OO AEN PROTECTION STATIC RELAYS SECOND EDITION POEUN We OyeTata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 1989, 1981, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited 21st reprint 2008 RXXZCDDXRBQDC No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-460307-9 ISBN-L0: 0-07-460307-8 Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Sai Printo Pack Pvt. Ltd., A —102/4, Okhla Indl Area, Phase II, New Delhi ua LoeContents Preface to the Second Edition ¥ nowledgements to the Second Edition vi Preface to the First Edition vii Acknowledgement to A.R. van C. Warrington ix ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 1 L.1__History of Electronic Relays and their Relation to Electro- mechanical Counterparts _/ 1.2_Application of Elestonic. Relays 0 Proveston 1 13 Reasons for the Shorteived Research into Relays Using Thermionic Tubes 2 1.4._Advantages of Static Relays _? 1,5__What are Static Relays? _4 1.6 Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays 6 1.7 Complete Electronic Protective Relays 9 1,8 Complete System of Protection 77 L10_ Semiconductors to Obtain Functional Requirements 16 1.12_Practical Critical Level Detectors _17 1.13 Influence of Static Protective Relays on Associated Equip- ment 20 Appendix 23 TWO: COMPARATORS AND ASSOCIATED ELEMENTS 44 2.1 Introduction #4 2.2__Transfer or Replica Impedance _44 2.3. Mixing Transformers or Circuits 45 2.4 Phase and Amplitude Comparators 46 2.5 Different Types of Comparators 55 2.6 Zener Diode Phase Comparators 7! 2.7_Dynamic Design of Static Comparators 73 i TATE POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT 78 3.1__Introduction 78 3.2 _ Voltage Regulation (Voltage Stabilization) 78 3.3 Current Regulators (Constant Current Stabilizers) 80 3.4 Power Supply and Voltage Regulator Circuits for Static Relays 82sll Contents 3.5__Summary of Preferred Applications 89 EOUR: TIMER RELAYS AND VOLTAGE RELAYS o1 4.1 Timer Relays 9! 4.2 Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays 98 FIVE: DIRECTIONAL RELAYS 103 5.1__Introduction 08 5.2__ Phase Comparator Directional Units /08 5.3 Amplitude Comparator Directional Units 1/2 5.4 Inputs to Static Directional Relays for Maximum Output _//3 5.5 Polyphase Directional Relays _//4 5.6__Applications 14 SIX: OVERCURRENT RELAYS 116 ti i 6.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays 1/7 6.3__Time-current Relays 1/9 6.4 Application of Different Types of Time-current Characteris- tics 119 6.5 Basic Principles of Time-Overcurrent Relays _/2/ 6.6 Practical Circuits for Time-Overcurrent Relays /23 6.7 Examples of Directional Overcurrent/Overcurrent Relay 6.8 Some Examples of Commercial Static Overcurrent Relays [43 6.9 Direct Trip Devices 148 SEVEN: DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS 150 7.1__Introduction _150 7.2 Operating Characteristics /5/ 7.3 Restraining Characteristics J57 74 Types of Differential Relays 153 7.5__ Analysis of Electromagnetic and Static Differential Relays /54 7.6 Static Relay Scheme 157 7.7__Requirement of Current Transformers for Differential Protec- tion (Static Schemes) _/67 7.8 Transformer Protection (General Electric, U.S.A.) 168 EIGHT: DISTANCE RELAYS im 8 introduction 171 8.2 Standard 3-zone Protection /72 8.3 Distance Protection Requirements 173 8.4 Relay Characteristics 1/75 &5 Effect of Fault Resistance /75Contents xiii ~8.6 Types of Distance Relays 176 8.7__Complex Characteristics (Item ‘g’ of the Types given in Section 9.6) 179 8.8 Reach of the Distance Relay _J8! 8.9 Selection of the Measuring Unit _/82 8.10 Three Zone Protection with Different_Types of Distance Relays (Classical Type) /85 8.11 Polarised mho Distance Relay /86 8:12 Performance Specifications of Distance Relays 203 8.13 Switched Distance Schemes 207 8.14 Polyphase Distance Relays 207 8.15 Operating Times 208 8.16 Static Distance Relay Schemes 209 Appendix 236 NINE: PILOT WIRE AND CARRIER CURRENT SCHEMES _241 9.1 Pilot Relaying Schemes 241 02 P ive Sck in Use 242 9.3 Practical Pilot Wire Protection Schemes 251 04 Carrier Ci P. ion 262 9.5 Application of Microwave Channels for Protective Relaying 284 9.6 Selection of Suitable Static Relaying Scheme for Transmission Lines (Ref: Westinghouse Electric Corp. Relay Instrument Division, U.S.A.) 291 TEN: MULTI-INPUT COMPARATOR CIRCUITS AND ASSOCIATED RELAYS ON 10.1 Introduction _30/ 2 Conic Section Ct istics 302 10.3 Quadrilateral or Multilateral Characteristics 317 10.4 Examples of Commercial Relays 335 10.5 Polyphase Distance Schemes 34! 10.6 Polyphase Differential Relay Schemes 355 ELEVEN: OTHER TYPES OF RELAYS AND PROTECTION 359 1L.1__Introduction 359 11.2 Frequency Relays 359 11.3 Rate of Rise of Current Relays (di/dt) 373 11.4 Winding Temperature Mcasuring and Control Relays 378 11.5 Static Protection of 25 kV A.C. Traction Systems 379 11.6 Static Protection of Insulated Neutral Systems 389 UL. i 2 11.8 Distance-to-fault Locators for H.V. Lines (G.E.C.)_ 394 11.9 Voltage Regulating Relays 396xiv Contents 11.10 Synchronous Motor Field Application Relay (English Electric) 398 1.11 Fuse Failure Relay (English Electric) 401 11.12 Relays for Power and Power Factor 401 11.13 Relays for Generator Protection 402 11,14 Protection of Motors 405 11.15 Busbar Protection 4/3 11,16 Harmonic Relaying 427 11.17 Protection for Lines with Series Capacitor Compensation 428 TWELVE: NON-CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF COMPARATORS _ 431 12.1__Introduction 437 12.2__Instantaneous Comparators _43/ 12.3. A Method for the Elimination of Transient Overreach in Distance Relays _ 446 12,4__Phase Sequence Detectors _449 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING S—SSSSCATL 13,1 Introduction _477 2 Analogue Computers 472 13.3 Digital Computers 479 FOURTEEN: MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS TO S17 PROTECTION 14.1 “Number Systems 517 14.2. Microprocessors 524 143 Microprocessor Architecture (97) 525 14.4 Microprocessor Memories (37) 529 14.5 Peripheral Devices in Microprocessors (38, 39) 5 30 14.6 Some Integrated Circuit Logic Families (35, 38, 39) 537 14.7_FLIP-FLOPS and MULTIVIBRATORS _54! 4.8 Some Examples of Microprocessor Devices 550 14.9 Some Examples of Microprocessor Applications Based on Theoretical Developments 559 Appendix 578, 579 2 JABILITY, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE 584 15.1 Reliability 584 15.2. Environmental Factors 592 15.3 Test Methods for Static Relays 597 15.4 Maintenance and Field Testing of Relays 606Contents xv SIXTEEN: SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COMMERCIAL STATIC RELAYS 16.1 Introduction 619 16.2 Distatree Relays and Protective Systems 6/9 16.3 Generator Protective Relaying 627 16.4 Bus-bar Protection 639 16.5 Breaker Failure Protection 64 16.6__Out-of-step Relays 643 16.7 Auxiliary Relays with Time Lag on Pick-up/Drop-out (Brown Boveri) 647 16.8 Power Supply for Static Protective Relays (Brown Boveri) 648 16.9 Solid State Protection of Traction Supply Systems and Cateneries (Brown Boveri) 650 16.10 Some Additional Static Relays (Mitsubishi Electric Corpora- tion) 654 16.11 EHV System Protection (General Electric, USA) 652 16.12 G.E.C. Measurements, U.K. and English Electric Co., India (New Developments) 668 16.13 ASEA, Sweden and ASEA, India (New Developments) 680 16.14 Brown Boveri Switzerland (BBC) (New Developments) 690 16.15 Thomson—CSF, France 694 16.16 Modular Construction of Relay Units 697 16.17 General Comments on Commercial Static Relays (1986) 698 References 700 Index 715ONE General Intraduction to Static Relays 1.1. History of Electronic Relays and their Relation to Electromechanical Counterparts References to the design and application of eiectronic relays for power system protection can be found in the literature from the year 1928 onwards. In that year Fitzerald (205) published a scheme for pilot wire protection. Wideroe (31) in 1934 brought out a series of circuits for the common types of protective relays while Loving in 1949 published refinements to these. Macpherson, Warrington and McConnell (35) updated the developments upto 1948, and these were extended in later years by Barnes, Kennedy, Honey, Reedman, Dlouhy, Cahen and Chevallier. In all these schemes, either thyratrons or thermionic tubes have been employed. None of these types has found general application for power system protection for reasons to be discussed later. In the field of carrier current relaying, however, electronic protection with thermionic tubes has been successfully employed. Even in this field, with the heavy power supplies required for the electronic tubes, combined with the rapid development of semiconductor components, the attention has been rapidly diverted to building carrier equipment with solid state circuits. Appen- dix A. 1.1 to Chapter | discusses briefly the basic electromechanical relay elements and their relation to static devices. The discussion therein is brief and greater details can be found in later chapters. In Appendices A. 1.2, A. 1.3 and A. 1.4 at the end of Chapter 1, the following details are given: A. 1.2—Details of device numbers accepted internationally A. 1,3—List of symbols for relays and protection A. 1.4—Glossary of common relay terms. 1.2. Application of Electronic Relays to Protection The adequacy or otherwise of the present methods is always one of the most important factors influencing technological research and develop- ment. Over 75% of the existing protective relay requirements are met2 Power System Protection without undue difficulty by electromagnetic relay elements. The schemes in use depend on the characteristics of induction disc or cup, moving coil or moving armature (hinged armature) elements. However, there are bigger issues and considerations which have influenced the pace of development in static relays, such as the following: (a) Better performance and characteristics, e.g. higher speed with greater accuracy and sensitivity in distance relays. (b) Greater standardization in manufacture. (c) Easier manufacture and reduction in maintenance time. Edgeley and Hamilton (37) in 1952 claimed test and constructional advantages for their relays employing transductors (magnetic amplifiers). 1.3, Reasons for the Short-livad Research into Relays Using Thermionic Tubes As already mentioned, the research effort up to the year 1956 was predominantly towards circuits employing thermionic tubes, thyratrons etc., since till then solid state devices like transistors, were just in their infancy. None of these circuits reached the commercial stage and the research effort rapidly tapered off. However, there were certain disadvantages in thermionic tube circuits in relaying and the main ones were the following: (a) Provision of special power supplies for valve heaters—this imposes constant drain on the power supplies. (b) Provision of appreciable voltages for valve anodes and electrode bias. (c) Incorrect operation under transient conditions. In view of these disadvantages, attention has been diverted to the development of static relays using solid state components. As there is at Present no interest in relays using electronic valves and as they are of historical importance only, we shall not further discuss such relays in this book. The reader is referred to the various papers appearing in the literature mentioned under References. 1.4 Advantages of Static Relays Static relays in general possess the following advantages: (a) Low burden on current and voltage transformers, since the operating power is, in many cases, from an auxiliary d.c. supply. (b) Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts, high resis« tance to shock and vibration, (c) Very fast operation and long life. (d) Low maintenance owing to the absence of moving parts and bearing friction. (e) Quick reset action and absence of overshoot. (f) Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity.General Introduction to Static Relays 3° (g) Unconventional characteristics are possible—the basic building blocks of semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical utilization of relays with operating charac- teristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements. (h) The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits permit miniaturization of the relay modules. Table 1.1 shows the comparative VA burdens of some static and electromechanical relays, taken from certain manufacturers. Table 1.1—Comparison of Burdens of Static and Electromechanical Relays ‘Type of relay or Electromechanical Static protection scheme Current Voltage | Current Voltage Definite time delay relay = A-C.110V - 25 VA DC, HOV 10W Biased differential relay Operating 0.33 VA Coil arloA 0.6 VA at 1.00 VA 40% setting ars.oA 3.7 VA at 100% setting Bias Coil 0.4 VA at 40% setting Mho distance relays: 3estep | _ 0.4 10 8.5 20 VA 0.04 to 8.7] 8.7 to 11.2 protection VA depend- VA depend- | VA ent on setting ent on JA, 2A, or SA and setting Switched distance scheme | 0.4 to 8.5 20 VA 2103 VA 8to9VA for: phase and earth faults | VA depend- eat on setting Time-overcurrent relay [0.75 to 1.3 VAI - 0.02 to 0.13 (IDMT) dependent on VA depend- setting ‘ent on set- ting and cur+ rent rating Instantaneous overcurrent | 0.7 to 10 VA - 100 mVA. relay dependent on setting Overvoltage relay - 2.0 VA - 0.2VA Static relays with solid state components have certain limitations (as mentioned below) but these can be overcome as indicated in each case, (a) Temperature sensitivity—temperature compensation circuits have been developed (e.g. use of thermistors).4 Power System Protection (b) Ageing—this is eliminated by presoaking of components for several hours at a relatively high temperature. (c) Sehsitivity to voltage spikes—this can be eliminated by filters and shielding. (d) Damage due to overloading—this is eliminated by careful circuit design. Static relays may be single, two or multi-input devices. Individual modules are now being developed to provide critical measuring as well as nen-critical switching functions to be discussed in detail later. Timing and counting requirements are much better satisfied by solid state circuits than with electromagnetic clements. Availability of reed relays has made these more useful as they have very high operating | speed (1-2 ms). Thyristors are coming up rapidly as tripping elements. 