Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cost volume profit (CVP) analysis generally defined as a planning tool by which
manages can evaluate the effect of a change(s) in price, volume, variable cost or fixed
cost on profit. Additionally, CVP analysis is the basis for understanding contribution
margin pricing, related short-run decisions, target costing and transfer pricing. In the
marginal costing varies directly with the volume of production or output. On the other
hand, fixed cost remains unaltered regardless of the volume of output. In net effects, if
volume is changed, variable cost varies as per the changes in volume. In this case, selling
price remains fixed, fixed remains fixed and then there is a change in profit.
based on the same principles of classifying the operating expenses into fixed and
variable. Now-a-days it has become a powerful instrument in the hands of policy makers
to maximum profits.
There elements need to be related ion order to achieve the maximum profit. Apart
from profit projection, the concept of cost volume profit is relevant the short run. The
relationship among cost, revenue and profit at different levels may be expressed in graphs
undertakings. The most important factors influencing the earning of profit is the level of
of manufacturing and the volume of sales, volume of sales depends upon the volume of
profitability, it has to exercise control and management of costs, mainly variable cost.
better product mix, for profit planning and to maximize the profit of a concern.
These decisions can include such crucial areas as pricing policies, product mixes,
process. Given the broad range of context in which cost volume profit can be used.
In other words, it helps in locating the level of output which evenly breaks the
cost and revenues used in its broader sense, it means that system of analysis which
determine profit, cost and ales value at different levels of output. The cost Volume profit
Thus cost volume profit furnishes the complete picture of the profit structure. In
other word, cost volume profit is a management accounting tool that expresses
relationship among sales, volume, cost and profit. The cost volume analysis uses the
changes on sales and contribution on margin and net operating income. The level of sales
needed to achieve desired target profit, in order to predict changes in net operating
income. The data are cost sheet and balance sheet collected from the company.
COMPANY PROFILE
MANAGEMENT
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
The company is managed by the Managing Director, Joint Managing Director and
Executive Director - Operations subject to the superintendence, control and direction of
the board of directors.
The board of Directors of the company have an optimum combination of executive, Non-
Executive and independent directors, which compels with clause 49 of the listing
requirements as well. The entire board of the company is involved in selection,
Orientation and succession of directors.
EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS
Shri P. Vaidyanathan
Shri P.Vaidyanathan is a fellow member of The Institute of Chartered Accountants of
India and associate member of The Institute of Company Secretaries of India and The
Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India. Shri Vaidyanathan is the Chairman of
M/s Integrated Enterprises (India) Limited. He is also on the Board of reputed companies
viz., City Union Bank Limited, Economist Communications Limited and Templeton
Asset Management Pvt. Limited. Shri Vaidyanathan has had more than 32 years of
experience in the Finance functions.
Shri Kirti P Shah
Shri Kirti P Shah, an Industrialist, is an Engineering Graduate. Shri Shah is a Non-
Resident Indian. At present he is the President of M/s Custom Magnetics Inc., U.S.A.
Shri Shah has had more than 40 years of experience in the field of Engineering.
Shri S. Thiagarajan
Shri. S.Thiagarajan is a post graduate in Economics and a Certified Associate of the
Indian Institute of Bankers. He has over four decades of experience in the financial
services sector and has held various senior positions in Reserve Bank of India, Industrial
Development Bank of India and Small Industrial Development Bank of India.
Shri B. S. Mani
Shri. B.S.Mani is a post graduate in Literature and has a Diploma in Journalism from
Cardiff England. He has over 4 decades of experience in the Journalism. He is the
Chairman of Karnataka News Publications Private Limited, which publishes a Tamil
Daily outside Tamilnadu.
Shri N Chandrasekaran
Shri N.Chandrasekaran is a Mechanical Engineering Graduate with about 38 years
experience. He has held various executive positions during his career. He is the
Managing Director of M/s Fichtner Consulting Engineers (India) Pvt. Ltd. and M/s
Fortune Valley Agro Forms Pvt. Ltd. He is also on the Board of reputed companies viz.,
M/s EPT Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. and M/s Enmas Process Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
Infrastructrue
MILK PROCUREMENT
The Company has an excellent milk collection system with chilling centers in more than
36 locations and a fleet of more than 1348 vehicles on contract for procurement.
