Option D: Human Nutrition

D.1.1 Essential Nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body; therefore they

have to be included in the diet.
Essential Nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, therefore they have to be
included in the diet.
Essential Nutrients Include:
-Amino Acids (e.g. lysine and methionine)
-Fatty Acids (omega 3 and omega 6)
-Vitamins
-Minerals (iron, sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and iodine)
-Water

Other nutrients are non-essential, either because another nutrient can be used for the
same purpose or because they can be made in the body from another nutrient. Glucose,
starch and other carbohydrates are nonessential, because they are used in respiration to
provide energy and lipids can be used instead.
Some essential nutrients are conditionally essential.

D.1.2 Dietary Minerals are essential chemical elements

Minerals are needed in the diet in relatively small quantities. They can be distinguished
from vitamins by their chemical nature. Minerals are usually inorganic elements in ionic
form examples include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and iodine (I-)
If any mineral is lacking from the diet, a deficiency disease results. The consequences of
deficiency diseases can be serious, even though the quantities of the mineral needed in
the diet are small, an example of this would be the mineral iodine. It is needed by the
thyroid gland for synthesis of the hormone thyroxin. This hormone stimulates the
metabolic rate and ensures that enough energy is released in the body. A lack of iodine
can cause iodine deficiency disorder. If a pregnant woman has IDD, her baby may be
born with permanent brain damage, and if the children suffer from IDD after birth, their
mental development and intelligence are impaired.

D.1.3 Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be

synthesized by the body
Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants or animals examples include retinol
(Vitamin A) and calciferol (Vitamin D). Vitamins are needed in very small amounts but
must be obtained from the diet. They serve a variety of roles such as co-factors for
enzymes, anti-oxidants and hormones. Vitamins are broadly categorized as fat-soluble

and water-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins have to be constantly consumed and any
excess is lost in urine. The fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body.

D.1.4 Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential

Of the 20 amino acids in proteins, about half are essential in humans, because they
cannot be synthesized in humans and without them the production of proteins at
ribosomes cannot continue, but the other half can be made from other simpler nitrogen
compounds. There are some omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids that are essential in the
diet because they cannot be synthesized in the body. Alpha-lionelic acid and linoleic acid
are used in the biosynthesis of a number of other compounds. They are needed
throughout the body, but the development of the brain and the eye involves particularly
large quantities. However, there is little or no evidence that supplementation of a normal
balanced diet with omega-3 fatty acids, for example from fish oils, enhances brain or eye
development. Fatty acids all have the same general strucute, but there may be a
variation in the bonding between the carbon atoms.
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms
Monounsaturated fatty acids have a single double bond between two carbon atoms
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have multiple double bonds between carbon atoms
In cis isomers, hydrogen atoms attached to the double-bonded carbon atoms are on the
same side
In trans isomers, hydrogen atoms attached to the double-bonded carbon atoms are on
different sides.
Saturated fats and (trans) polyunsaturated fatty acids raise levels of LDL cholesterol,
leading to a higher risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.
Monounsaturated and (cis) polyunsaturated fatty acids raise levels of HDL cholesterol
and inhibit LDL cholesterol, lowering the risk of atherosclerosis and CHD.
Unsaturated fats are essential nutrients (that cannot be synthesized by the body),
saturated fats are not.
All types of fatty acids are consumed as a part of the dietary intake, which will cause
weight gain and increase risks of heart disease if taken in excessive amounts.

D.1.5 Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins.

Protein deficiency malnutrition is caused by an inadequate supply of one or more
essential amino acids. As a result there is a lack of plasma proteins in the blood, leading
to the retention of fluid in the tissues, which causes abdominal bloating. This is coupled
with a wasting of muscles, flaky appearance of the skin and sparse hair with a lack of
pigmentation. In children especially, it results in a retardation of physical and mental
development. Individuals suffering from protein deficiency malnutrition will often present
as lethargic, with little interest in their surrounding. Protein deficiency malnutrition is a
key factor in the development of kwashiorkor.

D.1.6 Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of

nutrients in the diet.

Malnutrition is caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet. There

are many forms of malnutrition depending on which nutrient is present in excessive or
insufficient amounts. Malnutrition is the outcome of a poor diet. Diets can be low in
overall quantity with low protein and calorie content. They can be unbalanced and fail to
provide essential nutrients or they can contain excess fats and refined carbohydrates.
Malnutrition is often associated with poverty. Starvation is a consequence of a diet
lacking in adequate protein and carbohydrates. Once glycogen and fat reserves are used
up, body tissues have to be broken down and used in respiration.

D.1.7 Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus

In the hypothalamus of the brain, there is a center that is responsible for making us feel
satisfied when we have eaten enough food. It is called the appetite control centre. As
with starvation, the body tissue is broken down. The small intestine secretes the
hormone PYY3-36 when it contains food. The pancreas secretes insulin when the blood
glucose concentration is high. Adipose issue secretes the hormone leptin when amounts
of stored fat increase. If the appetite control centre receives these hormones, It reduces
the desire to eat. This helps us to avoid health problems due to overeating, including
excessive blood glucose levels and obesity.

D.1.8 Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and

type II diabetes.

Obesity is excessive storage of fat in adipose tissue, due to prolonged intake of more
energy in the diet than is used in cell respiration. Unhealthy diets with excess fat and
refined carbohydrates have health consequences. Two examples of nutrition related
diseases are diabetes and hypertension. There are several diseases involving the
excessive excretion of urine, all of which are forms of diabetes. Most commonly, sugar is
present in the urine. This is diabetes mellitus.
There are two ways where this can develop:
-Autoimmune destruction of insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas (type I diabetes)
-Decreased responsiveness of body cells to insulin due to burn-out (type II diabetes)
The main symptoms of type II diabetes are:
-Elevated levels of blood glucose
-Glucose in the urine
-Dehydration and thirst resulting from excretion of large volumes of urine
-Atherosclerosis
-Coronary heart disease
Weight gain can increase the release of several hormones as well as cause changes in

body physiology and anatomy all of which can lead to hypertension:

-Weight gain leads to higher cardiac (heart) output, which can raise blood pressure
-Abdominal obesity can increase vascular resistance, which can raise blood pressure
-Weight gain is associated with arteries becoming stiffer and narrower, which can raise
blood pressure.

D.1.9 Starvation can lead to the breakdown of body tissue.

Starvation occurs due to the severe lack of intake of essential and nonessential
nutrients. In the absence of dietary intake of energy sources, the body will first access
glycogen stores. However, if no glucose is available, the body will break down its own
muscle tissue to utilize the resulting amino acids as energy sources. The amino acids
are sent o the liver where they are converted to glucose. This results in a loss of muscle
mass.

D.1.1 Production of ascorbic acid by some mammals, but not others that
need a dietary supply.

Vitamin C is an ascorbic acid that is needed for the synthesis of collagen fibres in many
body tissues including skin and blood vessel walls. Humans cannot synthesize ascorbic
acid in their cells so this substance is a vitamin in the human diet (Vitamin C). Scurvy is
a deficiency disease caused by a lack of it. Attempts to induce the symptoms of scurvy in
rats were unsuccessful because these and most other mammals have the enzymes
needed for synthesis of ascorbic acid. A theory that scurvy was specific to humans as
falsified when scurvy was induced in guinea pigs by feeding them a diet lacking ascorbic
acid. Apes and chimpanzees also require vitamin C in the diet.

D.1.2 Cause and treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU)

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid, but tyrosine is non-essential because it can be

synthesized from phenylalanine. In the disease PKU, the level of phenylalanine in the
blood becomes too high. This is because of an insufficiency or complete lack of
phenylalanine hydroxylase, due to a mutation of the gene coding for the enzymes unable
to catalyze the conversion reaction. PKU is therefore a genetic disease; the allele
causing it is recessive. The consequences of PKU are potentially very serious. The high
phenylalanine levels cause reduced growth of head and brain, with mental retardation of
young children and severe learning difficulties.
The treatment or PKU is a diet with low levels of phenylalanine, so foods such as meat,
fish, nuts, cheese and beans can only be eaten in small quantities. Tyrosine
supplements may be needed if amounts in the diet are insufficient. PKU babies are
unaffected at birth because of the mothers metabolism has kept phenylalanine and
tyrosine at normal levels. This gives an opportunity for an early diagnosis and treatment.

A test should be carried out at about 24 hours after birth, by which time blood
phenylalanine concentrations will have started to rise.

D.1.3 Lack of Vitamin D or calcium can affect bone mineralization and

cause rickets or osteomalacia
If there is insufficient vitamin D in the body, calcium is not absorbed from food in the guit
in large enough quantities. The symptoms of vitamin D deficiency are therefore the same
as those of calcium deficiency including osteomalacia.
Osteomalacia is inadequate bone mineralization after epiphyseal closure in adults due to
deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D not being deposited or being reabsorbed,
leading to fratures and deformity. Rickets is a similar condition occurring in children and
immature mammals, due to the deficiency of phosphorus or calcium or Vitamin D but
occurs before epiphyseal closure.
Vitamin D is contained in oily fish, eggs, milk, butter, cheese and liver. Unusually for a
vitamin, it can be synthesized in the skin, but only in ultraviolet light. The intensity of UV
is too low in the winter in high latitudes for much vitamin D to be synthesized, but the
liver can store enough during the summer to avoid deficiency in winter.

D.1.4 Breakdown of heart muscle due to anorexia

Anorexia means reduced appetite. Anorexia nervosa is a psychiatric illness which
involves voluntary starvation and loss of body mass. The amounts of carbohydrates and
fats consumed are too small to satisfy bodys energy requirements so protein and other
chemicals in body are broken down resulting in a wasting of muscles and loss of
strength. Blood pressure reduced, poor circulation. As body weight falls heart muscle
deteriorates to supply amino acids that can be used for respiration. Skeletal muscle
mass reduces disproportionately faster than cardiac mass. Lack of protein, electrolytes
and micronutrients result in muscle fiber deterioration, and alters the electrolyte balance
for examples, concentration of calcium, potassium, and sodium and muscles do not
contract normally. Both skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle do not contract under these
circumstances and a shortage of other ions can lead to irregular heartbeat or even a
heart attack.

D.1.5 Cholesterol in blood as an indicator of the risk of coronary heart

disease.
Cholesterol is a normal component of plasma membranes in human cells. Research has
shown a correlation between high levels of cholesterol in blood plasma and an increased
risk of coronary heart disease but it is not certain that lowering cholesterol intake
reduces the risk of CHD because:
-Only Cholestrol in LDL is implicated in CHD
-Reducing dietary cholesterol has a small effect on blood cholesterol levels and therefore

has little effect on CHD rates

-The liver can synthesize cholesterol, so dietary cholesterol is not the only source
-Genetic factors are more important than dietary intake and members of some families
have high cholesterol levels even with a low dietary intake.
-There is a positive correlation between dietary intake of saturated fats and intake of
cholesterol, so it may be that saturated fats, not cholesterol causes the increased risk of
CHD in people with high cholesterol intakes.

