GEO444 All

Remote Sensing of the
Environment
GEO 444/544
Department of Geosciences
Oregon State University
What is remote sensing?

the acquisition and measurement of
data/information on some property(ies) of a
phenomenon, object, or material by a recording
device not in physical, intimate contact with the
features(s) under surveillance; techniques involve
amassing knowledge pertinent to environments by
measuring force fields, electromagnetic radiation, or
acoustic energy employing cameras, radiometers and
scanners, lasers, radio frequency receivers, radar
systems, sonar, thermal devices, seismographs,
magnetometers, gravimeters, scintillometers, and
other instruments.
Source: NASA tutorial on remote sensing
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/nicktutor_I-1.html
Shorter definition
Remote sensing is the collection of
information about an object or system
without coming into direct physical
contact with it.
Why do we do remote sensing?
Unobtrusive
Automated
Useful for extreme conditions
Offers excellent spatial and temporal
coverage
Provides real time or near-real time
observations
Often cost-effective relative to ground data
collection
Augments in situ measurement systems
Extends our senses
How are measurements made?

Ground-based
Airborne
Satellite
Remote Sensing Systems

Active Sensor - illuminates the subject from
an artificial energy source
Passive Sensor - uses natural radiation from
the Sun or Earth
Imaging Sensor - creates a picture by
scanning across a linear array of detectors
while the array moves through space
Non-imaging Sensor - measures at discrete
locations; or uses a non-photonic approach
REMOTE SENSING ELECTROMAGNETIC

RADIATION DATA TYPES
Visible, infrared, thermal, and microwave are most common
Wave Model of EMR (pg.39)

Electrical (E) and magnetic fields (B) are orthogonal to each other
Direction of each field is perpendicular to each other and to

the direction of wave propagation.
Electromagnetic Waves (pp. 39-40)

Described by:
Wavelength
Frequency
Amplitude
1 Cycle
()
Frequency = # cycles/second
()
Frequency vs. Wavelength (pg.39)

= distance of separation between two
successive wave peaks
= number of wave peaks passing in a given
time
c = speed of light in a vacuum = 3.0 108 ms-1
The product of wavelength and frequency is a
constant:
c = or = c /
Physical Principles of Remote

Sensing:
Electromagnetic Radiation
(Chapter 2 and a small part of Chapter 8)
Outline for Lecture 2

Properties of electromagnetic radiation
The electromagnetic spectrum
Plancks, Stefan-Boltzmann, and Wiens
blackbody Laws
Graybodies and emissivity
Radiant temperature vs. kinetic
temperature
What is Energy?
Typical Definition: Energy is the capacity to do work =
Mechanical Energy (textbook pp. 37-38,47)
From The Feynman Lectures on Physics: Feynman
tells us that ...in physics today, we have no
knowledge of what energy is. He goes on to say
that we know how to calculate its value for a great
variety of situations, but beyond that its just an
abstract thing which has only one really important
property. If we add up all the values before
something happens and then add them up after it
happens the two values will be exactly the
same. (We must be sure to include every object
affected.) This is the law of conservation of energy.
Wave Model of EMR (pg.39)

Electrical (E) and magnetic fields (B) are orthogonal to each other
Direction of each field is perpendicular to each other and to

the direction of wave propagation.
Electromagnetic Waves (pp. 39-40)

Described by:
Wavelength
Frequency
Amplitude
1 Cycle
()
Frequency = # cycles/second
()
Frequency vs. Wavelength (pg.39)

= distance of separation between two
successive wave peaks
= number of wave peaks passing in a given
time
c = speed of light in a vacuum = 3.0 108 ms-1
The product of wavelength and frequency is a
constant:
c = or = c /
Electromagnetic Radiation (pg.40)
EMR is the source for most types of remote sensing
Passive
Passive reflected or reemitted solar radiation
Active
Active the sensor emits the

radiation and detects the return
For terrestrial remote sensing, the most important

source is the sun
Reflected solar energy is used: 0.3 - 2.5 m
The Earth is also an energy source

>6 m for Earth-emitted energy
The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum (pg. 42, plate 2.2)
More about Solar Radiation (pg. 43)

Name of Spectral
Region
Wavelength
Range, m
Percent of Total
Energy
Gamma and X-rays
< 0.01
Negligible
Far Ultraviolet
0.01 - 0.2
0.02
Middle Ultraviolet
0.2 - 0.3
1.95
Near Ultraviolet
0.3 - 0.4
5.32
Visible
0.4 - 0.7
43.5
Near Infrared
0.7 - 1.5
36.8
Middle Infrared
1.5 - 5.6
12.0
Thermal Infrared
5.6 - 1000
0.41
Microwave
> 1000
Negligible
Radio Waves
> 1000
Negligible
More about Solar Radiation

At 5900 K, the energy (radiant exitance) from
the Sun is enormous: 6.4 107 Wm-2
This energy is reduced to an irradiance of
~1370 Wm-2 at the top of the Earths
atmosphere because of the Earth-Sun distance
(1/r2)
The Earth, at 288 K has a radiant exitance of
only 390 Wm-2
Photon Energy (pg. 43)

When considering the particle form of energy,
we call it a photon
The radiant energy of a photon, Q, is
proportional to its frequency, :
Q=h
= c/
Q = hc/
Radiant energy Q, measured in Joules (J)
h = the Planck constant = 6.626 10-34 Joule-seconds (Js)
c = speed of light = 3.0 108 meters per second (ms-1)
Thus, the shorter the wavelength, the higher

the energy of a photon.
Blackbody Radiation (pg. 39)

All objects whose temperatures are above
absolute zero Kelvin (-273.16oC) emit radiation at
all wavelengths.
A blackbody is one that is a perfect absorber of
all EMR that falls on it and a perfect emitter of
thermal EMR at a certain temperature that would
appear black when cold.
No real object is a blackbody radiator, but objects
like the Sun come close to being blackbody
radiators.
Blackbody Equations (pg. 41)

Plancks Law:
Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
Wiens displacement equation:
c speed of light
h Planck constant
k Boltzmann constant
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
3.0 108 ms-1

6.63 10-34 Js
1.38 10-23 JK-1
5.67 10-8 Wm-2K-4
Plancks Law
What do the equations mean??
Plancks Law (1900) gives the radiance (L) of a
blackbody (Wm-2 sr-1) at a given temperature at
any wavelength ().
What is a Watt??
An International System unit of power equal to
one joule of energy per second.
What is a steradian (sr)??

The solid angle subtended at
the center of a sphere of
radius r by a portion of the
surface of the sphere having
an area equal to r2.
65.54
Plancks Law, (continued)

Plancks law describes how heat energy
is transformed into radiant energy
According to Plancks law, an object will
emit radiation in all wavelengths but not
equally
This is the basic law for radiation
measurements in all parts of the EM
spectrum
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Stefan-Boltzmann Law (1884) describes the total
amount of energy being radiated by a blackbody at
different temperatures (radiant exitance in Wm-2).
Blackbody Radiation (pg. 39)

Radiant exitance (M) is proportional to the fourth
power of an objects temperature in Kelvin:
This assumes a blackbody which is a perfect

emitter and a perfect absorber.
Radiant exitance is the power of electromagnetic
radiation away from a surface per unit area,
measured in Watts per square meter (Wm-2)
Wiens Displacement Law

Wiens Displacement Law (1893) describes the
wavelength of maximum blackbody radiation (in
m).
What do the curves mean??

Temperature Color Spectrum
At room temperature,
blackbodies emit mostly infrared
wavelengths, but as the
temperature increases past 798
K, blackbodies start to emit
visible wavelengths, appearing
red, orange, yellow, white, and
blue with increasing temperature.
By the time an object is white, it
is emitting substantial ultraviolet
radiation.
Examples using
Wiens Displacement Law (pg. 41)
Tsun= 5800 K
Peak of Suns radiation =
2898 m K / 5800 K = 0.5 m
Tearth = 288 K
Peak of Earths radiation =
2898 m K / 288 K = 10 m
Blackbody at 6000 K
(pp. 51-52)
leaving the surface

of the sun
SolarRadiation
Emittance
Curve
Solar radiation at sea level
Blackbody vs. Solar Radiation
Graybody Radiation (pp. 255- 256)

real objects are not perfect blackbody
absorbers/emitters
they reflect part of the incident radiation
emissivity, , is the ratio of graybody
exitance to blackbody exitance
Emissivity (pg. 255)

Describes the actual energy absorption
and emission properties of real objects
(graybodies)
Is wavelength dependent
Emissivity establishes the radiant
temperature Trad of an object
Radiant Temperature vs. Kinetic

Temperature (pg. 259)
Two objects can have the same kinetic temperature
but different radiant temperatures
Object
Emissivity
()
Kinetic
Temperature
Radiant
Temperature
Blackbody
1.0
300 K
300 K
Water, distilled
0.99
300
299.2
Basalt, rough
0.95
300
296.2
Basalt, smooth
0.92
300
293.8
Obsidian
0.86
300
288.9
Mirror
0.02
300
112.8
Graybody Radiation (pp. 255- 256)

real objects are not perfect blackbody
absorbers/emitters
they reflect part of the incident radiation
emissivity, , is the ratio of graybody exitance to
blackbody exitance
Emissivity (pg. 255)

Describes the actual energy absorption and
emission properties of real objects
(graybodies)
Is wavelength dependent
Emissivity establishes the radiant
temperature Trad of an object
Radiant Temperature vs. Kinetic

Temperature (pg. 259)
Two objects can have the same kinetic temperature
but different radiant temperatures
Object
Emissivity
()
Kinetic
Temperature
Radiant
Temperature
Blackbody
1.0
300 K
300 K
Water, distilled
0.99
300
299.2
Basalt, rough
0.95
300
296.2
Basalt, smooth
0.92
300
293.8
Obsidian
0.86
300
288.9
Mirror
0.02
300
112.8
Electromagnetic Radiation:
Interactions in the Atmosphere
and with Matter
(Chapter 2)

EMR interaction with the atmosphere
Atmospheric attenuation
scattering (Rayleigh, Mie, Non-selective)
absorption
Atmospheric windows
EMR interaction with matter
Blackbody at 6000K
pp. 51-52
leaving the surface

of the sun
SolarRadiation
Emittance
Curve
Atmospheric Effects (pp. 48-51)

EMR is attenuated by its passage
through the atmosphere
Attenuation = scattering + absorption
Scattering is the redirection of radiation
by reflection and refraction
Attenuation is wavelength dependent
(pg. 49)
Droplet
(pg. 50)
Rayleigh Scattering
(pp. 49-50)
scattering by molecules
and particles whose
diameters are <<
primarily due to oxygen
and nitrogen molecules
scattering intensity is
proportional to -4
responsible for blue sky
A Clear Blue Sky

Blue radiation ( = 0.46)
Red radiation ( = 0.66)
(0.66/0.46)4 = 4.24
Blue is scattered 4 more than red radiation
Earth: atmosphere and

Rayleigh scattering, giving
blue horizon
Moon: atmosphere and

no Rayleigh scattering,
giving black horizon
Droplet
(pg. 50)
(pp. 49-50)
Mie Scattering (pg. 50)

Spherical particles that have a mean diameter 0.1 to 10
times the incident wavelength
Examples for visible light: water vapor, smoke particles, fine
dust
Scattering intensity is proportional to -4 to 0 (depending on
particle diameter)
Mie scattering is in the forward direction
Clear atmosphere has both Rayleigh and Mie

scattering. Their combined influence is between -0.7
to 2
Rayleigh and Mie Scattering
An informal measurement of sky

brightness and color saturation.
The selected points approach the
sun direction and avoid obvious
clouds.
(from http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu)
Red Sky at Night

At sunset, solar radiation must traverse a longer path
through the atmosphere. Viewing a setting sun, the
energy reaching the observer is largely depleted of
blue radiation, leaving mostly red wavelengths
(Rayleigh). Dust/smoke adds additional scattering with
a wavelength dependence that increases the red sky
effect (Mie)
Droplet
(pg. 50)
(pp. 49-50)
Non-selective Scattering (pp. 50-51)

aerosol particles much larger than the wavelength
(> 10x)
examples: water droplets, ice crystals, volcanic ash,
smog
independent of wavelength: 0
Atmospheric Absorption (pp.51-52)

Absorption is the process whereby radiant energy
is absorbed by atmospheric constituents and
converted to thermal energy
Atmospheric absorbers are primarily:
water vapor, water droplets
H2O
carbon dioxide
CO2
oxygen
O2
ozone
O3
Dust and soot
Blackbody at 6000K
pp. 51-52
leaving the surface

of the sun
SolarRadiation
Emittance
Curve
Absorption Bands (pg. 51)

An absorption band is a portion of the EM
spectrum within which radiant energy is
absorbed by substances such as water (H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), ozone
(O3), nitrous oxide (N2O), dust, soot, etc.
Atmospheric Windows (pp.51-52)

Regions in the EM spectrum where energy can
be fully transmitted
0.3-0.7 m
3-5 m
8-11 m
1 mm-1 m
UV and visible light from Sun

emitted thermal energy from Earth
emitted thermal energy from Earth
radar and microwave energy
(pg.52)
Interactions with Matter (pp.53-54)
Conservation of energy: radiation at a given
wavelength is either
reflected () -- property of surface or medium is
called the reflectance or albedo (0-1), or percent
reflectance (0-100%)
absorbed () -- property is absorptance (0-1)
transmitted () -- property is transmittance (0-1)
Interactions with Matter (pp.53-54)
Radiation Budget Equation:
i = + +
i is the total radiant flux in Watts
is the hemispherical transmittance
is the hemispherical reflectance
is the hemispherical absorptance
(pp.53-54)
Refraction
Transmittance,
Reflectance,
Absorptance,
(and re-emission)
Reflectance + Absorptance + Transmittance = 1

