Professional Documents
Culture Documents
88
90
96
99
Gas Welding
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Laser
101
106
110
114
Plasma Cutting
116
Thermic Lancing
117
Welding
Processes
IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes
87
Welding Processes
1
2
3
4
5
6
Core wire
Droplets
Gas shroud
Slag
Weld
Weld pool
Overview
5
6
Applications
Most steels
Nickel alloys
Stainless steels
Copper alloys
Cast irons
Aluminium alloys
MMA welding is also used for hardfacing, and for gouging, cutting
and grooving of ferritic alloys.
Applications for MMA are many and varied:
Operation
MMA is a fusion welding process that uses the heat generated by
an electric arc to fuse metal in the joint area, the arc being struck
between a covered consumable electrode and the workpiece.
The process consists of a welding power source, that may provide
either an AC, DC or DC and AC electric current. Connected to
this power source is an electrode holder into which the electrode
is placed. The circuit is completed with an earth return cable fixed
between the power source and the workpiece.
When the arc is struck between the tip of the electrode and the
workpiece, the core wire begins to melt, and the coating provides a
protective gas and slag covering to the weld.
As the core wire melts, the operator must maintain a constant
arc length distance between the end of the electrode and the
workpiece to prevent the arc extinguishing. Parent metal in the
immediate area of the arc is also melted and this combines with
molten metal from the electrode to form a weld pool.
88
General fabrication
Pipelines
Structural steelwork
Shipbuilding
Power plant
Bridge-building
Process plant
Offshore fabrication
Pressure vessels
Cryogenic plant
Power source
Electrode
Electrode cable
Work clamp
Electrode holder
Return cable
MMA
(Stainless steel)
MMA
(Hard facing)
Gas required
Gas required
Gas required
(none)
(none)
(none)
Metal Consumables
Metal Consumables
Metal Consumables
XX
XX
XX
XX
Abrasives
XX
Abrasives
XX
XX
Cable connectors
XX
Cable connectors
XX
Cable connectors
XX
Chipping hammers
227
Chipping hammers
227
Chipping hammers
227
Electrode holders
XX
Electrode holders
XX
Electrode holders
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Wire brushes
XX
Wire brushes
XX
Wire brushes
XX
Work clamps
225
Work clamps
225
Work clamps
225
Gas Equipment
(none)
Gas Equipment
(none)
(none)
Equipment
Gas Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Electrode ovens
XX
XX
Electrode ovens
XX
Electrode ovens
XX
Fume extractors
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
Hot boxes
266
Hot boxes
266
Hot boxes
266
MMA machines
220
MMA machines
220
MMA machines
220
XX
Aprons
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Dust masks
XX
Dust masks
XX
Dust masks
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Ear muffs
XX
XX
XX
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Signage
Signage
Consumables
89
Welding Processes
GAMW (MIG) /
FCAW / MCAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW),
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) and
Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW)
Operation
MIG welding is usually carried out with a handheld gun as a semiautomatic process. The MIG process can be suited to a variety of
job requirements by choosing the correct shielding gas, electrode
(wire) size and welding parameters. Welding parameters include
the voltage, travel speed, arc (stick-out) length and wire feed rate.
The arc voltage and wire feed rate will determine the filler metal
transfer method.
5
1
6
7
8
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Gun trigger
Welding wire
Weld
Weld pool
Gun
Shroud
Gas diffuser
Contact tip
Shielding
Droplets
9
10
90
MIG welding can be carried out using solid wire, flux cored, or a
copper-coated solid wire electrode. The shielding gas or gas mixture
may consist of the following:
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Gas shielded wires are available with either a basic or rutile flux fill,
while self-shielded wires have a broadly basic-type flux fill. The flux
fill dictates the way the wire performs, the properties obtainable,
and suitable applications.
Gas-shielded Operation
Many Cored Wire consumables require an auxiliary gas shield in the
same way that solid wire MIG consumables do. These types of wire
are generally referred to as gas-shielded.
Using an auxiliary gas shield enables the wire designer to
concentrate on the performance characteristics, process tolerance,
positional capabilities, and mechanical properties of the products.
Flux cored arc welding does, however, have the same drawback as
solid wire MIG in terms of gas disruption by wind, and screening
is always necessary for site work. It also incurs the extra cost of
shielding gas, but this is often outweighed by gains in productivity.
Self-shielded Operation
There are also self-shielded consumables designed to operate
without an additional gas shield. In this type of product, arc
shielding is provided by gases generated by decomposition of some
constituents within the flux fill. These types of wire are referred to
as self-shielded.