D.1.S1 Determination of the energy content of food by combustion

-It is known as calorimetry.
Q = mass of water x specific heat capacity x change in temperature

D.1.S2 Use of databases of nutritional content of foods and software to

calculate intakes of essential nutrition

Balanced diet: combination of foods that will provide essential and non-essential
nutrients in the correct balance. Fresh fruit and vegetables should make up largest part
of diet followed by carbs, proteins and then dairy products. Fata and sugars are on
charge because they should make up smallest part of diet.

6.1 Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.

There are two major groups of organs, which comprise the human digestive system:
The alimentary canal consists of organs through which food actually passes
(oesophagus, stomach, small & large intestine)

The accessory organs aid in digestion but do not actually transfer food (salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder)

Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine

viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph.
The wall of the small intestine is made of layers of living tissues, which are usually quite
easy to distinguish in sections of the wall.
There are four layers:
-Serosa an outer coat
-Muscle Layers longitudinal muscle and inside it is a circular muscle
-Sub-Mucosa a tissue layer containing blood and lymph vessels
-Mucosa the lining of the small intestine, with the epithelium that absorbs nutrients on
its inner surface
-Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the villus, allowing for a greater rate of
absorption
-Rich Capillary Networks help to maintain a concentration gradient for absorption by
rapidly transporting absorbed products away
-Single epithelial layer ensures minimal diffusion distance between the intestinal lumen
and capillary network
-Lacteals absorb lipids from the intestine into the lymphatic system
-Intestinal crypts located between villi and release juices that act as a carrier fluid for
nutrients
-Membrane proteins High amounts to enable active transport into cells

Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested foods in the

intestine
Dialysis tubing can be used to model absorption by the epithelium of the intestine. Unlike
the membranes of living cells, dialysis tubing is not selectively permeable based on
charge (ions can freely cross)

The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine

mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut.
Persistalsis is the contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the small
intestine mixes the food with enzymes and move it along the gut. Contraction of circular
muscle behind the food constricts the gut to prevent food from being pushed back
towards the mouth. Contraction of longitudinal muscle where the food is located moves it
on along the gut. Contractions of both layers of muscle mix food with enzymes in the
small intestine.
Pancreatic Juice the pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine.
The pancreas contains two types of gland tissue. Small groups of cells secrete the
hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood. The remainder of the pancreas
synthesizes and secretes digestive enzymes into the gut in response to eating a meal.
This is mediated by hormones synthesized and secreted by the stomach and also by the
enteric nervous system.

Enzymes digest most of the macromolecules in food into monomers in the

small intestine
The enzymes secreted by the pancreas into the lumen of the small intestine carry out
these hydrolysis reactions:
-Starch is digested to maltose by amylase
-Triglycerides are digested to fatty acids and glycerol or fatty acids and monoglycerides
by lipase
-Phospholipids are digested to fatty acids, glycerol and phosphate by phospholipase
-Proteins and polypeptides are digested to shorter peptides by protease

Some enzymes produced by gland cells in the intestine wall may be secreted in intestinal
juice but most remain immobilized in the plasma membrane of the epithelium cells lining
with the intestine. They are active there and continue to be active when the epithelium
cells are abraded off the lining and mixed with the semi-digested food. Some substances
remain largely undigested, because humans cannot synthesize the necessary enzymes.
Cellulose for example is not digested and passes on to the large intestine as one of the
main components of dietary fiber.
There are two types of molecules in starch: amylose and amylopectin, which are both
polymers of alpha glucose linked by 1,4 bonds but in amylose the chains are
unbranched and in amylopectin there are some 1,6 bonds that make the molecule
branched.
Amylase breaks 1,4 bonds in chains of four or more glucose monomers, so it can digest
amylose into maltose but not glucose. Because of the specificity of its active site,
amylase cannot break the 1,6 bonds in amylopectin. Fragments of the amylopectin
molecule containing a 1,6 bond that amylase cannot digest are called dextrins.
Digestion of starch is completed by enzymes in the membranes of microvilli on villus
epithelium cells: maltase and dextrinase digest maltose and dextrins into glucose. In the
membranes of the microvilli there are protein pumps that cause the absorption of the
glucose produced by digesting starch.
Blood carrying glucose and other products of digestion flows though villus capillaries to
venules in the sub mucosa of the wall of the small intestine. The blood in these venules
is carried via the hepatic portal vein to the liver, where excess glucose can be absorbed
by liver cells and converted to glycogen for storage.

Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is

carried out. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral
ions and vitamins
Villi and the surface area of digestion:
-Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out
-The process of taking substances into cells and the blood is called absorption.
-In the human digestive system, nutrients are absorbed principally in the small intestine.
-The rate of absorption depends on the surface area of the epithelium that carries out the
process.
-The small intestine in adults is approximately seven meters long and 25-30 millimeters
wide and there are folds on its inner surface, giving a large surface area. This area is
increased by the presence of villi. Villi are small finger-like projections of the mucosa on
the inside of the intestine wall. A villus is between 0.5 and 1.5 mm long and there can be

as many of them as 40 of them per square millimeters of small intestine wall. They
increase the surface area by a factor of about 10.
Absorption by villi
-Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins. The
epithelium that covers the villi must form a barrier to harmful substances, while at the
same time being permeable enough to allow useful nutrients to pass through.
Villus cells absorb these products of digestion of macromolecules in food:
-glucose, fructose, galactose and other monosaccharides
-any of the twenty amino acids used to make proteins
-fatty acids, monoglycerides and glycerol
The villi absorb mineral ions and vitamins and also monomers formed by digestion such
as glucose.

Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different

nutrients.
Mechanisms used by the ileum to absorb and transport food include facilitated diffusion,
active transport and endocytosis.
Facilitated Diffusion Channel proteins help hydrophilic food molecules pass through the
hydrophobic portion of the plasma membrane. Water-soluble molecules (e.g. fructose),
vitamins and some minerals are absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
Active Transport Protein pumps in the plasma membrane hydrolyze ATP to translocate
molecules against the concentration gradient. Epithelium cells will often use active
transport to traffic high concentrations of food material into the cell so it can freely diffuse
into the bloodstream.
Endocytosis - Endocytosis involves the invagination of the plasma membrane to create
an internal vesicle containing extracellular material. Each pinocytotic vesicle contains a
small droplet of fluid from the lumen of the ileum. The vesicle contain channels and
pumps from the plasma membrane and so digested food can be absorbed from the
vesicle into the cytoplasm.
D.2 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of digestive juices.
The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and
hormonal mechanisms.
Pre-ingestion:
-The sight and smell of food triggers a reflex response in which gastric juice is secreted
from gastric pits in the stomach wall
-This ensures that gastric juice is in the stomach by the time the food is consumed

-Sodium and chloride ions are also secreted, causing water to move by osmosis into the
stomach to form gastric juice.
Post-ingestion:
-When food enters the stomach chemoreceptors detect amino acids and stretch
receptors respond to the distension of the stomach wall.
-Impulses are sent to the brain, which triggers the secretion of gastrin from the pits lining
the stomach wall
-Gastrin causes the sustained release of gastric juice, particularly its acid component
When the pH drops too low, gastrin secretion is inhibited by hormones (secretin and
somatostatin)
The role of membrane-bound enzymes on the surface of epithelial cells in the small
intestine of digestion
-Some digestive enzymes are immobilized on the plasma membrane of the epithelial
cells of the small intestine, serving two main components:
The enzyme is fixed in its placed and does not pass through the digestive system
The enzyme can be linked to secondary functions
Digestive juices are secreted into the alimentary canal by glands, including salivary
glands, gastric glands in the stomach wall, the pancreas and the wall of the small
intestine. Gastric juices are secreted by cells in the epithelium that lines the stomach.
Hydrogen ions are secreted by the parietal cells. This makes the contents of the stomach
acidic, which helps to control pathogens in ingested food. Chemical digestion in the
alimentary canal involves the secretion of digestive juices capable of breaking down
complex macromolecules.
These digestive juices are secreted from glands, which include:
-Salivary glands secretes saliva which contains amylase
-Gastric glands secrets gastric juices which include hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen
-Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing lipase, tyrpsinogen and hydrogen
-Intestinal wall the small intestine contains the crypts of Lieberkuhn, which secrete a
variety of substances as part of the intestinal juice.

D.2 Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the
gut.
Exocrine glands have ducts through which they secrete their product. The ducts arise
from a cluster of cells called an acinus, surrounded by a basement membrane. Acini are
lined by a single layer of secretory cells which release the exocrine product into the
lumen of the duct via secretory vesicles. Secretory vessels are held together by tight
junctions, and possess a highly developed rough ER and golgi network for material
secretion.

D.2 The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the
absorption of food.
The surface of these cells that faces the lumen is called the apical surface, whereas the
surface facing the blood vessels is the basal surface.
Microvilli - these tiny, finger-like projections of the cell surface facing the lumen of the gut
greatly increase the surface area in contact with material to be absorbed.
Mitochondria - these organelles are present in large numbers, suggesting a significant
demand for ATP in these cells
Pinocytotic vesicles - these are the site of pinocytosis, by which fluid is taken up or
released in tiny vesicles across the plasma membrane of a cell
Tight Junctions - these bind together the individual epithelial cells, so that the only way
into the tissues of the body is through the epithelium.

The reduction of stomach acid secretion by proton pump inhibitor drugs.

+

Acid production can be reduced using proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), H /K - ATPase. This

pump uses one ATP molecule to exchange two protoons from the cytoplasm for two
potassium ions in the lumen surrounding the parietal cell. PPI bind irreversibly to a single
pump. The effect on the overall acid production system is not permanent as the pumps
are normally recycled and replaced with new pumps. The PPIs are consumed in an
inactive form. Acid conditions in the vicinity of the parietal cells convert them to the active
form close to their target.

Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help
to control pathogens in ingested food.
Acid is secreted by the parietal cells of the stomach. The acid disrupts the extracellular
matrix that holds cells together in tissues. It also leads to the denaturing of proteins,
exposing the polypeptide chains to that the enzyme pepsin can hydrolyze the bonds
within the polypeptides. Pepsin is released by chief cells as the inactive pepsinogen. The
acid conditions within the stomach convert the inactive pepsinogen to pepsin. This
ensures that the cells that produce pepsinogen are not digested at the same time as the
protein in the diet.
The secretion of acid into the stomach is carried out by a proton pump called H+/K+ ATPase, in parietal cells in the stomach epithelium. These pumps exchange protons from
the cytoplasm for potassium ions from the stomach contents. They can generate an H+
gradient of 3 million to one making the stomach contents very acidic and potentially

corrosive. A natural mucus barrier protects the stomach lining, if it breaks, it is damaged
and bleeds, which is known as an ulcer. There can also be a problem with the circular
muscle at the top of the stomach that prevents acid reflux, which is the entry of acid
stomach contents to the esophagus, causing the pain to be known as heartburn. These
diseases are treated with a group of drugs known as PPIs, which bind irreversibly to
H+/K+ - ATPase, preventing proton pumping and making the stomach contents less
acidic.

Helicobacter pylori infection as a cause of stomach ulcers.