1.6. What Are Static Relays ? The term ‘static relay’ is generally referred to a relay incorporating solid state components like transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, etc. In this type of relay, the functions of comparison and measurement are performed by static circuits wherein there are no moving parts. Accord- ing to a recent decision of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which has been adopted by the Indian Standards Institution, the following are the terms relating to static relays, Static relay—A relay in which the designed response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without mechanical motion, Static relay with output contacts—A static relay having a contact in one or more of its output circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was semistatic relay. Static relay without output contacts—A static relay having no contact in its output circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was fully static relay. Most present-day static relays, incorporate a hinged armature or a polarized moving coil relay in miniature size as the output device to provide at a low cost a number of output contacts capable of duly trip- ping. The alternatives are reed relays or thyristors (as indicated in Section 4) which are being considered in recent designs but not yet adopted commercially. With the growth of power systems in both complexity and fault -levels, the need for more sensitive and faster, reliable protection schemes has arisen. The advent of semiconductors overcame the supply problems associated with thermionic valves. The use of transistor amplifiers, etc. deriving their power from an external source, or in some cases self- powered from the current and voltage transformers, made it possible to achieve greater sensitivity and at the same time obtain excellent mechanical stability. The individual components should be chosen care- fully and should: be used well within their designed rating. It should beGeneral Introduction to Static Relays § clearly understood that it is not usually economical to replace existing _ electromechanical relays with their static counterparts just to réduce maintenance ; source gain in technical performance should also be obtained. At present protective relays are supplied from iron-cored current transformer and hence excessive saturation should be avoided to ensure high speed and discriminative operation. The use of static relays in general reduces the burden on the current transferers. ‘One may be surprised to find that static relays have first been com- mercially produced only in such cases as distance or differential schemes, while in the case of the much simpler overcurrent relay schemes, they have not been brought out. The reason behind this is the fact that distance and differential schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis while the overcurrent characteristics like those given by the induction disc relays, are more empirical and less mathematical. Thus a static relay cannot compete with the electromechanical standard inverse time overcurrent relay as this characteristic is readily achieved by the saturation characteristics of the electromagnet. On the other hand, the inverse time relay required for overload protection of rectifiers has a characteristic of the form J**=K which can be achieved with static circuits, but would be extremely difficult to achieve with an induction disc relay. In the field of distance protection, it is possible to derive many varied and complex characteristics with the use of multi-input static comparators. It is possible to accommodate a complete distance scheme in one or two conventional relay cases thus reducing panel space and the cost of interconnecting wiring. When static relays were first developed availability of components and their reliability were poor. Now these components have attained a record of reliability much better than conventional components. Many thousands of static relays have already been manufactured and used—the field experience over the last decade has proved their superiority in more than one sense. As already mentioned, static relays using thermionic valves could not meet practical requirements and never reached the commercial stage. Rectifier relays, first used in Germany, revolutionized the development of static relays. Transductors offered the advantage of d.c. isolation between control and output circuits. They were widely employed in protective relay applications, but have been discarded due to their slow speed of operation. Hall effect relays permit instantaneous analogue multiplication of two measured values. However, because of their highcost they have not been used in practical relays. Gauss-effect relays employ semi-conductors whose resistance varies when a magnetic field is applied. They are also quite expensive. Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically built up from diodes, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-a bijunction transistors, field effect6 Power System rruiccuvn transistors or their combinations. The main reason for the rapid progress of transistors into static relays is the instantaneous readiness of operation due to the absence of heaters and their substantially long working life Further, in recent years, the manufacture of components has achieved considerable advances like encapsulation, planner and epitoxial construc- tion techniques, printed circuits, etc. Integrated circuits now occupy a predominant place. These techniques have increased the reliability of the components and reduced the sizes of the modules to small chips. 1.6. Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays Basically, protective relays are analogue-binary signal converters with measuring functions. The variables such as current, voltage, phase angle or frequency and derived values obtained by differentiation, integration or other arithmetical operations, appear always as analogue signals at the input of the measuring unit. The output will always have a binary signal, ie. either an open (or OFF) signal if the relay is not to trip or a close (or ON) signal if the relay is to trip. These output signals can therefore beeasily evaluated by subsequent control elements requiring very little technical effort. Each protective relay is built up of individual elements in accordance with the basic block diagram shown in Fig. 1.1. The signals, 1, Measuring Cir- cuit 2, Measuring Signals 3, Converter Element 4, Measu- ring Element 5, Out- put Element 6. Out- Put Signal 7. Con- trolled Element 8, Feed Element —-- Binary Signals 9, Aux. Voltage 9 == Output Flow Source 10. Measur- Analogue Signals ing Circuit Supply Isl Basic block diagram of protective relays which occur in analogue and therefore in the continuously variable form from the measuring circuit (C.T and/or V.T) are first fed to the converter unit in the protective relay. This converts the measured signals so that they can be easily processed by the measuring clement which follows. This measuring element will be operated when the input signal reaches a certain value—providing a close signal at its output. The output element amplifies this binary but weak signal and transfers it to one or moreGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 7 controlled elements, The controlled elements carry out the final switching functions as opening of circuit breakers, etc. Power is supplied to the measuring or output clement by a feed element. This power is obtained either from an auxiliary voltage source or from the measuring circuit itself. 1.6.1, Converter Element This element contains chiefly the matching transformers to obtain the re- quired signal level. The rest of the construction depends on whether one or two or more inputs are to be handled by the relay. Relays for one quantity are supplied with only one electrical quantity, ¢.g- current or voltage. After suitable transformation by the matching transformers, this quantity is fed to diode bridges at whose output it appears as a d.c. variable with ripple. Through setting networks consisting of fixed and variable resistors, clipping diodes, etc. the measured value of the quantity is fed into a harmonic filter (if the speed requirements are not too stringent) since the subsequent measuring element deals only with d.c, variables. Sometimes smoothing filters are used to climinate ripples, but in high speed relays such filters cannot be used. In relays for two quantities the converter element is fed at its input with two electrical quantities. In each case the comparison can be either amplitude or phase comparison between the two signals, the signals being converted to voltage or current signals (Fig. 1.2). There is also a pulse E,.-E2. VOLTAGE COMPARISON 1. Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistors 1, Measuring Element CURRENT COMPARISON Ea. 2. Resistors Fig, 1.2 Basic voltage and current comparators—two inputs type comparison in which one of the variables is converted into a pulse when passing through zero and the second is converted into a rectangular block. When the pulse and the block coincide, a close signal appears at the output of the comparator circuit. This gives extremely short response time.8% Power System Protection In relays for three or more quantities, the converter element is supplied with three or more electrical quantities, In Fig, 1.3 it will be noticed that in two of the measuring bridges the feed-back resistors are combined into one. VOLTAGE COMPARISON 1, Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistor ° Fig. 1.3 Basic voltage comparison—three Fig. 1.4 Analogue—binary signal conver- inputs sion—Schmitt trigger 1.6.2. Measuring Element This is an analogue-binary signal converter with measuring functions, In the simplest form it consists of the Schmitt trigger circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 as the basic circuit. The Schmitt trigger circuit (which will be discussed in detail later in Chapter 14) can be compared to an extremely fast pola- rized d.c. relay and acts as a level detector. Transistors are used in common emitter connection giving high input resistance and large current gain. The level detector gives a step output when the input voltages ex> ceed a specified level. 1.6.3 Output Element This element amplifies the output signal from the measuring element, multiplies it, may combine it with certain other signals and also introduce a delay if necessary. Since it has to process only binary signals, this need not be a precision element. It may thus take the form of auxiliary relays or contactors. These provide potential separation between controlling and controlled circuits. It may also take the form of a bistable or monostable multivibrator circuit and if required modulated by logic circuits like AND, ‘OR, NOR or timing elements: Where large powers are involved, e.g. operating trip coils of circut breakers, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are used after the logic element. 1.6.4, Feed Element ‘The function of this element is to supply the power necessary to operate the circuits and the power is obtained either from a built-in auxiliary supply (nickel cadmium rechargeable cells) or from station battery. In raany cases it is derived from the measuring circuit itself. In all cases,General Introduction to Static Relays 9 the feed element should supply a stabilized voltage to the static circuits, so that the measuring accuracy is not impaired. In the initial stages of developmet, nickel cadmium rechargeable cells, (commonly known as button cells) were used in the commercially produced static relays, specially in the U.K., but experience has shown that their reliability is poor. They are being given up at present and in their place station batteries with suitable taps at the appropriate voltages are being preferred. In the case of several types of relays, the supply is derived from the current and voltage transformers themselves, as mentioned above with the refinement that the power supply to the relay is switched on only in case of a fault being detected by a suitable fault detector. 1.7 Complete Electronic Protective Relays We have seen how a static relay is basically designed. The detailed circuit in each case will be discussed in the succeeding chapters of this book. We will also discuss briefly here (details will be found in the respective chapters) the complete relay systems. These relays can be built up in accordance with a unit construction system. This system can be extended not only to individual relays but also to entire relay assemblies. 1.7.1 Overcurrent Relays In a three phase system of relays, it is economical to build it on a single phase basis, Thus there will be three converter elements, one for each phase, but’ thereafter the rest of the circuits (e.g. measuring element, output element, etc.) will be common to all the three circuits. This is shown in Fig. 1.5. V Converter Element; OR OR Gate; M Measuring Element; t Timing Ele-- ment; O Output Element; $ Feed Ele- Ss ment. Fig. 1.5 Block diagram of an electronic three phase timeover cufrent relay In, ly, Ip=Three phase input currents 1.7.2. Protective System for Generators and Transformers Here again instead of three elements for the individual three phase telays, a single measuring element and a single output unit are used.19 Power System Protection These are combined in OR-gates which in turn modulate the high power control units. With this method it is also possible to combine various measuring elements to save unit construction clements. This is shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7, 1.7.3. Busbar Protection Figs. 1.8 and 1,9 show the static busbar protection scheme. This scheme offers (i) high operating speed, (ii) use of current transformers of any desired characteristic, (iii) independence of C.T. saturation, 1 C.T. Connections V_V.T. Connections CB Circuit Breaker ES De-excitation switch i» Fig. 1.6 Electronic protection of a generator-transformer unit Nx=Exter- nal voltage supply (iv) independence of the effect of load-in resistance, (v) application for coupled or subdivided busbars while maintaining the tripping selectivity ofeach section, (vi) avoidance of C.T. change over, (vii) facilities for output signalling, and (viii) simple extensibility for later extension of the busbar system. In case of (vi) there is thus no risk of opening of C.T. secondary circuits since change over takes place only in the logic Part of the circuit. In the case of a short circuit fault, the protective system will measure the phase angle of all outgoing currents, compare the phase angle ofGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 11 each busbar section and operate if all these angles are within + 90 electrical degrees, The differential current is used asstarting quantity, while the reference value is a quantity which isin phase with the short circuit current, 1.8. Complete System of Protection Protective relays, being component parts of electrical switchgear, should be closely associated with the control section of such systems, ¢.g, indicat- en 4] 1 : . a og ° yi he Fee H — s 8 Sw & 6 4 & 28 3 288 3 & ae Zee 6§ But > a gi 2 aed Os ERE zB gn0 35 Ea os ag Ea =< ze =e su 72 = geo pu ge e322 Sag aa 6p PE vq aw Le is ag 2 Fig. 1.7 Block diagram Of generator-transformer protection ing and signalling systems. Thus the signalling and indicating systems Must also be designed on a static basis. The Plug in type modular chassis has been witlely adopted already in electronic regulating and control equipment. These contain a self contained plugin section which consists mainly of a printed circuit with the appropriate citcuit components as well as the front Panel with setting scales, setting potentiometers and signalling elements. With the development of integrated circuits, these are being used more and More. All func- tional units are mounted in a single rack and for more comprehensive12 Power System Protection systems, several racks are combined into the hinged frame. The same procedure is adopted for protective relays as well. F Feeders. B Reference Values BS Busbar Protection 18 I Feeder Current “7 Al Difference Current | L Circuit Breaker _} BUS Busbar W Current Transformers Fig. 1.8 Busbars protected The future circuit breaker may also follow these lines of static deve- lopment and may ultimately be a static device. Thu AM fara} fe] — Vici K. a a bes M Measuring Element 1 fie Hie He2] ¥_Convercer Element a ok NOR NOR-Gate 1 3 ahre} = Z AND AND-Gate 1 fa Hs 3 T 6 ka armafv Hm p Fig. 1-9 Block diagram of busbar protection 1.9. Characteristic Functions of Protective Relays It is possible to obtain similar functions and characteristics from relay elements using different operating principles. These principles and design criteria determine how well the basic function is performed and how in practice it deviates from the ideal. Static relays can achieve such a high performance that the departures from the ideal in practice are negligible. This high performance combined with the design flexi- bility makes it possible to satisfy a wide variety of requirements with a limited number of functional units. The basic elements neededto cover such a wide range of functions are discussed in the remaining sections of this chapter.General Introduction to Static Relays 13 1.9.1, Summation The combination of a number of electrical quantities into a single quan- tity through static equipment like summation transformers and sequence networks is already well known. These fit into the concept of static relaying, Summing units can be reduced in size by using new com- ponents and techniques, including active elements. Semiconductor circuits are well suited to the use of summing junctions (used in the analogue computation field) and can be applied into protective relaying. 