If no external gas shield is required, then the flux fill must
provide sufficient gas to protect the molten pool and to provide
de-oxidisers and nitride formers to cope with atmospheric
contamination. This leaves less scope to address performance, arc
stabilisation, and process tolerance, so these tend to suffer when
compared with gas shielded types.
Wire efficiencies are also lower, at about 65%, in this mode of
operation than with gas-shielded wires. However, the wires do have
a distinct advantage when it comes to site work in terms of wind
tolerance, as there is no external gas shield to be disrupted.
In a flux cored wire the metal sheath is generally thinner than that
of a self-shielded wire. The area of this metal sheath surrounding the
flux cored wire is much smaller that than that of a solid MIG wire.
This means that the electrical resistance within the flux cored wire
is higher than with solid MIG wires and it is this higher electrical
resistance that gives this type of wire some of its novel operating
properties.
One often quoted property of fluxed cored wires are their higher
deposition rates than solid MIG wires, what is often not explained
is how they deliver these higher values and whether these can be
utilised. For example, if a solid MIG wire is used at 250 amps, then
exchanged for a flux cored wire of the same diameter, and welding
power source controls are left unchanged, then the current reading
would be much less than 250 amps, perhaps as low as 220 amps.
This is because of Ohms Law that states that as the electrical
resistance increases if the voltage remains stable then the current
must fall.
To bring the welding current back to 250 amps it is necessary to
increase the wire feed speed, effectively increasing the amount of
wire being pushed into the weld pool to make the weld. It is this
affect that produces the higher deposition rates that the flux cored
wire manufacturers claim for this type of product. Unfortunately in
many instances the welder has difficulty in utilising this higher wire
feed speed and must either increase the welding speed or increase
the size of the weld. Often in manual applications neither of these
changes can be implemented and the welder simply reduces the
wire feed speed back to where it was and the advantages are lost.
However, if the process is automated in some way then the process
can show improvements in productivity.
It is also common to use longer contact tip to workplace distances
with flux cored arc welding than with solid wire MIG welding and
this also has the effect of increasing the resistive heating on the
wire further accentuating the drop in welding current. Research has
also shown that increasing this distance can lead to an increase in
the ingress of nitrogen and hydrogen into the weld pool, which can
affect the quality of the weld.
Flux cored arc welding has a lower efficiency than solid wire MIG
welding because part of the wire fill contains slag forming agents.
Although the efficiency varies differs by wire type and manufacturer
it is typically between 75 and 85%.
91
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Gas hose
Gas cylinder
Power source
Return cable
Continous wire
Wire feed unit
Power cable
Torch conduit
Welding gun
Arc
Workpiece
Earth clamp
Dip Transfer
Also known as short-circuiting arc or short-arc, this is an allpositional process, using low heat input. The use of relatively
low current and arc voltage settings cause the electrode to
intermittently short-circuit with the weld pool at a controlled
frequency. Metal is transferred by the wire tip actually dipping into
the weld pool and the short-circuit current is sufficient to allow the
arc to be re-established. This short-circuiting mode of metal transfer
effectively extends the range of MIG welding to lower currents so
thin sheet material can readily be welded. The low heat input makes
this technique well-suited to the positional welding of root runs on
thick plate, butt welds for bridging over large gaps and for certain
difficult materials where heat input is critical. Each short-circuit
causes the current to rise and the metal fuses off the end of the
electrode. A high short-circuiting frequency gives low heat input. Dip
transfer occurs between 70-220A, 1423 arc volts. It is achieved
using shielding gases based on carbon dioxide and argon.
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Time
7
Short circuit
Necking
Arc re-ignition
Arc established
Arc gap shortens
Short circuit
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
8
Short circuit cycle
Arcing cycle
Metal cored wires transfer metal in dip mode at low currents just
like solid MIG wires. This transfer mode is used for all positional
work with these types of wire.
Globular Transfer
Metal transfer is controlled by slow ejection resulting in large,
irregularly-shaped globs falling into the weld pool under the action
of gravity. Carbon dioxide gas drops are dispersed haphazardly. With
argon-based gases, the drops are not as large and are transferred in
a more axial direction. There is a lot of spatter, especially in carbon
dioxide, resulting in greater wire consumption, poor penetration
and poor appearance. Globular transfer occurs between the dip and
spray ranges. This mode of transfer is not recommended for normal
welding applications and may be corrected when encountered
by either decreasing the arc voltage or increasing the amperage.
