2
-2
z1
r1
29
ITAE t e(t ) dt
0
30
bo
Y ( s)
T ( s)
n
R( s) s bn 1s n 1 ... b1s bo
31
Step:
r(t) = A
R(s) = A/s
Ramp: r(t) = At R(s) = A/s2
The performance of a system is measured usually in terms of step response.
The swiftness of the response is measured by the rise time, Tr, and the peak
time, Tp.
The settling time, Ts, is defined as the time required for the system to settle
within a certain percentage of the input amplitude.
For a second-order system with a closed-loop damping constant, we seek to
determine the time, Ts, for which the response remains within 2% of the final
value. This occurs approximately when
n 1
(Peak Time); M p 1 e /
1 2
(Peak Response)
1 2
32
E(s)
GP(s)
GC(s)
U(s) +
G(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
s 12
1
s 2 2s 1
1
s 2 2 n s n2
; ess
A
1
2
; K p lim G ( s ) 1; ess 50%; 1
1 K p
2
2
s
0
If GC ( s ) 1, the steady - state error is 50%, and the settling time (2% criterion) is 3.2 seconds for a step input.
We desire to obtain an optimim ITAE performance for a step input for a settling time of less than 0.5 seconds.
K 3s 2 K1s K 2
Using a PID controller : GC ( s )
; The closed - loop transfer function with GP ( s ) 1 is
s
GC G ( s )
K 3s 2 K1s K 2
Y ( s)
T1 ( s )
R( s ) 1 GC G ( s ) s 3 2 K 3 s 2 1 K1 s K 2
The optimum coefficien ts of the characteri stic equation for ITAE (Table 5.6) : s 3 1.7n s 2 2.15n2 s n3
33
Cont. 12.8
We need to select n in order to meet the settling time requiremen t.Ts 4 / n .
is unknown but near 0.8, we set n 10. Equate the denominato r of the equation
to the desired equation, we obtain the three coefficien ts as K1 214,
K 3 15.5, and K 2 1000.
T (s)
Gc ( s )GGP ( s )
1000
T (s)
1 GGc ( s )
s 3 17.5s 2 215s 1000
64.5
Therefore we require GP ( s )
in order to eliminate the
2
s 13.8s 64.5
zeros in the previous equation and bring the overall numerator to 1000.
34
GC(s)=1
Percent
overshoot
31.7%
1.9%
3.2
0.20
0.45
Steady-state
error
50.1%
0.0%
0.0%
y(t)/d(t)maximum
52%
0.4%
0.4%
35
E12.1: Using the ITAE performance method for step input, determine the required GC(t).
Assume n = 20 for Table 5.6. Determine the step response with and without a prefilter
GP(s)
D(s)
R(s)
E(s)
GP(s)
GC(s)
U(s) +
G(s)
Y(s)
1
K
; Use a PI controller given by GC K1 2
s 1
s
GC G ( s )
T ( s)
Find it s 2 ( K1 1) s K 2
1 GC G ( s )
G ( s)
R( s ) s 2 28s 400
Y ( s ) GC ( s )GGp( s )
400
With a prefilter, the closed - loop gain is
R( s)
1 GC G ( s )
s 2 28s 400
Where GP ( s )
14.8
; Draw the step response without and with the prefilter
s 14.8
36
G ( s)
s 2 ps
s 2 ps 9
The sensitivity of T to changes in p is determined by
T
SP
dT p
ps
dp T
s 2 ps 9
37
E12.5
15,900
and a negative unity
s
s
s
1
1
100 200
feedback w ith PD compensator GC ( s ) K1 K 2 s. Design GC ( s ) so that
A systemhas a plant G ( s )
the overshoot to a step is less than 20% and the settling time is less than 60 ms.
K
15900 K 2 s 1 2 10 4
K2
K
K s 1
K2
4
40 ms; The controller Gc ( s ) 0.00012s 100
100
38
DP12.10
1
(The space robot transfer function)
s ( s 10)
GGc( s )
K
(a) Consider Gc ( s ) K ; T ( s )
1 GGc( s ) s 2 10 s K
For PO 4.5%; 0.702; K 50.73; Gc( s ) 50.73
(b) Consider PD controller : Gc ( s ) K1 K 2 s
G (s)
T (s)
K1 K 2 s
2
s (10 K 2 ) s K1
Gc ( s ) 4 s 100; G p ( s )
100
4 s 100
K1s K 2
3
s 10 s K1s K 2
K 2 K1s K 2
s
s
Gc ( s ) 70.2 186.6 / s; G p ( s )
186.6
70.2 s 186.6
39
K1s 2 K 2 s K 3
(d) Consider PID controller : Gc ( s )
s
T (s)
K1s 2 K 2 s K 3
3
s 10 s K1s K 2 s K 3
l 1 2
(Eq 5.15); t p
n 1 2
(Eq. 5.14)
40