1.9.2. Single Input Devices (Fig. 1.10) These form the basis of many protective and control schemes as in the following: (a) Non-critical repeat function (all-or-nothing relays)—This usually produces a switching power gain of the order of 10%, with a multiplicity of segregated outputs—these may be in the form of contacts, These devices are generally instantaneous with operating speeds of the order of 20 ms. or less. They may also have an associated time-delay function. Since these devices are either unenergized or energized very much in excess of marginal con- ditions they ensure fast response and good contact pressure in the case of electromechanical devices. Examples of this type are : attracted armature relays (telephone type), reed relays (with high speeds of the order of 1-2 ms are now available), semicon- ductors (specially thyristors). Repeat functions | are usually initiated by outputs from critical or measuring elements [Fig. 1.10 (a)]. (b) Critical or measuring function—This requires a response to an input when the latter exceeds a prescribed critical level. Switch- ing gain may be included but is not essential since repeat devices. can be provided. Practical requirements are fast response, accu- racy of setting and high reset ratio. This function is used in many protection systems such as overcurrent, undervoltage, over- voltage, differential systems etc. The elements used for these functions may be attracted armature, induction or moving coil types. This functioncan also be derived through semiconductor circuits driving electromagnetic relays like polarized moving coil or attracted armature types or reed relays or thyristors [Fig. 1.10 (b)}. (c) Fixed time or definite time function—This necessitates a delay between input and output (between the application of an input and the occurrence-of an output or between the removal of an input and the resetting of the output). The input is to be only non-critical (either nothing or greatly in excess of the critical level) and switching gains and multiple outputs are possible. The device can also provide a repeat function. Measuring fun-14 Power System Protection {npul_ | Instantaneous Noi ‘al (a) Input | instantaneous | Instantaneous. | = SS" Critical | Noneritica! cs Cole Fig. 1.10 Single-input devices: (a) Non-critical repeat ; (b) critical or measuring ; (c) fixed time ; (d) time function dependent on input ; and (¢) time functions with definite pickup and h.s. instataneous. ctions can be combined in the inputs circuit. Practical require- ments from these devices are accuracy of time setting and repeatability under successive applications [Fig. 1.10 (c)}. (d) Function time-dependent on input—The commonest form of such characteristic is rf (S") where m is negative and real. Examples of this are over current and overload protection. These may alsoGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 15 contain in addition low set and high set instantaneous critical functions. [Figs. 1.10 (d) and (e)]. 1.9.3 Two Input Devices (Fig. 1.11) With two inputs, it is possible to obtain a wide range of characteristics using different operating principles. The function is generally defined by the relationship between the inputs, which governs the boundary condition of operation. The two basic forms are as follows: (i) Amplitude comparison—One input is a restraining quantity and the other is an operating quantity so that an output is obtained when the ratio of these quantities is less thana critical value. Ideally the comparison of the amplitudes of the two inputs is independent of the level and phase relationship, of the inputs. The function is represented by a circle in the complex plane with its centre at the origin—defining the boundary of marginal operation. Examples of this are biased relays and impedance type distance relays (Fig. 1.1L (a)). x S/Sp Restrain Operate a Ss Comparator Se Ourpu tar * Output (br 3 Sz S Mining Mang] Si-S2 ” Si+S2 —{ comparator | | Ourpur tc) Fig. 1.11 Two-input devices (a) amplitude comparator (S\/SySK)i (b) phase comparator (2>0>B) and (c) mixing of input signals16 Power System Protection Gi) Phase comparison—Output appears when the inputs have a phase relationship lying within specified limits. Both inputs must exist for an output to occur—ideally the output is independent of their magnitudes, but dependent only on their phase relationship. The function as defined by the boundary of marginal operation is represented by two straight lines from the origin of the complex plane. Examples of these are directional relays, distance relays excluding the impedance type and other phase comparison relays (Fig. 1.11 (b)]. These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters. It will also be shown that either comparator becomes equivalent to the other if jit is fed through the appropriate mixing units giving the sum and difference of the original inputs. Thus any relay characteristic can be obtained by using the amplitude or the phase comparison principle, although practical considerations might dictate preference for one scheme out of the two. 1.9.4. Multi-input Devices (Fig. 1.12) With more than two inputs, the range of complex characteristics is extend- ed. Using amplitude comparison, the remaining conic section curves like ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, ete. can be obtained. Sih S2 |B Se S2 Sy S36 $1 Comparator Outpur @ Fig. 1.12. Multi-Input devices: (a) amplitude comparator; and (b) phase comparator Using phase comparison, characteristics are obtained which contain discontinuities as the effective zone is the commen area given by a number of straight lines and/or circular characteristics, Equivalence of phase and amplitude comparators does not apply to multi- input case. 1.10 Semiconductors to Obtain Functional Requirements The characteristics of modern transistors are specially suited to the fun: ctional .equirements mentioned above. These alongwith the other semi- conductor and other components have made possible commercialGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 17 production of static relays. The properties particularly useful in the realiza- tion of the functional requirements are amplification, switching characte- tistics, sensitivity, high speeds of response, flexibility of design and appli- cation, long life, compact and rugged construction, and simplified power requirements. The development of miniaturization resulting in the integrated circuit chips has accelerated the pace of development and exploitation to commercial standards of the principles of static relaying. 1.11 Practical Non-critical Switching Circuits The two main functions of such circuits in relation to protection are the following: (i) Provision of a final signal for tripping to the circuit breaker; may also give supplementary functions like inter-tripping, alarm and. visual indication. (ii) Acting as intermediate switching stages within the assembly of functional elements. Both the above duties have been met in the past by using electromag- netic relays. For (i) e.m. relays have proved to be economical and reliable, of course accounting nevertheless for 10-30 ms of overall tripping time, For (ii) the operating time of e.m. relays may become unduly long, while being reliable, but with unsuitable contact performance sometimes. Con- ventional e.m. relays have been accepted in association with static relays for non-critical functions if their operating times are tolerable. Progressive- ly efforts have been made to replace e.m. relays by (a) reed relays and (b) static switching circuits using transistors or thyristors. Reed relays have been found to be reliable with high operating speeds of the order of 1-2 ms even at small multiples of setting. They can therefore be used for the intermediate switching stages giving segregation between input and output. This gives added flexibility and freedom of intercon- nection. Their operating power may, however, require a preceding stage of transitor amplification with positive feed-back. Transistor switching circuits are also suitable for the intermediate switching functions and have been used extensively as such. The rating of trip circuits is generally unsuited to transistor switching circuits and ifa Tully static trip circuit is required for various reasons, then thyristors may be used subject to certain restrictions like interface problems, 1.12 Practical Critical Level Detectors. The inputs in such level detectors are generally at power frequency and may vary over a Wide range relative to the critical level. Basic requirements are accuracy, long-term consistency, fast operation and a controllable reset ratio of high magnitude. Obtaining these with ¢.m. relays has always18 Power Sysiem Protection presented problems. When designing a static equivalent of an e.m. relay; the circuit should be such that it retains the best features of the e.m. relay, but overcomes its disadvantages. An example of such a design is shown in Fig. 1.13. Here the reset ratio is high and snap action is retained. The circuit can be made relatively insensitive to the offset transient conditions present in the fault currents. It may also be made self-energizing since it permits associated units, for which auxiliary supplies may be essential, to be normally unenergized. The circuit uses two basic elements, as shown in Fig. 1.13. (a), the critical level detector and the pulse integrating cir- cuit. The level detector compares an unsmoothed rectified oran alternating signal against ad.c. datum. For peak inputs below the datum, the out- put is zero, but at the critical peak input there is a finite output pulse NS Critical Level] py pa [Pulse integra- at Input Signal Detector ting Circuit \ i L Operating level \_Reser Level Time At Setting At Twice Setting (a) (b) Fig. 1.13 Critical level detectorsGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 19 the width of which is determined by the reset ratio. The output pulse widens with increasing input, but at the critical level the width substanti- ally exceeds the marginal operating level of the second element. This circuit retains snap action, even when the reset ratio inherently exceeds 1.0. With the exception of the datum signals in the level detector, the design parameters are non-critical. A practical self-energized circuit using these principles is shown in Fig. 1,13 (b), A is the measuring and switching circuit and B is the pulse integrating circuit. The rectified unsmoothed signal feeds two alternative paths (J, and J). Below the critical level, the measuring and switching circuit is fully conducting so that current J, for all practical purposes is zero. The datum V, is derived through a zener diode ZD and is substantially d.c. at the critical level input. The loading on the input circuit up to the cfitical level is controlled solely by Rs which provides the voltage for the measuring and switching circuit through R, R,. The critical level occurs when the voltage across R, exceeds V, by AV required to operate the switching circuit, which then switches to a highoutput impedance and diverts the current J, into the pulse integ- tating circuit. The meausuring accuracy depends only on V, and resi- stors R,, R, and R; if AV is small compared to V,. Temperature compensation can also be incorporated in the circuit. At the instant of switching, the input through R, increases to a value dependent on the input impedance of the pulse integrating circuit, relative to Rs. This provides positive feed-back in the measuring circuit, which ccntrols the instantaneous, reset level. Surge and overload protection are easily incorporated by using non-linear resistors on the input and an electrostatic screen on the interposing transformer. An alternative simple non-transistor arrangement based on reed relays is shown in Fig. 1.14. The accuracy of the operating level of the first reed relay is important but the reset ratio is not critical, Such a device can provide operating times of 5-10 ms at 2-3 times the setting. The overall] reset ratio can be about 0.95, cK Reed Element Ry R. + ‘i - Input | Output AC. Reed Element Fig. 1.14 Level detector using reed relays20° Power System Protection 1,13. Influence of Static Protective Relays on Associated Equipment Static protection has a great influence on the associated equipments like current transformers, voltage transformers, ctc. 1.13.1. Current Transformers Burdens on current transformers have a great influence on their design and fora long time the problems of transient performance have given way to a progressive reduction of the relay burdens. However, due to increased fault levels, primary time constants and protection sensitivity requirements, the size of C.T.’s has not been decreased substantially. Added to this in e.h.v. substations, the increased length of interconnect- ing leads complicates the problem, The reduced burden of static relay is such as to be small compared to the burden of secondary winding and its interconnecting leads. The reduction of size and/or increased perfor- mance entails relays to be mounted on or close to the switchgear. Thus with static relays, the stress will be on optimum transient C.T. perfor- mance with a short-circuited secondary winding. A single C.T. could perform all protection duties and this approach may be justified up to 33 kV or 66 kV where accommodation of C.T.’s affects the size of the switchgear, but at the e.h.v. levels, separate C.T.’s will still be justified for reasons of security. Linear couplers, as a means of overcoming problems of transient response, have not yet gained wide acceptance—their inductive nature and low signal levels being the main limitations. New methods of obtaining current signals, e.g. optical links, are being investigated and are practical with static relays. In one technique an ordinary instrument CT. is used and the secon- dary current controls a pulse coding device which sends luminious, acous- tic or radio signals to a receiver at earth potential. The most successful one uses a laser light beam transmitted by fibre optics. In this arrange- ment the pulse coding device modulates a gallium arsenide laser and the coded light pulses travel through a6 mm-diameter bundle of 50000 glass fibres to alight receiver where the pulses are decoded, amplified and sent by triac cable to the meters and relays. The fibre glass bundle is very flexible so that it can follow a convenient path, e.g. through an insulator to the breaker mechanism cubicle, This arrangement gives the required e.h.v. insulation and has low light loss. It is immune to interference and has a voltage output so that relays and meters can be connected in parallel rather than in series. For maximum reliability two laser C.T.’s are used so that if one fails, the burdens can be be auto- ‘matically transferred to the other, in less than 2 seconds time.General Introduction to Static Relays 21 1.13.2. Voltage Transformers Here again, the size of a V.T. has almost no relation to the actual relay burdens connected to it. In certain cases the V.T, used may be rated for 150 VA while the complete static distance protection connected to it may impose a burden of only 1.5 VA, The size of voltage transfor- mers (both electromagnetic and capacitive types) could be reduced con- sistent with the reduced burdens of static relays, or the application practice could be modified. The capacitive voltage transformer at present considered economical only ate.h.v. levels, could become economical at lower voltages and may also use the relatively low capacitances integral in the switchgear like bushings, etc. For transmission (¢.h.v.) voltages, the problem of transient response of capacitor V. T.s will be specially taken care of by faster protection and this is facilitated by the low reactive power require- ments of static relays. Attempts are under way to obtain busbar volt- age signals for synchronizing by using air-spaced capacitance probes. 