Stomach ulcers are inflamed and damaged areas in the stomach wall. There is a strong
correlation between H.pylori infection and the development of stomach ulcers. H pylori is
a bacterium that can survive the acid conditions of a stomach. It secretes urease, which
neutralizes the gastric acid to lower the acidity of the stomach for further colonization. It
secretes proteases to degrade the mucosal lining of the stomach wall, allowing it to
burrow into this lining. The degradation of this protective lining by H pylori allows for
damage to the stomach wall by gastric acids. The prolonged presence of stomach ulcers
may lead to the formation of stomach cancers. There is correlation between chronic H
pylori infection over a number of years and the development of stomach cancer. The link
between H pylori and development of stomach ulcers represents a paradigm shift-cause
was previously thought to be stress.

The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively

correlated with their fibre content. Materials not absorbed are egested.
Dietary fibre is material such as cellulose, lignin and pectin that cannot be readily
digested. There are two categories of dietary fibre: soluble and insoluble. Materials such
as cellulose, which cannot be digested or absorbed, pass right through the intestine and
are egested as part of the solid waste, or feces. Feces contain not only cellulose but also
lignin from plant cell walls and bacteria that live in the digestive system and are carried
through it. The rate at which these materials pass through the large intestine is
influenced by the amount of fibre in the feces. Secretion into the digestive tube occurs.
Some of what is added is excretory products such as bilirubin from the breakdown of red
blood cells. A large volume of water is added to the tube in the process of digestion by
secretions in the mouth, stomach and small intestine and has to be reclaimed in the
large intestine.

Dehydration due to cholera toxin.

Cholera toxin is produced by virulent strains of the cholera bacterium Vibrio Cholerae,
which can infect the intestine if ingested in contaminated water or food. The toxin binds

to a receptors on intestinal cells. The cells take in the toxin through the process
endocytosis. Once inside, the toxin triggers a response that ultimately leads to the efflux
of Cl and HCO3 ions from the cell into intestine. Water follows by osmosis leading to
watery diarrhea. Water is drawn from the blood into the cells to replace the fluid loss from
the intestinal cells.

The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them
Detoxification is the removal of a toxic substance from a living organism. The liver plays
a role in the detoxification of a number of molecules, including alcohol, metabolic
products, food preservatives, drugs and poisons. One means by which the liver does this
is to convert hydrophobic compounds into more easily excreted hydrophilic compounds.

Dual blood supply to the liver and differences between sinusoids and
capillaries.
The circulation of blood through liver tissue, including the hepatic artery, hepatic portal
vein, sinusoids and hepatic vein. Each lobule is surrounded by branches of the hepatic
artery and the hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic artery carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the liver.
The hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-laden blood from the intestines.
The hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein both connect to blood vessels called
sinusoids. Because the hepatic portal vein has travelled from the heart to the stomach or
the intestine first, its oxygen content is relatively low.
Sinusoids drain into a central vein, which feeds into the hepatic vein. Sinusoids are like
capillaries but wider and the walls are not continuously linked with cells. This allows the
blood flowing through to come in contact with the hepatocytes. And also allows proteins
such as albumin to enter and leave the blood. The hepatic vein carries deoxygenated
blood from the liver to the heart.

The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells

by Kupffer cells. Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver.
Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood
cells.
The process of erythrocyte and hemoglobin breakdown in the liver, including
phagocytosis, digestion of globin and bile pigment formation. Erythrocytes rupture when
they reach the end of their life span. Kupffer cells are phagocytes found within the
sinusoid lumen, which engulf the contents and break down hemoglobin into globin and
heme groups. Globin is digested by peptidases to produce amino acids (which are either
used in the synthesis of new proteins or metabolized by the liver). Heme groups are

broken down into iron and bilirubin (bile pigment). The iron is transported to either the
liver for storage or bone marrow to make new red blood cells. The bilirubin is transported
to the liver to be released as part of bile into alimentary canal.

Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce

plasma proteins.
The liver synthesizes the cholesterol, which is involved in bile production and is a
component of animal cell membranes. This serves a variety of roles: albumin helps
regulate osmotic pressure of body fluids and fibrinogen, which is the soluble precursor of
the clotting protein fibrin. Albumin is a carrier protein that binds to such things as
bilirubin, also known as the transport protein, though it also plays a role in maintaining
the osmotic balance in the blood. Plasma proteins are processed by the Golgi apparatus
in hepatocytes before being released into the blood. Hepatocytes show an extensive
network of ER and Golgi body providing evidence of high levels of protein synthesis.

The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels.
Blood that has passed through the wall of the gut and has absorbed digested foods flows
via the hepatic portal vein the liver where it passes through sinusoids and comes into
intimidate contact with hepatocytes. This allows the levels of some nutrients to be
regulated by the hepatocytes.
Sugar and salt levels need to be controlled in order to maintain the osmolality of blood
and surrounding tissue.
Amino acids cannot be stored by the body and must be detoxified when in excess.
Many minerals and vitamins are essential for specific biological processes and so must
be sequestered when not in use.
Absorbed nutrients pass through the liver prior to entering general circulation, enabling
the liver to regulate and maintain the viable levels of nutrients in the blood in spite of
variations in dietary intake and feeding frequency. The liver stores excess glucose as
glycogen granules within hepatocytes and digests this glycogen when blood glucose
levels are low. The liver is responsible for the deamination of excess amino acids.

Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts.

Hepatocytes convert cholesterol into bile salts, which are part of the bile that is produced
in the liver. When bile is converted into the small intestine the bile salts emulsify droplets
of lipid, greatly speeding up lipid digestion by lipase. Hepatocytes can also synthesize
cholesterol if amounts in the diet are insufficient.

Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver.

Causes and consequences of jaundice.

Jaundice is a condition in which the skin and eyes become yellow due to an
accumulation of bilirubin in blood plasma. It is caused by various disorders of the liver,
Gail bladder or bile duct that prevent the excretion of bilirubin in bile.
There are serious consequences if bilirubin levels in blood plasma remain elevated for
long periods in infants, including a form of brain damage that results in deafness and
cerebral palsy.

Recognition of the chambers and valves of the heart and the blood vessels
connected to it in dissected hearts or in diagrams of heart structure
-The heart has two sides, left and right that pump blood to the systemic and pulmonary
circulations.
-Each side of the heart has two chambers, a ventricle that pumps blood out into the
arteries and an atrium that collects blood from the veins and passes it to the ventricle.
-Each side of the heart has two valves, an atrioventricular valve between the atrium and
the ventricle and a semilunar valve between the ventricle and the artery.
-Oxygenated blood flows into the left side of the heart through the pulmonary veins from
the lungs and out through the aorta.

Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of
the body. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. The
muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between
pump cycles. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have
permeable walls that allow exchange of material between cells in the tissue
and the blood in the capillary. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the

tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart

The action of the heart in terms of collecting, pumping blood and closing and opening
valves.
-Blood returning from all parts of the body enter the right atrium via the vena cava this
blood is relatively deoxygenated.
-The blood passes from the right atrium to the right ventricles and then via the pulmonary
artery to the lungs
-The blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein and passes through the left
ventricle to the aorta, where it is pumped around the body.
The heart valves maintain the one-way flow of blood:
-When the atria contracts, atrioventricular valves open and the blood flows from the atria
and into the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the AV valves close and the
semilunar valves open. This forces blood out of the ventricles and into the arteries. As
the arterial pressure rises, the semilunar valves close, ensuring the one-way flow of
blood.

There is a separate circulation for the lungs

There are valves in the veins and heart that ensure a one-way flow, so blood circulates
through arteries, capillaries and veins. Blood capillaries in lungs cannot withstand high
pressures so blood is pumped to them at relatively low pressure. After passing through
the capillaries of the lungs the pressure of the blood is low, so it must return to the heart
to be pumped again before it goes to the other organs. Humans therefore have two
separate circulations:

The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood around the body (systemic
circulation)
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary
circulation)
The pulmonary circulation receives deoxygenated blood that has returned from the
systemic circulation, and the systemic circulation receives blood that has been
oxygenated by the pulmonary circulation. It is therefore essential that blood flowing to
and from these two circulations is not mixed. The heart is therefore a double pump,
delivering blood under different pressui separately to the two circulations.

The relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries

and veins

Arteries:

Carry blood at high pressure

They have a narrower lumen to maintain the high blood pressure and is
surrounded by a thick wall made of two layers
The middle layer contains muscle and elastin to help maintain pulse
flow (so it can contract and stretch)
The outer layer contains collagen to prevent the artery from rupturing
due to the high blood pressure flow

Veins:

Carry blood under low pressure

They have a very wide lumen to keep the pressure low and allow for a
greater flow of blood
The walls of tissue surrounding the vein are thin
They have valves to prevent blood pooling at extremities

Capillaries

Capillaries are involved with material and gas exchange with the
surrounding body tissue
Blood pressure in the capillaries is relatively low and they have a very
small diameter
Their wall is made up of a single layer of cells to allow for ease of
diffusion
Capillaries may contain pores to aid the transport of material

The muscle and elastic fibers assist in maintaining blood pressure between
pump cycles.
The blood entering an artery from the heart is at high pressure. The peak pressure
reached in an artery is called the systolic pressure. It pushes the wall of the artery
outwards, widening the lumen and stretching elastic fibers in the wall, thus storing
potential energy. At the end of each heartbeat the pressure in the arteries falls
sufficiently for the stretched elastic fibers to squeeze the blood in the lumen. This
mechanism saves energy and prevents the minimum pressure inside tile artery, called
the diastolic pressure, from becoming too low. Because it is relatively high, blood flow in
the arteries is relatively steady and continuous although driven by a pulsating heart.
The circular muscles in the wall of tile artery form a ring so when they contract, in a
process known as vasoconstriction, the circumference is reduced and the lumen is
narrowed. Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure in the arteries. Branches of arteries
called arterioles have a particularly high density of muscle cells that respond to various
hormone and neural signals to control blood flow to downstream tissues.

Vasoconstriction of arterioles restricts blood flow to the part of the body that they supply
and the opposite process, called vasodilation, increases it.

Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by

preventing backflow
Blood pressure in veins is sometimes so low that there is a danger of back flow towards
the capillaries and insufficient return of blood to the heart. To maintain circulation, veins
contain pocket valves, consisting of three cup-shaped flaps of tissue.
If blood starts to flow backwards, it gets caught in the flaps of the pocket valve, which fill
the blood, blocking the lumen of the vein.
When blood flow flows toward the heart, it pushes the flaps to the sides of the vein. The
pocket valve therefore opens and blood can flow freely. These valves allow blood to flow
in one direction only and make efficient use of the intermittent and often-transient
pressures provided by muscular and postural changes. They ensure that blood circulates
in the body rather than flowing to and from.