For the Earths surface, we ignore Transmittance,
so Reflectance + Absorptance = 1 , or:
= 1
= 1
Electromagnetic Radiation at the

Earths Surface
(Chapter 2 and a bit of Chapter 1)

Specular vs. Diffuse Reflectance
Directional vs. Hemispherical Reflectance
Following the energy
EMR at the Earths Surface

Recall that radiant energy can be transmitted,
absorbed, or reflected
For remote sensing purposes, energy is not
transmitted through the Earth
Reflectance depends on the composition and
surface characteristics of materials -- it also
depends on the way that the material is
illuminated
Reflection (pp. 51-53)

diffuse reflection (rough surface relative to
wavelength of EMR)
specular reflection (smooth surface relative to
wavelength of EMR)
Diffuse
Specular
(pg.53)
Sunglint and wildfires in

the Carpentaria Bay,
Queensland, Australia
Sunglint on the water

(specular reflection)
Reflectance Terminology (pp.54-55)

Irradiance can be either direct-only (directional)
or direct + diffuse (hemispherical)
Measurement can be either over a small solid
angle (directional) or over a very, very wide
solid angle (hemispherical)
(pg. 21)
Reflectance Terminology (pp.20-21)

Directional-Directional Reflectance
a.k.a.: Bidirectional Reflectance
this is what is measured by satellites at the top of
the atmosphere
Hemispherical-Directional Reflectance
this is what is measured by instruments at the
surface of the Earth
Sunglint from solar

collectors in the
Mohave Desert
Measured using
NASAs Multiangle
Imaging
SpectroRadiometer
(MISR) instrument
Reflectance Terminology (pp.51,53)

A Lambertian surface is one where the bidirectional
reflectance factor does not vary with angle (i.e. the
bidirectional reflectance factor is the same in all
directions). It is a perfectly diffuse (isotropic)
scattering medium
A specular surface is one where the bidirectional
reflectance factor is entirely concentrated in the
forward direction at the same zenith angle as the
incident irradiance (like a perfect mirror)
All natural surfaces are somewhere between these
(pg.56)
The concept of radiant flux
density for an area on
the surface of the Earth.
Irradiance is a measure
of the amount of radiant
flux incident upon a
surface per unit area of
the surface measured in
watts m-2.
Exitance is a measure of
the amount of radiant flux
leaving a surface per unit
area of the surface
measured in watts m-2.
(pg. 57)
The concept of
radiance (Wm-2 sr-1)
leaving a specific
projected source
area on the ground,
in a specific
direction, and within
a specific solid
angle measured in
steradians (sr).
(pg.57)
The cosine effect

cosine=adjacent/hypotenuse
Steradian (Solid Angle)

The steradian (sr) is the unit of solid angle
It is defined as: = A/r2
Spherical
cap area, A
Radius, r
Diameter of
flat cone
Sphere
Spectral Reflectance
spectral absorptance
Spectral Reflectance Curves (pg.55)

Measured spectral reflectance values
across a portion of the EMR spectrum are
often displayed for different ground features
on Spectral Reflectance Curves.
Wavelength regions where there are large
differences in reflectance among features
are good places for remote sensing to
distinguish among the features.
(pg. 55)
(pg. 59)
Path from Sun-to-Earth (pp.58-59)

E0 = Top-of-Atmosphere solar irradiance (Wm-2)
it passes through the atmosphere and is attenuated
based on the atmospheric transmittance, at a
particular solar zenith angle
it reaches the ground and is reduced by a factor of
cos, depending on the angle of incidence (solar zenith
angle + slope)
Thus, for a specified wavelength, the irradiance at the
ground surface is:
E g = E 0 cos
(pp.57,59)
Path 1 contains spectral solar

irradiance ( Eo ) that was
attenuated very little before
illuminating the terrain within the
IFOV. Notice in this case that we
are interested in the solar
irradiance from a specific solar
zenith angle ( o ) and that the
amount of irradiance reaching the
terrain is a function of the
atmospheric transmittance at this
angle ( T ). If all of the irradiance
makes it to the ground, then the
atmospheric transmittance ( T )
equals one. If none of the
irradiance makes it to the ground,
then the atmospheric
transmittance is zero
(pp.57-59)
Path 2 contains spectral diffuse

sky irradiance ( Ed ) that never
even reaches the Earths surface
(the target study area) because of
scattering in the atmosphere.
Unfortunately, such energy is often
scattered directly into the IFOV of
the sensor system. As previously
discussed, Rayleigh scattering of
blue light contributes much to this
diffuse sky irradiance. That is why
the blue band image produced by
a remote sensor system is often
much brighter than any of the
other bands. It contains much
unwanted diffuse sky irradiance
that was inadvertently scattered
into the IFOV of the sensor
system. Therefore, if possible, we
want to minimize its effects. Green
(2003) refers to the quantity as the
upward reflectance of the
atmosphere ( Edu ).
(pp.58-59)
Path 3 contains energy

from the Sun that has
undergone some
Rayleigh, Mie, and/or
nonselective scattering
and perhaps some
absorption and reemission
before illuminating the
study area. Thus, its
spectral composition and
polarization may be
somewhat different from
the energy that reaches
the ground from path 1.
Green (2003) refers to this
quantity as the downward
reflectance of the
atmosphere ( Edd ).
(pp.58-59)
Path 4 contains radiation

that was reflected or
scattered by nearby terrain
( ) covered by snow,
concrete, soil, water,
and/or vegetation into the
IFOV of the sensor
system. The energy does
not actually illuminate the
study area of interest.
Therefore, if possible, we
would like to minimize its
effects.
n
Path 2 and Path 4

combine to produce what
is commonly referred to as
Path Radiance, Lp.
(pp.58-59)
Path 5 is energy that was

also reflected from nearby
terrain into the
atmosphere, but then
scattered or reflected onto
the study area.
(pp.58-59)
The total radiance reaching the
sensor is:
1
LS = T v (E oT o cos o + E d )+ L p
This may be summarized

as:
LS = LT + L p
Ls = radiance at the sensor
LT = radiance from the target
LP = path radiance
Remember that the scattered and transmitted radiances are
spectrally dependent (that is, they vary as a function of wavelength)
Why we care about this

reflectance of the surface tells us about the
nature of the material (composition,
roughness, etc.)
atmospheric effects obscure our ability to
measure surface properties
surrounding materials can also add some
confusion about the nature of the surface
Atmospheric Correction
a) Image containing substantial haze prior to atmospheric correction. b)

Image after atmospheric correction using ATCOR (Courtesy Leica
Geosystems and DLR, the German Aerospace Centre).
Landsat TM Bands 4,3,2,
Landsat TM Bands 3,2,1
TOA Reflectance
Surface Reflectance
(pg. 59)
Path from Sun-to-Earth (pp.58-59)

E0 = Top-of-Atmosphere solar irradiance (Wm-2)
it passes through the atmosphere and is attenuated
based on the atmospheric transmittance, at a
particular solar zenith angle
it reaches the ground and is reduced by a factor of
cos, depending on the angle of incidence (solar zenith
angle + slope)
Thus, for a specified wavelength, the irradiance at the
ground surface is:
(pp.58-59)
The total radiance reaching the
sensor is:
This may be summarized

as:
Ls = radiance at the sensor

LT = radiance from the target
LP = path radiance
Remember that the scattered and transmitted radiances are
spectrally dependent (that is, they vary as a function of wavelength)
Why we care about this

reflectance of the surface tells us about the
nature of the material (composition,
roughness, etc.)
atmospheric effects obscure our ability to
measure surface properties
surrounding materials can also add some
confusion about the nature of the surface
Atmospheric Correction
a) Image containing substantial haze prior to atmospheric correction. b)

Image after atmospheric correction using ATCOR (Courtesy Leica
Geosystems and DLR, the German Aerospace Centre).
Landsat TM Bands 4,3,2,
Landsat TM Bands 3,2,1
TOA Reflectance
Surface Reflectance
Imaging Principles
(parts of Chapters 1,4,5 & 7)
Photographic camera/film systems

Digital electro-optical systems
Raster image creation
Image spatial resolution
Photographic Camera/Film Systems (pp.95-98)

Camera Components
Aerial Photography
Camera in Aircraft
Aerial Photograph Film and Paper (pp.110-115)

A non-digital aerial photograph is acquired
instantaneously as a film negative that is made into a
paper positive print
Aerial Photograph Film

Films are coated with photo-sensitive silver
halide emulsions to record an image (pg. 112)
Fine grain
Coarse grain
Spatial resolution of film depends in part on the size of the

silver halide crystals
Different Types of Photographic Films (pg.111)
Film is always passive, uses reflected sunlight

only works in the range of 0.4 - 1.0 m

Panchromatic 0.40.7 m
Black & White IR 0.7 0.9 m

Color 0.40.7 m
Color IR 0.50.9 m
Electro-optical vs. Photographic Systems

Both can be used to create images
photography is non-scanning
electro-optical systems can be either scanning or nonscanning
Both record interactions with radiation

films coated with photo-sensitive silver halide emulsions to
record an image
electro-optical systems detect radiation through an electrical
system
EMR detection capabilities are quite different

film is always passive, uses reflected sunlight, only works in
the range of 0.4 - 1.0 m
digital systems can be active or passive, can work in all
parts of EM spectrum, high spectral resolution is possible,
can be non-imaging system (e.g. laser altimeter)
Basic Types of Imaging Systems (pg. 196)
Images Made from Digital Numbers (DN)

for each Image Band
at-sensor
radiance
imaging optics
detectors
electronics
DN
The DN that is recorded is proportional to the

radiance at the sensor
(Note that the text uses the term Brightness Value (BV) but the
more appropriate, and commonly used term is DN)
Digital Raster Image Format (pg. 195)
Image Spatial Resolution (pp. 15-16)

A measure of the smallest angular or linear
separation between two objects that can be
resolved by the sensor. (pg. 15)
Resolving power is the ability to perceive two
adjacent objects as being distinct
size
distance
shape
color
contrast with background
sensor characteristics
Instantaneous Field Of View (IFOV) (pg.3)

Instantaneous field of
view (IFOV) is the
angular field of view of
the sensor, independent
of height
IFOV is a relative
measure because it is an
angle, not a length
It can be measured in
radians or degrees
sensor
= IFOV, the angular field

of view (measured in
degrees or radians)
GIFOV
Ground-projected instantaneous field of view
(GIFOV) depends on satellite height (H) and
the IFOV is a circle of diameter GIFOV.

sensor
1 / 2 GIFOV / H = tan
2
/2

GIFOV = 2 H tan
2
H
= IFOV, the angular field
of view (measured in
degrees or radians)
GIFOV
PIXEL
SPATIAL
RESOLUTION
(pp. 16-17)
Imaging Principles (cont.)

Spectral and
Temporal Resolution
(Chapters 1 & 7)

Radiometric resolution
Quantization
Gain
Signal strength and signal/noise ratio

Spectral Resolution
Spectral Bands: number and width
Temporal Resolution
Multi-temporal imagery
Radiometric Resolution (pg. 18)

Number of digital values (gray levels) that a
sensor can use to express variability of signal
(brightness) within the data
Determines the information content of the
image
The more digital values, the more detail can
be expressed
Radiometric Resolution (pg. 18)

Determined by the number of bits
within which the digital information is
encoded
21 = 2 levels (0,1)
22 = 4 levels (0,1,2,3)
28 = 256 levels (0-255)
212 = 4096 levels (0-4095)
8 bit radiometric resolution
2 bit radiometric resolution
Dynamic
Range
Saturation
Ideal
Response
(offset for
clarity)
Dark
Current
Signal
Actual
Sensor
Response
dark
Scene Brightness
bright
Signal Strength
Need enough photons incident on the
detector to record a strong signal
Signal strength depends on
Energy flux from the surface
Altitude of the sensor
Location of the spectral bands (e.g. visible, NIR,
thermal, etc.)
Spectral bandwidth of the detector
IFOV
Dwell time (more on this next week)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

A sensor responds to both signal strength and
electronic errors from various sensor
components (noise)
SNR = signal-to-noise ratio
signal
noise
signal = the actual energy reaching the detector

noise = random error in the measurement (all
systematic noise has been removed)
To be effective, a sensor must have high SNR
Signal is the mean value of n DN values

from a uniform ground feature (DN)
Noise =
(DN
i=1
DN )
i
n 1
Digital Numbers (DN)

Signal (DN ) is the mean of all DN values
n is the number of DN values
summation (Hyperlink)
Noise is the sample standard deviation of the n DN
values
Example
SNR calculation
50%
A uniform material of
known reflectance
200
201
199
203
201
200
202
DNs from a remote
sensing detector
This means that you cannot reliably

detect a difference in reflectance
between 1/3 of 1% reflectance for
this example
50%
Noise Equivalent Reflectance

Noise Equivalent Radiance
Noise Equivalent Temperature
A measure of the smallest magnitude of
signal or of a change in signal that can be
detected
Can be expressed in terms of reflectance (),
radiance (L) or or temperature (T)
Spectral Resolution (pg. 14)