1.13.3, Flag Indication In the electromechanical relays, there is a multiplicity of mechanically operated flags on the protection scheme itself and remote alarms in the control room. In the case of static relays, it may be necessary to install relays and protection closer to the switchgear—accessibility and replace- ability are possible with rackmounted modules which can be much more effectively tested at a central test laboratory than in the field. In view of this, relay flags and alarms have to be relocated. Mechanical flags are not compatible with static relays and many manufacturers use separate electromechanical elements within the static protection circuits. There is still a tendency to retain flags local to the protection, although some manufactures in Europe are tending to use automatic recording of functions to provide more detailed and dependable information com- pared to the flag indication. On e.h.v. installations, information provided by automatic oscillographic records could supplement such function recorders with advantage. Table 1.2 shows the relative costs of the various equipments at diffe- rent voltages. 1.13.4, Relay Cases and Circuit Modules Static relay circuit components are so small that a number of relay units formerly in separate cases can all be contained in a single case. Relay cases now tend to conform to internationally accepted standard rack dimensions (19 in or 482 mm width) and provide facilities for testing. Each rack can accommodate a large number of modules with standard plug-in arrangement. Interlocks are provided to prevent modules from22. Power Systenr Protection being extracted before the main connector is removed, de-energizing them, Table 1.2—Average Cost in Units per Circuit Indoor Outdoor Equipment —— S3KV 132kV 275 kV 400kV Total average circuit cost 10.0 50.0 100.00 230.00 Relays O7 2.5 24 46 Relay panels 0.4 O6 Ls 23 Wiring (multi-core) 09 0.2 08 0.9 Relay room 0.32 0s os 1.0 Current transformers 0.4 47 12.0 25.7 Voltage transformers 1.0 43 70 9.0 The functional modular units are usually of 7 in or 177.8 mm height. Many manufacturers now make smaller plugin modules which can be plugged into a standard 19-in rack unit. Thus, a-one-relay .module is defined by ASEA [Allmanna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget] as equal to 41x85 mm?, a two-relay module as 83x85 mm*, a four-relay module as 83162 mm* and an cight-rclay module as 2 (83 x 162 mm’). The circuits are printed circuit types, the base being of a material which does not absorb moisture. Continuous improvement of compon- ents and the introduction of new components sometimes makesit difficult to implement a design in practice before newer and better techniques become available. Integrated circuits, for example, are available in large varieties and at cheaper prices, so that many manufacturers have already incorporated them in their relays. The reliability of static pro- tection in service has compared favourably with that of electromechanical relays and many times better than them. Cost comparison between static and conventional relays has shown that at present there is a parity in cost and in same cases, especially in the case of the distance schemes, to be cheaper in static version. The price of a relay or a protection scheme does not depend entirely on the com- ponent and labour costs, but depends on other factors like develop- mental costs, prices of similar equipment from competitors, utility of the scheme, etc. At present, most of the developmental work on static relays, has been carried out by the manufacturers although research papers do appear from others like academic institutions, etc. The conversion of a Successful experiment into a fully toleranced engineering model suitable forGeneral Introduction to Stauc Relays 23 commercial manufacture and satisfactory type testing takesa very long time. In the case of static relays, there is a need to merge both the experimental and developmental stages because of their considerable interdependence, There is a growing need for participation in this effort by the users and academic institutions—in the devélopment of new systems and in the exploitation of their advantages. This necessitates acontinuous dialogue between relay manufacturers and such institutions who are involved in developmenta! activities. REFERENCES 12 4, 7 40, 43, 44,46, $2, 54, 55, 58, 64, 75, 95, 123, 214, S.4, 5.8, S.9- APPENDIX Ad A1.1, 1, BRIEF REVIEW OF THE IMPORTANT TYPES OF BASIC RELAY ELEMENTS (ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPES) 1.1. Induction Disc Relay (Fig. A.1.1) The shaded pole type gives the most effective form of an electromagnet since it has the following: (a) Higher torque/VA, (b) A single coil which permits use of larger wire, (c) Time-current characteristics which can be controlled easily by varying the number of laminations in the coil and the impedance of the shading coil circuit, or by magnetic shunts. The wattmetric type is now becoming obsolete since it has more windings, less overload capacity and less torque/VA. 12, Induction-cup Relays (Figs. A.1.2 and A.1.3) For high speed operation where polarizing and/or differential wind- ings are required, a 4-pole electromagnet is used. No damping is required, and the disc is formed into a cup to minimize inertia. Any type of relay characteristic could be obtained just by changing the coil windings. If saturation is avoided, operating characteristics can be linear and accurate; pick-up and reset values are close together, Response to current and voltage transients can be suppressed by proper design, obtain- ing a steady torque.24 Power System Protection exenng \ one Coit a 5 Shoaing Rings or Coils fa) (b) Vector Diogram Fig. A.1.1 Induction disc types: (a) shaded pole type; (b) wattmeiric type. Fig. A.1.2 4-pole cup Advantages Fig. A.1.3 8-pole cup (a) These can be set to trip instantaneously up to 90% of the pro- tected section as a distance relay.General Introduction to Static Relays 25 (b) These are ideal as directional relays because of their high sensiti- vity and speed and because the parasitic torque due to current and potential alone can be made small and can be adjusted out by a vane on the cup and a flat cut on the rotatable centre core. (c) The rotor (cup) has no connecting leads and can be removed quickly without disturbing contact settings. (d) Variations like the 8-pole and 6-pole units can be made. 1.3. Moving Coil Relays (Fig, A.1.4) There are two types: (a) Rotary moving coil. (b) Axially moving coil. The rotary type is cheaper and uses standard jewel bearings and d.c. instrument construction. The axial type has twice the sensitivity because of the single radial magnetic gap. Typical sensitivity is 3 mW for just closing the contacts. Higher speeds are obtained with aluminium former while slower speed and heavier damping are obtained with copper formers. 7 Fig. A-1.4 Polarized moving coil relays. Fig. A.l-5 Hinged armature relay 1.4, Hinged Armature Relays (Fig. A.1.5) These are used mainly as auxiliary relays, e.g. tripping relays, a.c. and d.c. voltage and current relays. Their VA consumption is low being of the order of 0.05 W at pick-up with one contact. The VA consumption will increase with the number of contacts. They can be polarized for sensitive d.c. operation by the addition of a permanent magnet. 1.5, Polarized Moving Iron Relays (Fig. A.1.0) Their sensitivity can approach that of the moving coil relay and they have a more robust construction. Most of them use leaf-spring supported armature. 4 ILE 1 Fig. A.1.6 Polarized moving iron relay Fig. A.1.7 Balanced beam relay26 Power System Protection 1.6. Moving Iron and Balanced Beam Relays (Fig. A. 1.7) These have a low ratio of reset/operating current. If set for fast operation, there is tendency to overreach on transient con- ditions. There are large second harmonic torques developed. The pull of each magnet is proportional to the square of the current in its coil. Mechanical bias may be provided by gravity or by a spring. 2. ELECTRICAL DELAY METHODS IN ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE RELAYS (REFERENCE 1) (i) Copper Shading ring: In attracted armature type of electromechanical relays, time delays can be obtained by using a copper shading band or ring on the main iron core of the relay. If the ring is placed at the armature end, delay can be obtained on pick up while delays on drop out will result if the same is placed at the opposite end of the core. This delay can be made adjustable by using a second winding placed on the core which is designed to produce a magnetic field opposite to that of the main coil. Drop out time can also be obtained by saturat- ing the core at a low input valve. (ii) Other methods: Time delays can also be obtained by using a capa- citor-resistor combination across the relay coil. In case of a.c. input, the current can be rectified by a diode, before feeding to the relay. Similarly a ballast resistance across the relay coil, with a.c. or d.c. input or a resonant circuit in case of a.c, input can also produce delays. 3. COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR OPERATION WITH ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS (REFERENCE 1) The basic operation of a transistor circuit can be explained by comparison with an electromechanical relay, specially a sensitive polarised relay. Fig. A.1.8 shows a basic transistor relay circuit using n-p-n or p-n-p tran- sistors. When terminal B (base) is made more positive (in case of p-n-p) with respect to terminal E (emitter), the collector (C)-emitter (E) circuit switches into operation anda current flows through the load resistor Ru. This is analogous to the polarised relay closing its contacts in the load circuit when the input current exeeeds the pick up valve. The direction of Fig. A.1.8 Transistor relay circuits (a) n-p-n transistor (b) p-n-p transistor.General Introduction to Static Relays 27 the conduction of the base-emitter and emitter-collector junctions is shown by the arrow on the emitter electrode. The transistor relay can be made more sensitive by using additional amplifying stages as shown in Fig. A.1.9. In this method one can use similar transistors (e.g. both p-n-p or n-p-n) or dissimilar transistors (one n-p-n and the other p-n-p). In the case of dissimilar transistors as in Fig. A.1.9(a), the two transistors are normally off. When T, is made to conduct by making its base more positive with respect to its emitter, the base of T, becomes more negative with respeet to its emitter making it conduct and allow current through the load resistor. In the case of similar transistors as in Fig. A.1.9(b). T, is normally conducting while T2 is off. When the base of T, is made less positive w.r.t. its emitter T, is turned off making the base of T, more positive with respect to its emitter. This switches T, to conduction and allows current through the load resistor Rz. 4. FEED-BACK In the case of electromagnetic relays like the attracted armature relay, snap (or swift) action of the contacts is obtained by making the control spring rather stiff. The same property can be obtained in transistor relays through what is known as positive feed-back. Here part of the output is fed back to the input so as to add to the input. In other words, as the output increases, the input is built up rapidly to bring about the swift action required. This is achieved by adding the circuits shown in Fig. A.1.9(c). Here, the output of Tz at C, is added through the feed-back resistor Ry to the base of T, to Fig. A.1.9 Transistor relay with amplifying stage and positive feedback (a) n-p-n and p-n-p, (b) both n-p-n, (c) and (d) Addition of positive feedback.28 Power System Protection make it more positive in a faster time. In (d) positive feed-back is added from the point E, by applying the feed-back resistor Ry between the com- mon emitter connection and the negative terminal of the supply battery. Here the feed-back connection helps to switch off transistor T, and switch on T; in a much faster time than without the feed-back. In solid state relays, thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are being used by some manufacturers in the trip circuit of the circuit breaker similar to a tripping relay in electromechanical relays. Fig. A.1.10 shows the connection of SCR in the trip coil circuit of a circuit breaker. Here the trip + Nf Trip switch Gate Anode thode + © —_——vitn———e_ SCR Fig. A.1.10 SCR trip circuit. coil (TC) of the circuit breaker is connected as usual through the CB auxiliary switch CBa to the cathode of the SCR. The positive terminal of the trip battery is connected to the anode while the negative terminal is con- nected to the trip coil (TC). When the gate of the SCR is made more positive with respect to ils cathode by closing the trip switch, the SCR starts conduction and energises the breaker trip coil. Once the SCR con- ducts, the gate has no further control over the SCR conduction and the trip circuit of the breaker can be de-energised only when the auxiliary switch CBa opens (i.e. when the breaker opens). 