The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialised muscle cells in the

right atrium called the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node acts as a
pacemaker. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that
stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and
then the walls of the ventricles.
Control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the
pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine

The contraction of the heart tissue is myogenic, meaning the signal for cardiac
contraction arises within the heart muscle itself
Within the wall of the right atrium are a specialized plexus of nerves called the
sinoatrial node
The sinoatrial node initiates contraction of the cardiac muscle and acts as a
pacemaker, regulating normal sinus rhythm
It stimulates atria to contract and, when excitation reaches the junction between
atria and ventricles, stimulates another node, the atrioventricular node
The atrioventricular node sends signals via the Bundle of His to Purkinje fibers,
which cause ventricular contraction
This sequence always ensures their delay between atrial and ventricular
contractions, resulting in two heart sounds.

The pacemaker is under autonomic control from the brain, specifically the medulla

oblongata (brain stem)

Sympathetic nerves speed up heart rate by releasing a neurotransmitter to

increase the rate of myocardial contraction
Parasympathetic nerves slow down heart rate by releasing a neurotransmitter to
decrease the rate of myocardial contraction
Additionally, the heart rate may be increased by the chemical release of the
hormone adrenaline into the blood (from the adrenal gland)

D.4 Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of stimuli through

the heart wall.
Heart muscle has a unique composition that adapts it for the conduction of waves of
excitation from fiber to fiber. It is made up of short, striped muscles fibers, which branch
and are also joined together at their ends by linking structures known as intercalated
discs. This arrangement of linkages between cells allows action potentials to spread
rapidly and enables the heart muscle bres to act together and produce amore powerful
effort as they contract simultaneously.
Mitochondria supply the muscle cells with energy. The muscle fibrils, or myofibrils, are
crossed by transverse tubules. These tubules mark the division of athe myofibrils into
contractile units.

Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass
directly from atria to ventricles. There is a delay between the arrival and
passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node. This delay allows time
for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close.
Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to
ventricle.
Control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the
pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine

The contraction of the heart tissue is myogenic, meaning the signal for cardiac
contraction arises within the heart muscle itself
Within the wall of the right atrium are a specialized plexus of nerves called the
sinoatrial node
The sinoatrial node initiates contraction of the cardiac muscle and acts as a
pacemaker, regulating normal sinus rhythm
It stimulates atria to contract and, when excitation reaches the junction between
atria and ventricles, stimulates another node, the atrioventricular node
The atrioventricular node sends signals via the Bundle of His to Purkinje fibers,

which cause ventricular contraction

This sequence always ensures their delay between atrial and ventricular
contractions, resulting in two heart sounds.

Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and

semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow.
Normal hearts sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves
closing causes changes in blood flow. A normal heartbeat has two sounds, both of which
are caused by the closing of valves. When the atrioventricular valves snap shut, there is
a lub sound. After the ventricles are emptied the semilunar valves close, causing the
second sound, the dub sound.

Cardiac Cycle

The walls of the atria contract, pushing blood from the atria into the ventricles through
the atrioventricular valves, which are open. The semilunar valves are closed, so the
ventricles fill with blood.
The walls of the ventricles contract powerfully and the blood pressure rapidly rises inside
them. This first causes the atrioventricular valves to close, preventing back-flow to the
atria and then causes the semilunar valves to open, allowing blood to be pumped out
into the arteries. At the same time the atria start to refill by collecting blood from the
veins.
The ventricles stop contracting so pressure falls inside them. The semilunar valves
close, preventing back-flow from the arteries to the ventricles. When the ventricular
pressure drops below the atrial pressure, the atrioventricular valves open. Blood entering
the atrium from the veins then flows on to start filling the ventricles. The next cardiac
cycle begins when the walls of the atria contract again.

Causes and consequences of hypertension and thrombosis.

Hypertension is a condition of persistently high blood pressure. The causes of
hypertension are the deposition of fat in arteries and the formation of fibrous tissue there,
impeding blood flow; this thickening of the artery wall also leads to loss of elasticity,
further contributing to raised blood pressure. Another cause is smoking because nicotine
is a vasoconstriction drug that temporarily elevates blood pressure. The consequences
of hypertension are that this silent killer damages the heart, blood vessels, brain and
kidneys, without causing noticeable discomfort. It accelerates onset of atherosclerosis,
increasing the workload of the heart and making brain hemorrahage more likely.

A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is known as thrombus. When it breaks free and
circulates around the bloodstream, it is known as embolus. The cause of thrombosis is
the diseases of blood vessels known as atherosclerosis - the progressive degeneration
of the artery walls. Plaques are areas that are swollen and accumulate a diversity of
debris. The plaques often develop because of high circulating levels of lipids and
cholesterol. The plaques can reduce the speed at which blood moves through vessels.
This can trigger a clot, or thrombosis, which can block the blood flow through the artery
and deny the tissue access to oxygen. If this occurs on the surface of the heart, the
consequence can be a myocardial infarction or heart attack.

6.3.1 Define pathogen.

A pathogen is a disease-causing microorganism, virus or prion

6.3.2 Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against
viruses.

Antibiotics are substances or compounds that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
by targeting the metabolic pathways of prokaryotes
Specific prokaryotic features that may be targeted by antibiotics include key
enzymes, 70S ribosomes and the bacterial cell wall
Because eukaryotic cells do not have these features, antibiotic can kill bacterial
cells without harming humans (or viruses)
Virus do not carry out metabolic reactions themselves but instead infect host cells
and take over their cellular machinery
Viruses need to be treated with specific antiviral agents that target features
specific to viruses (e.g. reverse transcriptase in retroviruses)

6.3.3 Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defense against
pathogens.
The first line of defense against infection is the surface barrier that prevents the entry of
pathogenic substances. These surface barriers include the skin and mucous
membranes.
Skin

Protects external structures (outer body areas)

A dry, thick and tough region made of predominantly dead surface cells
Contains biochemical defence agents (sebaceous glands secrete chemicals
which inhibit the growth of some bacteria)
The skin also releases acidic secretions to lower pH and prevent bacteria from
growing

Mucous membranes
Protect internal structures (externally accessable cavities and tubes, such as
trachea, vagina and urethra)
A thin region containing living surface cells that release fluids to wash away
pathogens (mucus, tears, saliva, etc.)
Contains biochemical defence agents (secretions contain lysozyme, which can
destroy cell walls and cause cell lysis)
Mucous membranes may be ciliated to aid in the removal of pathogens (along
with physical actions such as coughing or sneezing)
The second line of defense against pathogenic invasion:
The non-specific defense mechanisms
Non-specific mechanisms do not differentiate between types of microorganisms
and always invoke the same response
Examples of non-specific defense mechanisms include phagocytic leucocytes,
inflammation, fever and anti-microbial proteins

6.3.4 Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and
in body tissues.

Phagocytic leucocytes (macrophages) circulate in the blood but may move into
body tissue (extravasation) in response to infection
They concentrate at sites of infection due to the release of chemicals (such as
histamine) from damaged body cells
Pathogens are engulfed when cellular extensions (pseudopodia) surround the
pathogen and then fuse, sequestering it in an internal vesicle
The vesicle may then fuse with the lysosome to digest the pathogen
Some of the pathogens antigenic fragments may be presented on the surface of
the macrophage, in order to help stimulate antibody production
This mechanism of endocytosis is called phagocytosis ('cell-eating')

The third line of defense

The third line of defense are the specific defenses, coordinated by a type of
leucocyte called lymphocytes
These can recognize and respond specifically to different types of microorganism and have memory (can respond more effectively upon reinfection)

6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.

Antigen: A substance that the body recognizes as foreign and that can evoke an immune
response
Antibody: A protein produced by certain white blood cells (B Lymphocytes, plasma cells)

in response to an antigen
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains (2 light and 2 heavy chains) joined
together by disulphide bonds to form a Y-shaped molecule
The ends of the arms are where the antigens bind and these areas are called the
variable regions, as these will differ between anitbodies.
Each type of antibody will recognize a unique antigenic fragment, making this interaction
specific (like enzyme-substrate interactions).

Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. Clotting factors are released
from platelets. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to
fibrin by thrombin
Clotting (hemostasis) is the mechanism by which broken blood vessels are repaired
when damaged

Damaged cells and platelets release chemical signals called clotting factors, which
trigger a coagulation cascade:
Clotting factors convert the inactive zymogen prothrombin into the activated enzyme
thrombin
Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into an
insoluble form (fibrin)
Fibrin forms an insoluble mesh of fibers that trap blood cells at the site of damage
Clotting factors also cause platelets to become sticky, which then adhere to the damaged
region to form a solid plug called a clot
The clot prevents further blood loss and blocks entry to foreign pathogens

6.3.7 Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that infects helper T

lymphcytes (TH cells)
Reverse transciptase allows viral DNA to be produced from its RNA code, which
is integrated into the host cells genome
After a number of years of inactivity (during which infected TH cells have
continually reproduced), the virus becomes active and begins to spread,
destroying the TH cells in the process (known as the lysogenic cycle)
This results in lower immunity as antibody production is compromised - the
individual is now susceptible to opportunistic infections

6.3.8 Effects of HIV on the immune system and methods of transmission

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that infects helper T

lymphocyte (TH cells)

Reverse transcriptase allows viral DNA to be produced from its RNA code, which
is integrated into the host cells genome
After a number of years of inactivity (during which infected TH cells have
continually reproduced), the virus becomes active and begins to spread,
destroying the TH cells in the process (known as lysogenic cycle)
This results in lower immunity as antibody production is compromised the
individual is now susceptible to opportunistic infections

The cause, transmission and social implications of AIDs

Cause:
Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDs) is a collection of symptoms and infections
caused by the destruction of the immune system by HIV
While HIV infection results in a lowering in immunity over a number of years, AIDs
describes the final stages when observable symptoms develop
Transmission
HIV is transmitted through the exchange of body fluids (including unprotected
sex, blood transfusions, breastfeeding, etc.)
The risk of exposure to HIV through sexual contact can be reduced by using latex
protection (i.e. condoms)
A minority of people are immune to HIV infection (they lack the CD4+ receptor
that HIV needs to infect the cell)
Social Implications
People with HIV may be stigmatized and discriminated against, potentially leading
to unemployment and poverty
Majority of people who die from AIDS are at a productive age, which may cripple a
country's workforce and economic growth
It can result in an increased number of orphans, taxing a country's welfare
resources
Poverty may increase transmission of AIDS (due to poor education and high cost
of treatments), creating a moral obligation for assistance from wealthier countries.

6.4.3 Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange

Thin wall: Made of a single layer of flattened cells so that diffusion distance is small
Rich capillary network: Alveoli are covered by a dense network of capillaries that help to
maintain a concentration gradient
Increased SA:Vol ratio: High numbers of spherically-shaped alveoli optimise surface
area for gas exchange (600 million alveoli = 80 m2)

Moist: Some cells in the lining secrete fluid to allow gases to dissolve and to prevent
alveoli from collapsing (through cohesion)

Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon

dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries
All organisms absorb one gas from the environment and release a different one. This
process is called a gas exchange. Humans absorb oxygen for use in cell respiration and
release the carbon dioxide produced by this process. Gas exchange happens by
diffusion between air in the alveoli and blood flowing in the adjacent capillaries. The
gases only diffuse because there is a concentration gradient: the air in the alveolus has a
higher concentration of oxygen and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide than the
blood in the capillary. To maintain these concentration gradients fresh air must be
pumped into the alveoli and stale air must be removed. This process is known as
ventilation.