Globular transfer can take place with any electrode diameter.
Dip transfer
Globular transfer
Spray transfer
92
Spray Transfer
In spray transfer, metal is projected by an electromagnetic force
from the wire tip in the form of a continuous stream of discrete
droplets approximately the same size as the wire diameter. High
deposition rates are possible and weld appearance and reliability
are good. Most metals can be welded, but the technique is
limited generally to plate thicknesses greater than 6mm. Spray
transfer, due to the tendency of the large weld pool to spill
over, cannot normally be used for positional welding. The main
exception is aluminium and its alloys where, primarily because of
its low density and high thermal conductivity, spray transfer in
position can be carried out.
Pulsed Transfer
Pulsed arc welding is a controlled method of spray transfer,
using currents lower than those possible with the spray transfer
technique, thereby extending the applications of MIG welding into
the range of material thickness where dip transfer is not entirely
suitable.The pulsed arc equipment effectively combines two power
sources into one integrated unit. One side of the power source
supplies a background current which keeps the tip of the wire
molten. The other side produces pulses of a higher current that
detach and accelerate the droplets of metal into the weld pool. The
transfer frequency of these droplets is regulated primarily by the
relationship between the two currents. Pulsed arc welding occurs
between 50-220A, 2335 arc volts and only with argon and argonbased gases. It enables welding to be carried out in all positions.
Gas shroud
Wire
Shielding gas
Droplets
Weld
Workpiece
2
4
300
Current (A)
1
2
3
4
5
6
200
0
18 ms
Time
Dip
Transfer
Globular
Transfer
Process
Metal InertGas
(MIG)
Flux Cored
(GasShielded)
Flux Cored
(SelfShielded)
For metal cored wire spray transfer occurs as the current density
increases and an arc is formed at the end of the filler wire,
producing a stream of small metal droplets. Often the outside
sheath of the wire will melt first and the powder in the centre flows
as a stream of smaller droplet into the weld pool. This effect seems
to give much better transfer of alloying elements into the weld.
Metal Cored
Spray
Transfer
Pulsed
Transfer
Not
TrueSpray
93
MIG
(Carbon steel and alloys)
MIG
(Copper/silicon bronze)
Gas required
Carbon Dioxide
Argoshield mixture
Gas required
53
5862
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (carbon steel)
MIG
(Stainless steel)
Gas required
Specshield Copper
68
Alushield mixture
65
XX
6364
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (stainless steel)
Metal Consumables
XX
Stainshield mixture
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Contact tips
264
Contact tips
264
Cylinder trolleys
192
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
265
265
265
MIG torches
249
MIG torches
249
MIG torches
249
174
174
174
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
XX
Abrasives
XX
Contact tips
264
Cylinder trolleys
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
156
156
156
156
156
156
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
MIG machines
228
MIG machines
228
MIG machines
228
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
XX
XX
XX
Wire feeders
247
Wire feeders
247
Wire feeders
247
Aprons
XX
Aprons
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Dust masks
XX
Dust masks
XX
Dust masks
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Signage
Signage
94
FCAW
(Carbon steel)
Gas required
52
Carbon Dioxide
Alushield mixture
65
Argoshield 52
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (aluminium)
Gas required
53
5862
Metal Consumables
XX
FCAW
(Stainless steel)
Gas required
Argon
Abrasives
XX
Contact tips
264
Cylinder trolleys
Carbon Dioxide
Argoshield 52
53
5862
Metal Consumables
XX
XX
XX
XX
Abrasives
XX
XX
Contact tips
264
Contact tips
264
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
265
265
265
MIG torches
249
MIG torches
249
MIG torches
249
174
174
174
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
XX
XX
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding cable
XX
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding screens
XX
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
156
156
156
156
Equipment
Equipment
XX
Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter
156
156
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
MIG machines
228
MIG machines
228
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
MIG machines
228
XX
XX
Grinders
XX
Wire feeders
247
Wire feeders
247
XX
Wire feeders
247
Equipment
Aprons
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Aprons
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Boots
XX
Dust masks
XX
Dust masks
XX
Eye protection
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Dust masks
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Face shields
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
XX
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
XX
Signage
Signage
Overalls
XX
Signage
95
Welding Processes
Operation
Direct or alternating current power sources with constant current
output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding
current. For DC operation, the tungsten may be connected to either
output terminal but is most often connected to the negative pole.