Its milk shed area is spread over 10 districts in Tamilnadu and 3 in Karnataka and covers
over 52,000 milk producers and 2000 medium and bulk milk vendors.
The Company is also involved in dairy extension services to farmers for the development
of livestock quality and yields.
Besides this the company also has tie up with banks for arranging agricultural loans to
milk producers.
More than 110 veterinary doctors under direct employment rendering full-scale animal
care to the milk producers.
PROCESSING
Hatsun's state of the art processing and packaging plants are located in Salem,
Kancheepuram, Madurai, Palacodu in TamilNadu and Honnali, Belgaum in Karnataka.
After procurement, milk vans then take the procured milk to these plants where the milk
has to undergo a quality test again to enter the plant. Then the weight is checked. After
that, using superior technologies milk is subjected to pasteurisation, homogenisation, and
bacteria clarification.
Hatsun is a pioneer in India of the world-acclaimed homogenisation processes where the
fat globules are broken and evenly distributed in the milk making it rich and wholesome.
An unyielding commitment to quality has formed the backbone of Hatsun's business
ethics right from its start. At every stage, intensive procedures to preserve quality are
undertaken to ensure the purity of the milk. The entire Hatsun staff work in harmony as
one family in enforcing the tough standards that Hatsun set for itself as basic guidelines.
Each milk packet packaged-using German technology-reaches the consumer with this
assurance: The Hatsun Quality.
DISTRIBUTION
Everyday Hatsun's fleet of puff-insulated trucks travel 3.9 times the distance around the
world, i.e. 1,82,730 km taking milk for consumption by homes across the states of
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Goa and Kerala. Hatsun takes pride in having its large cold-chain
network in India ensuring that each and every one of its consumers gets fresh milk day
after day.
LOGISTICS
The company has a strong logistics and distribution network in icecream and milk.
Around 1100 exclusive Arun Icecreams parlours spread over the entire Tamilnadu and
parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
The company has six cold room distribution points, strategically located for quick and
easy distribution of its products.
In the milk segment, the Company's distribution network comprises of 150 wholesale
distributors and above 10,000 dealers for Arokya and around 850 direct selling agents for
Hatsun Komatha milk.
More than 1348 vehicles handling distribution, and each covering a distance of 200 to
250 km every day.
The total distance travelled by company vehicles in procurement, marketing and other
administrative activities per day comes close to 1, 82, 730 km, which is equivalent to
going around the world 3.9 times a day.
RECOGNITION
Hatsun's dairies are ISO 9001:2000and HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point)
certified. The Salem plant has received ISO 14001and been certified eco-friendly. The
quality assurance of Hatsun ensures that stringent quality standards and norms of
American Dairy Products Institute (ADPI) are fully met. The success of Arun Icecreams
has been taken as a case study by the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad,
India's leading business school.
OUR NETWORK
The company has achieved excellence in establishing an extremely efficient supply chain
management, better logistics and widespread distribution network spearheaded by
exclusive franchisee outlets. All the brands of the company enjoy very strong brand
equity and despite being in a price sensitive market, its brands command a premium.
ARUN Icecream is sold through exclusive franchisee outlets and is occupying the top slot
in Tamilnadu and figures within the top three in the south India. With the commissioning
of plant in Belgaum, the company has entered into the Goa, Pune and southern districts of
Maharashtra markets. The company has also entered into International markets during the
financial year (2004-05). The company has implemented an arrangement, whereby Arun
icecream is now available in Seychelles. Arun Icecream is also being exported to Brunei.
CORPORATE MILESTONES
Arun Icecream Launch.
• 1970
• M/s. R.G. Chandramogan & Co. set up.
• 1986
• March- M/s. Hatsun Foods (HFPL) incorporated as a private limited company.
The same year HFPL was admitted as a partner in M/s. R.G. Chandramogan & Co.