5. COMPENSATION IN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS In the transistor circuits shown in Fig. A.1.8, when the base-emitter circuit is not conducting, the collector-emitter current should be zero. This is only true theoretically. In practice there is a collector-emitter leakage current. ‘This leakage current in a transistor is affected by temperature, light and in- put bias. In fact the conduction characteristics of transistors can be changed by exposure of the semi-conductor junction to light (e.g. photo-transistor ) and temperature. When the transistor is conducting the junction, tempera- ture rises and can destroy the junction if adequate means are not employed to conduct away the heat by appropriate heat sinks etc. In order to neutralise the effect of temperature, compensation is necessary in the input bias of the transistor so that the increase of collector-emitter current due to increase of temperature is neutralised by the bias applied to the base as in Fig. A.i.i1. Here a grounded emitter transistor amplifier is shown with compensation provided by the resistor r connected between its collector and base. The amount of compensation can be varied by varying the value of r. Also it is possible to stop the leakage current in emitter-General Introduction to Static Relays 29 Fig. A.1.11 Transistor amplifier with compensation, collector circuit when the transistor is switched off, by applying a small reverse bias i.e. applying a small positive potential to its base with respect to its emitter, 6. LEVEL DETECTORS Schmitt trigger or level detector circuits are very often employed in static relay circuits as a final stage before the trip coil circuit of the circuit breaker, The name level detector is derived from the fact that the circuit operates abruptly when the input level excceds a predetermined value. This is shown in Fig. A.1.12, which shows the principle of a level detector. Here there is normally a positive bias on the base of the tran- Fig. A112. Simpie level detector. sistor to Keep it non-conducting as stated in the previous section. The transistor can be made to conduct or switch to operation, if the input voltage is made to excced the input bias in the opposite direction i.c. the base is made negative with respect to its emitter. Fig, A.1.13(a) shows a more precise level detector with negative feed- back applied to give snap action. Here the bias is obtained from the potentiometer R,R2R3 rather than a bias battery. In this circuit there are two transistors T, and Tz (both p-n-p in this case). Here T, is normally OFF and T; is normally ON because of the negative feed-back resistor Ry and the bias applied to the base of T, through the potentiometer R,R,R;. This circuit has high reset (drop out/pick up) ratio, while retaining the snap action. When the input voltage at the base of T, exceeds the bias due to Ry, the transistor T, starts to conduct and the action becomes very rapid leading to the switching off of transistor T2. When this happens, an output voltage (almost equal to the supply battery voltage) appears across the collector of T, switching the trip relay TR into operation. The base of Tz30 Power System Protection Fig. A.1.13 Schmitt trigger circuit (a) circuit, (b) circuit operation. is held at a voltage determined by the collector voltage of T, and the potential divider RR;. This can facilitate the choice of the reset voltage as shown in Fig. A.1.13(b). 7, TIME DELAY CIRCUITS Several choices are available in the selection of suitable circuits for obtain- ing time delay depending on the magnitude of the time delay required, Delays of the order of microseconds can be obtained by what are known as delay lines or cables usually employed in communication systems. The delay line or cable can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of a ladder network of reactors and capacitors as shown in Fig. A.1.14. Ireut T T IT Output __[ tL Fin, ALI Representation of a delay line. Other types of circuits that can be used are resonant circuits (C-L circuits) which give delays of the order of milliseconds while R-C circuits give much longer time delays. As will be seen in later chapters, R-C circuits are very frequently employed in time current relays and other types of timers. It is found that the accuracy of a timing circuit depends on the leakage currents in capacitors and the transistors that are uscd in the successive stages of the circuit. Also temperature and supply voltage variations affect their accuracy. In all such cases some amount of compensation is to be used like temperature compensation as discussed in section 5. Other methods that can improve the circuit performance are aging of the circuit by heat soaking (which will be discussed in Chapter 15) and prevention of the tran- sistor circuit from operation till the timing cupacitoc is charged—this can be done by using a diode before the transistor level detector circuit. All these methods will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4 under timer relays and in Chapter 6 under time-overcurrent relays.General Introduction to Static Relays 31 As stated in Section 4, thyristors (SCR) are being used in the final trip circuits of the circuit breakers. Where delays are necessary to be incorporat- ed in such SCR trip circuits, it is possible to obtain such delays by using a uni-junction transistor (UJT) as shown in Fig. A.1.15; where R-C com- Fig. A.1.13 Delay in tripping. bination gives the necessary time delay. This also compensates for the variation of the SCR trigger voltage with temparature since in this case the UST supplies the necessary trigger voltage. 8. POLARISED RELAY This relay is very frequently employed where operation is required in two directions. In a d.c. polarised relay contact A is closed when current in the operating winding flows in one direction while contact B will be closed if the current direction reverses as shown in Fig. A.1.16(b). An exactly similar operation can be obtained with the help of a transistorised circuit, shown a | Trip Sw Output +0, | Fig. A..16 Polarised relay analogy : (a) transistorized ; and (b) electromechanical32 Power System Protection in Fig. A.1.16(a). This circuit contains six transistors as shown with input terminals QO; and ©; When current flows from O; to O2 i.e. O, positive and O, iegative, transistor T, is ON and T is OFF. T, in the ON condi- tion switches T; OFF and Ts ON so that there will be flow of current through transistor T; (load transistor) and contacts in the relay A are closed as its coil is energised. When the direction of current is reversed such that 0; is negative and O, is positive, transistor T, is OFF and T2 is ON thereby switching T, to ON condition. This energises relay B which closes its contacts. When there is no input current at O,-O3, both relays A and B are de-energised and their contacts are open. This is equivalent to the polarised relay having its contact floating between points A and B of Fig. A.1.16(b). 9. STATIC AND ELECTROMECHANICAL EQUIVALENTS Fig. A.1.17 shows the basic static equivalents of electromagnetic or electro- mechanical relays. This is only a preliminary type of comparison and Electromagneti —_ Time Overcurrent | Electronic fates Ve Buite-up ep Current fEL~] crcuteting Mferential | = Tr) Current Bridge ' 2. =f é (Amplitude en! | EP) ‘Comparison ve | ly d dtey L + rok Reactance Holl Effect IIT-Vsings) H2V [Ge Le) (Phase Comparison] Te = |tep ett Ep —_——| Time -Measure 3% | transistor Coincidence Mho-Admittance VU cos(@-8)-v) a (Phase My zy Comparison) Inguction Cup Magnetic la Mho-Admittance — 7 | ees vilcosi@=a)-v) tgp’ (Amplitude 8 “Bie 81 fase jaizvé Comparison) = i | | | fi é Fig. A.1.17 Comparison of types of relaysGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 33 greater details will be found in the succeeding chapters. The comparison shows time-overcurrent, current-differential, reactance and Mho-admittance types of relays and the reader can assess the circuit equivalence by himself before he reads the details in the relevant chapters for each case. AA2 DEVICE NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS Each device in an automatic switching equipment has a device function number which is placed adjacent to or within the device symbol on all wiring diagrams and arrangement drawings so that its function and operation may be readily identified. These numbers are based on a system which is adopted interna- tionally. . The following is a list of device numbers and functions as taken from this system. Device Function and Device Function and no. definition no. definition 1 Master element 20 Electrically operated valve 2 Time-delay starting, closing 21 Distance relay relay 22 Equalizer circuit breaker 3 Checking or interlocking relay 23 Temperature control device 4 Master contactor 24 Reserved for future application 5 Stopping device 25 Synchronizing or synchronism- 6 Starting circuit breaker check device 7 Anode circuit breaker 26 Apparatus thermal device 8 Control power disconnecting 27 Undervoltage relay device 28 Reserved for future application 9 Reversing device 29 Isolating contactor 10 Unit sequence switch 30 Annunciator relay 11 Reserved for future application 31 Separate excitation device 12 Overspeed device 32 Directional power relay 13 Synchronous-speed device 33 Position switch 14 Underspeed device 34 Motor-operated sequence switch 15 Speed. or frequency matching 35 Brush-operating or slipring short device circuiting device 16 Reserved for future application 36 Polarity device 17 Shunting or discharge switch 37 Undercurrent or underpower 18 Accelerating or decelerating relay device ¢ . . 38 Bearing protection device 19 Starting-to-running transition 39 Reserved for future application character 40 Field relay34 Power System Protection Function and definition Device no. 41 Field circuit breaker 42 Running circuit breaker 43 Manual transfer or selector device 44 Unit sequence starting relay 45 Reserved for future application 46 Reverse-phase or phase-balance current relay 47 Phase sequence voltage relay 48 Incomplete sequence relay 49 Machine or transformer thermal telay 50 Instantaneous overcurrent or tate of rise relay 51 A.C, time overcurrent relay 52 A.C circuit breaker 53 Exciter or D.C generator relay 54 High speed D.C circuit breaker 55 Power factor relay 56 Field application relay 57 Short-circuiting or grounding device 58 Power rectifier misfire relay 59 Overvoltage relay 60 Voltage balance relay 61 Current balance relay 62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay 63 Liquid or gas pressure level or flow relay 64 Ground protection relay 65 Governor 66 Notching or jogging device 67 A.C. directional overcurrent relay 68 Blocking relay 69 Permissive control device Device Function and no, definition 70 Electrically operated theostat 71 Reserved for future applica- tion 72 D.C, citcuit breaker 73 Load resistor contactor 74 Alarm relay 75 Position changing mechanism 76 D.C. overcurrent relay 7T Pulse transmitter 78 Phase angle measuring or out- of step protective relay 79 A.C. reclosing relay 80 Reserved for future application 81 Frequency relay 82 D.C. reclosing relay 83 Automatic selective control or ‘transfer relay 84 Operating mechanism 85 Carrier or pilot-wire receiver telay 86 Locking-out relay 87 Differential protective relay 88 Auxiliary motor or motor gene- rator 89 Line switch 90 Regulating device 91 Voltage directional relay 92 Voltage and power directional Telay 93 Field-changing contactor 94 Tripping or trip-free relay 95-99 Used only for specific applications on individual in- Stallations where none of the assigned numbering functions from | to 94 are suitable,General Introduction to Static Relays 38 A1.3. LIST OF SYMBOLS FOR RELAYS AND PROTECTION FP Feeder protection—general symbol Pp } Feeder protection main BP } Feeder protection back up Zz Distance relay (impedance) Mho High speed distance (Mho) x High speed distance (reactance) BLK Blocking relay POP Post office pilot Two stage overcurrent IDMT relay Earth fault IDMT relay PP Private pilot PS Pilot shorting relay ae } Carrier current— directional comparison oe } Carrier current-—phase comparison TP Transformer protection DIF } Biased differential protection DIF Plait . I . ‘ . PB lain (unbiased) balance differential protection cc Circulating current protection BB Busbar protection oc Overcurrent relay ge } Overcurrent IDMT relay oC } Overcurrent instantaneous relay poc } Directional overcurrent IDMT relay } High set overcurrent relay ast Instantaneous E/F relay | Fy Restricted E/F relay36 Power System Protection DE } Directional E/F IDMT relay E _ } Stand by E/F relay RoT } Rotor E/F relay T Tripping relay i \ Hand-reset trip relay z } Self-reset trip relay z } Electrically reset trip relay T ae SEQ } Sequential trip relay Tcs Trip circuit supervision INT Intertrip relay | INT } Intertrip send relay nT } Intertrip receive relay INT } Surge-proof intertrip reccive relay ov Overvoltage relay UV Undervoltage relay UP Underpower relay RP Reverse power relay N¢ Negative phase sequence relay TH Thermal relay HS } High speed auto-reclose relay a Delayed auto-reclose relay SYN Synchronizing relays TD Definite time relay IP Interposing relay AUX Auxiliary relay Sf Slip frequency relay Acc Acceleration SR Send / receiveGenera! Introduction ta Static Relays 37 A.14. GLOSSARY OF COMMON RELAY TERMS 1. Relay (ineluding gas-operated relay) A device designed to produce sudden predetermined changes in ce or more physical systems on the appearance of certain conditions in the physical system control- ling it. NOTE 1: Incase of a gas-operated relay, the cause of the res- ponse is considered indirectly electrical. NOTE 2: The term “relay” includes all the accessories, such as intermediate transformers, rectifiers, resistors, etc., when used as an integral part of the protective equipment conforming to the Tespective standards. Relay group—An electrically or mechanically cooperating assembly of separate relays. Relay set—An assembly of several relays and auxiliary components mounted together. Protective relay—A relay consisting of measuring or a combination of measuring and auxiliary relays in a unit to detect abnormal conditions in electrical plant, which may be dangerous or undesirable and to subsequently initiate suitable protective action. Main protection—Protection normally expected to take the initia- tive in case of a fault in the protected zone. Back-up protection—Protection provided to act as a substitute for the main protection in the event of failure or inability of the latter to perform its intended function. NOTE: A protective relay may constitute main protection of a given circuit as well as back-up protection for an adjacent circuit, Main relay element—That part of a relay which responds directly to the changed conditions in the protected circuit. Supplementary relay element—That part of a relay which used in conjunction with the main element, modifies its characteristics or settings or renders it inoperative. Auxiliary relay element—That part of a relay, which assists the main element in the performance of its functions and operates in response to the functioning of the main element. Polarization (of a relay)—Method of making the operation of a relay dependent on the direction of current or voltage. Measuring relay—A telay designed to operate with a specified precision at one or more prescribed values of the characteristic quantity within the continuous range which the characteristic quan- tity may assume in practice. NOTE: It is for this reason that recommendations are made concerning accuracy in the operation of these relays.38 Power System Protectior, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 25, 26. 27. 28. 