AVIA3710 - Aviation Research Methods

Week 6 - Step IV: Selecting a Sample

Professor Ann Williamson, PhD

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Course Coordinator
Professor Ann Williamson
School of Aviation
Tel: (02) 9385 4599
Mob: 0414 772 114
a.williamson@unsw.edu.au
Room #215 Old Main Building

Week 6

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Contact Administrative Issues

Ann Banks
Undergraduate Studies
School of Aviation

Tel: (02) 9385 5756

aviab@unsw.edu.au

An Eight Step Model

Step I: Formulating a research problem (Wk1&2)
Step II: Conceptualising a research design (Wk 3&4)
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection
(Wk5)
Step IV: Selecting a sample (Wk6)
Step V: Writing a research proposal (Wk8)
Step VI: Collecting data (Wk7)
Step VII: Processing data (Wk9)
Step VIII: Writing a research report (Wk10)
Kumar (2014)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Whats the Point of Doing This

Course? Remember
1)

As a graduate in the aviation industry, youll do some research as

part of the job
2) You may be required to prepare (or supervise preparation of) a
tender, as a contractor/consultant, for an aviation-related study
involving research
3) You may be required, as an aviation manager, to review tenders
for some research that your company has invited contractors to
do
4) Some of you might want to go on to do Honours, Masters or PhD
degrees involving research

AVIA3710 Reminder
How are you going with the Research Proposal?
Remember Assignment is due before:
23:59hrs Friday 23rd September (Wk 9)!!
MUST submit assignment via Printed hard copy (to me in
class or the Aviation office on that day) AND Moodle
or will not be accepted.
If you cant bring hard copy on that day:
Submit it earlier OR get someone to bring it for you.

You (or your messenger) will need to sign the Attendance

sheet to show that you have submitted the assignment.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

More AVIA3710 - Reminders

In class Assessment in Week 7

During Tutorial class, 15:00hrs
Duration = 30 mins
Short answer questions
Will cover material in Wks 1 to 6.

Week 6

Changes to Course Schedule for

Wks 6-9
Week 6 (today) - Selecting a sample delivered by AW
Week 7 - Processing and displaying data Lecture and
Tutorial presented by Guest lecturer, Dr Soufiane Boufous
(in-class assessment in Tutorial at 15:00hrs)
Week 8 Research Case Study in Tutorial at 15:00
presented by Oleksandra Krasnova (Aviation, PhD
student) Cognitive training to improve performance of
young, novice drivers
Week 9 Research Case Study in Tutorial at 15:00hrs
presented by Louise Raggett (Aviation, PhD student)
Development of normal operations monitoring for
ground operations

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

AVIA3710 Aviation Research Methods

Review of Concepts from Week 5:
Step III: Constructing an Instrument for
Data Collection

Week 6

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

In Week 5 we covered.
Select a method of data collection
Differentiate primary and secondary data and sources
Describe the characteristics of questionnaires,
interviews and observation
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
questionnaires, interviews and observation
Understand the considerations to be made when
developing a research instrument and collecting data
using the instrument
Any questions?

Week 6

Learning Outcomes - Week 6

After this week you should be able to:
Explain what constitutes a population study
Explain what constitutes a sample study
The advantages and disadvantages of using samples and
populations
Understand whenN is not n
Learn the key principles of sampling
Understand what is meant by ethics
Describe ethical issues from the viewpoint of
researchers, participants and funding organisation

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

What is Meant by Sampling ?

Question:
Say you want to know the average amount of sleep per
night that academics get who work at UNSW.
Who would you ask?

Week 6

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

What is Meant by Sampling ?

Answer:
You could ask every academic who works at UNSW how
much sleep on average they get a night, and then average
their answers..OR
You could select a smaller group of academics from
UNSW, ask them the same question, and from this group
estimate the average number of hours of sleep they get a
night

What is Meant by Sampling ?

Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample)
from a bigger group (the sampling population) to
become the basis for estimating or predicting the
prevalence of an unknown piece of information,
situation or outcome of the bigger group. (Kumar, 2014, p.
229)

A sample is a sub-group of the population you are

interested in.
A sample is used to answer questions about the
population of interest (not the sample)
A sample allows estimation of the situation in the
population.

Population Studies
Population studies - obtain relevant information from
the entire population eg academics, voters, pilots,
drivers, census..
In most cases its impossible to test/survey/interview
entire population
Advantages
Accurate information
Detailed information
Minimisation of errors

Disadvantages
Time consuming
Resource intensive
Kumar, 2014

Sampling Studies
Sampling studies obtains information about a population
based on a small sample of the population
Achieved by inferring characteristics of sample on entire
population
Advantages
saves time
saves money

Disadvantages
Can only estimate or predict information about the
population (eg average hrs of sleep of UNSW academics)
potential errors you only end up with an estimate of the
information you want
potentially miss information about population characteristics
Kumar, 2014

Estimating the size of stones in a wall

Estimating the size of stones in a wall

The Concept of Sampling

(Kumar, 2011)

Study
population

You select a sample from the

study population

Sample

You collect info from

these people to find
answers to your
research questions

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

The Difference Between N andn

Population size = N (eg all the academics at UNSW)
Sample size = n (eg the number of academics in the
sample you interview)
Sampling element each academic you interview
Sample statistics the findings obtained from the
sample (eg average hours of sleep).