• 1986
• April HFPL takes over M/s. R.G. Chandramogan & Co. HFPL was allowed to
register the brand name 'Arun' in its own name subject to a royalty payment of 1% on
the gross icecream sales.
• 1991
• MPD Factory (Atlantic) - Salem Inauguration.
• 1993
• Hatsun Dairy Private Limited (HDPL), promoted by M/s. Hatsun Foods
Private Limited, established.
Salem Dairy - Inauguration.
• 1995
• M/s. Hatsun Foods goes public. Changes name to Hatsun Agro Product Limited.
Icecream Factory - Red Hills - Inauguration.
• 1998
• Hatsun Milk Product Limited (formerly known as HFPL amalgamated with
Hatsun Agro Product Limited.
• 2000
• Belgaum Dairy - Inauguration.
Kanchipuram Dairy Acquisition.
• 2004
• Dairy Ingredient Plant - Inauguration (Salem & Kanchipuram)
FINANCIAL RESULTS
The company's sales have grown from a level of INR 190.9 million (approx. USD 4
million) in 1997 to INR 8694 million (approx. US$ 183 million) in 2008. The company's
PBDITA has increased from INR 25.14 million (approx. US$ 0.53 million) in 1997 to
INR 614 million (approx US$ 12.92 million) in 2008.
The equity base with reserves stand at Rs.481 million (approx US$ 10.12 million) and
gross asset base of more than Rs.2332 million (approx US$ 49.09 million).
SHARE CAPITAL
The Company made its maiden public issue of 18,00,000 equity shares of Rs.10/- at a
premium of Rs.35/- per share. The issue was well subscribed. The present listed and paid-
up Equity Share Capital of the company is Rs.6.79 Crore with a shareholder base of
3,772 as of 30th September, 2008.
LIST OF SHARES
The Company's Equity Shares are listed on Bombay Stock Exchange Limited and the
shares are regularly traded.
PROCURING WITH CARE
The company procures around 1.65 million litre of liquid milk per day by directly
collecting it from farmers spread over 4500 villages in south India. Hatsun has its own
infrastructure of milk collection centre & chilling centre for procuring & handling of raw
milk.
Over 350 field's staffs are employed to ensure timely collection, testing of milk at the
point of collection, weekly payment; cattle feed sales, encouraging farmers to grow their
herd size, bank loans, animal insurance, training farmers on a better animal management
and clean milking.
Over 100 veterinary doctors and 160 inseminators under direct employment, assist in
artificial insemination, feed management, breed management, vaccination program and
render full scale animal health care.
Milk process
Hatsun operates state of the art processing plants at 6 locations. Rigorous milk testing is
done at each of these locations. The raw milk when received is bacteria clarified by use
of west Falia Bactofuge. The milk is then sent either for fresh product processing or for
manufacturing of dairy ingredients.
An unyielding commitment to quality has formed the backbone of Hatsun's business
ethics right from its start. Intensive procedures to pressure the quality are undertaken to
ensure the purity.
Handling capacity of 1.7 million litre of milk per day, including Fresh milk and Dairy
ingredients.
ISO 22000:2005, ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 9001:2000 certified manufacturing facilities
that have been extensively upgraded in the last three years.
Only company in India using Bactofuge Technology (from West Falia-Germany) to
clarify liquid milk.
State-of-the-art laboratory for process control, product quality control including Micro
Biological lab and product development.
Capable of being scaled up for higher volumes and enhanced product range.
Well - maintained assets.
Top
Product
ICECREAM
ARUN ICECREAM
Arun: An insight Arun Icecreams believes in the motto "Customer is the King". Arun
Icecreams, a feather in the cap of Hatsun is a brand leader in the icecream market. Today,
Arun is the largest selling icecream brand in south India. It sells its icecreams through
exclusive parlours spread all over Tamilnadu, and parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra
Pradesh. With over 70 unforgettable varieties, Arun continues to delight millions of
customers.
Arun Icecreams success was due to the below said reasons
More
And now Arun introduces the whole new concept in icecream retailing in south India, the
Unlimited concept.