29. Regulating relay—An over and under-relay with close limits of regulation used to mainta value between given limits. Sudden change relav—A measuring relay which operates when the characteristic quantity changes suddenly from some arbitrary value by an amount exceeding the operating value of the relay. Rate of change relay—A measuring relay which operates when the characteristic quantity changes by an umount per time unit exceed- ing the operating value of the relay. Twoe-step relay--A measuring relay with two sets of contacts, one of which switches at a certain value of the characteristic quantity and the other after a further change in this quantity. All-or-nothing relay-—A relay intended to be operated without any specified precision by a quantity having a value either higher than that at which it picks up or lower than that at which it drops out. Primary Relay—A relay which is energized without the interposition of instrument transformers or shunts. Total primary relay—A primary relay, the circuits of which are supplied by the whole of the primary quantity. Fractional-primary relay—A primary relay, the circuits of which are supplied by a fraction of the primary quantity, Secondary relay—A relay which is energized by means of instru- ment transformers. Shunt relay—A relay which is energized by means of a shunt insert- ed in the main circuit. Auxiliary refay—An all-or-nothing relay which operates in response to the opening or closing or its operating circuit, to assist another relay (or device) in the performance of its function, The auxiliary relay may be instantaneous or may have a time-lag. Indicating relay~-A measuring or auxiliary relay, which when ener- gized, displays a signal. Change-over relay—-An auxiliary relay with two positions, either of which cannot be designated as “fon” and “‘off”’ but which transfers its contact circuits from one connection to the other. Centre-zero relay—An all-or-nothing relay with one “off” and two “on’” positions. Notching relay—A relay which switches in response to the specific number of impulses received. Biased relay—A relay whose setting is modified by additional wind- ing(s), the amount of bias being dependent upon conditions in the protected circuit. Sequential relay—A relay, transferring instantaneously its contacts from a particular combination of “off” position and “‘on" position to another combination, every time it picks up or drops out. (These various successive combinations form a predetermined programme, which may or may not be adjustable and repetitive.) Supervisory relay—A measuring relay or a combination of various30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 45, General Introduction to Static Relays 39 measuring and auxiliary relays in a unit with a definite purpose of supervision. Electromagnetic relay—A relay, whose operation depends on the force exercised by a magnetic field on ferromagnetic parts. (This may be of the solenoid or attracted-armature or moving iron type.) Electrodynamic relay—A relay, with two or more coils, which operates due to interaction of fluxes produced by the individual coils. Electromechanical relay—An electrical relay which includes a movement and some contacts. Ferrodynamic relay—A tclay in which the electrodynamic action is reinforced by pieces of ferromagnetic material placed in the path of the lines of the magnetic field. induction relay—A relay in which interaction of one or more mag- netic fields with current induced in a movable conducting member causes operation. Thermal relay—A relay which operates due to the action of heat generated by the passage of an electric current on some heat respon- sive medium. Physico-electric relay—A relay controlled by a physical system and producing changes in one or several electrical circuits. Permanent magnet moving coil relay—A relay in which a coil is caused to move in the air gap of a permanent magnet as a result of a current flowing in the coil. Ferraris relay—A 1 whose movement is displaced by the inter- action of the magnetic field of 2 coil and the currents induced in a metal body (cup or disc). Non-resetting relay—A telay which requires a deliberate mechanical or electrical action for returning to its “off” position. Plug-in refay—A relay in which the relay element has its connection brought toa plug base, mating with a socket to facilitate connection to an external circuit. Static relay—An electrical relay having no movement or contacts. Motor-patiern relay—A relay which depends upon the rotation of 2 motor armature for operation. Draw-out relay—A relay in which the relay element and its associat- ed components, if any, are mounted on a chassis withdrawable from the case, the connections to external circuits being completed by means of contact strips on the chassis making sliding contact with fixed contacts on the case and to provide easy means for withdraw- ing or testing or for both, (Testing may be carried out without dis- connection or removal of the chassis from the case.) Current reiay—A relay which operates at a predetermined value of current. (This includes overcurrent, undercurrent and over and under- current relays.) Overcurrent relay—A relay which operates when the energizing40 Pawer System Protection 46, 47. 48. 49, 50. 51. 52. 53, 34, 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. él. quantity (current) exceeds the operating value of the relay. Undercurrent relay—A relay which operates when the energizing quantity (current) is reduced below the operating value of the relay. Over and undercurrent relay—A relay which operates when the energizing quantity (current) exceeds a predetermined value or is teduced below another predetermined value. Reverse current relay—A current relay which operates when the direction of a direct current is reversed from the normal. Voltage relay—A relay which operates ata predetermined value of voltage. (This includes overvoltage, undervoltage and over and undervoltage relays.) Overvoltage relay—A relay which operates when the energizing quantity (voltage) exceeds the operating value of the relay. Undervoltage relay—A relay which operates when the energizing quantity (voltage) is reduced below the operating value of the relay. Over and undervoltage relay—A relay which operates when the energizing quantity (voltage) exceeds a predetermined value or is reduced below another predetermined value. Product relay—A relay of which the characteristic quantity is the effect of the product of two electrical quantities (usually currents). Power relay—A relay which operates at a predetermined value of power. (This includes overpower, underpower and over and under power relays.) Overpower relay—A telay which operates when the characteristic quantity (power) exceeds the operating value of the relay. Underpower relay—A telay which operates when the characteristic quantity (power) is reduced below the operating value of the relay. ‘Over and underpower relay—A relay which operates when the characteristic quantity (power) exceeds a predetermined value or is reduced below another predetermined value. Active-power relay—A power relay of which the characteristic quan- tity is the active power. Reactive-power relay—A power relay of which the characteristic quantity is the reactive power. Arbitrary phase angle power relay—A power relay of which the characteristic quantity is the product of voltage and current and the cosine of the deviation of the actual phase angle from a_ prescribed angle. Directional relay (alternating current)—A relay which operates in accordance with the phase relation between alternating quantities and inucludes : (a) A relay in which the maximum torque or force is exerted when the relay current and voltage are in phase, and is not compen- sated for fall of voltage (sometimes described as a reverse-power relay).62. 63. 2D. 66. 67. 68. 70. 1. General Introduction to Static Kelays 40 (b) A relay in which the maximum torque or force is exerted when the relay current and voltage have a predetermined phase dis- placement other than zero and which is not compensated for fall of voltage. (c) Arrelay in either of the (a) or (b) categories but compensated for fall of voltage (sometimes described as a reverse-current relay). (d) A relay in which the maximum torque or force is exerted when two currents or two voltages are in phase or have some prede- termined phase displacement. (e) A relay in which the maximum torque or force is exerted when the operating current and voltage are in phase or have a prede- termined phase displacement, the magnitude of the power required for operation being influenced by‘a second (restraining) voltage. Directional relay (direct current)—A relay which operates in accor- dance with the direction of the current and is usually of the perma- nent magnet moving-coil type. Quotient relay—A relay of which the characteristic quantity is the eflect of the quotient of two electrical quantities, usually currents. Impedance relay—A relay of which the characteristic quantity is the quotient of voltage divided by current, producing the impedance of a circuit. Conductance relay—A relay of which the characteristic quantity is the quotient of current divided by voltage, producing the conduct- ance of a circuit. Frequency relay—A relay which operates at a Predetermined frequ- ency. (This includes an overfrequency and an underfrequency relay.) Current-unbalance relay—A relay which operates when the currents in a polyphase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount. Differential relay—A relay which has two or more windings and operates in response to either the scalar or the vectorial difference between two or more electrical quantities. Definite-distance relay—A relay whose operation is dependent upon the distance between the relaying point and the fault, the reactance or impedance being a function of distance, as determined by the design. (Operation occuts if the fault distance is equal to or less than the setting value.) Negative phase-sequence current relay (Reverse phase Sequence current relay)—-A telay which operates when the currents of a poly- Phase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount or when the phase sequence of balanced currents is reversed. (Some types of these relays also operate on a fall of current.) Negative phase sequence voltage relay—( Reverse phase sequence vol- tage relay) A relay which operates when the voltages of a polyphase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount, or when the phase sequence of balanced voltages is reversed. (Some types of these f4 72, 73. 74, 75. 76. 71. 2B. 19. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. Power System Protection telays also operate on a fall of voltage.) Voltage unbalanced relay—A relay which operates when the voltages in a polyphase system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount. Polarized relay—A relay whose operation depends on the direction of the exciting current. Instantaneous relay—A relay which operates and resets without intentional time delay. Definite time-lag relay—A relay in which the time-lag varies with the value of the characteristic quantity. Dependent time-lag relay—A relay in which the time-lag varies with the value of the characteristic quantity. Inverse time-lag relay—A relay in which the time-lag varies inversely with the value of the characteristic quantity. EXAMPLE : In an overcurrent inverse time-lag relay, the time delay dimini- shes as the current increases, and in an undervoltage inverse time-lag relay, the time delay diminishes as the voltage dimini- shes. In this latter case, although the time delay of the relay is limited in absolute value, it actually varies inversely as the difference, unless some means are used to limit this variation. Independent time-lag relay—A measuring relay in which the current (or voltage) is a primary characteristic quantity and the time delay a secondary characteristic quantity, practically independent of the first. Inverse time-lag relay (with definite minimum time-lag) A relay in which the time lag varies inversely for small values of the characte- ristic quantity, but becomes substantially independent for large values of that quantity. Time relay—An all-or-nothing relay in which the delay is one of the characteristic quantities. Time-lag relay—A relay whose operation or resetting is intentional- ly time-delayed. (The time delay of the relay may be fixed or ° adjustable.) Time distance relay—A relay which operates with a time-lag depen- dent upon the fault distance. Operating force or torque—That which tends to close the contacts of the relay. Restraining force or torque—That which opposes the operating force or torque and tends to prevent the closure of relay contacts. Pick-up (level)—Value of current or voltage, etc. which is the threshold above which the relay will close its contacts. Drop-out or reset (level) Value of current, voltage, etc. whichis the threshold value below which the relay will open its contact and return to normal position or stall, Characteristic of a relay in the steady state—The locus of the pick- up or reset when drawn ona graph. (In some relay two curves are38 39. 91. 92. 93. 96. 97. 98. 100, 101. 102. 103. General Introduction to Static Relays 43 coincident and become the locus of balance or zero torque.) Reinforcing relay—That which is energized by the contacts of the main relay and which with its contacts parallel to those of the main relay relieves them of their current carrying duty. (The seal in the contacts are usually heavier than those of the main relay.) Seal-in relay—Similar to item 88 above except that it is connected to stay until its coil circuit is interrupted by a switch on the C.B, (Circuit Breaker). , , Back-up relay—A relay which operates usually after a slight time delay if the normal relay does not operate to trip its. C.B. | Selectivity—Ability of the relay to discriminate between a fault in the protected section and normal conditions or a fault elsewhere on the system. ; Consistency—Accuracy with which the relay can repeat its electrical or time characteristics. | Power swing—Oscillation between groups of synchronous machines caused by an abrupt change in load conditions. Flag or target—Device usually spring or gravity operated for indicating the operation of a relay. Unit—A self-contained relay unit which in conjunction with one or more other relay units in a relay case constitutes a complete protective relay. Element—A part of a relay unit such as electromagnet or damping magnet or an induction disc. Rated power consumption (burden)—Power absorbed by the circuits of the relay expressed in volt-amperes if a.c. and in watts if d.c, at the rated current or voltage. Operating time—Time which lapses for the moment when the actuating quantity attains a value equal to the pick-up value until the relay operates its contacts, Reach—Remote limit of the zone of Protection provided by the relay used mostly in connection with distance relays to indicate how far along a line the tripping zone of the relay extends. Overreach/underreach—Exrors. in Telay measurement resulting in wrong operation or failure to operate, respectively. Blocking —Preventing the protective relay from tripping cither due to its own characteristic or to an additional relay. Overshoot time—The time during which stored operating energy is dissipated after the characteristic quantity has been suddenly restored from a specified value to the value which it had at the initial position, . Characteristic angle—Phase angle at which the Performance of the relay is declared. (It is usually the angle at which maximum sens- itivity occurs.)TWO Comparators and Associated Elements 2.1 Introduction The basic block diagram of a static relay has been discussed in Chapter 1. As per this diagram the converter element is the heart of a static relay. This element contains the means for converting system currents to voltages or vice versa and then comparing them in “phase or amplitude. ‘Taking the case of the general two-input comparators, the inputs S, and S, can be represented in the following form: Si=K, VitZn, he a Sy=K,VitZe, where K, and K, are constants multiplying the system voltages and Zr, and Zr, are complex impedances which convert the system current J into suitable voltages. The comparator is shown in Fig. 2.1, which shows the ‘manner in which the two inputs are derived and applied to the com- parator. vy a vy wT Fig. 2.1. Derivation of comparator inputs In a static relay, it is therefore essential to convert the inputs to the comparator to quantities of the same dimensions, ¢.g., voltages or currents. The values of K, and K, are obtained through suitable potentio meters, while Zr, and Zr, are suitable transfer or replica impedances. 