ABSTRACT

Relevant data about Portuguese housing stock are presented in this paper, according to Census
2001 and the 4 th General Housing Census, particularly in Beira Interior and Cova da Beira
regions. These data show that the percentage of single family housing in Portugal is very high. In
addition, the index of building ageing indicates the situation is worrying if there is no investment
in maintenance and rehabilitation. The characteristics and materials of buildings situated in rural
areas are described, as well as the results obtained in some inspection studies, reflecting the need
to further study the global situation of the rural type of houses. Besides natural degradation of the
constructive elements, great deficiencies in the use of the houses were verified, above all for lack
of the residentsnformation. It will be opportune to develop some activities that would
complement the simple actions of constructive rehabilitation. Some rehabilitation proposals for
rural houses are presented, jointly with some ideas of research, so that the interventions may aim
the promotion of Sustainable Construction.
INTRODUCTION

The market of maintenance and rehabilitation represents around 50% of the businesses of the
European building companies. Paradoxically, the information given by the media and by the
official
bulletins of the associations of building industries keep highlighting the new construction, and
not
giving the necessary attention to the most important activities of the sector and forgetting around
two
thirds of industrial services and supply sectors.
The statistics are very poor but it is estimated that the number of existing buildings is 50 to 100
times
higher than the number of those built every year. In what concerns to the housing sector, there
exist
around 145 millions of dwellings in Western Europe but only 2 millions of new dwellings are
built every year.
Technology for Rural Development
Building houses
The building of houses is fundamental for human development, especially in areas of the globe
with extreme weather conditions.
It is very important for family and for general social development, because it is where we live
and so it must be comfortable and healthy. Many types of houses are difficult to build; they
require a lot of knowledge and work to create them.

To be a good house it must comply with a few basic functions.

Be a functional and health environment for those that live in it.

Inside of the house one must be protected from wind, cold, heat, rain sand and dust.

Last few many years without requiring much maintenance.

There are many ways to build a house. Houses vary according to their location; they change due
to cultural differences and also due to the local resources available to create them. In cold places
houses must be more compact and have thick walls and small windows to resist the cold, they
also have heating systems. In the hottest places the houses are built below ground level so that
the earth keeps them cool during the day, they also have central courtyards to create shade from
the sun. The forest areas the houses are made from wood, en the mountains they are made from
stone, in areas with clay they are made from brick. In areas where there is seismic activity it is
important to consider this when designing the structure of the house. Each country has its own
regulation to guide this work.

Housing for Cold Climates

In cold climates a house must insulate its inhabitants from the outside temperature. This is
achieved by creating walls that are made from materials that insulate well, often requiring layers
of different materials. It is also necessary to include a heating system for the house. The type of
heating will depend on the resources available (wood, gas, kerosene or electric), this should
always be minimised by using the passive solar heating that the sun supplies. To make the
passive solar heating from the sun more effective it is important to orientate the most important
rooms towards the equator. (In the Southern Hemisphere towards the North, and in the Northern
Hemisphere towards the South).
Passive Heating of Houses

Passive heating of living spaces is created by what is called the greenhouse effect because a
greenhouse is a building made of glass used to grow plants in cool climates or accelerate growth
by increasing the warmth.
Glass creates a greenhouse effect because the glass only transmits some light waves, this means
that the light is trapped inside and bounces around within the area; the result is that there is more
heat gain through the window, than heat loss.

Resources for good insulation:

Thick walls and ceiling made of materials with low heat transfer.

Walls and ceiling filled with insulation material that creates an air space
(glass wool, cork, hay etc.)

Walls and ceiling with an air space (a double wall or ceiling).

Walls and ceiling insulated from water so that heat is not transferred with the
moisture.

Doors and windows that insulate (double glazed or double doors).