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

How do you choose the

right/best/most economical sample?

Principles of Sampling
Principle 1
sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic
and the true population mean (attributable to success (or not)
of selection of sampling units)

Principle 2
the greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the
estimate of the true population mean

Principle 3
the greater the difference in the variable under study in a
population for a given sample size (the range), the greater will
be the difference between the sample statistics and the true
population mean
(Kumar, 2014)

Principle 1 Sampling Error

Population 4 individuals

(From Kumar, 2014)

ages: A = 18, B = 20, C = 23, D = 25

mean age = 21.5
Select a sample of 2 individuals
6 possible combinations (A+B, A+C, A+D, B+C, B+D, C+D)
Sample Average
(1)

Population Mean
(2)

1 (A+B)

19.0

21.5

-2.5

2 (A+C)

20.5

21.5

-1.5

3 (A+D)

21.5

21.5

0.0

4 (B+C)

21.5

21.5

0.0

5 (B+D)

22.5

21.5

1.0

6 (C+D)

24.0

21.5

2.5

Sample

Sampling Error
= Difference
between (1) &
(2)

Principle 2 Bigger Sample Size = More Accurate

Estimate of True Population Mean
Continue with previous example but increase sample size to 3 individuals
(rather than 2)
4 possible combinations
(From Kumar, 2014)
(1) A+B+C, (2) A+B+D, (3) A+C+D, (4) B+C+D
The sampling error is smaller because the sample size is larger.
Sample

Sample
Average (1)

Population
Mean (2)

Sampling error =
Difference
between (1) & (2)

20.33

21.5

-1.17

21.0

21.5

-0.5

22.0

21.5

0.5

22.67

21.5

1.17

Principle 3 Variability in Population

Same example but more varied ages (range=22)
A = 18, B = 26, C = 32, D = 40
mean age = 29
Sample of 2 individuals difference in average age ranges
between -7.00 and +7.00
eg. C + D = 72/2 = 36 years = +7.00 difference
Sample of 3 individuals difference in average age ranges
between -3.67 and +3.67
eg. A + B + C = 25.33 years = -3.67 difference
So, the more variable the population, the greater is the
sampling error
From Kumar, 2014

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Selecting a Sample
The aim in selecting a sample is to:
achieve maximum accuracy or precision in your
estimate,
avoid bias in the selection of your sample

Kumar, 2014

Principles of Sampling again

Principle 1
sampling error is the difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean (attributable to
selection of sampling units)

Principle 2
the greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the
estimate of the true population mean

Principle 3
the greater the difference in the variable under study in a
population for a given sample size, the greater will be the
difference between the sample statistics and the true
population mean
(Kumar, 2014)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Two Factors Affect the Degree of Certainty of

Estimates derived from Samples

Size of the sample findings from larger samples are

more accurate than findings from smaller samples
Extent of variation in the population the greater the
variation in the population, the less accurate are sample
findings
(Kumar, 2014)

Types of Sampling Strategies

Random (equal and independent chance of selection)
every participant has an equal and independent chance of
selection
avoids sampling bias
sample is representative of the population
Eg lottery (fishbowl draw) or computer programme (random
number generator)

Non-random
you target participants with the particular characteristics you
are interested in
sample is biased
cannot infer findings from the sample to the population
Kumar, 2014

Achieving Random Sampling

suppose you want a sample 500 out of the population of
5,000 Flybye airlines pilots to tell you what they like about
their airline
What if you contact 500, and 200 refuse to participate?
The 200 who refuse might have negative views about Flybyes
So your findings from the sample of 300 will not reflect all the
opinions.
This means that your sample is not a random sample - not
everyone in it had an equal chance of being selected and it is
not a representative sample
Reasons for non-participation may be related to what some
pilots think about Flybyes.

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Methods of drawing random sample

1. Simple random draw method fishbowl, computer

or table of random numbers

Look for first occurrence

of a number that matches your
Population then take each
occurrence as they appear in
the table.