The width and number of spectral intervals in
the electromagnetic spectrum to which a
remote sensing instrument is sensitive
Allows characterization based on geophysical
parameters (chemistry, mineralogy,etc.)
Spectral Resolution (pg. 14)

Determined by:
the number of spectral bands
width of each band
Described by the full-width at half-maximum
(FWHM)
spectral response function (SRF) of each band
(pg. 15)
For Different Spectral Bands
For Different Spectral Bands
FWHM
Advanced Land Imager (ALI) sensor on the NASA EO-1 satellite
SPECTRAL BANDS (pp.14-15)

Band 1:
Multiple Bands (pg. 15)
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM and ETM+) Bands (pp. 207-208,211)
Surface components with very distinct

spectral differences can be resolved using
broad wavelength ranges
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing

(pg. 16 and Color Plate 7-10)
Hundreds
of bands
Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging

Spectrometer (AVIRIS) bands (pp. 240-241)
Subtle differences require finer spectral resolution (pg. 239)
vegetation spectral signatures from Jasper Ridge
Temporal Resolution (pp.17-18)

The frequency of data acquisition over
an area
Temporal resolution depends on:
the orbital parameters of the satellite
latitude of the target
swath width of the sensor
pointing ability of the sensor
MULTI-TEMPORAL IMAGERY (pg. 18)

Multi-temporal imagery is important for
infrequent observational opportunities (e.g.,
when clouds often obscure the surface)
short-lived phenomenon (floods, oil spills,
etc.)
rapid-response (fires, hurricanes)
detecting changing properties of a feature to
distinguish it from otherwise similar features
TEMPORAL RESOLUTION (pp. 17-18)

Examples of sensor temporal resolution:
SPOT - 26 days (1, 4-5 days with pointing)
Landsat - 16 days
MODIS - 16 day repeat, 1-2 day coverage
AVHRR 9 day repeat, daily coverage
GOES - 30 minutes
More about this when we discuss orbits (see chapter 7)
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL RESOLUTION (Color Plate 1-1 and pg. 19)
Orbits and Sensors

Multispectral Sensors
(Chapter 7)

Orbits: geostationary, polar
Imaging Systems (some review):
Cross-track scanners (whiskbroom sensor)
Pushbroom sensors
Swaths and pixels (some review):

Field of View (swath width)
Pixel size
Multispectral sensors
Landsat
Satellite Orbits
Orbital parameters can be tuned to produce
particular, useful orbits
Geostationary (Geo)
Sun synchronous (Polar, Low Earth Orbit,
LEO)
Geostationary Orbit (pg. 212)

Geostationary orbit is stationary with respect to a
location on the earth
Circular orbit around the equator (orbital inclination =
zero)
Placed in high orbit (22,240 mi or 35,790 km) to
match the angular velocity of Earth (24 hour
rotational period)
Low spatial resolution
Geostationary Orbits (pp. 213-215)

Weather satellites (GOES,
METEOSAT)
Constant monitoring
Communication satellites
Geostationary Orbits (pp. 213-215)

Large spatial coverage
each satellite can provide useful coverage for about 25-30%
of the earths surface
useful coverage extends only to the mid-latitudes, no more
than about 55oN and S.
Sun-synchronous (Polar) Orbit

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) are typically about 700 km
altitude
Satellite orbits in a fixed plane and the Earth rotates
beneath it
Satellite crosses the equator at the same time each
day
near-polar orbit is very common
Orbital inclination is retrograde (typically ~98o)
Circular orbits have period of about 98-102 minutes
Landsat
Sun-synchronous
Orbit (pg. 200)
Inclination
Angle
Animation of Geosynchronous
and Sun-synchronous orbits
Uses of Sun-Synchronous Orbits

Local equatorial crossing time depends on
nature of application (low sun angle vs. high
sun angle needs)
Provides global coverage effective for Earth
monitoring
LEO provides higher spatial resolution than
geosynchronous satellites
Terra satellite orbits for Oct. 18, 2011
See http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/datacenter/terra/
Terra satellite
overpasses for
Oct. 18, 2011
over North
America
note the
ascending and
descending
orbits (see the
time stamps)
See http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/datacenter/terra/
http://www.gearthblog.com/satellites.html
There are thousands of satellites orbiting the Earth
See this website for real time satellite tracking!
Getting the Data to the Ground
Getting the Data to the Ground

On-board recording and pre-processing
Direct telemetry to ground stations
receive data transmissions from satellites
transmit commands to satellites (pointing,
turning maneuvers, software updating
Indirect transmission through Tracking

and Data Relay Satellite System
(TDRSS)
Imaging Systems (pp. 194-197)

Cross-track scanning systems
whiskbroom
Along-track (non-scanning) system

pushbroom
Linear Array Whiskbroom (pg. 196)

Single detector or a linear
array of detectors
Back and forth motion of the
scanner creates the orbital
swath
Image is built up by movement
of satellite along its orbital
track Produces a wide field-ofview
Pixel resolution varies with
scan angle
Field of View (FOV)

FOV is the swath width of the instrument
It is the width of an orbital track projected on
the Earth surface
Depends on the across track scan angle of
the sensor (for whiskbroom) or the width of
the linear detector array (for a pushbroom
sensor)
Calculating the Field of View (FOV)

FOV = 2 H tan()
H = satellite altitude
Example:
SeaWIFS satellite altitude = 705 km
Scan angle = 58.3o
FOV = 1410 km x tan(58.3o)
= 1410 km x 1.619
= 2282 km
FOV
Linear Array Pushbroom (pg. 196)

Linear array of detectors (aligned
cross-track)
radiance passes through a lens and
onto a line of detectors
Image is built up by movement of the

satellite along its orbital track (no
scanning mirror)
Multiple linear arrays are used for
multi-spectral remote sensing
dispersion element splits light into
different wavelengths and onto
individual detectors
Dwell Time
The amount of time a scanner has to collect
photons from a ground resolution cell
Depends on:
satellite speed
width of scan line
time per scan line
time per pixel
Whiskbroom scanners have much shorter

dwell time than do pushbroom scanners
Whiskbroom vs. Pushbroom

Can have a wide swath
width (but not always)
Complex mechanical
system
Simple optical system
Shorter dwell time
Pixel distortion at edge
of swath
Example: MODIS,
AVHRR, SeaWIFS
Relatively narrow swath

width
Simple mechanical
system
Complex optical system
Longer dwell time
No pixel distortion
Example: MISR
The LANDSAT Program (pp. 197-211)
Pg. 198
History of
the Landsat
series
Currently,
Landsat 5
and
Landsat 7
(ETM+)
are in orbit
Landsat MSS
1972-present
(pg. 199)
Landsat MSS Bands and their Uses

Band 4 (Green: 0.5 - 0.6 m)
water features (large penetration depths)
sensitivity to turbidity (suspended sediments)
sensitivity to atmospheric haze (lack of tonal contrast)
Band 5 (Red: 0.6 - 0.7 m)

chlorophyll absorption region
good contrast between vegetated and non-veg. areas
haze penetration better than Band 4
Band 6 (NIR1: 0.7 - 0.8 m) and Band 7 (NIR2: 0.8 1.1 m)

similar for most surface features
good contrast between land and water (water is strong
absorber in near IR)
both bands excellent haze penetration
Band 7 good for discrimination of snow and ice
(pg. 203)
Landsat MSS Images of Mount St. Helens
September 15, 1973
May 22, 1983
August 31, 1988
Landsat 1,2,3
Attitude-control (pg. 200)
subsystem
Solar array
Wideband recorder
electronics
Attitude
measurement
sensor
Data
collection
antenna
Return Beam
Vidicon (RBV)
cameras (3)
Multispectral
S canner (MS S )
Landsat Sun-synchronous Orbits (pg. 200)
Retrograde orbit with a

99 inclination angle
(pg. 211)
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)

(pg. 204)
High-gain
antenna
Global positioning
system antenna
Attitude control
module
Propulsion
module
Power
module
Multispectral
S canner (MS S )
Thematic
Mapper
(TM)
Solar
array
panel
Landsat Thematic Mapper Bands and their Uses (pg. 205)

Band 1 (Blue: 0.45 - 0.52 m)
good water penetration
differentiating soil and rock
surfaces from vegsmoke plumes
most sensitive to atmospheric
haze
Band 2 (Green: 0.52 - 0.60 m)

water turbidity differences
sediment and pollution plumes
discrimination of broad classes of
vegetation
Band 3 (Red: 0.63 - 0.69 m)

strong chlorophyll absorption (veg.
vs. soil)
urban vs. rural areas

Band 4 (NIR1: 0.76 - 0.90 m)
different vegetation varieties and
conditions
dry vs. moist soil
coastal wetland, swamps, flooded
areas
Band 5 (NIR2: 1.55 - 1.75 m)

leaf-tissue water content
soil moisture
snow vs cloud discrimination
Band 6 (Thermal: 10.4 - 12.5 m)

heat mapping applications (coarse
resolution)
radiant surface temperature range: 100oC to +150oC
Band 7 (NIR3: 2.08 - 2.35 m)
absorption band by hydrous minerals

(clay, mica)
lithologic mapping (clay zones)
Differences in spectral
reflectance provide the
basis for mapping snow,
vegetation, soil, etc.
Landsat TM Band 4
(0.76-0.90m) and
Band 5 (1.55-1.75m)
show strong
differences in
reflectance of snow
and ice
(pg. 211)
Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic

Mapper (ETM+)
1999-present
15 m panchromatic band
on-board calibration
Landsat ETM+ Scan Line Correction Problem (since May 2003)
(pg. 207)
Multispectral and Hyperspectral

Remote Sensing
Lecture Outline
More Examples of multispectral sensors
Landsat (continued)
AVHRR
MODIS
ASTER
Multispectral vs. Hyperspectral Sensors

Examples of hyperspectral sensors
AVIRIS
Hyperion
(pg. 211)
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)

(pg. 204)
High-gain
antenna
Global positioning
system antenna
Attitude control
module
Propulsion
module
Power
module
Multispectral
S canner (MS S )
Thematic
Mapper
(TM)
Solar
array
panel

Band 1 (Blue: 0.45 - 0.52 m)
good water penetration
differentiating soil and rock
surfaces from vegsmoke plumes
most sensitive to atmospheric
haze
Band 2 (Green: 0.52 - 0.60 m)

water turbidity differences
sediment and pollution plumes
discrimination of broad classes of
vegetation
Band 3 (Red: 0.63 - 0.69 m)

strong chlorophyll absorption (veg.
vs. soil)
urban vs. rural areas

Band 4 (NIR1: 0.76 - 0.90 m)
different vegetation varieties and
conditions
dry vs. moist soil
coastal wetland, swamps, flooded
areas
Band 5 (NIR2: 1.55 - 1.75 m)

leaf-tissue water content
soil moisture
snow vs cloud discrimination
Band 6 (Thermal: 10.4 - 12.5 m)

heat mapping applications (coarse
resolution)
radiant surface temperature range: 100oC to +150oC
Band 7 (NIR3: 2.08 - 2.35 m)
absorption band by hydrous minerals

(clay, mica)
lithologic mapping (clay zones)
Differences in spectral
reflectance provide the
basis for mapping snow,
vegetation, soil, etc.
Landsat TM Band 4
(0.76-0.90m) and
Band 5 (1.55-1.75m)
show strong
differences in
reflectance of snow
and ice
(pg. 211)
Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic

Mapper (ETM+)
1999-present
15 m panchromatic band
on-board calibration
Landsat ETM+ Scan Line Correction Problem (since May 2003)
(pg. 207)
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR) (pp. 215-217)
Very High Temporal Resolution
AVHRR on NOAA-18 Satellite
AVHRR Sensor (pg. 216)

5 Bands Designed for hydrological,
oceanographic and meteorological studies
On-board NOAA satellites, 1981 to present
NOAA-18 satellite
Coarse spatial resolution (1.1 km at nadir)
Daily Global coverage (FOV = 2400 km)
Near-polar orbit (98.9o inclination)
10-bit quantization radiometric resolution
Band 1: Daytime cloud,

snow, ice, and vegetation
mapping
Band 2: Delineation of
land/water, snow, ice veg
mapping
Band 3: Monitoring of hot
targets (volcanoes, fires),
nighttime clouds mapping
Band 4: Day and night
cloud and surfacetemperature mapping
(pg. 217)
Band 5: Cloud and surface

temperature, day and night
cloud mapping, atmospheric
correction
AVHRR Swath
AVHRR Swath
AVHRR Swaths are Pieced Together into Global Coverage
Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS) (pp. 242-244)
On-board NASAs Terra satellite since 1999 and on-board

Aqua satellite since 2002
Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS) (pp. 242-244)
Spectral Range
Spatial Coverage
Spatial Resolution
Radiometric Resolution
Temporal Resolution
0.4 - 14.4 m
20 bands in Vis/NIR
16 bands in mid-IR and Thermal
+55, 2330 km swath
250 m (2 bands)
500 m (5 bands)
1000 m (29 bands)
12-bit
1-2 days, 4 days at equator
MODIS Global Daily Composite Image (pg. 244)
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission

and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
(pp.231-232)
On-board Terra satellite
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission

and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
(pp.231-232)
On-board Terra satellite
Consists of 3 different subsystems:
Visible/Near-infrared, Shortwave IR, Thermal IR
Pointable
VNIR has stereo capability (for DEM creation)
Swath width of only 60km
8-bit quantization
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and

Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) (pg. 231)
VNIR 0.4 - 14.4 m
SWIR 1.6 - 2.5 m
TIR 8 - 12 m
Spatial Resolution 15 m (VNIR : 3 bands)
30 m (SWIR: 6 bands)
90 m (TIR: 5 bands)
Spectral Range
(pg. 232)
Pearl Harbor, Oahu, HI

ASTER SWIR image 15 x 15 m
(single band image)
Pearl Harbor, Oahu, HI

ASTER VNIR image 15 x 15 m
(RGB=1,4,3)
(pg. 233)
Three different thermal bands: 10, 12, 14
Multispectral vs. Hyperspectral

Multispectral
separated spectral bands
wider bands
coarse representation of the
spectral signature
not able to discern small
differences between reflectance
spectra
smaller image size
fewer problems with calibration
multi-decadal history of continuous
image acquisition
Hyperspectral
no spectral gaps
narrow bands (10nm)
complete representation of the
spectral signature
ability to detect subtle spectral
features
large image size
radiometric and spectral calibration
require large effort
only one sensor in orbit (research
only)
Hyperspectral Bands (pg. 240)
Published Bandwidths
Defined by Full Width
at Half Maximum
(Pg. 15)
0.5
AVIRIS
(pp. 240-241)
Color
Plate
11-2
Similar to
Color
Plate 14-1
Hyperion: Imaging Spectrometer on EO-1
Hyperion: Imaging Spectrometer on EO-1

Spectral Range
Spatial Resolution
Radiometric Resolution
Swath width
0.43 - 2.4 m
220 bands
30 m
12-bit quantization
7.6 km (pushbroom)
Hyperion Images with Different Band Combinations
30, 21, 15
50, 23, 16
197, 107, 18
115, 35, 23
Multi-angular and Thermal

Remote Sensing
Lecture Outline
Multi-angular remote sensing concept
MISR
Forward and backward scattering
Surface roughness
Emissivity concepts revisited

Spectral emissivity
Kirchoffs Law
Diurnal energy cycles
Thermal remote sensing imagers

ASTER
FLIR
Principles of Multi-angular
Remote Sensing (pp.232-234)
Reflectance from natural surfaces is
anisotropic
the angular pattern of reflectance is described by
the bidirectional reflectance distribution function
Measured reflectance depends on solar and

viewing geometry
solar zenith angle
viewing zenith angle
relative azimuth between sun and sensor
Multi-angle Imaging
SpectroRadiometer (MISR)
(pg. 234)
Onboard NASAs Terra satellite
9 view angles at Earth surface:

nadir to 70.5 forward and aft
4 bands at each view angle:
446, 558, 672, 866 nm
Continuous pole-to-pole coverage
on orbit dayside
360-km swath
9 day coverage at equator
2 day coverage at poles
275 m - 1.1 km spatial sampling
7 minutes to observe each scene
at all 9 angles
14-bit quantization
On-board radiometric calibration
Automated co-registration
of MISR imagery
SPACE OBLIQUE MERCATOR

PROJECTION
(Note: MISR view angles are measured

relative to Earth surface, not the sensor)
Physical MISR instrument
Image grid
9 angles x 4 bands
Earths surface
36 nonregistered
images
VirtualMISR instrument
36 coregistered
images
9 angles x 4 bands
WGS84 ellipsoid
SOM grid
(pg. 21)
Changes in scene
brightness with angle
Oblique view looking at
forward scatter
MISR flight direction
(pg. 21)
Changes in scene
brightness with angle
Less oblique view looking
at backscatter
MISR flight direction
Multi-angle Imaging
Spectroradiometer
(MISR) Onboard Terra
Table 1. List of bands and camera names for the MISR image.
Image Band Number MISR Camera Name Spectral Band
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Df
Cf
Bf
Af
An
An
An
An
Aa
Ba
Ca
Da
Red
Red
Red
Red
Blue
Green
Red
Near-IR
Red
Red
Red
Red
Camera Viewing
Angle (degrees)
+70.5
+60.0
+45.6
+26.1
0
0
0
0
-26.1
-45.6
-60.0
-70.5
A,B,C and D are camera names

a is aft (negative viewing
angle)
f is forward (positive viewing
angle)
n is nadir (zero viewing angle)
Jensen, 2007
Visualizing surface
textures with MISR
nadir view
blue band
multi-spectral
compositing
using An
cameras
nadir view
green band
nadir view
red band
Hudson and
James Bays
24 February 2000
380 km
Visualizing surface
textures
forward scatter
red band
nadir
red band
backscatter
red band
stratocumulus
cloud
pack ice
(rough)
multi-angular
compositing
using Df, An, Da
cameras
Hudson and
James Bays
24 February 2000
fast ice
(smooth)
Angular reflectance signatures from MISR
backward scattering
forward scattering
Thermal Remote Sensing

(Chapter 8)
Sources of surface temperature

gain and loss (pp. 249-250)
Absorbed shortwave energy (emitted from Sun) (heat gain)
Longwave emitted energy from earth (heat loss)
Anthropogenic heating
urban areas
power plants
Geothermal
volcanoes
hot springs
Thermal basics, revisited (pg. 257)
Recall that radiant

temperature is not equal to
kinetic temperature
(except for a blackbody)
Emissivity is the ratio of
radiant emittance relative
to that of a blackbody
Emissivity is a spectral
quantity (it varies with
wavelength)
Thermal Basics, revisited

Plancks Blackbody Equation:
describes the spectral distribution of emitted energy as a function of
temperature
shows that emitted radiation increases as a function of the 4th
power of the temperature
Wiens Law:
there is a maximum wavelength at which a blackbody radiates and
this is determined by temperature
Radiant
Intensity
of the Sun
Jensen 2007
The Sun approximates a 6,000 K

blackbody with a dominant
wavelength of 0.48 m (green
light). Earth approximates a 300
K blackbody with a dominant
wavelength of 9.66 m . The
6,000 K Sun produces 41% of its
energy in the visible region from
0.4 - 0.7 m (blue, green, and
red light). The other 59% of the
energy is in wavelengths shorter
than blue light (<0.4 m) and
longer than red light (>0.7 m).
Eyes are only sensitive to light
from the 0.4 to 0.7 m. Remote
sensor detectors can be made
sensitive to energy in the nonvisible regions of the spectrum.
Atmospheric Windows for Thermal Remote Sensing (pg. 52)
3-4 m 8-9 m 10.5-12.5 m
Jensen 2007
a) The absorption of the Suns incident

electromagnetic energy in the region
from 0.1 to 30 m by various
atmospheric gases. The first four graphs
depict the absorption characteristics of
N2O, O2 and O3, CO2, and H2O, while
the final graphic depicts the cumulative
result of all these constituents being in
the atmosphere at one time. The
atmosphere essentially closes down
in certain portions of the spectrum
while atmospheric windows exist in
other regions that transmit incident
energy effectively to the ground. It is
within these windows that remote
sensing systems must function.
b) The combined effects of atmospheric
absorption, scattering, and reflectance
reduce the amount of solar irradiance
reaching the Earths surface at sea
level.
Kirchoffs Law (pp. 257-258)

1 = reflectance + emittance
emittance = 1 - reflectance
This means that (at a particular
wavelength) low reflectance also
means high emittance
And the opposite: good reflectors are
poor emitters
Emittance spectra of
various minerals
Spectral Emittance
Signatures
Similar to spectral reflectance

signatures, emittance spectra can
be exploited to map and
characterize surface materials
Diurnal Temperature and Energy Cycles (pg. 275)
Diurnal Temperature and Energy Cycles

For Different Ground Materials (pg. 275)
Thermal Imagers
Detectors in the thermal region need to be cooled
Changes in detector temperature are a source of noise
(increases the NE T)
Less energy so pixel size is relatively large
Sensors with thermal bands:
ATLAS
LandSat TM
AVHRR
MODIS
ASTER
FLIR (Forward Looking Infrared -- airborne sensor)
(pg. 277)
ATLAS
Daytime
TIR Images
ATLAS
Predawn
TIR Images
ASTER Image of
Saline Valley, CA
RGB composite
image using VNIR
bands (3, 2, 1)
(vegetation is red)
ASTER Image of
Saline Valley, CA
RGB composite
image using SWIR
bands (4, 6, 8)
(show reflectance
differences of
clays, carbonate
and sulfate
minerals)
ASTER Image of
Saline Valley, CA
RGB composite
image using TIR
bands (13, 12, 10)
(quartz is red,
carbonates are
green, mafic
volcanic rocks are
purple)
Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) (pg. 272)
FLIR
Sensor
Monochrome FLIR image

Mount St. Helens eruption
Hot lava in crater dome
Color-enhanced FLIR image

Helicopter-mounted in-stream temperature monitoring
Provides info on spatial variability
Side channel with cooler water temperatures on Cavitt Creek.

(Temperature scale in C).
Courtesy Anthony Olegario
Passive Microwave Remote

Sensing
(Chapter 9, pp. 330-332)

Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
Rayleigh-Jeans Law vs. Plancks Law

Brightness vs. Kinetic temperature
Dielectric constant
Sensors and applications
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing

(pg. 330)
Microwave region: 0.15-30cm (1-200 GHz)
Uses the same imaging principles as
thermal remote sensing
Multi-wavelength (or frequency) /multipolarization sensing
Weak energy source so need large IFOV
and wide spectral bands
Microwave Brightness Temperature

(pg. 330)
Microwave radiometers measure the emitted
spectral radiance received (L) but record data as a
matrix of Brightness Temperature values that are
linearly related to the spectral radiance received.
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law is an approximation to
Plancks blackbody radiation law that provides a
simple linear relationship between measured
spectral radiance and Brightness Temperature at
long wavelengths
Rayleigh-Jeans Law (1905)
L =
2kcTkin
Plancks Law vs. Rayleigh-Jeans Law

The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
described long wavelength
radiation well, but failed
to describe short
wavelength radiation
microwave
Plancks Law vs. Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Plancks Law
2hc 2
hc
L = 5 x
x=
kTkin
e 1
c speed of light
3.0 108 ms-1
h Planck constant
6.63 10-34 Js
k Boltzmann constant 1.38 10-23 JK-1
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation for Real Materials
L =
2kcTkin
k is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light, is

emissivity, T is kinetic temperature
This approximation only holds for >> max
(e.g. > 2.57mm @300 K)
This image cannot currently be displayed.
Brightness Temperature
The Brightness Temperature Tb of a real

materical typically is defined as
Tb =
2kc
Rayleigh-Jeans and Brightness Temperature

for Real Materials
L =
2kcTkin
Tb =
Tb=Tkin
k is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light, is
emissivity, Tkin is kinetic temperature
This approximation only holds for >> max
(e.g. > 2.57mm @300 K)
2kc
Brightness temperature at long wavelengths

is linearly related to kinetic temperature
through the emissivity of the material
Thus, passive microwave brightness

temperatures can be used to monitor
temperature as well as properties related to
emissivity
Microwave Radiometers
Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) 1978present
Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR)
1981- 1987
Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) 1987-present
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 1997present
Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E)
2002-present
Passive Microwave Radiometry

Passive microwave sensors use an antenna
(horn) to detect photons at microwave
frequencies which are then converted to
voltages in a circuit
Scanning microwave radiometers
mechanical rotation of mirror focuses
microwave energy onto horns
1 GHz = 30 cm wavelength
10 GHz = 3 cm
100 GHz = 3 mm
Passive Microwave Applications
Soil moisture
Snow water equivalent
Sea/lake ice extent, concentration and type
Sea surface temperature
Atmospheric water vapor
Surface wind speed
only over the oceans
Cloud liquid water
Rainfall rate
Monitoring Temperatures with

Passive Microwave
Land surface temperature
Passive Microwave Sensing of Land

Surface Emissivity Differences
Microwave emissivity is a function of the
dielectric constant. Technically, this is the ratio
of the amount of electrical energy stored in a
material by an applied voltage, relative to that
stored in a vacuum.
Most earth materials have a dielectric constant in
the range of 1 to 4 (air=1, veg=3, ice=3.2)
Dielectric constant of liquid water is 80
Thus, moisture content affects brightness
temperature
Surface roughness also influences emissivity
Soil Moisture from AMSR-E

Dry soil has low emissivity
Wet soil has high emissivity
Soil moisture value represents and average
over the entire pixel
Represents top ~1 cm of soil
Vegetation is a problem
Salinity, urban areas, etc. also influence the
measurement
Soil moisture
and the 2004
flood in Texas
and Oklahoma
Snow Emissivity Example

Dry
Snow
dry snow
(2)
Soil
snow water equivalent

Wet
Snow
(1)
Soil
(3)
Soil
Wet snow is a strong

absorber/emitter
SSM/I
Northern
Hemisphere
snow water
equivalent
(mm of water)
Atmospheric Effects
At frequencies less than 50 GHz, theres
little effect of clouds and fog on brightness
temperature (it sees through clouds)
Thus, PM can be used to monitor the land
surface under cloudy conditions
In atmospheric absorption bands, PM is
used to map water vapor, rain rates, clouds
Atmospheric Mapping
Mapping
global water
vapor
85 GHz
Passive Microwave Sensing of Rain