Arun Unlimited offers the customer a wide range of flavours with unlimited options of
creating ones own sundaes. The customer is given the option to choose his own choice of
icecream and toppings or sauces to go with it. In addition to allowing customers to create
their own combinations, The Arun Unlimited has a sundae menu of proprietary and
innovative creations ready for customers to enjoy. We even offer take away icecreams.
The parlours are decorated to offer a vibrant, fun and friendly experience.
Currently operational at Chennai's leading shopping mall - Spencer plaza and also stand
alone parlours at Annanagar, R.K.Salai , Besant nagar, Egmore etc...
Arun Unlimited also operates inside the most renowned IT parks like Chennai one and IT
giants like Accenture.
Arun Unlimited is very much on its way marching ahead to become the leading icecream
Retail chain in southIndia in years to come.
MILK / AROKYA
OVERVIEW
Arokya - Milk that suits children & adults alike !!!
Arokya has more nutrition and butterfat. Growing children can consume Arokya because
it's wholesome and nourishing. It fortifies the bones with calcium, proteins and minerals.
In case of adults, Arokya can be diluted with water & used.
Arokya is a healthy and ready nourishment for growing children. Fortified with 4.5%
butterfat, Arokya helps in the growth of vital strengths of a child - both physical and
mental. It contains adequate quantities of calcium and phospholipids for development of
the bones and brain respectively.
Unlike toned milk where butterfat is removed to make it only 3%, Arokya has 4.5%
butterfat. Hence the catchy slogan attached to it: Nothing added. Nothing removed.
Nobody underscores the need for healthy foods more than the World Health Organisation
(WHO). In fact, World Children's Fund (WCF)-a body recognized by WHO-believes that
milk with 4.5% butterfat is best for growing children.
It is very critical to give every child the right kind of food and nutrients, and to give the
child just when he needs them the most. If you are looking to make your child skilled,
agile and admired, switch to Arokya. And watch your child excel.
OVERVIEW
Quality that's perfect for the World
Hatsun's Range of Dairy Ingredients is made directly from Liquid Milk and contains all
the premium qualities and Nutritional benefits of Fresh COW'S MILK.
Hatsun's Procurement team ensures timely collection, testing of milk at the point of
collection, cattle feed sales, encouraging farmers to grow their herd size, training farmers
on a better animal management and clean milking. Over 110 veterinary doctors under
direct employment assist in artificial insemination, feed management, breed management,
vaccination program and also render full-scale animal care.
Hatsun's Dairy Ingredients are processed at the state-of-the-art processing technology run
by people with strong technological capabilities. These, together with an innovative and
flexible approach, enable us to manufacture a range of high quality products.
Hatsun has an annual production of 20,000 MT of Milk Powders and 11,000 MT of milk
Fat at present.
Quality
QUALITY
Preamble: We at "Hatsun" from management to down the line i.e. land/floor are
conscious and continue to strive hard to achieve high level of pledge in obtaining pure
milk and safe products. Scruple sly & sincerely IS standard of analysis are followed
"before - during - after"; at procurement point, collection bank point, raw fresh milk
reception point, Chilled milk point, market milk point, dairy ingredients point, dairy by-
products point. Particularly physical, chemistry, microbiology, residue monitoring are
applied at all necessary point in order to comply & to provide comfortable milk & milk
products. This applies from cow to commercial.
COW TO COMMERCIAL ANALYSIS SUBJECTIVE STRATEGY:
At Fresh milk collection centre i.e. Hatsun Milk bank (HMB) First stage analysis):-
Fresh Milk is procured and poured at our dedicated (major) fresh milk collection centre
i.e. Hatsun Milk Bank (HMB).
PHYSICAL EVALUATION:
• Organ optic evaluation i.e. sensory evaluation is carried out by our trained HMB
personal
• Milk is measured i.e. computerized.
• Cleanliness of milk cans.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:
At Chilling centre raw fresh milk reception dock (Second tire analysis): -
PHYSICAL EVALUATION:
• Organ optic evaluation i.e. sensory evaluation is carried out by our trained HMB
personal
• Milk is measured i.e. computerized.