2.2 Transfer or Replica Impedance This could be either a self or a mutual-impedance as shown in Fig 2.2. Fig. 2.2 (a) shows a self-inductance used as replica impedance. This is an iron core reactor with an air gap in the core to give linearity in ‘theComparators and Associated Elements 48 Fig. 2.2. Transfer or replica impedance : a) self-induc- tance used as replica impedunce; and +b) mutual impe- dance used 2s replica impedance yoltage/current relationship up to the highest valuc of current expected. We have Vs r= 7, = Ze Zé and 6=tan 7 wks r where Ls is the self-inductance of the reactor and r the resistance of the coil. This type of impedance offers no isolation between /, and Vs. In many relay circuit applications this isolation becomes essential. Fig. 2.2 (b) shows a mutual inductance used as replica impedance. There are two windings—one is primary and the other is secondary, wound over an air gapped iron core to give lincarity of transformation over the required current range. The secondary winding is loaded by a suitable resistance R, (which includes the internal resistance of the winding). The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary current can be shown to be Here R, is the resistance connected on the secondary side, L, is the self- inductance of secondary, A/ is the mutual inductance between primary and secondary, and tan wl This device being a combination of a reactor and a transfermer is known as Transactor, and offers complete isolation between the primary and secondary circuits, i.c., between Ji. and Vs. In the case of the self-inductance the angle @ and in the case of the transactor the angle 5 —A = Bare designed to give the appropriate value depending on the particular relay application. 2.3 Mixing Transformers or Circuits The inputs given in Eq. (1) are obtained through addition or subtrac- tion of different voltages or different currents. The addition or subtrac- tion is done usually through appropriate transformers, Some examples are shown in Fig. 2.3.46 Power System Protection In Fig. 2.3 (a) voltage input V is derived by the addition or subtraction of two voltages, one derived from the system voltage through a voltage transformer andthe other from the system current througha current transformer and a transactor. Thus Ve = KVi+2r I In Fig. 2.3 (b) current input J is derived by the addition or subtraction of two currents, one derived from the system current J. through a current transformer and the other derived from the system voltage through a voltage transformer and a reactor. _ KVL Thus tah Te These will be discussed in greater detail under the discussion of static circuit applications to different relays. Phase Fig. 2.3 Derivation of inputs : (a) V=KVi.¢Zerlz voltage input : and (b) J=/n+ KV1/Zp ‘current input’. 2.4. Phase and Amplitude Comparators The most important component of the converter element is the ‘compa- rator (where the inputs are compared in phase or amplitude) which was introduced in Chapter 1. The discussion in this chapter will be confined to two input devices, while multi-input devices will be introduced later in Chapter 10. 2.4.1. Classification Letting the two singnals be S, and S,, the amplitude comparator givesComparators and Associated Elements 47 positive (yes) output only if | S,) >| S,},ie. only eth 5 4, TST Ideally this comparison should be purely scalar or in the other words independent of the phase relations between the signals. The output of a phase comparator is positive (yes) only if c=arg (5,/S;) satisfies the relation —A,& a & -+A,. The comparison, ideally, should not depend on the amplitudes of the two inputs. Both types of comparator can be arranged either for direct (instantan- ous) comparison, when they would be known as direct (instantaneous) comparators or their output integrated over each half-cycle, when they are called integrating comparators, 2.4.2. General Equation for Comparators To cover the complete range of conventional relay characteristics, let the two input signals 5, and S, be derived from the power system voltage and current as follows: S\=KWitZade So=KVitZalt Fig, 2.3 has shown the manner in which these inputs are derived, Putting these in the complex form, 20, =KVetZale Loy =KV e+ Zrol Then and cos a= A lac bd) +(be—ady)] In the following discussion, K, and K, will be considered as real numbers, and V, taken as the reference vector. Thus Vr=ViL0° 2.4.2.1. Phase Comparator (Cosine Type) Criterion for operations of the comparator in general is —A, €a€+A,, In case Of symmetrical phase comparator A,=A, and al] conventional chara- eteristics are obtained when A,=A,=,. Thus the criterion for operation will be - > «Keg +4, i.e. cose 204s Power System Protection Therefore the locus for zero torque (or the characteristic curve) for the comparator is obtained when cos a=ac +bd=0 Thus NHK itZals Loe,—$e =K,Vit+Zrylicos (0;—¢1)+sZarlL sin (8,91) =KVit+Zele L8;— $e =KyVi+Zrede cos (0.— $2) +JZarle sin (8:—gr) Therefore (ac-+bd) =(K,VitZmle cos(8,—$2)] [KzV2+Zagle cos (0:—$1)] ++ ZryZrelt® sin (8,—¢1) sin (0,—¢x) =K,K,Vii-+Vel [K,Zn; 008 (8,41) +K-Ze, cos (8, —8)] +ZriZrelt’ cos (9,—43) Thus the criterion for operation becomes K,K, Vit +V ult (K,Znq COS (8.—$r)-+ KeZn, cos (8,—¢e)] +ZrZneli2 cos (8,—0,) 20 (2) Let Z.= n Zo. =Z1 241, the impedance seen by the comparator. S; Dividing Eq. (2) throughout by /:, K,K.Z2+Z1 [KiZag cos (8.— 92) +KZay 605 (8) —$0)] +Zn,Zn,z cos(6,—b2) BO From the general solution, the properties of a number cf particular relay characteristics may be predicted as follows. Directional characteristic Putting Zr,=0 and K,=0, we have Z1LK,Zm, cos (0.—¢1) PO ny ie. cos (8,—$1) 20 and - > +0, 1S4 This can be written as | Z| <1 5, where Z: “3 The characteristic of this equation is a circle on a polar graph as shown in Fig, 2.8, Let S, and S, be two input quantities such as that S= (SiS) S-=(S:1—S) in which case for operation 1(Si+5)) 1 > 1 51-5: |52 Puwer System Protection If now Si/S,=w where w is a complex quantity with an argument Y then lwtl| > |o—I This gives a straight line as shown in Fig. 2.9 along the vertical axis through the origin. x =x Fig. 28, Characteristic for | Z| <1 Fig. 2.9. Characteristic for loti] F 10-1] The shaded area (to the right of the line) indicates the operating region while the unshaded area (to the left of the line) indicates the restraining region. This is the characteristic of the ideal phase (cosine) comparator and the operating angular criterion can be expressed as -} << > This shows that S, and S, satisfy phase comparison requirements while Si +S,=S, and S,—S,=S, satisfy amplitude camparison requirements. The converse of this can also be shown to be true. In general, therefore, any relay characteristic which can be produced by one comparator, can also be produced by the other comparator with the sum and difference of the original inputs, The required relations are as follows: S=S5,4+S, S,=5,—-S, S, s= Sth S Se S= z The circuit arrangements necessary are shown in Fig. 2.10. It may be mentioned here that the phase comparator in this case must be a cosine comparator, i.e. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between the two input quantities is +7/2. Such cosine com- parators are possible only with static circuits using solid state devices. In case of electromagnetic elements the phase comparison is of the sine type, ie. one in which zero torque is produced when the angle between the two input quantities is +0. Thus a phase difference of n/2 existsComparators and Associated Elements 53 between the cosine and the sine phase comparators with regard to the operating criterion. If, therefore, the above conversion is to be appli- cable between amplitude and phase comparators of the electromagnetic " type, then one of the input quantities needs to be shifted in phase angle \ by 2/2. ‘Comparator (Cosine) Amplitude Comparator Sz (a) Amplitude Comparator _— Comporator (Cosine) = Se So! (b) Fig. 2.10. ((a) and (b)]—Equivalence of phase (cosine) and amplitude comparison. Though a given relay characteristic can be obtained using either of the two comparators, considerations of the constants calculated for the required characteristic would indicate which type of comparator is preferable. In general, an inherent comparator is better than the convert- ed type, because if one quantity “is very large compared with the other, a small error in the large quantity may cause an incorrect comparison when their sum and difference are supplied as inputs to the relay. 2.4.4. Some Examples of the Duality Relationship 2.44.1 Directional Relay Phase comparison . ‘The two inputs 5, and S, should have an angle of -/2 for zero torque. Both S, and S, are derived as shown in section 4.2.1.$4 Power System Protection Thus Si=Ki Sy=Zrlt The characteristic obtained is shown in Fig. 2.4. Amplitude comparison The two inputs should be SHS, 4+5,—K Vit Zale S,=S,—5,=K,¥1—Za,le The characteristic is shown in Fig. 2,11. It can be seen from Fig. 2.11 that to the right of the characteristic (shown shaded) Fig. 2.11. Directional characteristics (amplitude comparison) (KVi4ZnJ1) > (KVi—Za,h) or (K,2i+Za,) > (Ki2i—Za) While to the left of thee charactetistic (shown unshaded) (Ki i+Zalt) < (KVi—Zazlr} or (K,Zi-+Zay) < (KyZi—Ze) This shows that the characteristic is the same as in Fig. 2.4. 2.4.4.2. Impedance Relay Amplitude comparison The two inputs S, and S, are such that zero torque is obtained when S.=S,, operation when S, > S, and restraint when S,i, the positive loop becomes larger in time duration compared to negative loop. When i, J/2 where i and J are instantaneous values, as shown in Fig. 2.24. However, it is also seen that the output voltage is affected to a negligible extent only from that in the ideal case. 3. When the gating signal (J) is less than twice the operating signal (i), eonditions differ from the ana- lysis in (7) above. Depending on the phase angle between the two inputs, one of the diodes is blocked as the resultant current becomes negative (/—2i). The whole of the gating signal is therefore forced through the open diode, one of the output resistances giving an output proportional to RI and independent of i. Under this condition, the voltage output can tise to high values depending on the value of J— it is therefore advis- able to limit the voltage across the secondary of the transformer T, as shown in Fig. 2.23 by diodes D, and Dg. 4. Under all conditions therefore of i and I the output is always pro- portional to the smaller of the two currents and cosine of the phase angle between the two currents, as in (i) above. 5. Ifthe two inputs are square waves, then these conditions are (iw) ideal as shown in Fig. 2.24, 6. Whatever be the wave shape of the input signals, the output is always zero when 2=90°. The out- put across the terminals 1 and 2 can- not exceed 2V, in all cases, where V, is the threshold voltage of each diode—because of the inherent pro- perty of the diodes as limiters, Fig. 2.24 Output wave forms for rectifier phase comparator: (i) froa1/2, square wave (shaded rator are possible, although not used areas represent output).Comparators and Associated Elements 67 much in practice. Fig, 2.25(a) shows a simple form of this phase comparator using two diodes only and giving one tripping signal per cycle during the period when both input quantities have the polarity necessary to pass current through the diodes. This is thus a half-wave phase comparator. Fig. 2.25(b) shows how a full- wave phase comparator can be made adding two more diodes— giving two tripping signals per cycle. Here the input Qand PR have been interchanged with respect to Fig. 2.23, In Fig, 2.23, Input P=V opera ting signal; Input Q=Gating signal. | It can be noticed that in all these 20 circuits, phase comparison of P and Q signals is actually done by com- paring in magnitude the voltages due to (P-+Q) and (P—Q) in the two resistors R--R. The rectifier — phase comparator is in all respects p 3 gE ° the dual of the circulating current rectifier bridge amplitude compar- ator. It has the same limiting action as in the case of the amplitude com- «o) PR parator. Thus the wave shape of the output from this is rectangular and of constant amplitude except e at extremely low input currents. Operation of the rectifier phase "| ° comparator as an integrating comp- te) Pr arator: While the two input currents I . and i have the same polarity, the out- ie 2.25 Alternative forms of rectifier put is in the tripping direction with PMS" ComParator positive polarity on terminal 1. An R—C charging circuit charges during the portion of the-cycle when the two inputs have the same polarity and discharges while they have opposite polarity. The output is fed to a level detector with a pre-set level of voltage. Sometimes a polarity detection is used before the integrator so that the integration is done only during Periods when say the output terminal 1 is positive with respect to the terminal 2. Time-bias type comparator In this method, the two inputs ase fedto an AND gate which gives a square block during the coincidence period of the two sinusoidal inputs. This output block is fed to another AND gate through two different channels, ive. one directly and the other as a pulse delayed by say 3° from6% Power System Protection the starting point of the block. The second AND gete will give an output if the block and pulse still coincide. This therefore gives a final output if the output from the first AND gate lasts for a period equal to or greater than 8°, This is shown in Fig. 2.26, where tis he . > ow the duration of coincidence of — 2 = {ano ' Deicy 6 | “fama 2 PWR the two input signals P and Q. oy Pulse - C Lan 2.5.3. Vector Product 1ST 7 sata Devices Lay . In these devices, an output 77, | is produced which is propor- Ee eae tional to the vector product of the input a.c. quantities. These operate on the principle of Hall Fig. 2.26 Time-bias type comparator effect and magneto-resistivily. 2.5.3.1. Hall Effect Devices Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by EH. Hall at John Hopkins University. It is the generation of a voltage across the opposite edges of an electrical conductor carrying current and placed in a magnetic field. It is, however, basically a majority carrier mechanism depending on the bulk-material properties of a semiconductor material. Unlike transistors and diodes, it is completely independent of surface effects, junction leak- age currents and junction threshold voltages—it has therefore a high stability, reproductivity and reliability. The basic Hall effect equation is given by oe Vin=wRu(JxB) where Viz—=Hall output voltage Ru=Hall coefficient w=width of Hall element J=current density through the Hall element ‘Magnetic field strength J X B =vector cross product. Thus Va=wRuJB sin 6 where 6 is the angle between J and B. f, wt Since J=—\-where J, is the contro! current and ¢ the thickness of the element, vun£#( x 8) _ This is applicable only when 1/w is very large. For practical devices, it is more useful to write it down as Via=Kuoc (I, xB)Comparators and Associated Elements 69 where Xioc is the open circuit sensitivity constant taking into account the effects of geometry and other factors. For most purposes it can be assumed constant. This is shown in Fig. 2.27. 