Over the ocean:
Microwave emissivity of rain (liquid water) is about 0.9
Emissivity of the ocean is much lower (0.5)
Changes in emissivity (as seen by the measured
brightness temperature) provide and estimate of surface
rain rate
Over the land surface:

Microwave scattering by frozen hydrometeors is used
as a measure of rain rate
Physical or empirical models relate the scattering
signature to surface rain rates
Rainfall from
passive
microwave
sensors:
Accumulated
precipitation from
the Tropical
Rainfall
Measuring
Mission (TRMM)
Similar to SSM/I
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing from Space

Advantages
Disadvantages
Penetration through nonprecipitating clouds

Radiance is linearly related to
temperature (i.e. the retrieval is
nearly linear)
Highly stable instrument
calibration
Global coverage and wide
swath
Larger field of views (1050 km) compared to

VIS/IR sensors
Variable emissivity over
land
Polar orbiting satellites
provide discontinuous
temporal coverage at low
latitudes (need to create
weekly composites)
2006 melt on the

Greenland ice sheet
150% increase in melt
intensity compared with
an 18-year average
Data are from the SSM/I
passive microwave sensor
onboard the Defense
Meteorological Satellite
Program (DMSP)
Courtesy of Marco
Tedesco, NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center
Light Detection and Ranging

(LIDAR) Remote Sensing
(Chapter 10 : pp. 335-354)
Lecture 11 Outline
LIDAR Principles
System Components
Types of returns
LIDAR accuracy
Digital Surface Model creation
Bare earth model creation
LIDAR Intensity Data
LIDAR applications
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is

an optical remote sensing technology that
measures properties of scattered light to
find the range and/or other information
about a distant target. The prevalent
method to determine distance to an object
or surface is to use laser pulses. The range
to an object is determined by measuring the
time delay between transmission of a pulse
and detection of the reflected signal.
LIDAR Principles (pp.336-337)

A GPS and an Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)
constantly record the
airplanes exact position and
its roll, pitch, and yaw.
As the airplane moves
forward, a rotating mirror
directs across-track returns
from transmitted pulses of
laser light to a receiver. More
than 100,000 pulses/sec.
(pulse repetition frequency)
are emitted.

The Range (R) is the
distance between the
LIDAR sensor and the
ground. It is a function of the
laser pulse travel time t from
the transmitter to the
receiver and the speed of
light c:
1
R = tc
2

The instantaneous laser
footprint Fpinst is the
diameter of a laser beam
pulse at a given instant in
time. It is a function of the
flying height h, the scan
angle at the instant inst,
and the laser beam
divergence in radians:
FPinst =
cos ( inst )
2
FPinst =
cos ( inst )
2
1000m
0.001rad
=
2
cos (15)
1m
=
= 1.07 m
0.933
NASA Airborne LiDAR: Laser Vegetation

Imaging Sensor (LVIS)

Returns from laser pulses are detected by the
receiver, and the (x,y,z) ground location of each return
(called a masspoint) is computed from the range,
scan angle, aircraft GPS position, and aircraft pitch,
roll, and yaw information from the IMU.

There can be more than one return from each pulse,
and masspoints may be returns from the ground, or
from objects above the ground such are trees, poles,
or powerlines. The set of masspoints is called a data
cloud.
Multiple returns
from one pulse
Multiple LIDAR Returns

(pg.339)
Locations of 1st, 2nd, and last
returns are computed, labeled as
such, and stored in a data file for
each instantaneous laser footprint:
NAD 83 geodetic latitude,
longitude, ellipsoid elevation based
on WGS 84 ellipsoid
NAD 83 UTM or State Plane
easting, northing, ellipsoid
elevation
LIDAR Vertical Accuracy
(pp.349-351)
Geospatial Accuracy Standard
(pg.349)
Based on the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) measure:

n
RMSE =
i =1
is the difference between the horizontal or

vertical masspoint values from the LIDAR
system and higher accuracy surveyed
values for the same set of n masspoint
locations, often measured with survey-grade
GPS receivers since they measure
ellipsoidal elevations as does LIDAR
Geospatial Accuracy Standard
(pg.349)
Vertical Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) measure for

masspoint locations:
n
RMSE =
(elev
i =1
GPS
elevLIDAR )
Typical RMSE vertical error values

are between 2 and 10 cm a very
small error for many applications
Digital Surface Model Creation from LIDAR

Returns (pg.341)
A Triangulated Irregular Network
(TIN) can be created from 1st,
intermediate, or last returns. The
set of 3D triangles is made as
compact overall as possible,
often using a method called
Delaunay Triangulation
y
x

Returns (pp. 340-342)
LIDAR
Masspoint
Elevation (zi)
Grid point to
masspoint
distance (di)
DSM Grid point

interpolation by
Inverse Distance
Weighting (IDW)
of neighboring
masspoints
= 359

The number of neighboring masspoints depends
on the search radius surrounding each grid point

The End Result
DSM grid points
LIDAR masspoints
The Digital Surface Model

is often displayed with relief
shading and layer tinting
Bare Earth Digital Terrain Models (DTMs)

from Digital Surface Models (pp. 341-343)
The majority of LIDAR
returns used to make a
DSM often are from
vegetation and cultural
features, not bare ground.
How do we eliminate these

natural and cultural
features from the DSM to
create a DTM of the bare
ground?

The basic idea is to
study the 1st and last
returns and figure out
what parts of the DSM
are vegetation and
cultural features. The
DSM grid cells
associated with these
features are then
reassigned the
elevations of their bare
earth neighbors to
make a DTM.

The first step is to use
an automated filter that
passes a moving window
over the 1st and last
return DSM grid cells
and identifies cells that
likely are returns from
vegetation and cultural
features.

The second step is a
human analyst to
examine visually the
masspoints marked as
vegetation or cultural
features and edit these
points, deleting some
and adding others.

The result is a DTM
like this.
However, Water flow and

similar LIDAR applications
usually require that buildings
be left in the DTM, as in this
example.
LIDAR Intensity Data (pp. 343-346)

LIDAR Intensity is the
maximum voltage from the
pulses received for each
instantaneous laser
footprint
Intensity depends on:
Pulse bandwidth
Range to feature
Scan angle
Atmospheric dispersion of
pulse
Automatic gain control
Reflectivity of the surface
at the wavelength of the
laser
LIDAR Intensity Data (pp. 343-346)

Appearance of ground features on
LIDAR Intensity images:
Trees appear dark (a) because of
scattering of light in tree canopies
Grassy and bare earth areas (b and c)
absorb and scatter light relatively little, so
they appear lighter
Many rooftop materials strongly
backscatter light, so they appear very light
on the image
LIDAR Applications (pp. 351-352)

Creating 3D maps of buildings in urban areas

OSUs Reser Stadium in 3D Perspective!
Mt. Rainier Debris Flow Project:

Airborne LiDAR, Fall 2007 & 2008
Landsat TM satellite imagery 1982-2009
NAIP aerial photo, 2005
Ground-based surveys 2008
Mt. Rainier and debris flow initiation sites
Intensity image of Inter

Glacier and gullies on
Mt. Rainier, Washington
Inter Glacier

Tree heights can be measured using the laser returns;
multiple laser returns penetrate the canopy,
painting the surfaces of vegetation very thoroughly.
Laser Returns:
Bin 075, 5.00 meter
cross section
Bin shown as 0.5 meter
first return grid
82 meters
All Material Protected by Watershed Sciences, Inc.
Vegetation Structure from Lidar Waveform

Volume Calculations:
Mount St. Helens Dome Growth over 20 Day Period - 2004
Mount St. Helens Dome Growth Over 20 Day Period - 2004

Power Transmission Line Surveys
September 24
September 30
October 14
Active Microwave Remote

Sensing

How radar works
Radar nomenclature and parameters
Radar resolution
--ground and slant range
range resolution (cross-track)
azimuth resolution (along-track)
Image foreshortening,layover, and shadows
Passive and Active Systems (pg. 291)

Passive remote sensing systems record
electromagnetic energy that is reflected or emitted
from the Earths surface and atmosphere
Active sensors create their own electromagnetic energy
that 1) is transmitted from the sensor toward the
terrain, 2) interacts with the terrain producing a
backscatter of energy, and 3) is recorded by the
remote sensors receiver.
Radar=Radio Detection and Ranging

(pp. 294-295)
Radar system components
Radar: How it Works (pp. 291-292)

A directed beam of
microwave pulses are
transmitted from an antenna
The energy interacts with the
terrain and is scattered
The backscattered
microwave energy is
measured by the antenna
Radar determines the
direction and distance of the
target from the instrument as
well as the backscattering
properties of the target
Commonly Used Radar Frequencies

(pg. 294)
Radar Parameters (pp. 296-299)

Azimuth Direction
direction of travel of aircraft or orbital track of satellite
Range angle
direction of radar illumination, usually perpendicular to
azimuth direction
Depression angle
angle between horizontal plane and microwave pulse (near
range depression angle > far range depression angle)
Incident angle
angle between microwave pulse and a line perpendicular to
the local surface slope
Polarization
linearly polarized microwave energy emitted/received by the
sensor (HH, VV, HV, VH)
Radar Nomenclature
Nadir
azimuth flight direction
look direction
range (near and far)
depression angle ()
incident angle ()
altitude above-ground-level, H
polarization
Pg. 297
Pg. 297
NEAR
RANGE
FAR
RANGE
RADAR logic
15m across-track
resolution
Ground
Separate returns from

objects 1 and 2
greater than 15 m
apart on the ground
Merged returns from

objects 3and 4 less
than 15 m apart on the
ground
Pg. 302
Slant Range vs. Ground Range (pg. 301)
Slant Range Distortion
Slant Range Image
(pp. 300-301)
Flightline
Near
rangeB2
A4
Far B4
range
A2
B1
A3
B3
A1
Ground Range
Ground Range Image
Geometric distortion that occurs in the direction of the radar beam

The scale is shortened in the near range but not much in the far range.
This systematic geometric distortion can be corrected.
Radar Pulse Length (pg. 301)

Pulse Length (P.L.) = c
c = speed of light (3 108 m/sec)
= duration of transmission
= 1 microsecond = 10-6 sec

P.L. = 3 108 m/sec 10-6 sec
= 300 meters
= 0.4 microsecond = 0.4 10-6 sec
P.L. = 3 108 m/sec 0.4 10-6 sec
= 120 meters
Range (Cross-track) Resolution (pg. 301)

Range resolution depends on pulse length (duration of
transmission speed of light) and depression angle
c
Rr =
2cos
pulse length
depression
angle
short pulse length gives finer range resolution

far range has better resolution than near range
But, when pulse length is shortened, so is the total

amount of energy illuminating the target
Range
Resolution
= ( c)
3 108m/sec =
30m
(pp. 302-303)
c
Rr =
2cos
30m
=
2 cos(40)
30m
=
2 0.766
= 19.58m
Range
Resolution
= ( c)
3 108m/sec =
30m
(pp. 302-303)
c
Rr =
2cos
30m
=
2 cos(65)
30m
=
2 0.423
= 35.5m
Azimuthal (Along-track) Resolution

(pg. 303)
For real aperture radar,
Ra is proportional to the wavelength and the beam width
But, shorter wavelengths arent necessarily useful for
environmental remote sensing (poor atmospheric and vegetation
penetration)
Beam width is inversely proportional to antenna length (L)
S
Ra =
L
S = Slant range distance [m]

= wavelength [m]
L = antenna length [m]
Azimuthal Resolution (pp. 303-304)

(L = 500cm)
X-band (=3cm)
Ra= S / L
Two different slant-range distances:

the tanks can be resolved in the near range: Ra=(20km3cm)/500cm = 120m
but not in the far range: Ra=(40km3cm)/500cm = 240m
Image Foreshortening (pg. 306)
Slopes that are facing the radar appear

compressed (and bright) in the resulting image
Image Foreshortening (pg. 307)

The higher the
incident angle,
the less the
foreshortening.
Foreshortening
of a conical
cinder cone, as
seen on an aerial
photograph.
Airborne Radar
Spaceborne Radar
Spaceborne radar can image over a wide swath

without having as wide a range of incident angles as
for airborne radar.
Image Layover (pg. 306)

Layover
occurs when
the incidence
angle () is
smaller than
the foreslope
(+)
i.e., < +.
This distortion
cannot be
corrected!
See the Figure 9-13 caption for further
explanation of this diagram.
Image Layover (pg. 308)

Extensive layover
in this image of the
San Gabriel
Mountains just
north of Pasadena,
California.
Radar Shadowing (pp.306-307)

A Radar Shadow
occurs when the
backslope angle (-)
is steeper than the
depression angle ().
Radar Shadows
cannot be taken out
of the image!
Radar Shadowing can be Useful for

Interpreting Geomorphological Features
Radar (cont.) and InSAR
Outline
Radar backscatter
surface roughness
Polarization
dielectric constant
vegetation
Radar wavelengths and cloud penetration

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
(InSAR)
Radar Backscatter (pg. 312)

Power received
= Power per unit area at target
Effective scattering area of the target

Spreading loss of reradiated signal
Effective receiving area of antenna
x
x
Radar Backscatter Coefficient (pg. 313)