• Cleanliness of milk cans.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:
CHEMICAL OF MILK:
MICROBIOLOGY OF MILK:
• MBRT of milk
• Antibiotic residue test
• CAP residue test
• Standard plat count enumeration
• Coli form enumeration
• Homogenization efficiency
• The entire test stated above to confirm its declaration on the package.
Constant monitoring, feed-back and collection of various datas have played and playing a
major roll in our assurance of safe products to our royal - real ultimate customers.
CLIENTELE
We have prestigious customers who are very satisfied with our consistent quality and
services spread across 40 countries around the world.
Blending
First the ingredients are selected based on the desired formulation and the calculation of
the recipe from the formulation and the ingredients chosen, then the ingredients are
weighed and blended together to produce what is known as the "ice cream mix".
Blending requires rapid agitation to incorporate powders, and often high speed blenders
are used.
Pasteurization
The mix is then pasteurized. Pasteurization is the biological control point in the system,
designed for the destruction of pathogenic bacteria. In addition to this very important
function, pasteurization also reduces the number of spoilage organisms such as
psychrotrophs, and helps to hydrate some of the components (proteins, stabilizers).
Pasteurization (Ontario regulations): 69° C/30 min. 80° C/25s
Both batch pasteurizers and continuous (HTST) methods are used.
Batch pasteurizers lead to more whey protein denaturation, which some people feel gives
a better body to the ice cream. In a batch pasteurization system, blending of the proper
ingredient amounts is done in large jacketed vats equipped with some means of heating,
usually steam or hot water. The product is then heated in the vat to at least 69 C (155 F)
and held for 30 minutes to satisfy legal requirements for pasteurization, necessary for the
destruction of pathogenic bacteria. Various time temperature combinations can be used.
The heat treatment must be severe enough to ensure destruction of pathogens and to
reduce the bacterial count to a maximum of 100,000 per gram. Following pasteurization,
the mix is homogenized by means of high pressures and then is passed across some type
of heat exchanger (plate or double or triple tube) for the purpose of cooling the mix to
refrigerated temperatures (4 C). Batch tanks are usually operated in tandem so that one is
holding while the other is being prepared. Automatic timers and valves ensure the proper
holding time has been met.
Continuous pasteurization (see schematic diagram for mix here) is usually performed in a
high temperature short time (HTST) heat exchanger following blending of ingredients in
a large, insulated feed tank. Some preheating, to 30 to 40 C, is necessary for
solubilization of the components. The HTST system is equipped with a heating section, a
cooling section, and a regeneration section. Cooling sections of ice cream mix HTST
presses are usually larger than milk HTST presses. Due to the preheating of the mix,
regeneration is lost and mix entering the cooling section is still quite warm.
Homogenization
The mix is also homogenized which forms the fat emulsion by breaking down or
reducing the size of the fat globules found in milk or cream to less than 1 µ m. Two stage
homogenization is usually preferred for ice cream mix. Clumping or clustering of the fat
is reduced thereby producing a thinner, more rapidly whipped mix. Melt-down is also
improved. Homogenization provides the following functions in ice cream manufacture:
By helping to form the fat structure, it also has the following indirect effects:
Homogenization of the mix should take place at the pasteurizing temperature. The high
temperature produces more efficient breaking up of the fat globules at any given pressure
and also reduces fat clumping and the tendency to thick, heavy bodied mixes. No one
pressure can be recommended that will give satisfactory results under all conditions. The
higher the fat and total solids in the mix, the lower the pressure should be. If a two stage
homogenizer is used, a pressure of 2000 - 2500 psi on the first stage and 500 - 1000 psi
on the second stage should be satisfactory under most conditions. Two stage
homogenization is usually preferred for ice cream mix. Clumping or clustering of the fat
is reduced thereby producing a thinner, more rapidly whipped mix. Melt-down is also
improved.
Ageing
The mix is then aged for at least four hours and usually overnight. This allows time for
the fat to cool down and crystallize, and for the proteins and polysaccharides to fully
hydrate. Aging provides the following functions:
• Improves whipping qualities of mix and body and texture of ice cream
.