The output characteristics of the power source can have an effect
on the quality of the welds produced. Shielding gas is directed into
the arc area by the welding torch, and a gas lens within the torch
distributes the shielding gas evenly over the weld area. In the torch,
the welding current is transferred to the tungsten electrode from
the copper conductor. The arc is then initiated by one of several
methods between the tungsten and the workpiece.
Operating Modes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Shielding gas
Arc
TIG filler rod
Weld pool
Collet
Tungsten Electrode
Workpiece
Orbital TIG
Hot-wire TIG
Narrow-gap TIG
Cold-wire TIG
96
Applications
High quality fabrications in stainless steel
Power source
Welding torch
Tungsten electrode
97
TIG
(Carbon steel)
TIG
(Stainless steel and nickel)
Gas required
Argon
Gas required
52
Argon
Alushield mixture
Metal Consumables
TIG wire (carbon steel)
TIG
(Aluminium)
XX
Gas required
52
XX
Metal Consumables
TIG wire (stainless steel)
Abrasives
XX
Ceramic shrouds
XX
Abrasives
Cylinder trolleys
192
Earthing clamps
225
TIG torches
Argon
52
Alushield mixture
65
Metal Consumables
XX
XX
XX
Abrasives
Ceramic shrouds
XX
Ceramic shrouds
XX
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
271
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
Tungsten electrodes
273
TIG torches
271
TIG torches
271
174
Tungsten electrodes
273
Tungsten electrodes
273
Machine spares
XX
174
174
XX
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
Welding cable
XX
XX
XX
Welding screens
XX
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding cable
XX
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter
156
156
Equipment
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
TIG machines
266
Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter
156
156
Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter
156
156
Equipment
Fume extractors
Equipment
XX
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
TIG machines
266
TIG machines
266
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Aprons
XX
Eye protection
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Dust masks
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Eye protection
XX
Dust masks
XX
Face shields
XX
Dust masks
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Face shields
XX
Gloves
XX
Face shields
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
XX
XX
Signage
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Signage
98
Welding Processes
Submerged Arc
Welding (SAW)
How it Works
SAW uses the arc struck between a continuously fed electrode
and the work piece to melt the metal in the joint area and provide
additional filler metal under a blanket of granular flux. This arc is
completely submerged under the molten flux, which protects the
molten metal from the atmosphere. There is no visible arc, spatter
or fume during the welding operation.
2 Straightening rollers
2
3 Feed rollers
4 Power lead
5 Contact tube
6 Extension tube
11
12
13
7 Electrode guide
8 Electrode
9 Flux bed
10 Lead to earth
11 Slag sieve
12 Flux hopper
13 Excess flux recovery system
14
15
17 Work piece
16
17
10
99
Application
Operating Parameters
SAW is capable of operating at high welding currents. Welding
current is the parameter that controls weld deposition rate. It also
controls the depth of weld penetration and the amount of base
metal melted.
Arc voltage controls the arc length and this has a major influence on
the shape of the weld and its exterior appearance. Raising the arc
voltage increases the arc length and this in turn increases the weld
width. Lowering the arc voltage has the opposite effect.
The travel speed controls the heat input into the joint area.
Increasing travel speed reduces the heat input and supplies less filler
metal per unit length of weld resulting in less weld reinforcement.
Increasing travel speed reduces weld penetration but can cause
undercut. Reducing travel speed provides time for the gases to
escape from the molten metal and thus porosity may be reduced.
Electrode stick out, the distance between the contact tube and
the arc has a major affect on weld penetration and deposition rate.
Increasing the stick out increases deposition rate and reduces
weld penetration. However, to maintain optimum process control
the electrode stick out is normally maintained between 2535mm
unless special nozzle adapters are fitted.
100
SAW is widely used for welding carbon, carbon manganese, alloy and
stainless steels. It is also used for joining some nickel based alloys.
The ability to produce high quality, defect free welds at high
deposition rates, with deep weld penetration makes the SAW
process highly suitable for all mechanized and automatic welding and
surfacing applications.
Welding Processes
Gas Welding
1
2
1 Nozzle
2 Primary flame (or inner cone)
3 Secondary flame (or outer cone)
Farther out from the primary zone is the reducing zone.Very little
combustion takes place in this zone as most of the oxygen available
was consumed in the previous zone.The outside zone is where the
remaining by-products of the initial combustion burn with oxygen
from the atmosphere. Here the reactions are:
When oxygen and a fuel gas are burned together at the end of a
nozzle a flame is created and it is this flame that is used to melt
both the parent and filler material. Of all the fuel gases available
acetylene is the most widely used because of its higher flame
temperature and the ease a which the flame can be set.
