National and Kapodistrian

University of Athens
School of Philosophy
Faculty of English Studies

Language and Gender (7th Semester):

GENDER IN GEOGRAPHY
Instructors Name: Dr. Alexandra Vasilopoulou

STUDENTS NAME:
ALEXANDER MICHAEL-HADJILYRA (99362)
Date of Submission: Friday, 9 December, 2005

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

Gender in Geography
1. Introduction.
This paper will deal with the issue of gender from the point of view of Geography, as far
as the Greek language is concerned. Greek is not only inflective, but also has three
grammatical distinctions regarding gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), in the same
fashion with German, Latin, Old Irish, Romanian, Sanskrit and all Slavic languages. We
shall attempt to discover how gender is reflected in Geography.
Geographical elements, such as continents, oceans, countries and organised
communities and settlements (from hamlets and villages, to suburbs, municipalities and
towns, and cities, metropolises and conurbations) are subject to everyday use by the
mass media, by encyclopaedias and dictionaries, by general and specialised books, by
people all over the globe etc. Oftentimes, they act (or they are perceived as such) as
representatives of a region, a country, a continent etc.
Before going into depth on the subject of gender in geographical names, let us state
some facts in a nutshell: to begin with, all continents are feminine (, ,
, , , , ). Conversely, all oceans are
masculine (, , , , ), but all seas ()
are feminine (, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , etc), all seas
() are neuter (, , , , etc) and all bays are
masculine (, , , , etc) - precisely because
they are used to qualify the corresponding nouns.
Similarly, most (if not all) rivers are masculine (, , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , etc). The same goes for rivers in Greece (,
, , , etc). In Cyprus, however, other than the majority1 of
masculine names for rivers, there are also feminine names for rivers (,
, , , , , , , , )
and neuter names for rivers (, , , ).
Only mountains and mountain ranges exhibit gender diversity: we have masculine
names (, , , , etc), feminine names
(, , , , etc) and neuter names (, ,
, , etc). A final note on lakes: most (if not all) lakes are
feminine (2, , , , etc).
1

. From 45 most important rivers, 21 have masculine names (the most prominent of which are , ,
, , , , , , , , and ).
2
. In Greek bibliography, the Aral Sea is mainly referred to as a Lake, while in English bibliography it is mainly referred
to as a Sea. The same goes for the Caspian Sea, on some occasions.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

2.1 Gender in state names - The continents

Let us see the grammatical gender of state names: which of the three is more frequent?
EUROPE ()
There are 44 independent states and 2 autonomous areas3: Gibraltar, a British colony
claimed by Spain, and the Faeroe Islands - which belong to Denmark, but enjoy a wide
degree of autonomy. Overall, there are 53 state names4 in Europe. There is only 1
masculine name ( 5) [1,89 %] and only 8 neuter names (, ,
, , , , , ) [15,09
%]. Finally, there are 43 feminine names (, , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, 6, , , , , , , ,
, , , ) [81,13 %]. Faeroe Islands may be rendered either as
(feminine) or (neuter), the feminine form being more common7. Let it be
noted that, before the fall of the iron curtain (c. 1991), there was Czechoslovakia, East and
West Germany, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union (all of which were feminine).
ASIA ()
There are 47 independent states and 2 autonomous states: Hong-Kong8 and Macau9.
Overall, there are 49 state names10. There is only 1 masculine name () [2,04 %],
while there are 23 feminine names (, , , , ,
, , , , , , , , 11,
, , , 12, , 13, , ,
) [46,94 %]. Finally, there are 25 neuter names {, 14,
, , , , 15, , , ,
(), , , , , , , 16, , ,
, , , , } [51,02 %].
3

. This number does NOT include the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, the Shetlands, the Orkneys and the Hebrides
- all of them connected to the U.K. Jan Mayen Island, which belongs to Norway, is also excluded.
4
. The 46 names + 1 (/) + 1 (/) + 4 (, , , )
+ 1 ( ). European Turkey is not included (see ASIA).
5
. Also known as (neuter). The masculine form is frequently used to distinguish it from its capital city.
6
. The name is provisional for the FYROM (Former Yugoslavic Republic Of Macedonia).
7
. Google renders 20.300 results for , but only 4.750 results for .
8
. Hong-Kong was ceded to China from the British in 1997 and has a 50-years interim status of increased autonomy.
9
. Since 1999, Macau - a former Portuguese colony - is in a 50-years interim status, co-administered by China.
10
. Excluding Russia (see EUROPE).
11
. Previously called (neuter).
12
. Previously called (also feminine).
13
. Previously called (also feminine).
14
. Also known as (neuter).
15
. Previously called (feminine).
16
. Previously called (feminine).