Housing for Hot Climate

In hot areas it is important to cool the house down to make it comfortable to live in. The house
must have walls and ceiling that insulate the inter spaces from the outside heat just like a house
in cold climates.
The house must also have as much of its walls and floor in contact with the earth because the
earth does not heat up as much as the air especially if the night time temperatures are lower than
the day time temperatures.
The house must be shaded from direct sunlight this can be done by building the house partially
under the ground, or by planting trees around the house.Cavity wall construction can be taken up
at south and west sides considering the solar path .
Housing for Windy Climates

Houses built for windy climates need to be strongly anchored to the ground and need the roofs to
be designed to support the force of the wind.

Choosing the right materials

Choosing the right materials to build a house depends on the region that the house it to be built
in. Each area of the planet it different and has many different materials that can be used for
housing.
Earth Bricks

Earth bricks can be made from some types of clay it is a very common material and requires very
little energy to turn into a construction material.

Required Resources

Spade or shovel

Cement

A press to create the earth bricks

Construction System

The earth is mixed with a small amount of cement (without water) and then pressed into brick
shape and left to harden. The humidity of the environment will enter the brick mixing with the
cement and harden it. Normally small bricks and made so that they are easy to transport and
work with.
It is considered one the most environmentally friendly construction methods.
The main disadvantage is it can not be used in the construction of the roof unless a arched or
domed roof is created.
Ceramic Brick

This brick is made from clay which when heated goes hard to form a brick. It is very common in
many parts of the world, but it is a material that is very fertile and so its use for construction
reduces the fertile land in the area, it also used a lot of heat energy for its creation.
Wood

Wood houses has a long tradition in Asia, and the United Status. If there are renewable wood
forest to supply the wood very efficient construction can be done by creating kit-set houses.
Necessary resources

Pieces of wood cut to size and dried.

Saws, hammers and nails also bolts for more important joints..

Construction system

The wood must be cut into lengths; these are normally standardized so that builders can use the
same practices for more than one house. These are used to create the structure of the house and
panelling is used to close the house. Insulation should be included between the inner and outer
panels. Wood does not resist water and will rot if not treated with chemicals in humid climates.
Because of this it is best suited to dry climates.

Installations

A good house should also have running water and a toilet and bathroom so that the inhabitants
can keep clean and also have access to water to drink and cook with.

World Housing Encyclopedia

an Encyclopedia of Hous
ing Construction in
Seismically Active Areas of the World

an initiative of
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and
International Association for Earthquake Engineering (IAEE)

HOUSING REPORT
Rural mud house with pitched roof
Report #
23
Report Date
06-05-2002
Country
INDIA
Housing Type
Adobe / Earthen House
Housing Sub-Type
Adobe / Earthen House : Mud walls
Author(s)
Amit Kumar
Reviewer(s)
Ravi Sinha

Important
This encyclopedia contains information contributed by various earthquake
engineering professionals around the
w
orld. All opinions, findings, conclusions & recommendat
ions expressed herein are those of the various

participants, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Earthquake

Engineering Research Institute, the
International Association for Earthquake Engineering, the Engineering
Information Foundation, John A. Martin
& Associates, Inc. or the participants' organizations.
Summary
This is a typical rural construction found throughout India, except in the high
rainfall areas in the
northeastern part of the country. It is a single-family house, mainly occupied by
the poorer segment
of the population. The main load-bearing system consists of mud walls, which
carry the roof load.
In some cases wooden posts are provided at the wall corners and at intermediate
locations. The
wooden posts and walls are not structurally integrated, and therefore the loads
are shared by the
walls and the frame. There are very few openings (doors and windows) in these
buildings. In rural
areas there are usually no windows at all. In general, this type of construction is
built by the ownersand local unskilled masons and the craftsmanship is very
poor. This building type is classified as
grade-A (most vulnerable) per the IAEE building classification and IS Code
1893:1984. This is a
low-strength masonry construction and it is considered extremely vulnerable to
seismic forces.