6.4.5 Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume

and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal
muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles

Breathing is the active movement of respiratory muscles that enable the passage
of air to and from the lungs
The mechanism of breathing is described as negative pressure breathing as it is
driven by the creation of a negative pressure vacuum within the lungs, according
to Boyle's Law (pressure is inversely proportional to volume)

Inspiration
Diaphragm muscles contract and flatten downwards
External intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs upwards and outwards
This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity (and therefore lung volume)
The pressure of air in the lungs is decreased below atmospheric pressure
Air flows into the lungs to equalize the pressure
Expiration
Diaphragm muscles relax and diaphragm curves upwards
Abdominal muscles contract, pushing diaphragm upwards
External intercostal muscles relax, allowing the ribs to fall
Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs downwards
This decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity (and therefore lung volume)
The pressure of air in the lungs is increased above atmospheric pressure
Air flows out of the lungs to equalize the pressure

Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because

muscles only do work when they contract

Muscles can be in two states: contracting and relaxing.

Muscles do work when they contract by exerting a pulling force (tension) that
causes a particular movement. They become shorter when they do this.
Muscles lengthen while they are relaxing, but this happens passively they do
not lengthen themselves. Most muscles are pulled into an elongated state by the
contraction of another muscle. They do not exert a pushing force (compression)
while relaxing so does not work at this time.
Muscles therefore can only cause movement in one direction. If movement in
opposite directions is needed at different times, at least two muscles will be
required. When one muscle contracts and causes a movement, the second
muscle relaxes and is elongated by the first. The opposite movement is caused
by the second muscle contracting while the first relaxes. When muscles work
together in this way they are known as an antagonistic pair of muscles.
Inspiration and expiration involves opposite movements, so different muscles are
required, working as antagonistic pairs.

Type I Pneumnocytes
Type I Pneumnocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas
exchange.

The lungs contain huge numbers of alveoli with a very large total surface area
for diffusion
The wall of each alveolus consists of a single layer of cells, called the epithelium
Most of the cells in this epithelium are Type I pneumnocytes. They are flattened
cells, with the thickness of only about 0.15 pm of cytoplasm.
The wall of the adjacent capillaries also consists of a single layer of very thin
cells. The air in the alveolus and the blood in the alveolar capillaries are
therefore less than 0.5pm apart.
The distance over which oxygen and carbon dioxide has to diffuse is therefore
very small, which is an adaptation, to increase the rate of the gas exchange.

Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a

moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus
adhering to each other by reducing surface tension.

Type II pneumocytes are rounded cells that occupy about 5% of the alveolar
surface

They secrete a fluid, which coats the inner surface of the alveoli. This film of
moisture allows oxygen in the alveolus to dissolve and then diffuse to the blood in
the alveolar capillaries. It also provides an area from which carbon dioxide can
evaporate into the air and be exhaled.
The fluid secreted by Type II pneumocytes containing a pulmonary surfactant. Its
molecules have a structure similar to that of phospholipids in cell membranes.
They form a monolayer on the surface of the moisture lining in the alveoli, with
the hydrophilic heads facing the water and the hydrophobic tails facing the air.
This reduces the surface tension and prevents the water from causing the sides
of the alveoli to adhere when air is exhaled from the lungs. This helps to prevent
collapse of the lung.

Option D.6

Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a single type of gas when it is

found within a mixture of gases

The partial pressure of a given gas will depend on:

The concentration of the gas in the mixture (e.g. O2 levels may differ in certain
environments)
The total pressure of the mixture (air pressure decreases at higher altitudes)

Oxygen dissociation curves show the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

Hemoglobin is composed of four polypeptide chains, each with an iron-containing heme
group capable of reversibly binding oxygen
As each oxygen molecule binds, it alters the conformation of hemoglobin, making
it easier for others to be loaded (cooperative binding)
Conversely, as each oxygen molecule is released, the change in hemoglobin makes it
easier for other molecules to be unloaded
Oxygen dissociation curves show the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen
and the percentage saturation of oxygen carrying molecules
At low O2 levels (i.e. hypoxic tissues) percentage saturation will be low, while at
high O2 levels (e.g. in alveoli) molecules will be fully saturated
Because binding potential increases with each additional oxygen molecule,
haemoglobin displays a sigmoidal (S-shaped) dissociation curve
Adult Haemoglobin
Dissociation curves displays a typical sigmoidal shape (due to cooperative
binding)
There is low saturation of oxygen when partial pressure is low (corresponds to
environment of the tissue, when oxygen is released)

There is high saturation of oxygen when partial pressure is high (corresponds to

environment of the alveoli, when oxygen is taken up)

Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an oxygen-binding molecule found in muscles that is made of a
single polypeptide with only one heme group
Dissociation curve is to the left of the haemoglobin curve and does not display a
sigmoidal shape (myoglobin cannot undergo cooperative binding)
Myoglobin's affinity for oxygen is greater than haemoglobin and becomes
saturated at low oxygen concentrations
Under normal conditions (at rest) myoglobin is saturated with oxygen and will
store it until O2 levels in the body drop with intense exercise
This allows it to provide oxygen when levels are very low (e.g. in a respiring
muscle) and so delays anaerobic respiration and lactic acid formation

D.6.7 Explain the problem of gas exchange at high altitudes and the way
the body acclimatises
At high altitudes, air pressure is lower and hence there is a lower partial
pressure of oxygen (less O2 in the air)
This makes it more difficult for haemoglobin to take up and transport
oxygen from the alveoli (lower Hb % saturation), meaning tissues receive
less O2
A person unaccustomed to these conditions will display symptoms of low
oxygen intake fatigue, breathlessness, rapid pulse, nausea and
headaches
Over time, the body will begin to acclimatise to the lower oxygen levels at high
altitudes:
Red blood cell production increases to increase oxygen transport
Red blood cells will have a higher haemoglobin content with an increased
affinity for oxygen
Ventilation rate increases to increase gas exchange (including a larger
vital capacity)
Muscles produce more myoglobin and have increased vascularisation
(denser capillary networks) to encourage oxygen to diffuse into muscles
Kidneys will begin to secrete alkaline urine (improved buffering of blood
pH) and there is increased lactate clearance within the body
People living permanently at high altitudes will have a greater lung surface

area and larger chest sizes

D.6.8 Describe how carbon dioxide is carried by the blood, including the
action of carbonic anhydrase, the chloride shift and buffering by plasma
proteins

Carbon dioxide is transported from the tissues to the lungs in one of three ways:
Dissolved as carbon dioxide
Reversibly converted to bicarbonate ions that are dissolved in the plasma
Bound to plasma proteins

Transport as Carbonic Acid

When CO2 enters an erythrocyte, it combines with water in a reaction catalysed
by carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate
(HCO3)
Bicarbonate is pumped out of the cell and exchanged with chloride ions to ensure
the erythrocyte remains uncharged this is called the chloride shift
The bicarbonate combines with sodium ions in the blood plasma to form sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3), which travels to the lungs
The hydrogen ions in the erythrocyte make the environment less alkaline,
causing the haemoglobin to release its oxygen to be used by cells
The haemoglobin absorbs the H+ ions and acts as a buffer to restore pH, the H+
ions will be released in the lungs to reform CO2 for expiration

D.6.4 Explain the role of the Bohr shift in the supply of oxygen to respiring
tissues

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve describes the saturation of haemoglobin

by oxygen in cells under normal metabolism
Cells with increased metabolism (e.g. hypoxic tissue) release greater amounts of
carbon dioxide into the blood
Carbon dioxide lowers the pH of the blood (via its conversion into carbonic acid)
which causes haemoglobin to release its oxygen
This is known as the Bohr effect a decrease in pH shifts the oxygen
dissociation curve to the right in tissues
Hence more oxygen is released at the same partial pressure of oxygen, ensuring
respiring tissues have enough oxygen when their need is greatest

D.6.5 Explain how and why ventilation rate varies with exercise

During exercise metabolism is increased, oxygen is becoming limited and there is

a build up of both carbon dioxide and lactic acid in the blood

This lowers the blood pH, which is detected by chemoreceptors in the carotid
artery and the aorta
These chemoreceptors send impulses to the breathing centre in the brain stem to
increase the rate of respiration
Impulses are sent to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to change the rate of
muscular contraction, hence changing the rate of breathing
This process is under involuntary control (reflex response) as breathing rate
increases, CO2 levels in the blood will drop, restoring blood pH
Long term effects of continual exercise include an improved vital capacity

D.6.6 Causes and treatments of emphysema

Emphysema is a lung condition in which the walls between individual alveoli

break down leading to an increase in their size and therefore a reduction in the
surface area for gas exchange, which restricts oxygen uptake into the blood.
The main cause of emphysema is long-term exposure to airborne irritants, most
commonly tobacco smoke, but possibly also air pollution, coal and silica dust.

D.6.5 Neurons transmit electrical impulses. The myelination of nerve fibres

allows for salutatory conduction. Neurons pump sodium and potassium
ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential.
Two systems of the body are used for internal communication: the endocrine system and
the nervous system. The endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones.
The nervous system consists of nerve cells called neurons. There are about 85 billion
neurons in the human nervous system. Neurons help with internal communication by
transmitting nerve impulses. A never impulse is an electrical signal.
Neurons have a cell body with cytoplasm and a nucleus but they also narrow outgrowths
called nerve fibers along which nerve impulses travel. Dendrites are short branched
nerve fibers, for example those used to transmit impulses between neurons in one part
of the spinal cord or brain. Axons are very elongated nerve fibers, for example those that
transmit impulses from the tips of the toes or the fingers to the spinal cord. The nervous
system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is
composed of cells called neurons that carry rapid electrical impulses.
Neurons are cells that are specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses and serve as
the fundamental unit of the nervous system.
The nervous system is divided into two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS): Made up of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Made of peripheral nerves which link the CNS with
the bodys receptors and effectors.

Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the
CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.
There are three main types of neurons in the nervous system:
-Sensory Neurons: conduct nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS (afferent pathway)
-Relay Neurons: conduct nerve impulses within the CNS (also called the interneurons or
connector neurons)
-Motor Neurons: conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors (efferent
pathway)

6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and

repolarisation)
Resting Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is not
firing (-70 mV), as maintained by the sodium-potassium pump
Action Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is firing
(about 30 mV)
Depolarisation: The change from a negative resting potential to a positive action
potential (caused by opening of sodium channels)
Repolarisation: The change from a positive action potential back to a negative resting
potential (caused by opening of potassium channels)

6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron

Generation of a Resting Potential

The sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump) maintains the electrochemical gradient of
the resting potential (-70 mV)
It is a transmembrane protein that uses active transport to exchange Na+ and K+ ions
across the membrane (antiport mechanism)
It expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions admitted (in addition, some of the K+ ions will leak
back out of the cell)
This makes the inside of the membrane relatively negative when compared to the
outside (-70 mV = resting potential)
Transmission of an Action Potential
Sodium and potassium channels in nerve cells are voltage-gated, meaning they can
open and close depending on the voltage across the membrane
In response to a signal at a sensory receptor or dendrite, sodium channels open and
sodium enters the neuron passively
The influx of sodium (Na+ in) causes the membrane potential to become positive
(depolarisation)
If a sufficient change in membrane potential is achieved (threshold potential), adjacent

voltage-gated sodium channels open, generating a wave of depolarisation (action

potential) that spreads down the axon
The change in membrane potential also activates voltage-gated potassium channels,
causing potassium to exit the neuron passively
The efflux of potassium (K+ out) causes the membrane potential to become negative
again (repolarisation)
Before the neuron can fire again, the original distribution of ions (Na+ out, K+ in) must be
re-established by the Na+/K+ pump
The inability to propagate another action potential during this time (refractory period)
ensures nerve impulses only travel in one direction

6.5.6 Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses

Acetylcholine is used as the neurotransmitter in many synapses, including synapses
between neurons and muscle fibers. It is produced in the pre-synaptic neuron by
combining choline, absorbed from the diet, with an acetyl group produced during aerobic
respiration. The acetylcholine is loaded into vesicles and then released into the synaptic
cleft during synaptic transmission.
The receptors for acetylcholine in the postsynaptic membrane have a binding site to
which acetylcholine will bind. The acetylcholine only remains bound to the receptor for
a short time, during which only one action potential is initiated in the post-synaptic
neuron. This is because the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase is present in the synaptic cleft
and rapidly breaks acetylcholine down into choline and acetate. The choline is
reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron, where it is converted back into active
neurotransmitter by recombining it with an acetyl group.

6.5.7 Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects

by binding of neonicotinoid pesticides to acetylcholine receptors
Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds similar to nicotine. They bind to the
acetylcholine receptors in cholinergic synapses in the central nervous system of insects.
Acetylcholinesterase does not break down neonicotinoids, the binding is irreversible. The
receptors are blocked, so acetylcholine is unable to bind and paralysis and death.
Neonicotinoids are therefore very effective insecticides.
One of the advantages is that it is not highly toxic to humans and other mammals. This is
because there is a much greater proportion of synapses in the central nervous system
are cholinergic in insects than in mammals and also because neonicotinoids bind much
less strongly to acetylcholine receptors in mammals than insects.

Neonicotinoids pesticides are now used on huge areas of crops. In particular one
neonicotinoid, imidacloprid, is the most widely used insecticide in the world. However,
concerns have been raised about the effects of these insecticides on honeybees and
other beneficial insects. There has been considerable controversy over this and the
evidence of harm is disputed by manufacturers and some government agencies.

6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release
hormones that are transported in the blood

An endocrine gland is a ductless gland in the body that manufactures chemical

messengers called hormones and secretes them directly into the blood
Hormones act on distant sites (target cells) and tend to control slow, long-term activities
such as growth and sexual development

6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment

between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood
glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance

Homeostasis is the tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a constant internal

environment within tolerance limits
Internal equilibrium is maintained by adjusting physiological processes, including:
Body temperature (normally 36 - 38C)
Blood pH (normally 7.35 - 7.45)
Carbon dioxide concentration (normally 35 - 45 mmHg)
Blood glucose concentration (normally 75 - 95 mg / dL)
Water balance (varies with individual body size)

6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and

correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms

Most homeostatic control mechanisms operate through a negative feedback loop

When specialised receptors detect a change in an internal condition, the
response generated will be the opposite of the change that occurred
When levels have returned to equilibrium, the effector ceases to generate a
response
If levels go too far in the opposite direction, antagonistic pathways will be
activated to restore the internal balance

6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the

roles of glucagon, insulin and the alpha and beta cells in the pancreatic
islets

Blood glucose concentration is usually kept between 4 and 8 millimoles per dm3

of blood.
Cells in the pancreas monitor the concentration and secrete the hormones insulin
or glucagon when the level is high or low.

When blood glucose levels are high (e.g. after feeding):

Insulin is released from beta cells
It stimulates the liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and convert to glycogen
Granules of glycogen are stored in these cells. Other cells are stimulated to
absorb glucose and use it in cell respiration instead of fat. These processes lower
the blood glucose level
When blood glucose levels are low (e.g. after strenuous exercise):
Glucagon is released from alpha cells in the pancreas
It stimulates the liver cells to break glycogen down into glucose and release the
glucose.
This raises the blood glucose level.

11.2.1 Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and act as
levers
Exoskeletons are external skeletons that surround and protect most of the body surface
of animals such as crustaceans and insects. Bones and exoskeletons facilitate
movement by providing an exchange for muscles and by acting as levers. Levers change
the size and direction of forces. In a lever, there is a effort force, a pivot point called a
fulcrum and a resultant force. The relative positions of these three determine the class of
the lever.
11.2.2 Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs

Muscles connect to bones (via tendons) and contract to provide the force
required to produce movement
The muscle connects a static bone (point of origin) to a moving bone (point of
insertion)
Skeletal muscles exist in antagonistic pairs (when one contracts, the other
relaxes) to enable opposing movements
Opposing movements may include: flexion vs extension, abduction vs adduction,
protraction vs retraction, etc.

11.2.3 Antagonistic pairs of muscles in an insect leg

Many types of insects (including grasshoppers and praying mantises) have hind
legs that are specialised for jumping
The jointed exoskeleton of the hind leg is divided into three parts: femur
(upper leg), tibia (middle leg) and tarsus (lower leg)
The femur and tibia are connected by two antagonistic muscles: flexor tibiae
muscle and extensor tibiae muscle
When the flexor muscle contracts, the extensor muscle relaxes and the tibia and
femur are brought closer together
This retracts the hind quarters in preparation for pushing off the ground
When the extensor muscle contracts, the flexor muscle relaxes and the tibia is
pushed away from the femur
This extends the hind quarters and causes the insect to jump

11.2.4 Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others

Junctions between bones are called joints. Some joints are fixed, such as joints between
the plates of bone in the skull. Other joints allow movement. Most of these are synovial
joints. They have three main parts:
-Cartilage covering the surface of the bones to reduce friction where they could rub
against each other
-Synovial fluid between the cartilage-covered surfaces, to lubricate the joint and further
reduce friction.
-Joint capsule that seals the joint and holds in the synovial fluid
There are also ligaments, which are tough cords of tissue connecting the bones on
opposite sides of a joint. They restrict movement and help to prevent dislocation.
Ligaments ensure that certain movements can occur at a synovial joint but not others.

11.2.5 Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialised

endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils.

Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum.
Myofibrils:
Muscle fibers contain many myofibrils.
Within each muscle fiber there are many parallel, elongated structure called myofibrils.
These have alternating light and dark bands, which give striated muscle its stripes. In the
center of each light band is a disc-shaped structure referred to as the Z-line.
Each muscle fibre contains lots of nuclei and is bound by a cell membrane called a
sarcolemma. Contraction depends on protein myofilaments, which are arranged in
bundles called myofibrils. The pattern of thin myofilaments (made of the protein actin)

and thick myofilaments (made of the protein myosin) gives the striations (stripes) in the
muscle.

11.2.6 The contraction of skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin

and myosin filaments
When muscles contract, actin slides over the myosin and causes the sarcomere to
shorten.

11.2.7 Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control
muscle contractions. ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are
necessary for the filaments to slide
The calcium ions bind to troponin, which results in the displacement of tropomyosin. The
myosin heads can now attach to the actin filament. The heads change position causing
tension in the myosin tails, and the filaments slide past each other. An ATP molecule
becomes fixed to the myosin head causing it to detach. Hydrolysis of ATP provides the
energy for the myosin head to be cocked again.

The myosin filaments have heads which form cross-bridges when they are
attached to binding sites on actin filaments
ATP binds to the myosin heads and causes them to break the cross-bridges by
detaching from the binding sites.
ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate, causing the myosin heads to change
their angle. The heads are said to be cocked in their new positions as they are
in their new position as they are storing potential energy from ATP.
The heads attach to binding sites on actin that are further from the center of the
sarcomere than the previous sites.
The ADP and phosphate are released and the heads push the actin filament
inwards towards the center of the sarcomere this is called the power stroke

6.6.1 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by and cells of the pancreas
respectively to control blood glucose concentration. Thyroxin is secreted
by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body
temperature. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and act on the
hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. Melatonin is secreted by the
pineal gland to control circadian rhythms.
Diabetes control of blood glucose does not work effectively and the concentration can
rise or fall beyond the normal limits.

Thyroxin:
The hormone thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland in the neck. Its chemical structure
is unusual as the thyroxin molecule contains four atoms of iodine.
Prolonged deficiency of iodine in the diet therefore prevents the synthesis of thyroxin.
This hormone is also unusual as almost all cells in the body are targets.
Thyroxin regulates the body metabolic rate, so all cells need to respond but most
metabolically active, such as liver, muscle and brain are the main targets.
Higher metabolic rate supports more protein synthesis and growth and it increases the
generation of body heat.
In addition, thyroxin is implicated in heat generation by shivering and by uncoupled cell
respiration in brown adipose tissue (BAT).
In a person with normal physiology, cooling triggers increased thyroxin secretion by the
thyroid gland, which stimulates heat production.
Leptin and Obesity:
Leptin is a hormone produced by adipose cells that regulates fat stores within the
body by suppressing appetite
Leptin binds to receptors located within the hypothalamus to inhibit appetite and
thereby reduce food intake
Overeating causes more adipose cells to formed and hence more leptin is
produced, suppressing further appetite
Conversely, periods of starvation lead to a reduction in adipose tissue and hence
less leptin is released, triggering hunger
As obese people are constantly producing higher levels of leptin, their body
becomes progressively desensitised to the hormone
This means they are more likely to feel hungry, less likely to recognise when they
are full and are hence more likely to overeat
Leptin resistance also develops with age, increasing the potential for weight gain
later in life (e.g. the middle-age spread)

Melatonin is a hormone produced by the pineal gland within the brain in response
to changes in light
Ganglion cells in the retina detect whether it is light or dark and send impulses to
the supra-chiasmatic nuclei in the hypothalamus.

Neurons in the SCN control secretion of the hormone melatonin by the pineal
gland.
Melatonin secretion increases in the evening and drops to a low level down.

Circadian Rhythms
Melatonin secretion by the pineal gland of the brain plays a pivotal role in the
control of circadian rhythms
Circadian rhythms are disrupted by travelling rapidly between time zones and the
symptoms are sleep disturbance, headaches, fatigue and irritability.
Jet lag is caused by the SCN and pineal gland continuing to set a circadian
rhythm to suit the timing of day and night at the point of departure rather than the
destination. It lasts for a few days where the impulses sent by ganglion cells to
the SCN when they detect light help the body to adjust to the new regime.