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

AFRICA ()
There are 53 independent states, 5 dependent areas (Azores and Madeira are Portuguese
autonomous regions, Santa Helena is a British colony, Reunion is a French overseas
dpartement and the Canary Islands are an autonomous Spanish community) and 1
disputed territory: Western Sahara (currently under the occupation of Morocco).
Overall, there are 61 state names17.
There are only 2 masculine names (, ) [3,28 %], while there are 17
neuter names { ()18, , (), , , ,
, 19, , , , (), ,
, , (), } [27,87 %]. Most African state names are feminine:
there are 41 feminine names { , (v), , , 20,
, , , , , , 21, 22,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , /, ,
, , , , , , } [67,21 %].
The Canary Islands may be rendered as (feminine) or
(neuter), the feminine form being more common23.
NORTH AMERICA ( )
There are 31 state entities in North America. Some of them, however, are labelled by
generic names for former colonies or annexes or overseas territories belonging to other
countries, such as the case of the French Overseas Territories, the British Territories and the
Dutch Antilles. Other names refer to islands or areas belonging to other countries, such
as Greenland, Puerto Rico and Aruba. Overall, there are 43 state names24 in North America,
which are explicated into 49 state names25.
There are 7 masculine names ( 26, , 27,
28, 29, , ) [14,29 %], 16 neuter names (
17

. 53 independent + 5 dependent + 1 disputed + 1 { /()} + 1 (/).

. Previously called (also neuter).
19
. Previously called (feminine).
20
. Previously called (feminine).
21
. Part of -.
22
. Previously called (also feminine).
23
. Google renders 1.893 results for all forms of the feminine name, and 905 results for all forms of the neuter name.
24
. Other than the independent and autonomous state entities, we have the constituent parts of the British territories
(, , , , , & ), the constituent
parts of the French overseas territories (, ), the constituent parts of the Dutch Antilles (
, , , , ) and the constituent parts of the U.S. Virgin Islands (
, , ).
25
. 43 state names + 1 ( / + 1 ( /) + 1 ( /) + 1
(/) + 1 (/) + 1 (/).
26
. Also called (neuter).
27
. Also called (neuter).
18

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , )
[32,65%] and 24 feminine names ( 30, , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , , ) [48,98 %].
Turks and Caicos Islands may be rendered as (feminine) or
(neuter); the neuter form is rather rare.
SOUTH AMERICA ( )
There are 12 independent states and 4 overseas territories: the French Guiana (which
belongs to France), and the Falklands, South Georgia and South Sandwich (which belong to
the United Kingdom). Overall, there are 16 state names in South America.
Other than 1 masculine name (31) [6,25 %] and 4 neuter names ( ,
, , ) [25 %], the vast majority of state names are feminine:
there are 11 feminine names (, , , , ,
, , , , , ) [68,75 %].
OCEANIA ()
There are 14 independent states and countless of islands, isles and atolls. Guam, the
North Marianas and the American Samoa belong to the United States, while Pitcairn islands
belong to the United Kingdom. France has control over the French Polynesia, New
Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna. The Cook Islands and Niue are autonomous islands
belonging to New Zealand, while Easter Island belongs to Chile. Overall, there are 26 state
names32.
There is no masculine name; there are 11 neuter names (33, , ,
, , , , , , , )
[42,31 %] and 14 feminine names ( , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , ) [53,85 %]. The Solomon Islands may
be rendered as (neuter) or (feminine). The
feminine form is becoming obsolete.

28

.
.
30
.
31
.
32
.
33
.
29

Also called (neuter).

Also called (neuter).
Also called (also feminine).
Ecuador may also be referred to as , which is neuter.
14 independent + 10 dependent + 1 (/ ) + 1 (/).
Previously called (feminine).