1.General Information
Buildings of this construction type can be found in all part
s of India. Variations of this type of construction are found
all over India except where very high rainfall is experience
d, such as in the Northeast st
ates of India. Information on
percentage of housing stock
of this type is not availa
ble, but their number is
expected to be substantial

This type of
housing construction is commonly found in rural areas

.
This construction type has been
in practice fo
r more than 200
years.
Currently, this type of construction is being built

Architectural Aspects
2.1 Siting
These buildings are typically found in flat terrain

.
They do not share common walls with adjacent buildings

.
When
separated from adjacent buildings, the typical di
stance from a neighboring building is 3 meters

2.2 Building Configuration

These buildings are rectangular in plan

.
Generally the owners and local unskilled masons construct this type of
building. The craftsmanship of these buildings is very po
or. The walls are often found to be out of plumb. The door
and windows openings of such buildings are very small. In
rural India windows are generally not provided in such
houses. Both gravi
ty and lateral loads are resisted
by the mud walls. The doors
are typically of size 1.75 m X 0.75 m

.
2.3 Functional Planning
The main function of this building typology is single-family house

.
In a typical building of this type, there are no
elevators and
1-2 fire-protected
exit staircases

.
Usually there is one door in the building

2.4 Modification to Building

More typical modification is extensions to buildings

.
6.3 Construction Process,
Problems and Phasing
The building is constructed with the help of masons. Genera
lly no technical and engineering input is used during the
construction process. Fo
undation: Trench of about 2.5 feet
is excavated along the walls.
Stone blocks ar
e rammed with
mud into the trench to form consolidated foundation. Timber
posts, if used, are
erected during the ramming of stones.
The load-bearing wall is erected above the ground level. T
he stone walls are sometimes c
onstructed up to 2 feet above
ground level, and the mud wall is extended above this level.
Wall construction: The wall is made up of mixed mud with
wheat husks and water (mud-polymer compo
site). Generally the wheat husk is mixed and kept for about a week to give
it a homogenous texture. The mud mortar is placed and rammed
to make it compacted. The wall is erected up to about
2.5 feet in each lift
and allowed to dry for on
e or two days before the nex
t lift. Roofing: R
oof truss is either
made up of
bamboo, wood or built up steel section. The spacing between
purlines and rafters are generally not regular. Generally
old conventional typical house is covered with heavy clay tiles
. The cladding material may not be firmly anchored to the
trusses and wall. Openings : Generally mud wall bu
ildings are provided with very few large openings

.
The construction
of this type of housing takes place incrementally over time

.
Typically, the building is originally not designed for its final

constructed size

.
The building byelaws in rural areas are not yet enfo
rced. It requires proper
enforcement to the rural
and urban areas

6.4 Design and Construction Expertise

The buildings are constructed by local unskilled
persons and villages with out any technical inputs

.
Engineers or
architects do not have a role in the design/construction of this housing type

.
6.5 Building Codes and Standards
This construction
type is addressed
by the codes/standards of the country

.
Title of the code
or standard: IS138281993 Improving Earthquake Resist
ance of Low Strength Masonr
y Buildings-Guidel
ines Year the first code/standard
addressing this type
of construction
issued: 1993 National buildi
ng code, material codes an
d seismic codes/standards:
IS 4326-1993 Indian Standard Code of Pr
actice for Earthquake Resi
stant Design and
Construction
of Buildings IS
1893-1984 Indian Standard Recommen
dations for Earthquake Resistant Design
of Structures
When was the most
recent code/standard
addressing this constr
uction type issued? 1993

There is no proper building code enforcement in rural areas

6.6 Building Permits and Development Control Rules

This type of construction is a non-engineered, and
not authorized
as per development control rules
Building permits are not required
to build this housing type

6.7 Building Maintenance

Typically, the building of this housing type is maintained by Owner(s)

.
6.8 Construction Economics
Rs. 440 per m ($10 per m)

.
Labor requirement is approx
imately 85 man-days for the co
nstruction of 22.5 m plan
building

REFERENCE
Author(s)
1.
Amit Kumar
Assistant Director,
Disaster Management Institute
Paryavaran Parisar E-5 Arera Colony,
Bhopal
462016,
INDIA
Email:Amitverma7@hotmail.com
FAX: (91-755) 46 7981

Reviewer(s)
1. Ravi Sinha
Professor
Civil Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai 400 076,
INDIA
Email:rsinha@civil.iitb.ac.in
FAX: (91-22) 2572-3480, 2576-7302