A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as

testes and secrete testosterone

A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes

and secrete testosterone. Human reproduction involves the function of a sperm
from a male with an egg from a female. Initially the development of the embryo is
the same in all embryos and embryonic gonads develop that could either become
ovaries or testes. The developmental pathway of the embryonic gonads and
thereby the whole baby depends on the presence or absence of one gene.
If the gene SRY is present, the embryonic gonads develop into testes. This gene
is located on the Y chromosome, so is only present in 50% of embryos. SRY
codes for a DNA-binding protein called TDF. TDF stimulates the expression of
other genes that cause testis development.
50% of embryos have two X chromosomes and no Y so they do not have a copy
of the SRY gene. TDF is therefore not produced and the embryonic gonads
develop as ovaries.
Testosterone causes prenatal development of male genitalia and both sperm
production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty.
The main male reproductive hormone is testosterone, which is secreted by the
testes and serves a number of roles: It is responsible for the pre-natal
development of male genitalia. It is involved in sperm production following the
onset of puberty. It aids in the development of secondary sex characteristics
(including body hair, muscle mass, deepening of voice, etc.). It helps to maintain
the male sex drive (libido)

Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female

reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty

The main female reproductive hormones (secreted by the ovaries) are estrogen and
progesterone, which serve several roles:
They promote the pre-natal development of the female reproductive organs
They are responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics (including
body hair and breast development)
They are involved in monthly preparation of egg release following puberty (via the
menstrual cycle)
Initially, estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the mothers ovaries and then
the placenta until female reproductive organs develop (this occurs in the absence
of testosterone)

The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback

mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones
The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms
involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. The menstrual cycle occurs in most woman
from puberty until the menopause, apart from during pregnancy. Each time the cycle
occurs it gives the chance of a pregnancy. FSH and LH are protein hormones produced
by the pituitary gland that bind to FSH and LH receptors in the membranes of follicle
cells. Estrogen and progesterone are ovarian hormones, produced by the wall of the
follicle
and
corpus.

6.6.3 Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle,

illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and
ovulation, menstruation and the thickening of the endometrium

Follicular Phase:
FSH stimulates growth of several follicles
Dominant follicle secretes estrogen
Estrogen inhibits growth of other follicles (and FSH)
Estrogen stimulates development of endometrium

Ovulation:
A surge in LH causes ovulation (egg release)
Rupturing of follicle creates a corpus luteum

Luteal Phase:
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone (and estrogen)
Progesterone stimulates development of endometrium
Estrogen and progesterone inhibit FSH and LH
Corpus luteum degrades over time
When corpus luteum degrades, progesterone levels drop
Without progesterone, endometrium cannot be maintained
Endometrium is sloughed away (menstruation)
No longer inhibited, FSH can start menstrual cycle again
If fertilisation of egg occurs, the zygote releases a hormone (hCG) which maintains the
corpus luteum

The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones,

followed by the use of artificial doses of hormones to induce
superovulation and establish a pregnancy

Process:
In vitro fertilization refers to fertilization that occurs outside the body
Stop normal menstruation cycle
Hormone treatments to develop follicles
Extract multiple eggs from ovaries
Sperm selected, prepared and then injected into egg via intra-cytoplasmic sperm
injection
Fertilization occurs under controlled conditions
Implantation of multiple embroys into uterus
Test for pregnancy is conducted to see if implantation was successful

6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF

Advantages of IVF

Chance for infertile couples to have children

Genetic screening of embryos could decrease suffering from genetic diseases
Spare embryos can be stored for future pregnancies or used for stem cell
research

Disadvantages of IVF
IVF is expensive and might not be equally accessible to all
Success rate is low (~15%) and therefore stressful for couples
It could lead to eugenics (e.g. gender choice)
Often leads to multiple pregnancies which may be unwanted, unable to be
budgeted for and involves extra birth risks
Issues concerning storage and disposal of unused embryos (right to life
concerns)
There are cultural and religious objections to embryo creation by such means
Inherited forms of infertility may be passed on to children

D.5 Hormones and Metabolism

Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Steroid
hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to
form a receptor-hormone complex. The receptor-hormone complex
promotes the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones bind to
receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Binding of hormones
to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second
messenger inside the cell.
D.5.1 State that hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine
glands into the blood and transported to specific target cells
The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that secrete chemical
messengers called hormones, which circulate within the body via the bloodstream to
affect specific target cells at distant organs.

Steroid Hormones

Enter target cells through the plasma membrane (are lipophilic)

Bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm and form a steroid / receptor complex
which affects gene expression
Can act directly as a transcriptional regulator

Protein Hormones

Cannot enter target cells (are lipophobic)

Binds to receptors on the surface of the plasma membrane, which activates
second messengers within the cell
Acts indirectly to change cellular activity (via signal transduction pathways)
The role of second messengers binding of hormones to membrane receptors
activates a cascade meditated by a second messenger inside the cell
Second messengers are small water-soluble molecules that can quickly spread
throughout the cytoplasm and relay signals throughout the cells. Calcium ions
and cyclic AMP are the two most common second messengers. A large number
of proteins are sensitive to the concentration of these molecules.
Epinephrine is a hormone that mediates the fight or flight response when
released. When under threat, an organism needs a supply of blood glucose as an
energy source. When epinephrine reaches the liver, it binds to a receptor called
G-protein couple receptor. Binding to the receptor activates the G-protein, which
uses guanosine triphosphate (GTP) as an energy source to activate the enzyme
adenylyl cyclase. This converts ATP to cAMP.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus plays an important role in integrating the nervous and
endocrine systems in order to maintain homeostasis
It receives information from nerves throughout the body and other parts of the
brain and initiates appropriate endocrine responses
The hypothalamus controls the release of hormones via the pituitary gland, which
is comprised of two distinct lobes:
Posterior Pituitary
The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) releases hormones produced by
neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus
These cells extend from the hypothalamus into the posterior lobe and release
hormones into the bloodstream in response to nerve signals
An example of a hormone released from the posterior pituitary is anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH)

Anterior Pituitary
The hypothalamus synthesizes hormones called releasing factors, which are
released into the portal vein that extends to the anterior lobe
The releasing factors cause endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary to release
specific hormones into the bloodstream to act on distant cells
An example of a releasing factor is GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and
FSH from the anterior pituitary

Iodine Deficiency Disorder:

Certain hormones may require specific precursor molecules in order to be
synthesized by the body
Thyroxin contains iodine within its chemical structure and cannot be produced if
iodine is deficient in the diet
Iodine deficiency will therefore effect the thyroid gland where thyroxin is
produced
Individuals with an iodine deficiency will develop an enlarged thyroid gland a
condition known as goitre
Iodine deficiency is common in many countries, as iodine is not a common
component of most diets (sea food excepted)
The International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders works to
eliminate the harm of iodine deficiency
One strategy employed is to add iodine to common dietary products (e.g. iodised
table salt)

Some athletes take growth hormones to build muscles

Growth hormone is another polypeptide hormone that is produced in the anterior

pituitary
One of its main targets is receptors in liver cells. The binding of growth hormone
stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factor which circulates in the blood
and stimulates bone and cartilage growth.

Control of milk secretion by oxytocin and prolactin

Milk secretion is regulated by pituitary hormones. Prolactin is secreted by the

anterior pituitary. It stimulates mammary glands to grow, and to produce milk.
During pregnancy, high levels of estrogen increase prolactin production but inhibit
its effects. An abrupt decline in estrogen following birth ends the inhibition and
milk production begins. The milk is produced and stored in small spherical
chambers distributed through the mammary gland. Oxytocin stimulates the letdown of milk to a central chamber where it is accessible to the baby. The physical
stimulus of suckling by a baby stimulates oxytocin secretion by the posterior

pituitary gland.
11.3 Kidneys and Osmoregulation

11.3.1 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers

Metabolic pathways are chains and cycles of reactions in living cells used to build up and
break down biochemical. The removal from the body of potentially toxic waste products
of metabolic pathways is excretion.

Osmoregulation:
Water moves into and out of the cells by osmosis. The direction in which water moves is
determined by hydrostatic pressure and solute concentration. Living organisms can
control the movement of water by adjusting the solute concentrations of their cells and
body fluids. This is osmoregulation - control of the internal solute concentration of a living
organism.
Many marine organisms allow their internal solute concentration to fluctuate with that of
the water around them - they do not attempt to maintain constant internal solution
concentrations. These organisms are osmoconformers.
Isotonic - a solute concentration equal to that of normal body fluids
Hypotonic - a lower solute concentration than normal body fluids
Hypertonic - a higher solute concentration than normal body fluids
Dehydration is due to a loss of water from the body, but not an equivalent quantity of
solution, so body fluids become hypertonic. The consequences are thirst, small
quantities of dark colored urine, lethargy, a raised heart rate, low blood pressure and in
severe cases seizures, brain damage and death.
Over-hydration is due to excessive intake of water, so the body fluids become hypotonic.
The consequences are behaviour changes, confusion, delirium, blurred vision, muscle
cramps, nausea and in acute cases seizures, coma and death.

The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out
osmoregulation and the removal of nitrogenous wastes
The Malphigian tubule system is a type of excretory and osmoregulatory system found in
some insects. The system consists of branching tubules extending from the alimentary
canal that absorbs solutes, water and wastes from surrounding hemolymph.
Osmoregulation in the form of homeostasis whereby the concentration of hemolymph, or
blood in the case of animals with closed circulatory systems, is kept within a certain

range. When animals break down amino acids, the nitrogenous waste product is toxic
and needs to be excreted. In insects, the waste product is usually in the form of uric acid
and in mammals it is in the form of urea.
Cells lining the tubules actively transport ions and uric acid from the hemolymph into the
lumen of the tubules. This draws water by osmosis from the hemolymph through the
walls of the tubules into the lumen. The tubules empty their contents into the gut. In the
handgun most of the water and salts are reabsorbed while the nitrogenous waste is
excreted with the faeces.
Blood plasma in the renal artery is rich in oxygen and contains more urea, more salt and
probably more water than the required value. Blood plasma in the renal vein contains
carbon dioxide, the optimum amounts of water and salts, the same amount of proteins
and glucose as when it was in the renal artery, and very little urea. Glucose is often
present in the urine of untreated diabetic patients. This is because the glucose
concentration of blood rises much higher than 90mg per 100ml, so the pumps in the
proximal convoluted tubule cannot reabsorb all the glucose that is filtered out in the
glomerulus.

The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowmans capsule facilitate

ultrafiltration
The function of the glomerulus is the production of a filtrate from blood by a process
called ultrafiltration. Part of the blood plasma escapes through the walls of all capillaries,
but in the glomerulus 20% escapes, which are much greater than usual. This is because
the blood pressure is very high, because the vessel taking blood away from the
glomerulus is narrower than the vessel bringing blood and the capillaries in the
glomerulus are fenestrated they have many pores through them. These pores are large
enough to allow any molecules through, but on the outside of the capillary wall is a
basement membrane, composed of a gel of glycoproteins.
The filtrate needs to pass a barrier made of three different layers:
-The wall of the glomerulus
-The basement membrane
-The inner wall of Bowman

The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by

active transport
Large volumes of glomerular filtrate are produced, containing substances that the body
needs, which must be re-absorbed into the blood that happens in the proximal
convoluted tubule. The cells have microvilli projecting into the lumen, giving a large
surface area for absorption. Pumps in the membrane re-absorb useful substances by

active transport, using ATP produced by mitochondria in the cells. All of the glucose in
the filtrate is re-absorbed. Active transport of solutes makes the total solute
concentration higher in the cells of the wall than in the filtrate of the tubule.