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

2.2 Gender in state names - The World

Having that in mind, let us summarise our findings:
CONTINENT
Europe
Asia
Africa
North America
South America
Oceania
WORLD

MASCULINE
1
1
2
7
1
12

FEMININE
43
23
41
24
11
14
156

NEUTER
8
25
17
16
4
11
81

AMBIGUOUS
1
1
2
1
5

TOTAL
53
49
61
49
16
26
254

It is clear that states34 are not really thought of as masculine: in fact, with the exception
of Saints names - which is the reason for the high concentration of masculine countries
in Central America -, it seems that all the other states with a masculine name
(, , , , , ) are masculine because of
their ending (-, -). Endings may play a role in the envisagement of names in the
case of state names with unacceptable35 endings: many of those states are perceived as
neuter. Equally interesting is that some neuter names have - as their ending36. Finally,
many state names are neuter (especially in plural form), because they qualify or they
are qualified by the neuter noun / (island/islands). In older varieties of Greek,
they might have been feminine.
Examining the table, we immediately understand that state names are primarily
conceptualised as being feminine: - is perhaps the most preferable feminine ending.
The fact that the largest number of states, by far, has feminine names may denote
something about how Greeks perceive of countries, states, territories, regions and areas
(all these words are feminine in Greek). It is not simply the feminine endings -, -
and -, but also the concept behind them: why is Zimbabwe feminine? Another hint to
that is the tendency of Greek to transform the ending -land (Finland, Greenland, Holland,
Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, Swaziland, Thailand) into - or -, inevitably
turning them into feminine names. A final note on Romance countries: almost all of
them have a feminine name, particularly evident in the case of South America and
Europe.
34
. The term state is used since our findings draw upon both independent states (countries) and dependent states
(autonomous territories).
35
. When the Proto-Greek language was originally formed, because of its Indo-European origin, there was a wide
flexibility regarding the acceptable final consonants (incl. , , , , ). In the course of centuries, however,
ancient Greeks proved to be very sensitive about their language: other than the vowels, only , and became
acceptable as final letters (with the exceptions of , and /): all other consonants were either dropped or
merged with the three acceptable consonants (=>: and but jugum and novum). Some of them
remained, however, dormant, and often re-surface in the Genitive declension (-, -).
36
. In older varieties of Greek, such as katharevousa, Mediaeval and Byzantine Greek, they would be spelt - (-um
in Latin), an exclusively neuter ending, favoured amongst those varieties.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

3.1 Gender in city names - The World

Let us see how important cities in the world are treated, in terms of gender. The names
have been extracted from a catalogue of 437 cities with population of 1 million people
or more. All European cities have been removed, along with all cities unknown to the
wider public. Our sample will be 110 cities.
Not even one city has a masculine name. There are 52 feminine names (, ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , 37, , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , ) [47,27 %] and 58 neuter names (, , ,
38, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , ) [52,73 %].
3.2 Gender in city names - Europe
Let us see the issue of gender in the names of European cities, based on a list of 110 city
names. The list was compiled by selecting up to five39 largest cities from each of the 44
independent countries of Europe (the capital city included). The selection was done
with respect to population and political, financial, or other importance.
Only 1 city has a masculine name () [0,91 %]. There are 51 neuter names
(, , , , , , 40,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , 41, , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
) [46,36 %] and 58 feminine names ( 42, , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
37

. Constantinople is technically half-European and half-Asian, as it stands on both sides of the Dardanelles.
. Also known as (also neuter).
39
. A concession has been made for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to include more than 5
cities, but no more than 5 cities for each constituent country.
40
. Previously called (also neuter).
41
. Alternative spellings: , .
42
. Previously called (neuter).
38

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

, , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , ) [52,73 %].

, , ,
, ,
, , ,
, , ,

3.3 Gender in city names - Greece

And now, let us examine how Greek language has categorised the cities of its own
speakers. The names of the 55 cities have been selected from the National Statistical
Department43, based both on their population (over 15.000) and of their importance.
Surprisingly, there are 6 masculine names (, , , ,
, ) [10,91 %]. There are also 16 neuter names (, , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , ) [29,09 %] and 33 feminine names (,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , ) [60 %].
3.4 Gender in city names - Summary
Having all that in mind, let us summarise our findings:
LOCATION
THE WORLD
EUROPE
GREECE
WORLD44