Microsoft Excel has a function to produce random numbers.

produce a random number in that cell
range you wish. numbers from 1 to 250 =INT(250*RAND())+1
( INT eliminates the digits after the decimal, the 250* creates the range to be
covered,and the +1 sets the lowest number in the range)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Methods of drawing random sample

1. Simple random draw method fishbowl, computer

or table of random numbers
2. Systematic random sampling used when sampling
from a list of potential participants eg: randomly
choose the first then base the next choice on
location of first (if 1st was 5th on list, choose every
5th)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Methods of drawing random sample

1. Stratified random sample choose a characteristic

of the population and break them up into nonoverlapping groups, eg., age group, and randomly
sample from each stratified group.
2. Cluster sampling dividing population into subpopulations or clusters and randomly sample the
clusters (eg., geographic location, profession etc)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Threats to random sampling

Volunteers
Sample attrition
Non-response
All adversely affect ability to generalise from the study
sample to the general population
Where possible, check success of random selection by
assessing how representative is the sample from the
population of interest.

Week 6

Non-Random Sampling
Quota sampling eg want to select a sample of males to
find out which brand of cigarettes they smoke, and why.
Stand by supermarket entrance, and ask each male who
enters.
Accidental sampling you want the same information,
but you sample any males who happen to walk past you,
anywhere.
Judgemental sampling you want the same information,
but you go to people who in your opinion are likely to
have the required information eg people you see
smoking

Non-Random Sampling
Expert sampling you sample people with known
expertise in an area of interest to you. Eg A380 captains.
Snowball sampling you ask some of the males you
sampled to nominate friends of theirs who smoke that
can become part of your sample.

Kumar, 2011

Sample Size
How big should a sample be?
Generally, the larger the sample size, the more accurate
are your estimates for the population
For qualitative research, sample size is less important than
for quantitative research
For qualitative research (eg using focus groups) you
collect data until you think you are not getting much new
data from your participants. 6 partcipants might be
enough.
For quantitative research, especially cause-and-effect
studies (ie experiments), calculating the sample size
needed for your research is critical to ensure your sample
is representative of the population you are attempting to
study

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Calculation of sample size

Depends on:
Level of confidence you want to test your results
Degree of accuracy you want to estimate your
population parameters
Estimated level of variation (standard deviation) for
the main variable of interest in the study population.

Week 6

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Calculation of Sample Size

As sample size increases, sampling error decreases
Statistical power is the probability you will detect a
meaningful difference, or effect, if one were to occur
(1- (type 1 error))
Statistical power should be at least .80
Automated tests for Power and Sample Size many
available on the internet.

Week 6

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Ethics
All professions are guided by a Code of Ethics
Many research bodies have evolved a Code of Ethics
separately to govern the way they carry out research.
Eg medicine, psychology, education, business, etc
Definition: in accordance with principles of conduct
that are considered correct, especially those of a
given profession or group (Collins Dictionary 1979, p.
502; cited in Kumar, 2014).

Ethical Issues Concerning Participants

Collecting information (eg Will you inconvenience the
person; Will you put pressure on the person?)
Seeking consent (Participants must give their informed
consent. Participants must know what info, you want
from them, why, what will be done with the info., how
they are expected to participate, how study will affect
them).
Providing incentives (Controversial. Rather than incentive,
think about providing reimbursement for the persons
time. Most ethics committees think a small incentive gift
or money - is OK)
Kumar, 2011

Ethical Issues Concerning Participants

Seeking sensitive information (Certain information can
be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some
participants and this an invasion of privacy eg sexual
behaviour, drug use). Sensitive information can be age
etc. Tread carefully.
Possibility of causing harm to participants (eg physical
hazards; discomfort, anxiety, stress etc). Must minimise
risks to participants.
Maintaining confidentiality (Sharing participant
information with others is unethical. As far as
possible,keep data anonymous.
Kumar, 2011

Ethical Issues Concerning the Researcher

Avoiding bias (It is unethical to hide what you have found in
your study, or highlight something disproportionately true to
its existence, etc)
Provision or deprivation of treatment (eg Is it ethical to
deprive a control group of a treatment that could save their
lives?)
Using appropriate research methodology (Its unethical to
design your research to get the results you want, rather than
the allowing the results to occur naturally).
Incorrect reporting (Its unethical to report findings in a way
that changes or slants them to serve your own interests.)
Inappropriate use of information (Is it ethical to ask
respondents information that could be used against them?)
Kumar, 2011

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Ethical Issues Concerning the Funding

Organisation
Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation
(eg They may demand to select the methodology,
prohibit publication of what was found, or impose other
restrictions that prevent information dissemination)
The misuse of information (eg How will the sponsoring
organisation use the information? How will this affect
the study population?)
Kumar, 2014

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

The Ethics Process

University
Human Research Ethics Committee (significant human
impact)
Human Research Ethics Panel (minimal human impact)

Potentially lengthy application process 1-3 months

Panels should constitute individuals from all walks of
life (layperson, expert, religion representative, native
representative, etc)

AVIA 3710 Aviation Research Methods

Week 6

Tasks for Week 7

Continue writing Assignment
Read Chapters 12 and 14 of Kumar (2014)