Although the neutral flame is the most commonly used for gas
welding two other flame types, oxidising flame and carburising flame
are used for different applications.
Neutral Flame
These outside two zone form what is termed the secondary zone
or outer envelope.
Flame Types
In the neutral flame the primary zone is sharp and clearly defined.
Stainless Steel
Cast Iron
Copper
101
Gas Welding
Oxidising Flame
As the name suggests in an oxidising flame an excess of oxygen is
present. This produces a much shorter, brighter secondary zone, the
oxidising flame is also noisier than the other two flame types.
The excess of acetylene in the flame adds carbon into the weld pool
and is used predominantly for hardfacing applications.
Application
The application of gas welding is wide and various, both in terms of
the thickness range and the materials that can be welded with it. It
can also be used to weld in all positions as long as the operator has
the skill required to carry out the task.
The industries that use gas welding are varied, the relatively low
cost equipment and its flexibility means that every engineering
workshop is likely to have a system on site. Of these systems oxyacetylene is by far the most common because it is the only gas
combination that can be used to weld all materials.
Gas welding has also become a favourite with the home DIY
hobbyist, again because of its flexibility.
102
Gas Welding
The Oxy-Fuel Welding Process
Welding
Brazing
Braze Welding
Brazing and braze welding take place at temperatures above 450C,
but below the melting point of the base metal.
Braze welding happens when the edges of the joint to be welded
are heated sufficiently to melt the braze welding rod which then
flows onto the joint edges, producing a fillet in the joint. The parent
metal does not melt. The process is one of adhesion.
An advantage of braze welding is reduced distortion because of the
lower temperatures.
The filler material is an alloy of copper and zinc and may also
contain other elements such as silicon, nickel or manganese.
A flux, either coated on or contained within the rod, must
chemically clean the surface of the parent metal during heating.
The edges of the joint to be welded are heated sufficiently to melt
the braze welding rod which then flows on to the joint edges. The
parent metal does not melt.
Comparisons
Advantages of braze welding:
Brazing rod has lowest achievable melting point which can lead
to capillary action
Whole joint is raised to the correct temperature (in contrast
with localised heat applied in welding)
Brazing rod flows by capillary action along joint edges and
through to the reverse side of the joint
Braze joints
Fillet joints
Lap joints
Fluxes in brazing
Fluxes clean the metal surface
When fluxes which are used to clean the surface chemically, the
parent metal does not melt. The cleaning permits a good bond
between the parent metal and the brazing welding rod whenbrazing:
Mild steel
Stainless steel
Cast iron
Copper
Disadvantages:
Features of Brazing
Filler metal in a thin film (0.02540.0085mm) between two or
more tightly fitted pieces of base metal
Lap joint
Butt joint
Removal of fluxes
Removal of fluxes after brazing is important when using aluminium
as the flux residues are very corrosive to aluminium.
Flux not needed
When using the copper phosphor brazing rod to braze with copper,
a flux is not needed.
103
Gas Welding
Types of joints
The lap joint is best used because it offers maximum strength. The
solder alloy must completely fill the gap to prevent moisture getting
in and causing corrosion.
Only the correct clearance between the joint faces will enable the
solder to enter the joint by capillary action. The filler alloy must be
selected for joint gap, as those with a narrow melting range tend to
rise higher than those with a wide melting range.
Fluxes in soldering
Fluxes consist of either:
Acid and salt fluxes are corrosive and residues must be removed
after soldering
Resin fluxes not corrosive
To prevent
To dissolve
To remove
Metal
Solder
Flux
Stainless steel
965 solder
965 flux
Copper, copperalloys
and brass
Lead-tin alloys
Aluminium and
aluminium alloys
Cast iron
965 flux
Tin-plated and
galvanised steel
Plated materials
Chrome plating
Silver plating
Easily soldered
Anodised aluminium
104
Gas Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Gas required
Acetylene
Oxygen
MAPP
Propane/Propylene/LPG
Gas Welding
Gas required
69
Acetylene
49
Oxygen
XX
71
Metal Consumables
MAPP
Propane/Propylene/LPG
Gas required
69
Acetylene
69
49
Oxygen
49
XX
71
Metal Consumables
XX
XX
Fluxes
XX
Fluxes
XX
Soft solder
XX
Soft solder
XX
Metal Consumables
Fluxes
XX
XX
XX
XX
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Flint lighters
191
Flint lighters
191
Flint lighters
191
174
174
174
XX
Wire brushes
XX
Wire brushes
XX
Gas Equipment
Flashback arrestors
166
Brazing tips
XX
Brazing tips
XX
197
Flashback arrestors
166
Flashback arrestors
166
Master Kit
202
178
178
Masterstart Kit
202
LT Kit
203
XX
PortaPack
204
Master Kit
202
LT Kit
203
Promaster Kit
201
Masterstart Kit
202
MAPP torhces
XX
Welding tips
XX
203
203
205
PortaPack
204
PortaPack
204
153
Promaster Kit
201
205
205
154
154
153
153
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Equipment
Fume extractors
Equipment
Equipment
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Aprons
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Gloves
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Goggles
XX
Eye protection
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Overalls
XX
Gloves
XX
Goggles
XX
Signage
Goggles
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Signage
105
Welding Processes
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Overview
Flame cutting, oxy-fuel cutting, fuel gas cutting and oxygen cutting
are terms that are generally used for the same process. Of all the
terms used oxygen cutting best describes how the process operates.