2.5.3.1, Application as a Phase Comparator with Sinusoidal dnputs If the two inputs are ¢ and 8 ae I and are sinusoidal quantities Ane, / such as Ie ——y hey \ $=Om Sin wf i =I sin (wt—a), then 1 Vu=K.$.1, where Vn, 6 v and / are in mutually perpen- dicular directions 2.27 Hall-effect device =K ¢m Sin wt. In sin (wt—a) =Kugmlm[COs a——Cos(2ut—a)] The output thus consists of ad.c. voltage proportional to the vector product of ¢~ and J, and the cosine of the phase angle between these quantities and an a.c. voltage of double frequency. This device can there- fore be used as a cosine phase comparator if the double frequency term is eliminated. The double frequency term 1 cam be eliminated by cross) 2". Kiva) connecting two Hall elements Ne as shown in Fig. 2.28. The — i ——F two input. signals are the two sinusoidal currents /, and J;. 1,=]hn sin wt th=Jom Sin (wt+a) The two fluxes are given by Ia ba=Kl, pa=Kiy and currents through the Fig. 2.28 Cross-connection of two Hall elements element will be -«(4) nak ( a(t tak i) The two elements are connected such that their output voltages oppose each other giving a resultant output as follows: a{ dl af al, Va=Va—Ve=Kl,. K (3)-Kr .K’ (4) =Kdjm Sin wtK'Tymw COS (wt +a) —Klyom Sin (wie) K'. wlym COS wh =@KK' [ym Irm[sin wt cos (wha) —sin (wf+a) cos wi) =KK'Iym Iqm Sift &78 Power System Protection =Katwhn Sin 6 The device thus acts asa pure product device, but gives sine product instead of cosine product. The output is therefore, similar to that of an induction type phase comparator. Apart from its use in protective relay circuits, Hall elements can be used in the following applications. (a) D.C. applications : As a multiplier of two inputs analogue computa- tion and function generation. (b) A.C. applications : Broad band level regulator. D.C. to A.C. converter, chopper. Frequency doubler, square law detector, power factor meter, real power wattmeter, reactive power meter, modulator and mixer. (c) Flux probes + Used in measuring flux in the air gap of electrical machines. 2.5.3.1.2. Practical Hall Elements Only indium antimonide (InSb) and indium arsenide (InAs) have been found to be the useful semiconductors for this purpose. Out of these indium arsenide is considered better. To be suitable for a Hall effect device, the material must meet the following requirements. (a) High Hall constant Ra (low carrier concentration and hence a semiconductor) (b) Resistivity must be sufficiently low to permit power to be drawn from the element (high carrier mobility) so that excessive heating is prevented, (c) Hall constant and resistivity must be largely independent of temperature. Requirements (a) and (b) are met by compound semiconductors of groups III and V of the periodic table. Hall elements can be made from bulk materials and deposited thin films. The thickness 1 (Fig. 2.27) is normally 0.1 mm or less. Electrodes are attached for current and voltage. The electrical system is enclosed for protection from mechanical strain. This enclosure is of sintered ceramic and cast resin. If an air gap is not permissible in the path of B, ferromagnetic (ferrite) enclosure can be used. The effective air gap is then the thickness ¢. At places where linearity is essential, larger gaps are necessary. The output in a practical device is about 2 V/A/k gauss. Hall effect has been used in the U.S.S.R, for protective relays, but not clsewhere because of high cost, low output and temperature errors. 2.5.3.2. Magneto-resistivity The magnetic field, has another effect on a semiconductor material. According to this if one a,c, voltage produces a magnetic field through a semiconductor slice, and another voltage passes current through the slice€ Comparators and Associated Elements 71 at right angles to the magnetic field, the current will be proportional to the cosine product of the two input voltages, i.e. maximum when the two voltages are in phase and zero when they are in quadrature This effect is known as magnetorresistivity. In the U.S.S.R. thin circular discs have been made with a metal electrode around the circumference and another electrode soldered at the centre of the disc. These devices are considered better than Hall effect devices because of simpler construction and circuitry, absence of a polarizing current and higher output. These devices are also limited to the U.! R. only. One of their circuits is similar to the rectifier phase comparator as shown in Fig, 2.29. Input Field colts Dises Fig. 2.29, Magneto-resistivity phase comparison device. 2.6. Zener Diode Phase Comparators Phase comparators have been developed using zener diodes—these ari of two types: (i) coincidence and (ii) non-coincidence. Rr2 ig wr ——+-- --- LW Polarizing Diode ~y Me? Ryteemene Reloy 0 ----4 (bd Fig, 2.30. Zener diode coincidence comparator: (a) coincidence comparator; and (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit Fig. 2.30(a) shows the coincidence type. This is a cosine type two input phase comparator delivering to a pulse duration detector, a pulse during the positive coincidence period of two sinusoidal inputs. The pulse duration detector can be a telephone type relay which operates if the pulse duration exceeds 5 ms (90° duration) for a 50 Hz system. The72 Power System Protection amplitude of the output pulse is equal to only half the zener voltage due to the potential divider arrangement. Hence a very sensitive output relay is needed. The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.30 (b) for the positive coincidence period, In this case during the coincidence period ZD, is conducting with negligible voltage drop across it while ZD, is reverse biased with zener voltage Vz across it. If the telephone relay has negligible resistance and an inductance of L henries with N turns, the pick-up current will have to be i, = —exp(—0.005R/24)) Fig. 2.31. Zener diode non-coincidence comparator : (a) non-coincidence comparator; and (b) Thevenin equivalent circuit, Fig. 2.31 (a) shows the phase detector for non-coincidence detection and Fig, 2.31(b) its Thevenin equivalent circuit. Voltage is developed across the telephone relay only during the non-coincidence period—during the period ZD, is reverse biased and ZD, is forward biased. If the relay picks up at the same current as in the previous case, the following values are obtained. External resistance=R ohms Relay inductance =2Z henries ip= 4211 —exp(—0.005R/20)1 The pick-up m.m.f. is as follows for the above case. The number of turns for the relay in this case will be M=V¥2N The pick-up m.m.f. is hence 72 times that of the previous case, and a more robust relay can be used for the same loading on the voltageComparators and Associated Elements 73 circuits or for the same pick-up m.m.f. the current loading can be reduced in the second case. 2.7. Dynamic Design of Static Comparators 2.7.1. Design Principles of Transistor Relays A transistor relay may be designed to have a wide range of different characteristics. These are: (i) close approximation to an ¢.m, square law comparator, e.g. induction cup or balanced beam type, or (ii) charac- teristics not normally obtainable by conventional means such as inverse relationship between operating time and comparator output. Nonlinear timing relationships can also be obtained. It is necessary to assess a relay design beyond the conventional factors. Technical aspects such as Jong term circuit stability, susceptibility to damaging transient surges, economic feasibility and performance under non-ideal system conditions are very important factors in the design. As already discussed the basic transistor methods for obtaining diffe- rent characteristics are as follows. (a) Block instantaneous comparison in which duration of polarity coincidence determines the output. This duration is usually one- quarter of a cycle. (b) Block average comparison in which the duration of polarity coincidence is measured on both half-cycles of the input signal and the average value is determined in an integrating circuit. Here the specified average value must be maintained for more than the specified duration for tripping action. (c) Pulse comparison in which the polarity of one signal is measured during a short interval in the cycle of the second signal—need not be at its peak. Cases (a) and (b) could be phase or amplitude comparators while case (c) is of the phase comparison type though amplitude comparison type can be also thought of. 2.7.2. Response Time of Block Average Comparator In such a comparator V, and V,, the input voltages to the comparator, are designed from the system voltage (Vz) and current (Ji). The compa- Tator produces output pulses which are positive when V, and V, are having same polarity and negative when they are of opposite polarities. These are applied to an integrating circuit whose output increases linearly during the time when the pulse is positive and falls at the same rate when the pulse reverses as shown in Fig. 2.32, The level detector operates on the basis of the increase of the integrator vutput beyond a pre-set value. In this figure Vs is the setting of the level detector which will be reached in time 7/2 under continuous energization where14 Power System Protection Tis the periodfor one cycle. If ¢ is the phase angle between 1, and V,, T.=(1—¢/x)7/2 vy=2VsT./T V,=2 VsT,/T Tet Ty=T/2 Point ‘ta’ coincides with the trigger level Vs, i.e. Vz=Vs. When point “b’’ coincides with Vs the change in integrator output is given by Vs=2 Ve—V. Integrator Output Voltage —= OL Tk y= Time in aeconds Fig. 2.32. Integrator output for block-average comparison and this change takes place in time 1=T)2-+T, If point ‘‘b” falls just below Vs, t=T+T,, giving rise to a discontinuity in the operating time characteristic. The next discontinuity occurs when Vs=3V,—2Vy and t=TH+T, or 37/2+T, It is seen in practice, that the operating time is virtually constant for phase shifts of less than 60°. Thereafter the time is delayed progressively until it becomes infinite at the operating threshold. Thus this combines the advantage of very high speed of operation with very accurate measure- ment at the threshold. For transient-free response, a graded response time is essential. 2.7.3. Relay Sensi ity Coincidence outputs are only initiated when both input signals exceed simultaneously some minimum value known as the setting, which need not be the same for both inputs. It is merely necessary to compute the appatent phase shift necessary by the integrator-—this being related to the time phase shift and to the ratio of each signal to its setting, e.g. if the two input signals are in phase, peak value of cach should be +2 times the setting in order that the apparent phase shift is 90°--r.m.s. inputs at theComparators and Associated Elements 75 threshold should be equal to the setting and the smallest input signal will determine operation. 2.7.4, Advantages of Block Average Comparison (a) Characteristics are completely predictable. Desirable transient and hence steady state characteristics can be defined, the equation formulated and practical citcuits realized. (b) The controlled time characteristic has the virtue that minimum operating times approaching one half-cycle can be attained with- out sacrificing stability under marginal conditions, (c) Transient and steady state operating boundaries coincide so that there is no tendency for transient overreach. (d) The degree of primary transient d.c. offset has no significant effect on the speed of operation. 2.7.5. Relationship between Amplitude and Phase Comparators Consider two devices shown in Figs. 2.33(a) and 2.33(b). Fig. 2.33(a) is a differential bridge in which se [Sal J+ Output 5 [Fel ta) Sx oo Coincidence Output Circuit tl to) Fig. 2.33 Theoretical comparator blocks: (a) amplitude comparators (b) phase comparator+ Sou= | 5.| —| Sp] instantaneously. The device in Fig. 2.33(b) is a basic coincidence circuit and has the following operating law. (i) Sou=+ | Se} if | Sul <1 Sy] and S >0 . (ii) Sou=— 1 Se 1 if! Sy | <1 Sp | and $2 <0 Sy (i) Sow + 1 Sy1if |S. | > | Sy | and 320 716 Power System Protection GY) Sua=— 1S) 1561 Su > | Sy and 2 <0 The second device effectively provides an output signal which is equal in magnitude to the smaller of the two input signals, is positive in sign when the input signals have the same polarity and is negative in the other case. Substitution of the following in the case of device in Fig. 2.33 (a) gives Sa= (Set S,)/2 Sy=(Se—Sy)/2 and thus 2 Sou= | Sut+Sy| — | Sa-Su] The four cases of Fig. 2.33(b) become : (i) [Se] > |S, | and (S,/S,) >0 thus 2 Sou =Se+Sy—(Sa—Sy) and So=Sy (ii) | Se] > | Sy] and S,/S, <0 thus 2 Sour=Ss—Sy—(Se+Sy) and Sou=—Sy (iii) | Ss] < | Sy| and S./s, >0 thus 2 Souj=Sa+Sy—(Sy—Se) and Sou=Se (iv) 15,| <| Sy | and S/S, <0 thus 2 Sou=Sy—Sa—(Sat Sy) and Sou=—Ss It can be seen that the operating laws of the cases of Figs. 2.33 (a) and Fig. 2.33 (b) are the same under specified. transformations. The transfor- mation is reversible so that the case of Fig. 2.33(b) would have the same characteristic as that of Fig. 2.33 (a) if Se= Sat Sp S,=S,—Sy Since the equivalence of the above two cases is based on instantaneous value, the result is perfectly general. The performance of one device will be identical with that of the other provided the output signals are subjected to the same constraints, i.e. amplitude limiting, integration, ete. The device in Fig. 2.33(a) has a mean output voltage of zero when S, and S, are sinusoidal voltages of equal amplitude irrespective of phase while the device in Fig. 2.33 (b) has a mean output voltage of zero when energized with sinusoidal signals displaced in phase by 90° irrespective of amplitude. The former case becomes the basis for amplitude and the latter one the basis for block phase comparison. In practice it is customary to introduce amplitude limiting in Fig 2.33 (a), ie, rectifier bridge moving coil system and in Fig. 2.33 (b), i. ¢ the static phase comparator as already discussed.Comparators and Associated Elements 77 It is possible to repeat the argument for comparators with nonlinear operating of criteria, e.g. square law beam relay, and thereby derive the equation for equivalence. It is not possible to compare the performances of devices which have non-equivalent laws of operation. This includes ancillary devices such as voltage limiters, integrators, etc. The perfor- mance of a rectifier/moving coil system is modified very considerably by the introduction of voltage limiters. The important point that emerges is that if amplitude and phase comparators have identical operating laws, there ismo need to consider their dynamic characteristics separately—any remarks which apply to one apply to the other. REFERENCES 1, 4, 5, 6,7, 9,40, 41, 45, 46, 49, $2, 53, 55, 58, 64, 65, 75, 76, 95, 97, 98, 99, 110, 113, 123, 127, 130, 137, 144, 150, 202.