The efficiency the terrain to reflect the radar pulse is termed the
radar cross-section,
The radar cross-section per unit area, (A) is called the radar
backscatter coefficient () and is computed as :
=
o
The radar backscatter coefficient determines the percentage of

electromagnetic energy reflected back to the radar from within
a radar pixel
This is similar to the reflectance in optical remote sensing
Radar Backscattering
Depends on the properties of the target:
roughness
dielectric constant
Depends on characteristics of the radar:

depression angle
frequency/wavelength
polarization
Basic Types of Radar Backscattering

(pg. 314)
h=
8sin
Surface
Roughness in
RADAR Imagery
(pg. 314)
EMR Polarization (pg. 298)

Vertical Polarization (V)
Horizontal Polarization (H)

Direction of each field is perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation.
Polarization (pg. 298)

Polarized light can be either
vertically polarized (is perpendicular to the plane of
incidence)
horizontally polarized (is parallel to the plane of incidence)
Solar radiation is unpolarized (random) but can

become polarized by reflection, scattering, etc.
Lasers and radars produce polarized radiation
VV and HH
Radar
Polarization
(pg. 299)
Radar
Polarization (pg.
300)
a.
Ka - band, HH polarization
look direction
b.
KaHV
- band,
HV polarization
polarization
Cinder cone and basalt lava

flow in north-central Arizona.
Strong return in the HH
polarized image and weak
HV polarization indicates
that the lava is not
depolarizing the radar pulse
(it is composed of large
blocks with smooth faces)
Radar and the Dielectric Constant

(pg. 316)
Dielectric constant is the ratio of the capacitance (the
ability of a material to conduct electrical energy) to
that of a vacuum. Also known as the relative
permittivity
Dielectric constant depends on the type of material
as well as its moisture state
it is analogous to the refractive index of the material
it is primarily a function of moisture content
also depends on chemical properties such as salinity
Dielectric Constant (pg. 316)
Dielectric Constant of liquid water is 80; dry soil is 2-4.
Response of A Pine Forest Stand to X-, C- and L-band

Microwave Energy (pg. 320)
Surface
Scattering
Surface
Scattering
Volume
Scattering
Volume
Scattering
Surface
Scattering
Cloud Penetration (pp. 320-321)

C-, L-, and P- band radars are defined as all
weather
X-band radar does not penetrate heavy
precipitation
Only Ka band (0.8 - 1.1 cm) has some cloud
mapping capability
Heavy Downpour
SIR-C/X-SAR
Images of a
Portion of
Rondonia, Brazil,
Obtained on
April 10, 1994
(pg. 321)
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar: InSAR

Radar Interferometry
is based on recording
both the amplitude
and the phase of the
backscattered
microwave pulse
when it interacted
with the terrain
Phase Shift between two Microwaves
constructive interference
destructive interference
Waves of
microwave energy
can have
constructive
interference or
destructive
interference
depending on how
they match up
Pg. 328
With SAR interferometry, radar images of the

same area are acquired at two different times
(multiple pass) or from two side-by-side
synthetic aperture radars (single pass)
The interference pattern between the two phase
images gives information on height
Its analogous to stereo-photogrammetry except
that it uses the phase information
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) example

Single Pass
Radar
Interferometry
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

(SRTM) (pp. 328-329)
Used C and X-band interferometry to produce the first near-global
topographic map of the Earth. February 2000 (10-day mission)
Space Shuttle Endeavor: 2 radar antennas, 60 m apart
Covered 80% of Earths surface (60o N to 54o S)
Pp. 328-329
Baseline
Height from Shuttle

to Ground Feature
Angle from
Horizontal to
Baseline
Geometric Relationship
Between Two SAR
Systems Used for
Interferometry to Extract
Topographic Information,
if the precise height above
mean sea level can be
found for one of the radars
h
= cos( )
r1
h = r1 cos( )
Increasing the Precision

Range differences produce meter-scale precision but phase
differences (phase shifts) produce millimeter-scale precision
The phase shift between the two images corresponds to
relative difference in range between the two radars
~10cm of uplift produces ~3 fringes of deformation
Here, the red rings

show where the two
waves reinforce each
other and blue rings
show where they
cancel out (note: color
assignments are
subjective)
Concentric color bands
are called fringes
Each fringe represents a distance

change (displacement) of /2.
This is in the line-of-sight
direction of the radar.
To quantify the total

movement or height
change, just count the
fringes
Interferometric SAR (InSAR)

Phase shift is a measure of the radar line-of-sight
component of displacement of the ground surface
point in relation to the spacecraft from the time of one
image to the other
Half a wavelength of line-of-sight displacement (2.8
cm for ERS-1,2) produces a phase shift of 360o
Thus, the fringe pattern is a contour map of the lineof-sight displacements w/contour interval of 2.8 cm
Line-of-sight displacement resolution is 1.3mm
Digital Elevation Models can be created from Fringe Data
Counting the Fringes gives the

Displacement
Interferogram of Santa
Clara Valley shows
patterns of subsidence and
some uplift occurring over
7 months in 1997, from
January 4 to August 2.
A central subsidence zone,
(red) the result of seasonal
ground-water pumping, is
fully recoverable.
Remote Sensing of Vegetation
Outline
Physical basis for remote sensing of
vegetation
Visible and Near-IR vegetation reflectance
Vegetation indices
Mid-IR reflectance and thermal emittance as
indicators of water stress
Multiangular sensing of vegetation
Phenological cycles
Vegetation and Photosynthesis

About 70% of the Earths land surface is covered by
vegetation with perennial or seasonal photosynthetic
activity
Physical Basis for Remote

Sensing of Vegetation
Photosynthesis
Pigmentation
Leaf structure
Plant water content
Canopy structure
Phenological cycles
Photosynthesis and Spectral

Characteristics
(pp. 355-361: read for basic ideas, not details)
Energy-storage in plants, powered by light
absorption by leaves
Leaf structures have adapted to perform
photosynthesis, hence their interaction with
electromagnetic energy has a direct impact
on their spectral characteristics
Visible, Near IR and Middle IR Interactions

(pp. 357-361)
Pg. 360
lack of
absorption
Absorption Spectra of
Chlorophyll a and b,
-carotene, Phycoerythrin,
and Phycocyanin Pigments
Chlorophyll a peak absorption is at
0.43 and 0.66 m.
Chlorophyll b peak absorption is at
0.45 and 0.65 m.
Optimum chlorophyll absorption
windows are:
0.45 - 0.52 m and 0.63 - 0.69 m
Pg. 358
Cross-section through a
hypothetical and real leaf
revealing the major
structural components
that determine the
spectral reflectance
of vegetation
Near IR Interactions within the Spongy

Mesophyll (pp. 361-362)
High leaf reflectance in the NIR results from
scattering/reflectance from the spongy
mesophyll
This layer is composed of cells and air
spaces (lots of scattering interfaces)
Reflectance, Transmittance, and Absorption Characteristics of Big Bluestem Grass
Pg. 362
Multiple Scattering in the Plant Canopy

(pp. 362-363)
Vegetation Indices (pg. 382)

A vegetation index is a simple mathematical
formula: a ratio
Used to estimate the likelihood that
vegetation was actively growing at the time of
data acquisition
Widely used over several decades
New, more sensitive vegetation indices have
been developed
Vegetation Indices (pg. 382)

This image cannot currently be displayed.
Make use of the red vs. NIR

reflectance differences for
green vegetation
Veg. indices are associated
with canopy characteristics
such as biomass, leaf area
index and percentage of
vegetation cover
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

(pp. 385-386)
red = Reflectance in red channel

NIR = Reflectance in NIR channel
Healthy, dense vegetation has high NDVI
Stressed, or sparse vegetation produces lower
NDVI
Bare rock, soil have NDVI near zero
Snow produces negative values of NDVI
Clouds produce low to negative values of NDVI
NDVI as an indicator of drought:
Cautions about NDVI (pg. 386)

Saturates over dense vegetation
Less information than original data
Any factor that unevenly influences the red and NIR
reflectance will influence the NDVI
such as atmospheric path radiance, soil wetness
Pixel-scale values may not represent plant-scale

processes
Derivatives of NDVI (FAPAR, LAI) are not physical
quantities and should be used with caution
Other Vegetation Indices (pp. 387-391)

Soil-adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI)
Soil and Atmospherically-Resistant
Vegetation Index (SARVI)
Moisture Stress Index (MSI)
Global Monitoring Environmental Index
(GEMI)
Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI)
Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI)

(pg. 391)
Compensates for atmospheric and soil effects
red = Reflectance in red channel

NIR = Reflectance in NIR channel
blue = Reflectance in blue channel
C1 = Atmospheric resistance red correction coefficient (C1 = 6)
C2 = Atmospheric resistance red correction coefficient (C2 = 7.5)
L = Canopy background brightness correction factor (L = 1)
G = Gain factor (G = 2.5)
EVI vs NDVI (pg. 391)

The EVI is a modified NDVI with a soil adjustment factor, L, and
two coefficients, C1 and C2 which are used to correct for
atmospheric scattering
The coefficients, C1 , C2 , and L, are empirically determined (from
observations using MODIS data)
The EVI has improved sensitivity to high biomass regions and
improved vegetation monitoring through a de-coupling of the
canopy background signal and a reduction in atmospheric
influences (Huete and Justice, 1999).
Middle IR Interactions with Water in

the Spongy Mesophyll (pp. 364-365)
Plant water content absorbs middle IR
radiation
Middle IR plant reflectance increases as leaf
moisture content decreases
Middle IR reflectance can be used to monitor
plant water stress
Reflectance response of a single Magnolia leaf

(Magnolia grandiflora) to decreased relative water content
(pg. 366)
Thermal Emission and Plant Water Stress

Measures of thermal emission can be used to derive surface
temperature for a crop
As water transpires from a plant, its leaves are cooled
If a plant is stressed, transpiration is reduced and leaf
temperature increases
red=warmer
blue=cooler
Thermal IR image showing plots of irrigated cotton
Aquatic Plants
Immersed aquatic plants absorb solar energy
and emit thermal radiation (warmer than
surrounding water)
This can be detected in thermal imagery
water hyacinth plumes in

Lake Victoria
Angular Reflectance Properties of Vegetation

(pp. 367-368)
Vegetation reflects light unevenly, in different

directions (anisotropic reflectance)
Depends on:
leaf shape
canopy height
vegetation density
Described by Bidirectional Reflectance

Distribution Function (BRDF)
Surface heterogeneity effects on bidirectional reflectance
Manitoba and Saskatchewan, 17 April 2001
Nadir false-color composite: RGB = near-IR, red, green
Surface heterogeneity effects on bidirectional reflectance
farmland
forest
Multi-angle red band composite: RGB = backscatter nadir, fwd scatter
Retrieved surfac e BRF, red band
Bidirectional reflectances of surface vegetation
back
fore
Farmland =
homogeneous land
surface cover
Limb-brightening
Farmland with light snow

Albedo = 0.18, NDVI = 0.13
Snowy forest
Albedo = 0.18, NDVI = 0.24
MISR View angle, deg

Snowy forest =
heterogeneous,
sparse coverage
Limb-darkening
Phenological Cycles (pp. 373-375)

Temporal characteristics of vegetation growth
Depends on:
plant available water: rainfall/irrigation
land surface temperature
vegetation type (evergreen vs. deciduous)
Crop cycles (depends on planting/harvesting cycle)

Deciduous cycles (depends on seasonality of rainfall
and temperature)
pp. 378-382
Phenological cycles
of San Joaquin and
Imperial Valley,
California crops and
Landsat Multispectral
Scanner images of
one field during a
growing season
Color plate 11-4
Remote Sensing of Soils

(part of Chapter 14)
Outline
Soils: Properties that are detectable from remote
sensing using optical and radar sensors
mineral composition
soil moisture
organic matter content
texture and roughness
salinity
Soil Definition (pp. 508-509)

Soil is a mixture of
inorganic mineral
particles and
organic matter of
varying size and
composition.
50% particles 50%
air + water
Soils are divided
vertically into
Horizons
Factors Influencing Soil Reflectance (pp. 512-517)
mineral composition
soil moisture
organic matter content
texture and roughness
salinity
Soils: Mineral Composition (pg. 512)

Affects the visible, NIR, and thermal portions
of the reflectance spectrum
Increasing reflectance from visible to NIR
Iron and clays are detectable
Visible to Near IR Reflectance from

Loam Soil with and without Iron Oxide
(pg. 516)
Soil Iron Oxide Content Map made

from AVIRIS Imagery
Iron content in the Santa Monica mountains mapped using AVIRIS
Soils: Organic Matter Content (pg. 515)

Organic Matter affects soil color, heat
capacity, water holding capacity, nutrient
exchange, structure, and erodability
Dark color generally associated with high
Organic Matter
Landsat TM band 5 and 7 (mid-Infrared)
reflectance has a negative correlation with
Organic Matter
Visible to Near IR Reflectance from Soils

with 0% to 100% Organic Matter (pg. 515)
Soil Organic Matter Content Map

made from AVIRIS Imagery
Organic matter content in the Santa Monica mountains mapped

using AVIRIS
Soil Texture (pp. 509-510)

Texture is defined by %sand, %silt, %clay
a. Soil Science Society of America and U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Particle Size Scale
Sand
Clay
Silt
Gravel
v. fine fine medium coarse
v. coarse
0.002
Clay
0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5
2 mm
76.2
Particle size relative

to a grain of sand
0.15 mm in diameter
Silt
0.15 mm
Sand
b. MIT and British Standards Institute