MASCULINE
1
6
6

FEMININE
52
58
33
140

NEUTER
58
51
16
124

TOTAL
110
110
55
270

To begin with, the most interesting finding, perhaps, is that all cities with a masculine
name are located in Greece. Although there is more or less equilibrium between neuter
and feminine names, feminine names are the majority. It is notable that in the case of
Jerusalem (not in the list) - which in Greek is rendered both as feminine () and
as neuter () - the feminine version is more frequent45. Another interesting
finding is that many cities with a neuter name also have unacceptable endings and/or,
in some cases, lack inflexions ( , ). Similarly, many foreign cities lack
inflexions, unless they have been in the language for many decades.
43

. The unabridged catalogue of the latest census (2001) categorises settlements on the basis of their administrative
status (community or municipality). All suburbs and municipalities of the urban complexes of Athens and Thessalonica
have been ignored. All cities having the same name as the island they are located on have also been omitted.
44
. Although the sums may seem incorrect, bear in mind that there is an overlap, since five Greek cities are included
in the catalogue of European cities.
45
. Google renders 82.200 results for and , while it renders 98.000 results for .

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

4. Gender in islands names - the case of Greece

Let us see how gender manifests in the names of the Greek islands. Greece, one of the
countries with the largest number of islands, has 9.837 islands, islets, skerries, rocky
and desert islands and islets; only 3.053 are big enough to be characterised as islands
and only 227 are known to have been inhabited: urbanisation and ageing resulted in the
reduction of the number of inhabited islands to 112. Our sample will be the 75 largest
islands - in terms of size, population and importance.
Only 7 have masculine names46 ( , , , , ,
, ) [9,33 %] and only 9 have neuter names (, , ,
, 47, , , , ) [12 %]. The vast majority of
Greek islands have feminine names, even though many of them end in -48. There are
59 feminine names: (, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , ,
, , 49, , , , , , , ,
50, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , 51, , , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,
, ) [78,67 %].
This tendency of Greek to conceptualise of islands as feminine and, to a lesser extent, as
neuter is also reflected in the collective names of groups of Greek islands (,
; , ). This tendency is also perceivable in the names of
islands that do not belong to Greece (, , , ; , ,
, , , ), although it could be supported that first four
islands have had some connexion with Greece in the past. Collective names of groups of
islands also tend to be feminine (, , , ).
Perhaps a way to account for this tendency that permeates Greek is to link it with the
gender of the word island in older varieties of Greek: is feminine. Although the
newer variety uses a neuter form ( ), apparently the older form is so wellentrenched in the language that it has created a pattern.
5.1 Gender in settlement names - The case of Cyprus
Let us take a glance in the names of settlements52 for the island of Cyprus. There are 614
settlements in Cyprus - the number includes all communities and municipalities that
46

. Another famous islet with a masculine name (not in the list) is the private islet of the Onassis family, .
. Along with , the easternmost part of Greece, is also known as (feminine).
48
. Demotiki (the modern variety of Greek) is often uncomfortable with this ending, when applicable to feminine
nouns, which explains instances such as * , * , * , * , * etc.
49
. Also known as (local, also feminine, pronunciation).
50
. Also known as (also feminine).
51
. Also known by its antiquated name, (also feminine).
52
. To avoid using the duplicate form community/municipality, the term settlement is used.
47

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Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

are administratively independent from other settlements. Since August 1974, 198
settlements are under illegal occupation by Turkey, as a result of the atrocious and
unlawful invasion. Additionally, 5 settlements are partly occupied (Akhna, Akhyritou,
Ayios Dhometios, Dherynia, Nicosia).
Our sample will be the 40 largest settlements53, according to the 2001 census: there are 4
settlements with masculine names ( , , ,
) [10 %], while 14 settlements have neuter names (, , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , ) [35 %]. The remaining 20 settlements have feminine names
(, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , ) [50 %]. and can be
either neuter or feminine, with no morphological change.
This tendency to use feminine names for cities and towns is also evident in the fact that
all 7 primary towns and cities of Cyprus - including the three that are currently under
illegal occupation by the Turkish army - have feminine names: , ,
, , , , .
5.2 Gender in settlement names - The Prefecture of Attica
Let us see how gender manifests in the names of the communities and municipalities of
Attica. The list includes all 124 settlements52 of Attica, regardless of administrative
dependence in the five prefecture offices54.
Surprisingly, there are 24 settlements with masculine names ( ,
, , , , ,
, , , , , 55, ,
, , , , 55, , , ,
, , ) [19,35 %]. There are also 36 settlements with neuter names
{, , , , , , , ,
, , , () , 56, , ,
, , , , , ,
(), , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , } [29,03
%]. The majority of settlements have feminine names: 60 settlements have feminine
names ( , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
53