The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla

In the descending limb of the loop of Henle, water leaves the nephron by osmosis due to
the increasing concentration of salt. This water immediately passes into the blood
capillaries and is removed from the area. Some salt diffuses into the filtrate inside the
loop. The tubule and the capillaries provide a very large surface area for the exchange of
materials in the nephrons of the kidney.
The ascending limb is impermeable to water and salt is lost from the filtrate by active
transport. The salt remained near the Henles loop and helps to maintain a concentration
gradient in the medulla. The fluid which leaves Henles loop is less concentrated than the
tissue fluid of the medulla around it. The longer the loop of Henle, the more water
volume will be reclaimed. In order to accommodate the long loops of Henle, the medulla
must become relatively thicker.
Medulla:
The concentration gradient in the medulla is maintained by the vasa recta countercurrent
exchange. The vasa recta are the blood vessels running along Henles loop. There is no
direct exchange between the filtrate and the blood but substances pass through the
interstitial region of the medulla. The blood entering the medulla will, in the descending
capillary, lose water to the region by osmosis and absorb salt and urea by diffusion in the
ascending capillary the reverse happens. The advantage is that the blood leaving the
area is in a constant state, irrespective of the osmotic concentration of the blood entering
the medulla.

ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct

Osmoregulation is the control of solute concentration in the body fluids, especially in the
blood plasma. The collecting duct has an important role in osmoregulation. The wall of
the distal convoluted tubule is permeable and water can pass from the ultra filtrate into
the blood vessels to be carried away.
ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. ADH increases the
permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. ADH is
released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland when the concentration of the
dissolved particles in the blood is too high. The dilute concentration is coming from the
loop of Henle and can then loose water in the distal convoluted tubule and again in the
collecting duct. The water is reabsorbed by the blood so it is not lost to the system.
When ADH is absent and the walls are impermeable, water is not removed from the

filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct ends up in the bladder as
dilute urine.

The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary

history and habitat

Most aquatic animals eliminate their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia (NH3)

Ammonia is highly toxic but also very water soluble and hence can be effectively
flushed by animals in aquatic habitats
Terrestrial animals have less access to water and hence must package nitrogenous
waste in less toxic forms
Mammals eliminate their nitrogenous wastes as urea, which is less toxic and
hence can be stored at higher concentrations
Reptiles and birds eliminate wastes as uric acid, which requires more energy to make
but is relatively non-toxic and requires even less water to flush (it is eliminated as a semisolid paste)

Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs are detected in urinary tests
Sample of urine are easily obtained and can be tested for the presence of abnormalities
that are indicators of disease:
Blood cells their presence is caused by a variety of diseases including infections and
some cancers.
Glucose: The presence of glucose in urine is a common indicator of diabetes (high
blood glucose = incomplete reabsorption)
Proteins: High quantities of protein in urine may indicate disease (e.g. PKU) or hormonal
conditions (e.g. hCG = pregnancy)
Blood cells: The presence of blood in urine can indicate a variety of diseases, including
certain infections and cancer
Drugs / toxins: Many drugs pass through the body into urine and can be detected (e.g.
performance enhancing drugs)

11.4 Sexual Reproduction

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two
divisions of meiosis and differentiation

Spermatogenesis is the production of male gametes in the testes. Oogenesis is

production of female gametes in the ovaries.
Mitosis to generate large numbers of diploid cells
Cell growth so the cells have enough resources to undergo two divisions of meiosis
Meiosis to produce haploid cells
Differentiation so the haploid cells develop into gametes with structures needed for

fertilization.

Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers

of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm

The first stage of sperm production requires the division of germline epithelium by
mitosis
These cells (spermatogonia) then undergo a period of growth
This is followed by two meiotic divisions that result in four haploid daughter cells
These haploid cells then differentiate to form sperm cells
The developing sperm cells are nourished throughout the Sertoli cells

Oogenesis describes the production of female gametes within the ovary

The process begins during foetal development, when a large number of cells are
formed by mitosis before undergoing a period of growth
These cells begin meiosis but are arrested in prophase I until puberty
At puberty, some follicles continue to develop each month in response to FSH
secretion
These follicles complete the first meiotic division to form two cells of unequal rate
The cell with less cytoplasm is a polar body while the larger cell forms a
secondary oocyte
The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division but is arrested in
prophase II
It is released from the ovary and if fertilization occurs, will complete meiosis
The second meiotic division will produce an ovum and a second polar body.
Comparing oogenesis and spermatogenesis:
-Millions of sperm are produced by men each day from puberty onwards and they can be
released frequently by ejaculation. From puberty until menopause women who are not
pregnant produce and release just one egg every 28 days.
-Nearly all the cytoplasm is removed during the latter stages of spermatogenesis so
sperm contain very little. Egg cells have more cytoplasm than any other human cell. The
mitochondria of the zygote are all derived from the cytoplasm of the egg cell. The egg
cell destroys the helical mitochondria of the sperm after fertilization.
Similarities:
-Result in the formation of haploid gametes
-Involve mitosis, growth and meiosis

Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy

A diploid zygote is produced when one haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg this is

fertilization. Fusion of two or more sperm with an egg cell results in a cell that has three
of each chromosome type (triploid) or more. This is called polyspermy. Cells produced in
this way often die and those that survive are almost always sterile.
When the sperm enters the female reproductive tract, biochemical changes to the
changes to the sperm occur in the final part of its maturation (capacitation)
The sperm is attracted to the egg due to the release of chemical signals from the
secondary oocyte (chemotaxis)
Fertilization generally occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube)
To enter the egg membrane, the sperm must penetrate the protective jelly coat
(zona pellucida) surrounding the egg via the acrosome reaction
The acrosome vesicle fuses with the jelly coat and releases digestive enzymes
which soften the glycoprotein matrix
The membrane of the egg and sperm then fuse and the sperm nucleus enters the
egg
To prevent other sperm from penetrating the fertilized egg, the jelly coat
undergoes biochemical changes via the cortical reaction
The cortical granules release enzymes that destroy the sperm-binding proteins
on the jelly coat
Now fertilized, the nucleus of the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and
then the egg and sperm nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote.
Stages of fertilization:
Sperm are attracted by a chemical signal and swim up the oviduct to reach the
egg. Fertilization is only successful if many sperm reach the egg
The first sperm to break through the layers of follicle cells bind to the zona
pellucida. This triggers the acrosome reaction
The contents of the acrosome are released, by the separation of the acrosomal
cap from the sperm. Enzymes from the acrosome digest a route for the sperm
through the zona pellucida, allowing the sperm to reach the plasma membrane of
the egg
The plasma membrane of the sperm and egg fuse and the sperm nucleus enters
the egg and joins the egg nucleus. Fusion causes the cortical reaction.
Small vesicles called cortical granules move to the plasma membrane of the egg
and fuse with it, releasing their contents by exocytosis. Enzymes from the cortical
granules cause cross-linking of glycoproteins in the zona pellucida, making it
hard and preventing polyspermy.
The nuclei from the sperm and egg do not fuse together. Instead both nuclei
carry out mitosis, using the same centrioles and spindle of microtubules. A two
cell embryo is produced.

Fertilization in animals can be internal or external

In some species, females release unfertilized eggs and males put their sperm over the
eggs, so fertilization takes place outside the body. This is known as external fertilization.
The male passes his sperm into the females body and fertilization takes place. This is
internal fertilization.

Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the

continuation of pregnancy

After fertilization, the zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions to create a solid ball of
cells called a morula
Unequal divisions beyond this stage cause a fluid-filled cavity to form in the middle this
makes a blastocyst
The blastocyst consists of:
-A inner mass of cells
-An outer layer called trophoblast
-A fluid filled cavity
These developments all occur as the developing embryo is moving from the oviduct to
the uterus. When the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it will embed in the endometrium
where it continues to grow and develop. If implantation does not occur then the embryo
is not supplied with enough food and the pregnancy does not continue.

hCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy

Human embryos secrete the hormone hCG from a very early stage. hCG stimulates the
ovary to maintain the secretion of progesterone during the first three months of
pregnancy. Progesterone causes the uterus lining to continue to thicken so it can support
the embryo after implantation. The placenta secrets the progesterone that is needed to
sustain the pregnancy until the time of childbirth.
The endometrium is a blood-rich environment in which an implanted zygote can
grow and it is sustained by the hormone progesterone
If progesterone levels aren't maintained (i.e. the corpus luteum degenerates),
then the endometrium will be sloughed away (menstruation)
A fertilised zygote develops into a blastocyst that secretes human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)
hCG maintains the corpus luteum post-ovulation so that the blastocyst can
remain embedded in the endometrium and continue to develop
Gradually the placenta develops and produces progesterone (at around 8 - 10
weeks), at which point the corpus luteum is no longer needed

11.4.12 Explain how the structure and function of the placenta, including

its hormonal role in secretion of estrogen and progesterone, maintain

pregnancy
Structure and Function:
The placenta is a disc-shaped structure that nourishes the developing embryo
It is formed from the development of the trophoblast upon implantation and
eventually invades the uterine wall
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and maternal blood pools
via open ended arterioles into intervillous spaces (lacunae)
Chorionic villi extend into these spaces and facilitate the exchange of materials
between the maternal blood and fetal capillaries
Nutrients, oxygen and antibodies will be taken up by the fetus, while carbon
dioxide and waste products will be removed
The placenta is expelled from the uterus after childbirth
Hormonal Role:
The placenta also takes over the hormonal role of the ovary (at around 12 weeks)
Estrogen stimulates growth of the muscles of the uterus (myometrium) and the
development of the mammary glands
Progesterone maintains the endometrium, as well as reduces uterine
contractions and maternal immune response (no antibodies against fetus)
Both estrogen and progesterone levels drop near time of birth

Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed
The placenta also takes over the hormonal role of the ovary
Estrogen stimulates growth of the muscles of the uterus and the development of the
mammary glands
Progesterone maintains the endometrium, as well as reduces uterine contractions and
maternal immune response
Both estrogen and progesterone levels drop near the time of birth

Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin

The process of childbirth is called parturition and is controlled by the hormone

oxytocin
After nine months, the fetus is fully grown and takes up all available space in the
uterus, stretching the walls of the uterus
This causes a signal to be sent to the brain, releasing oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary
Oxytocin inhibits progesterone, which was inhibiting uterine contractions
Oxytocin also directly stimulates the smooth muscle of the uterine wall to
contract, initiating the birthing process
The contraction of the uterine wall causes further stretching, which triggers more

oxytocin to be released (causing even more contraction)

Additionally, the fetus responds to the cramped conditions by releasing
prostaglandins which cause further myometrial contractions
As the stimulus causing oxytocin release is increased by the effects of oxytocin,
this creates a positive feedback pathway
Contractions will stop when labour is complete and the baby is birthed (no more
stretching of the uterine wall)