Silt
Clay
fine
Sand
medium
0.002 0.006
coarse
0.02
0.06
fine
medium
0.2
Gravel
coarse
0.6
Stones
2 mm
c. International Society of Soil Science
Clay
Sand
Silt
0.002
fine
0.02
Gravel
coarse
0.2
2 mm
Soil Texture Classes (pp. 510-511)

100
(%
)
90
Cla
y
Proportion of sand, silt and clay

in a soil (or soil horizon) usually
is calculated as % weight for
each type of particle
These percentages are divided
into different soil texture classes
10
20
80
30
70
Clay
40
60
50
50
read
40
sandy
clay
)
(%
loamy
Sand sand
90
80
70
80
Loam
10
60
silty clay
loam
clay loam
sandy clay
loam
20
100
silty
clay
t
Sil
30
read
silt loam
sandy
loam
90
Silt
100
60
70
Sand (%)
50
40
read
30
20
10
Soil Texture and Moisture (pg. 513)

100
90
Basic Dry Soil Spectrum
80
Increasing reflectance
with increasing wavelength
for both fine and coarse
texture dry soils
Silt
70
60
50
Sand
40
30
20
10
0
0.5 0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

Wavelength (m)
2.1
2.3
2.5
Soil Moisture (pg. 513)

The finer the soil texture,
the greater the soils
ability to maintain a high
moisture content
The greater the soil
moisture content, the
greater the sunlight
absorbed by liquid water
and the less the reflected
energy to the sensor
incident energy
specular
reflectance
dry
soil
a.
interstitial
air space
incident energy
specular
reflectance
b.
specular reflectance
volume reflectance
soil water
wet
soil
Soil Moisture and Texture (pg. 514)

60
Sand
Sand
Sand
0 4% moisture content
50
40
30
5 12%
20
22 32%
10
0
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
a.
60
Clay
Clay
Clay
50
2 6%
40
30
20
35 40%
10
0
0.5
b.
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

Wavelength (m)
2.1
2.3
2.5
Since clayey soil holds

water more tightly than
sandy soil, reflectance
decreases in water
absorption bands will be
more prominent in clay
soils than sand soils
given the same amount
of time since the last
precipitation or watering
Soil Moisture Difference Detection from

RADAR (pg. 322 and pp. 514-515)
Higher dielectric constants
(more moisture) yields higher
RADAR backscatter.
SAR estimates of soil
moisture are also influenced
by:
Surface roughness
Vegetation
Salinity
Mixed pixels
Melfort, Saskatchewan, Canada,

ERS-1: Rainfall fell on the area in
the lower half of the image but not
on the upper half.
Soil Moisture from Thermal Sensors

(pp. 274-275)
Diurnal Temperature Cycle
Water has a higher
thermal capacity than
soil and rock.
Moist soils will change
in temperature more
slowly than dry soils
due to evaporation and
thermal inertia
Soil Moisture from Thermal Sensors

Daedalus thermal
image (night time). If
we had a daytime
image to compare it to,
we could see the
amount of change in
temperature and make
inferences on the soil
moisture content (less
change = more
moisture).
Saline Soils (pg. 515)

Occur through in saltwater intrusion into
groundwater, release of salt-bearing minerals via
rising water tables, evaporation of salt-bearing
irrigation water.
Responsible for severe impacts on vegetation
Soil Salinity Mapping from Landsat Imagery

Digital Elevation Model
Yellow = high
Blue + Pink = low
Green = intermediate
Landsat TM image with

salinity changes mapped
Green = saline in 1977
Light blue = saline in 1988
Dark blue = saline in 1997
Pink = predicted for next
decade
Swelling Clay Soils
Smectite clays (e.g. bentonite) can absorb more than their weight in
water, have >100% increases in volume
Responsible for massive damage to structures throughout U.S.
increasing
swelling
potential
Bentonite clay
absorption bands
for detecting
increasing soil
swelling potential
Bentonite clay exposure

near Denver, CO
Colorado Front Range

Geologic Map
Pierre shale contains
high concentrations of
bentonite clays
AVIRIS data used to
map bentonite
exposures
(Chabrillat and Goetz,
1999)
Geologic Remote Sensing
Outline
InSAR Applications
Geomorphology
Patterns as an indication of processes
Geologic Remote Sensing

Surface mineralogy
Geologic structure
Tectonic landforms
Intermap X-band Star 3i Orthorectified Image of

Bachelor Mountain, CA and Derived Digital Elevation Model (pg. 331)
Intermap X-band Star 3i Orthorectified

Image of Bachelor Mountain, CA and
Derived Digital Elevation Model
You need to have a geodetic baseline to assign elevations to a surface
Shuttle Imaging Radar-C Mission, Long Valley, California

L-band
HH
topographic
map
multi-pass
interferogra
m
C-band
image
draped
over topo
map
InSAR and Ground Movement

(pp. 329-330)
If you have exact repeat overpass then you

can use phase shifts from one time to another
to indicate ground movement
This has been used to map glacier velocities,
movement along faults, volcanic uplift
Three Sisters
Volcanic Uplift
Three Sisters Volcanic Uplift
Uplift
Lambert Glacier, Antarctica

Interferometric
Synthetic
Aperture
Radar (InSAR)
uses phase
difference between
two images to
determine glacier
speed and direction
Image courtesy CSA, NASA, Ohio State Univ., JPL, ASF
Geomorphology from Remote Sensing

(pp. 529-530)
Landforms: erosion and deposition by

various processes
Eolian (wind)
Igneous (volcanic)
Karstic (limestone erosion)
Fluvial (rivers)
Shoreline (ocean and rivers)
Glacial
Extraterrestrial (meteor impacts)
Landforms: Patterns and Processes

(pp. 529-530)
Landforms are typically identified by shape,

not spectral properties
Shadows and height differences help to
identify features
Igneous Landforms (pp. 530-534)

Stratovolcano
ASTER image of
Mt. Taranaki,
New Zealand
Igneous Landforms (pp. 530-534)

Shield Volcanos
Landsat image mosaic

of big island of Hawaii
Kilauea Caldera
Basalt Lava
Flows
Karst Landforms (pg. 549)

Karst topography develops by chemical dissolution of limestone rocks
Creates caves, sinkholes, solution valleys, towers, pitted landscapes
photo of karstic towers in Guangxi,

province China
Landsat TM image of Guangxi

province, China (karst areas are dark)
Fluvial Landforms (pp. 540-549)
Radar image of dendritic river network in east-central Colombia
Glacial Landforms: Alpine Glaciation

(pp. 556-561)
ASTER image of receding Alpine glaciers in Bhutan

(note lakes forming at glacier termini)
Remote Sensing of Surface Mineralogy

(pg. 518)
Rocks are assemblages of minerals that have

interlocking grains or are bound together by
various types of cement (usually silica or calcium
carbonate)
Most rock surfaces consist of several types of
minerals
Depending on vegetation and soil cover, it maybe
possible to differentiate between rock types using
remote sensing techniques
Surface Mineralogy (pp. 518-520)

Discrimination of minerals based on:
visible, near-infrared reflectance
thermal emittance
Remember Kirchoffs Law:

Emittance = 1 - Reflectance
Pg. 520
Spectra of three minerals derived from NASAs airborne visible infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS)
Absorption features useful for

identifying kaolinite
Spectra of three minerals

derived from NASAs
airborne visible infrared
imaging spectrometer
(AVIRIS) and as measured
using a laboratory
spectroradiometer.
Spectra are vertically
offset for clarity.
Color Plate 14-1

Mineral maps of Cuprite, NV
Mineral maps of
Cuprite, NV, derived
from low altitude (3.9
km AGL) and high
altitude (20 km AGL)
AVIRIS data obtained
on October 11 and
June 18, 1998
Thermal IR and longer wavelength emittance spectra for various minerals
Thermal IR and longer

wavelength emittance
spectra for various
minerals
Spectral Emittance
Signatures
Similar to spectral reflectance
signatures, spectral emittance
signatures can be exploited to
map surface materials
ASTER Image of Saline Valley, CA
ASTER Image of Saline

Valley, CA
RGB composite image
using TIR bands (13, 12,
10)
(quartz is red,
carbonates are green,
mafic volcanic rocks are
purple)
Stratigraphy
Appalachian Mountains
Differences in
reflectance can be
used to discriminate
between rock units
Landsat MSS image
Anti-Atlas Mountains, Northern Africa
Yellow: limestone
Orange: sandstone
Green: gypsum
Dark blue: granite
ASTER SWIR color composite
Geologic Structure (pp. 522-524)

Landsat TM
band 2 image of
fractures in the
bedrock of the
Canadian shield
Landsat TM color composite of

Zagros Mtns., Iran
Landsat TM color composite of Zagros Mtns., Iran
ASTER 3-2-1 RGB composite

draped over ASTER-derived
DEM (2x vertical exaggeration)
Anticlines and Synclines (pg. 522)
Tectonic Landforms (pp. 522-524,539-540)

Landsat TM image
of Nevada basin and
range region
Hector Mine Earthquake
Hector Mine Earthquake

Oct. 16, 1999
Southern California
M 7.1
Horizontal and vertical
displacement
Right side subsided about
50-60 cm
Left side uplifted about 6070 cm
Tectonic Landforms (pp. 522-524,539-540)

Landsat MSS Image
of Los Angeles and
vicinity
San Andreas
strike-slip fault
Using Lidar Images to Map Faults

In some
places, its
easy to see
where the
active faults
are on Lidar
images.
30 km
Using Lidar Images to Map Faults

Bainbridge
Island
Seattle
Tacoma
30 km
In other
places, it
is not.
What are the Relevant Differences?

SF Bay
area
Puget
Lowland
slip rate
3 cm/yr
4 mm/yr
average tree
height
10 ft
100 ft
age of
landscape
~106
years
18,000
years
age slip rate = feature size

18,000 yr 1 mm/yr = 18 m
106 yr 1 mm/yr = 1 km
In the Puget Lowland, to see a fault with the same slip
rate as in the SF Bay area, we have to look more
closely.
Lidar Remote Sensing of Faults in the Puget

Sound Area
Scanning Lidar flown over Seattle-Tacoma area
Lidar images processed to remove vegetation
returns
Digital Elevation Model produced
Surface topography reveals geologic structure
12-ft DEM from LIDAR
High-resolution LIDAR
Topography
15 km West of Seattle
Toe Jam Hill
fault scarp
Waterman Point
scarp
beach uplifted
during 900 AD
earthquake
Landslides
Landslides
Southern Bainbridge
Island
Remote Sensing of the

Hydrosphere
(Chapter 12)

Oceans

Sea surface height
Ocean color
Winds
Surface freshwater (lakes, rivers)

Changing water levels
Flood plain mapping
Snow and Ice

Snow covered area, snow water equivalent
Glaciers
The Hydrologic Cycle (pg. 409)
Icecaps and Glaciers

2.2%
Rivers and Lakes

0.2%
Groundwater 0.6%
74% of the Earth

is covered by
oceans and surface
freshwater, 97%
being in the
oceans and the
remaining 3% in
freshwater, as
shown on the
diagram to the left.
Ocean Remote Sensing

Sea surface height
Ocean color
Wind and waves
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

(pp. 426-427)
Thermal sensors (e.g.
Passive microwave sensors
AVHRR, MODIS)
(e.g. TRMM, SSM/I)
good spatial resolution
and accuracy
incomplete spatial
coverage
long heritage (>20 years)
obscured by clouds
atmospheric corrections
are required
measures SST to a water
depth of 10 m
lower spatial resolution and

accuracy than w/thermal
good spatial coverage
long heritage (>20 years)
clouds are transparent
relatively insensitive to
atmospheric effects
measures SST to a water
depth of 1 mm
sensitive to surface
roughness (waves)
sensitive to heavy
precipitation
Differences in Spatial Coverage

(similar to Color Plates 12-4 and 12-5)
AVHRR
TRMM
Microwave
Imager
(white pixels are areas of no data)
Higher Resolution SST Maps made from AVHRR and MODIS data
(pg. 427 and Color Plate 12-4)
AVHRR image of Gulf Stream

(5 km gridding)
MODIS image of
Gulf Stream
(1 km gridding)
Sea Surface Height

Sea surface height changes with wind
patterns, ocean currents, ocean temperature
(thermal expansion with warming)
Radar altimeter used to measure changes in
sea surface height (timing of radar pulse
gives distance between sensor and surface)
Sea Surface Height from Radar

Altimeters
TOPEX/POSEIDON
launched in 1992 and still operating

measures SSH between 66o N lat and 66o S lat
C and Ku band altimeters
Sea surface height accurate to 4.2 cm
data available for free from http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov
Jason-1 (similar to TOPEX/POSEIDON)

launched in December 2001
some data are now available for free from
http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov
Comparison of Sea Level and SST Anomalies from TOPEX/Poseidon

and AVHRR Pathfinder data averaged over a week
Proposed New Mission: Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT)

Wide swath altimeter:
Ka-band InSAR with 2
swaths, 60 km each
Similar to SRTM
Also, a radar altimeter
(Jason class)
50-m spatial resolution
for rivers/lakes, land
1-km spatial resolution
for ocean
Ocean Color (pp. 418-420)

Ocean color is a measure of biological activity
phytoplankton (produce chlorophyll)
dissolved and particulate matter
Used to measure:
biological productivity
marine optical properties
interaction of winds and currents with ocean biology
human influences on the marine environment
Remote sensing of ocean color uses multispectral

data
Ocean Color Sensors (pg. 421)

Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS)
October 1978 - June 1986
1 km and 4 km gridded data
data products available for free from
http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/CZCS/
Seaviewing Wide Field-of-view Scanner (SeaWIFS)
since September 1997
1 km and 4 km gridded data
data products available for free for scientific use from
http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/SeaWiFS/ANNOUNCEMENT
S/getting_data.html
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS)
since February 2000
1 km gridded data
data products available for free from
http://mirador.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgibin/mirador/presentNavigation.pl?tree=project
MODIS
chlorophyll
data
lt. blue=good data

dk.blue=questionable
purple=cloud
red=bad data
Revised MODIS
chlorophyll data
(pg. 421)
MODIS
Quality
Assurance
data
Ocean Winds
Ocean wind measurements are needed for
understanding and predicting severe weather patterns
Winds modulate energy transfer between the
atmosphere and ocean
Waves are the expression of momentum transfer from
atmosphere to ocean
Surface roughness can be monitored using Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR)
Scatterometry is a new method of measuring
backscattered return from a SAR
How Scatterometry Works

Microwave radar signal is transmitted to
ocean surface and the return signal is
measured at different azimuth angles
Radar pulses are scattered by waves
Rougher surface = more scattering
The backscattered power is a of roughness

and orientation
Near-surface wind speed is computed from
radar backscatter
Orientation of wind ripples indicate wind
direction
Ocean Wind Remote Sensors

NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT)
Sept 1996 - June 1997
C-band
Gridded to 50-km resolution
QuikSCAT SeaWinds scatterometer
June 1999 Nov 2009

C-band
Gridded to 12.5 and 25 km for wind vectors
measures winds of 3- 20 ms-1, with 2 ms-1 accuracy
Data from NSCAT and QuikSCAT are available for

free from http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov
Hurricane
Katrina from
QuikScat
Ocean Wave Height Remote Sensors

Radar Altimeters measure sea surface height
Examples of satellite radar altimeters:
TOPEX/Poseidon
ERS-1 and ERS-2
TOPEX/Poseidon data show waves developing in Pacific
Two days later, a surfer at Mavericks (Half

Moon Bay, California) rides the huge waves
ERS-2 SAR image of waves the next day.

SAR measures wave direction and wave
height
Sonar Mapping of Seafloor Topography (pp. 424-425)

Acoustic mapping of the
seafloor involves active sensing
using sound waves
Distance from ship to ocean
bottom is inferred from travel
time
Distances must be corrected for
water temperature
Multibeam Sonar (pg. 425)

Multibeam sonar creates a wider
swath
Depth and return intensity can be
recorded
Limited to deeper water
Shallow-water Data Gap (pp. 425-426)
Problems
Potential Solutions
DEM ends at the beach

Navigational hazards limit
shallow range of sonar data
Airborne LIDAR
Satellite Imagery
Filling the Shallow Water Data Gap using Ikonos

Satellite blue and green band imagery
Advantage
High Spatial
Resolution
Imagery
Issues
Sea state and
environmental
conditions
Surf zone
Clouds
Ikonos Image Processing: Principles of

Water Depth Determination
Longer wavelengths of spectral
energy attenuate faster as they
pass through water
Establish the relationship between the

attenuation rates of the blue and
green spectral bands as a function
of depth
Use this correlation to derive depth
Analysis must be image specific
Filling the Shallow Water Data Gap
Remote Sensing of Lakes (pp. 413-414)

Monitoring changes in surface water extent
Lake Chad
Water level
fluctuations in Lake
Chad, Nigeria
Landsat MSS, 1973

The reduction in water
surface area can be
determined by overlaying
the two images
AVHRR, 1997
Remote Sensing of Rivers

Flooding
extent of surface waters
floodplain mapping
Mekong Delta
flooding using
multi-temporal
MODIS data
Mapping the
extent of surface
waters for large
flood events
allows improved
mapping of
floodplains
Southeast Asian Flooding

in summer 2000
NASA global flood
monitoring system operated
through the Dartmouth
Flood Observatory
Data collected from
MODIS 8-day composites
Used to locate hardest hit
areas for United Nations
relief efforts
Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Mission (TRMM) maps

areas of heavy precipitation between 50oN and 50oS.
Near real time capability (daily maps)
(pp. 430-431)
Flooding in southern Texas
Snow cover Mapping (pp. 435-437)

Passive microwave
25 km grid scale
weekly data available since October 1978
daily data available since January 2000
AVHRR
1 km grid scale
weekly data available since October 1966
MODIS
500m grid scale
data available since February 2000
All data available for free from National Snow and Ice
Data Center http://nsidc.org/data
Snow covered area

from MODIS
daily and 8-day
composite global snow
cover products
500 m spatial
resolution
available for free from
http://nsidc.org/data/m
od10_l2.html
March 25, 2003

Colorado Blizzard
(blue=snow, white=cloud)
MODIS Snow Standard Product, Colorado, 15 Feb 2002
snow
cloud
no snow
25% of
actual
snow
covered
area is
incorrectly
classified
as cloud
MODIS fractional snow cover, Colorado, 15 Feb 2002
% snow cover
90-100%
70-90%
50-70%
30-50%
10-30%
0-10%
Vegetation
obscures snow
Glaciers
Global Land Ice Monitoring from Space (GLIMS)
Uses ASTER data to map
glacier extent
snow line
glacier topography
Synthetic Aperture Radar

Used to map glacier zones
Interferometry used to map glacier velocity
ASTER
image of
Patagonian
glacier in
Chile
Ice Velocity
map for the
Lambert glacier
in Antarctica
made by Radar
Interferometry
Remote Sensing of
Urban Landscapes and
Natural Hazards
(Chapter 13)
Outline
Resolution considerations
Sensors
Applications:
urban growth
demography
disaster monitoring and mitigation
epidemiology
Urban-Suburban Land Use (pg. 443-444)

Urban and suburban expansion
almost 1/2 the Earths population lives in cities
rapid expansion of urban centers and their
peripheries
impacts on land cover, societal structure of the
cites, population distribution, land use
characteristics
interconnectivity of cites at large scales
Urban Remote Sensing (pp. 444-445)

High spatial resolution data are needed
High temporal and spectral resolution are
typically not a significant requirement for most
applications
Ancillary data typically used (census data) with
imagery
Can measure things such as urban extent, housing
density, structure type, urban vegetation cover,
air quality, change detection
Temporal and Spatial Resolution

Requirements (Figure 13-2 and Table 13-1)
Requirements vary depending on applications
short term (event-scale, sub-annual) vs. long
term (interannual)
high spatial resolution (< 1m) vs. medium
spatial resolution (15-30m)
High Spatial Resolution Sensors (pg. 446)
QuickBird (65cm B/W, 4m multispectral)

IKONOS (1m B/W, 4m multispectral)
SPOT (2.5m - 20m multispectral)
ASTER (15 -30m multispectral)
Landsat ETM+ (15m B/W, 4m multispectral)
Delineation of Urban Areas (pp. 452-456)

Difficult to do because urban areas are
diverse and complex
Boundaries between urban and suburban
are not always clear
Lack of a consistent definition of what is
urban
administrative boundaries
population density, etc.
Baltimore, MD: Welldeveloped city center

Diffuse boundary
between urban and
natural environment
Landsat TM multispectral image
Las Vegas, NV:

Indistinct city center
Distinct boundary
between urban and
natural
environments
Landsat TM multispectral image
Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia:
Intermediate
case
Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia,
1972-2000 urban
growth
Demographic/Socioeconomic Patterns
Census data lack spatial details and are
infrequently updated (not globally available)
Remote sensing is useful for monitoring urban
growth in developing countries
Need ancillary data plus repeat temporal
coverage from remote sensing
Important to integrate physical and
socioeconomic variables
Example
Pozzi and Small (2002) produced a study of
relationship between population density
(from US census) and vegetation cover (from
Landsat TM)
NYC Population Density
(source: US Census)
NYC Vegetation Fraction
(source: Landsat TM)
Linear inverse correlation between population and vegetation fraction
Urban Heat Island Monitoring (pg. 498)

Project ATLANTA (Atlanta Land-use Analysis:
Temperature and Air-quality)
Uses remote sensing to observe, measure, and
monitor impacts of rapid urban growth
ATLAS Thermal Images of Atlanta, Georgia
Atlanta - Daytime Image
Atlanta - Nighttime Image
New York City Surface Temperature Map

made from Landsat TM Thermal Band Image
City Lights Imagery (pg. 463)

Uses visible band of the Operational Linescan
System (on board the DMSP satellite)
Useful for making global inventories of human
settlements
Spatial resolution of 1km
Relationships between city lights and
socioeconomic variables such as population
density, economic activity, electric power
consumption, etc.
Earth Lights from Operational Linescan System (pg. 463)
Remote Sensing of Air Pollution
MODIS image showing polluted air like a gray veil over the region southwest of
Chicago on September 9, 2002.
Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT)
Carbon monoxide plumes from China

22 km spatial resolution, 640 km FOV
Natural Hazard Remote Sensing (pg. 500)
Volcanic eruptions
Tornados
Hurricanes
Oil spills
Earthquakes
War/terrorism
Floods
Mt.St. Helens, Washington, May 18, 1980

Ash Plume As Seen By GOES-West
ASTER image of Maryland Tornado Path (pg. 498)
Pg. 498
AVHRR image
of Hurricane
Floyd
September
1999
Flooding in New Orleans

caused by Hurricane
Katrina
Quickbird satellite image showing
flooding that resulted from the
failure of the levee near the 17th
Street Canal
New Orleans on March 04, 2004

for comparison purposes
Mapping Flooding in New Orleans
Lidar-derived water depths superimposed over a high

resolution SPOT image
Building Damage in
Biloxi, Mississippi caused
by Hurricane Katrina
QuickBird image, taken on August 31,

shows extensive damage in the blocks
nearest the shore. Within two city blocks,
two floating casinosthe Island of Capri
Casino and the Grand Casino Biloxi
have disappeared or floated inland
RADARSAT Image of Oil Spill
pp. 500-501
Bam, Iran
Earthquake
destruction
IKONOS image from
12/27/2003
pp. 500-501
Old City Bam

Earthquake
destruction
IKONOS image from
12/27/2003
Images of
Terrorism
IKONOS image of
World Trade Center
Sept. 12, 2001
1 m spatial
resolution
Wartime Remote Sensing Imagery

Quickbird
image of
explosion in
Baghdad
suburb
70 cm
resolution
Epidemiology
Cholera virus attaches to zooplankton (copepods)
and phytoplankton. Plankton plumes emanating
from the Ganges are being monitored
SST and plankton can be monitored in Bay of Bengal to

track this
Hanta virus (carried by mice) correlates to

changes in precipitation (El Nino) and vegetation
cover, especially grasses
NDVI can be used to track these changes
Townshend et al. found that Ebola outbreaks

corresponded to changes in land use and seasonal
climate patterns
Cholera and SST
Landsat TM map
of land cover near
Kikwit, Zaire
(location where
Ebola outbreaks
were first
reported in 1995)
pink=cleared
areas
green=jungle

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Remote Sensing of the

What is remote sensing?

Why do we do remote sensing?

How are measurements made?

Remote Sensing Systems

REMOTE SENSING ELECTROMAGNETIC

Wave Model of EMR (pg.39)

Direction of each field is perpendicular to each other and to

Electromagnetic Waves (pp. 39-40)

Frequency vs. Wavelength (pg.39)

Physical Principles of Remote

Outline for Lecture 2

Wave Model of EMR (pg.39)

Direction of each field is perpendicular to each other and to

Electromagnetic Waves (pp. 39-40)

Frequency vs. Wavelength (pg.39)

Electromagnetic Radiation (pg.40)

Passive reflected or reemitted solar radiation

Active the sensor emits the

For terrestrial remote sensing, the most important

The Earth is also an energy source

The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum (pg. 42, plate 2.2)

More about Solar Radiation (pg. 43)

Gamma and X-rays

More about Solar Radiation

Photon Energy (pg. 43)

Thus, the shorter the wavelength, the higher

Blackbody Radiation (pg. 39)

Blackbody Equations (pg. 41)

Wiens displacement equation:

3.0 108 ms-1

What is a steradian (sr)??

Plancks Law, (continued)

Blackbody Radiation (pg. 39)

This assumes a blackbody which is a perfect

Wiens Displacement Law

What do the curves mean??

leaving the surface

Blackbody vs. Solar Radiation

Graybody Radiation (pp. 255- 256)

Emissivity (pg. 255)

Radiant Temperature vs. Kinetic

Graybody Radiation (pp. 255- 256)

Emissivity (pg. 255)

Radiant Temperature vs. Kinetic

Outline for Lecture 3

leaving the surface

Blackbody vs. Solar Radiation

Atmospheric Effects (pp. 48-51)

A Clear Blue Sky

Earth: atmosphere and

Moon: atmosphere and

Mie Scattering (pg. 50)

Clear atmosphere has both Rayleigh and Mie

Rayleigh and Mie Scattering

An informal measurement of sky

Red Sky at Night

Non-selective Scattering (pp. 50-51)

Atmospheric Absorption (pp.51-52)

leaving the surface

Blackbody vs. Solar Radiation

Absorption Bands (pg. 51)

Atmospheric Windows (pp.51-52)