. The census covers only the government-controlled areas (the 416 remaining settlements).
. is divided into , , ,
and .
55
. Zographou Municipality is widely known in its Genitive form ( ). The same goes for Papagou
Municipality ( ).
56
. Also known as (also neuter).
54

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Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , 57) [48,39 %]. (feminine) is also
known as (neuter); (feminine) is also known as (neuter),
(neuter) is also known as (feminine), while is neuter and is
feminine (the municipality is called -).
6. Gender in area names - Greater Nicosia Area
Our final examination is about the Greater Nicosia area: we will see how suburbs,
environs and regions names are categorised, in terms of gender, for the city of Nicosia,
Cyprus. To get the whole picture, all 65 most prominent regions, environs and suburbs
names are included, regardless of the political situation. Names that refer to places
under illegal Turkish occupation are preceded by an asterisk (*), while communities
and municipalities names are in italics.
There are 9 neuter names ( , , *, , , * 58,
, , ) [13,85 %] and 24 masculine names ( ,
, , , , ,
, , * , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , , , , , ) [36,92 %].
Finally, there are 32 feminine names ( , * , ,
, , , , , , , ,
, , *, , , ,
, , *, * , , *, , *,
, , , , , ,
) [49,23 %].
7. General Conclusions
Geography (), like most sciences and arts (see mural in the last page), is a
feminine noun in Greek and, in a way, it is feminine: with the exception of some
exclusively (up to an extent) masculine domains (such as the names of rivers, oceans
and bays), and some exclusively feminine domains (such as the names of continents,
seas and lakes), wherever there is a liberty of choice between the three grammatical
genders, it is the feminine gender that wins59.
This should tell us something about the overall conceptualisation of the world by the
Greek language and, collaterally, the Greek culture. A possible explanation is that
57

. Also known as (also feminine).

. Also known as (also neuter).
59
. However, this is may not be the case for Mountains.
58

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Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

countries, being an abstract notion, were conceptualised as feminine, precisely because

the male regulators of language (lexicographers, teachers and grammarians) were
puzzled by the complexion of women (cf. , , , , , ,
, ).
Another point is that there are very few instances of masculine names in state names
and that all masculine city names are to be found in Greece60. Is it possible that the
reason we have masculine names for cities in Greece (and Cyprus), but not for the other
parts of the world is the fact that, back in time, there was a tendency to give masculine
names to cities (and islands, for that matter), but was later abandoned?
Finally, there is a large number of neuter names for countries and cities and, to a lesser
degree, islands. Neuter names are reserved, sort of, for cases which present a problem
in the language, such as cases of unacceptable endings. The neuter names of cities in
Greek, ending in -o may have their roots to the Byzantine times. Below are the pie
charts of the findings of this paper:
GENDER OF STATES NAMES

5%

2%
FEMININE

32%

NEUTER
MASCULINE
61%

AMBIGUOUS

GENDER OF CITY NAMES

2%

46%

52%

FEMININE
NEUTER
MASCULINE

60

. There is (not the list) a city in Russia with a masculine name: (Arkhangelsk).

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Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

GENDER OF GREEK ISLANDS NAMES

12%
FEMININE
9%
79%

NEUTER
MASCULINE

GENDER OF CYPRUS SETTLEMENTS

10%

5%
FEMININE
NEUTER
50%

MASCULINE
AMBIGUOUS

35%

GENDER OF SETTLEMENTS IN ATTICA

19%

2%
FEMININE
49%

NEUTER
MASCULINE
AMBIGUOUS

30%

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Language and Gender: Gender in Geography (December 2005)

GENDER OF GREATER NICOSIA AREA

14%
49%

FEMININE
MASCULINE
NEUTER

37%

8. Selected Bibliography
http://europa.eu.int/
http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/currencies/eltable.htm
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
http://www.geonames.de/
http://www.moa.gov.cy/wdd/
http://www.statistics.gr
http://www.visitgreece.gr/
www.livepedia.gr/
www.mof.gov.cy/cystat
www.wikipedia.org/
http://www.citypopulation.de/World.html

, 21 : ,
(National Geographic , : 2004).
Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, ID: 99362

13