In oxygen cutting, the metal is heated to its ignition temperature
and then a jet of pure oxygen is added which reacts with the metal
creating the cut.
Originally developed in the beginning of the 20th century, and
while the basics of the process hasnt really changed over the years
there has been significant improvements in equipment design. The
process is very versatile and can be used both manually or built
as a machine with either single or multiple torches for higher
operatingefficiencies.
106
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Although a worker can be trained in a short time to make
acceptable cuts with the process, considerable skill is necessary to
produce cut surfaces suitable for welding. The equipment for this
process is also relatively cheap and portable.
Although the equipment for mechanised cutting is more expensive,
there is still a high level of skill required by the operator. As
profile cutting machines become more program controlled a good
understanding of computers is also becoming advantageous.
How it Works
The oxygen cutting process can be considered as a combination
of two distinct and separate processes. First the material to be cut
must have its temperature increased to the point where it will burn
in the presence of oxygen. This is called the ignition temperature of
the steel. In oxygen cutting of steel this is achieved by pre-heating
a localised area until the metal reaches a bright cherry red heat at
about 870900C.
1
2
3
4
5
107
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Cutting
Oxy-Acetylene Cutting
Oxy-Propane Cutting
Gas required
Gas required
Acetylene
69
Oxygen
49
Oxygen
49
Propane/propylene/LPG
71
Metal Consumables
Metal Consumables
(none)
(none)
Abrasives
XX
Abrasives
XX
Chipping hammers
227
Chipping hammers
227
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Flint lighters
191
Flint lighters
191
174
174
Gas Equipment
Acetylene cutting nozzles
Gas Equipment
186187
199
Flashback arrestors
Flashback arrestors
166
161 ?
LT Kit
199
166
161 ?
203
Master Kit
202
Master Kit
Masterstart Kit
202
?-XX
XX
Masterstart Kit
202
PortaPack
204
203
Promaster Kit
201
Promaster Kit
205
153
154
153
Equipment
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
202
201
186187
Equipment
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Aprons
XX
Eye protection
XX
Boots
XX
Face shields
XX
Eye protection
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Face shields
XX
Gloves
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Goggles
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
Goggles
XX
Overalls
XX
XX
Signage
Overalls
XX
Signage
108
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Heating
Flame Heating
Gas required
Propane/Propylene/LPG
Metal Consumables
(none)
192
?-XX
199
Flashback arrestors
XX
69
Oxygen
49
Propane/Propylene/LPG
71
Metal Consumables
(none)
Gas Equipment
Acetylene heating nozzles
Acetylene
?-XX
Cylinder trolleys
Gas Equipment
Acetylene heating nozzles
BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches
154
Flashback arrestors
153
Equipment
(none)
192
?-XX
199
XX
?-XX
153
154
Equipment
(none)
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Boots
XX
Gloves
XX
Eye protection
XX
Overalls
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Signage
Gloves
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Gouging
Arc Air Gouging
Flame Gouging
Gas required
Acetylene
69
Oxygen
49
Air
45
Metal Consumables
(none)
Metal Consumables
(none)
192
XX
Gas Equipment
BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches
199
Flashback arrestors
XX
Equipment
(none)
XX
Gas Equipment
(none)
Equipment
Air compressors
XX
XX
DC power source
XX
Welding cable
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Overalls
XX
Hearing
XX
Signage
Overalls
XX
Respiratory
XX
Signage
109
Welding Processes
Laser
Laser
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Laser resonator
Lasing gas
Laser beam
Beam flight path (220m long)
Mirror
Purge gas
Assist gas
Lens
Nozzle
8
7
9
Laser Medium
Schematic of gases used in the laser process
Lasing Gases
1
1
2
3
4
Role of Gas
Most industrial lasers need gases both to generate the laser light
(laser or lasing gases) and to assist in the process, be it cutting
or welding (assist gases). The correct gas quality is important
to maintain laser reliability and to ensure the highest process
productivity and quality.
110
CO2 and Excimer lasers use gases for generating the laser light. It
is important to use lasing gases that meet the tolerances specified
by the laser manufacturer for reliability and optimum laser beam
quality. The purity of lasing gases is typically 99.995% or better.
While the absolute purity is important, so are the types of
impurities present in the gas. Moisture and hydrocarbons can have a
particularly detrimental effect on laser operation.
Assist Gases
Assist or process gases are used at the point where the laser
interacts with the material. The choice of assist gas is extremely
important and can have a significant effect on the process quality
and productivity.
Beam Path Purge Gas
Most laser processing systems require a controlled purge through
the laser beam delivery tubes to maintain laser beam quality to the
point of use. The use of nitrogen as the purge gas can give superior
performance compared with compressed air specifically for high
powered CO2 lasers.
Laser
Applications
Laser Welding
Laser Cutting
This process uses intense energy provided by a focussed laser
beam to melt and/or vaporise material, and an assist gas flowing
at pressure through a nozzle to remove the molten or vaporised
material. The beam is focussed on or slightly below the surface
of the work-piece, whilst the gas jet is introduced co-axially with
thebeam.
One of the determining factors of the cutting speeds achievable
is laser power. The type of assist gas used, the supply pressure and
flow rate are also important for attaining required cutting speed and
quality for specific material thickness. Laser nozzle standoff distance
and diameter affect the gas supply requirements.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mirror
Lens
Focused laser beam
Laser beam
Assist gas inlet
Materal
2
5
1. Conduction welding
The laser beam heats and melts the metal surface. The heat is
conducted to the joint where the weld takes place.
High quality parallel sided cuts are a feature of laser cutting and with
sophisticated CNC control accuracies are measured in microns
rather than millimetres.
Lasers can cut a wide range of materials including ferrous and nonferrous metals. It is common practice for carbon steels to be cut
using lasers coupled with an oxygen assist gas jet, taking advantage
of the exothermic reaction between steel and oxygen to increase
cutting speed. Stainless steel is more usually cut using nitrogen as
the assist gas producing a shiny oxide free edge with a small heat
affected zone. The process is extremely versatile allowing a wide
range of thicknesses to be cut, from very thin foils to inch (25mm)
thick plate and new process developments are steadily increasing
the thickness capability range.
Can weld thick material (up to 15mm) in a single pass but good
fit-up required
1
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
5
3
111
Laser
112
Laser
Laser Resonator
Laser Welding
Gas required
Laser Cutting
(Carbon steel)
Gas required
75
52
75
75
75
Metal Consumables
(none)
(none)
Equipment
(not applicable)
161
Equipment
(none)
Gas Equipment
161
Equipment
(not applicable)
(not applicable)
77
Metal Consumables
Gas Equipment
Concoa gas equipment
(none)
(none)
161
Gas required
(none)
Gas Equipment
Concoa gas equipment
56
7778
Metal Consumables
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Boots
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Eye protection
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Goggles
XX
XX
Goggles
XX
Gloves
XX
XX
Goggles
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
XX
Signage
Signage
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
XX
Laser Cutting
(Stainless steel)
Laser Cutting
(Aluminium)
Gas required
Nitrogen Laser Grade
Gas required
75
Metal Consumables
Gas required
75
Metal Consumables
(none)
(none)
Equipment
Gas Equipment
161
Equipment
(not applicable)
(none)
Equipment
(not applicable)
Gas Equipment
161
45
(none)
(none)
Gas Equipment
Air
Metal Consumables
(none)
Laser Cutting
(Non-metallic)
(not applicable)
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Goggles
XX
Goggles
XX
Goggles
XX
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Signage
Signage
113
Welding Processes
Welding Process
Comparisons
Weld costs, productivity, weld positions, weld materials and welder
skill are all criteria to be considered when selecting welding
processes and their appropriate equipment and consumables.
These factors will significantly affect the quality of the weld and
the overall process costs.
TIG to MMA
MMA is predominantly a manual process but TIG is used both
manually and for the automatic orbital welding of pipe
MMA Comparisons
MIG to MMA
MMA is an intermittent, low-productivity process with electrode
replacement being necessary at regular intervals
FCAW to MMA
MMA is predominantly a manual process whereas FCAW can be
used manually, automatically and robotically
114
MMA electrodes and flux cored wires cover very similar ferrous,
nickel and hardfacing materials
MMA requires no shielding gas. Some types of cored wire
require a shielding gas but others dont
MMA is ideally suited to outside and site work as are gasless
cored wires
Consumable wastage levels in MMA are high compared to
coredwires
Welding speeds are much quicker with cored wires, so joint
completion times are much faster
With MMA only about 65% of the consumable weight is
converted into weld metal compared to about 80% for FCAW
TIG Comparisons
MMA to MIG
MIG is a high-productivity continuous process requiring little
downtime
MMA to TIG
TIG can be used manually or automatically whereas MMA is
predominantly a manual process
Skill levels for MIG welding are lower than those required
forTIG
Welding speeds for MIG are generally about double those
forTIG
Weld costs per unit length are much higher in TIG welding
It is generally considered that defect levels in TIG welds are
lower than those for MIG
FCAW to MIG
Both MIG and FCAW can be used manually, automatically and
robotically
MIG doesnt create a slag cover but MMA requires the slag to
beremoved
TIG to MIG
MIG and TIG welding can both be carried out either manually or
automatically
MIG wires are available for a wide range of ferrous and nonferrous materials. FCAW is limited to steel and some types of
stainless steels
TIG can be used for all metals and alloys whereas MMA
electrodes are available primarily for ferrous materials, stainless
steels, and nickel alloys
TIG can be used to weld refractory metals because of its inert
gas shield. MMA is not suited to welding these materials
TIG filler compositions are restricted but MMA electrodes can
be tailored to suit the composition of the parent material
TIG requires a shielding gas but MMA does not
TIG can suffer from drafts disrupting the gas shield. MMA is
ideally suited to outside and site work because it doesnt require
a shielding gas
There is very little consumable wastage with TIG welding, almost
all of it being converted into weld metal. Consumable wastage
levels in MMA are high, only approximately 65% ending up as
weld metal
TIG doesnt create a slag cover and needs little post-weld
cleaning but MMA requires the slag to be removed
MIG to TIG
TIG and MIG welding can both be carried out either manually or
automatically
Skill levels for TIG welding are much higher than those required
for MIG
Welding speeds for TIG are generally about half those for MIG,
with the exception of hot-wire TIG
Weld costs per unit length are much higher in TIG welding
compared with MIG
Less defects are normally detected in TIG than MIG welds
Plasma to TIG
TIG and plasma welding can both be carried out either manually
or automatically
115
Welding Processes
Plasma Cutting
Plasma Cutting
(Carbon steel)
Plasma Cutting
(Other materials)
Gas required
Air
Argoplas mixture
Gas required
XX
6667
Air
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
53
Argoplas mixture
Nitrogen
47
Nitrogen
Metal Consumables
XX
53
6667
47
Metal Consumables
(none)
(none)
Abrasives
XX
Abrasives
XX
Ceramic shrouds
XX
Ceramic shrouds
XX
Chipping hammers
227
Chipping hammers
227
Cylinder trolleys
192
Cylinder trolleys
192
Earthing clamps
225
Earthing clamps
225
174
174
Machine spares
XX
Machine spares
XX
279
279
281
281
Welding screens
XX
Welding screens
XX
Plasma Gas
Gas Equipment
High purity regulators
Gas Equipment
161 ?
Equipment
Workpiece
116
161 ?
Equipment
Air compressors
XX
Air compressors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Fume extractors
XX
Grinders
XX
Grinders
XX
276
276
Aprons
XX
Aprons
XX
Boots
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Eye protection
XX
Face shields
XX
Face shields
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Gloves
XX
Goggles
XX
Goggles
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
Signage
XX
Overalls
XX
IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes
Signage
Welding Processes
Thermic Lancing
Thermic Lancing
Gas required
Oxygen
49
Metal Consumables
Thermic lances
XX
192
174
XX
Gas Equipment
High purity regulators
161
153
Equipment
Lance handle
XX
Ignition cartridge
XX
XX
Boots
XX
Eye protection
XX
Dust mask
XX
Ear muffs
XX
Face shields
XX
Fire extinguishers
XX
Gloves
XX
Goggles
XX
XX
XX
Overalls
XX
Signage
Spats
XX
117