It does so by:
• providing time for fat crystallization, so the fat can partially coalesce;
• allowing time for full protein and stabilizer hydration and a resulting slight
viscosity increase;
• allowing time for membrane rearrangement and protein/emulsifier interaction, as
emulsifiers displace proteins from the fat globule surface, which allows for a
reduction in stabilization of the fat globules and enhanced partial coalescence.
Aging is performed in insulated or refrigerated storage tanks, silos, etc. Mix temperature
should be maintained as low as possible without freezing, at or below 5 C. An aging time
of overnight is likely to give best results under average plant conditions. A "green" or
unaged mix is usually quickly detected at the freezer.
The rate of heat transfer in a frezing porcess is affected by the temperature difference, the
surface area exposed and the heat transfer coefficient (Q=U A dT). Thus, the factors
affecting hardening are those affecting this rate of heat transfer:
• Temperature of blast freezer - the colder the temperature, the faster the hardening,
the smoother the product.
• Rapid circulation of air - increases convective heat transfer.
• Temperature of ice cream when placed in the hardening freezer - the colder the
ice cream at draw, the faster the hardening; - must get through packaging
operations fast.
• Size of container - exposure of maximum surface area to cold air, especially
important to consider shrink wrapped bundles - they become a much larger mass
to freeze. Bundling should be done after hardening.
• Composition of ice cream - related to freezing point depression and the
temperature required to ensure a significantly high ice phase volume.
• Method of stacking containers or bundles to allow air circulation. Circulation
should not be impeded - there should be no 'dead air' spaces (e.g., round vs.
square packages).
• Care of evaporator - freedom from frost - acts as insulator.
• Package type, should not impede heat transfer - e.g., styrofoam liner or corrugated
cardboard may protect against heat shock after hardening, but reduces heat
transfer during freezing so not feasible.
Ice cream from the dynamic freezing process (continuous freezer) can also be
transformed into an array of novely/impulse products through a variety of filling and
forming machines, which have ben identified on a separate page.
OBJECTIVES
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE:
To analyze the Cost Volume Profit and its impacts at HUTSUN AGRO PRODUCT
LTD.
SECONDARY OBJECTIVE:
1. To identify the effect of breakeven point for Arun ice cream and ascertain which
product is as advantages.
PRODUCT LTD. The analysis done in the cost sheet are Breakeven analysis, profit
volume, etc., these calculation cover the major areas like contribution margin, profit.
This would be useful for company to make new strategy to compete in the market by
This study was conducted only on overall cost volume profit analysis and not on
each and every variables. This study to help to forecast profit fairly and accurately as it is
This study assists in evaluation of performance for the purpose of control and also
assists in formulating policies by showing the effect of different price structure on costs
and profits.
production.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Cost volume profit analysis is one of the most hallowed, and yet one of the
simplest, analytical tool in management accounting. In a general sense, it provides a
sweeping financial overview of the planning process (Horngren Al., 1994).
That overview allows managers to examine the possible impacts of a wide range
of strategic decisions. These decisions can include such crucial areas as pricing policies,
product mixes, market expansion or contractions, outsourcing contracts, idle plant usage,
discretionary expenses planning and a variety of other important considerations in the
planning process. Given the board range of context in which cost volume profit can be
used.
The basic simplicity of cost volume profit is quite remarkable. Armed with just
three inputs of data – Sales price, variable cost per unit, and fixed cost – a managerial
analyst can evaluate the effect of decision that potentially alter the basic nature of a firm.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The secondary data is collected from the annual report of HUTSUN AGRO
PRODUCT LTD records maintained in the Finance Department.
RESEARCH DESIGN:
The researcher has to use facts or information already availability and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the materials.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
SECONDARY DATA
The secondary data is to be collected from the financial reviews of the company it
consists of Trading account which already been collected by the company.
ANALYTICAL TOOL;
BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS;
The breakeven analysis indicates at what level cost and revenue an in equilibrium.
It is a simple and easily understandable method of presenting to management the effect of
changes in volume on profit detailed analysis of breakeven data will reveal to
management the effect alternative decision which reduce or increase cost and which
increases sales volume and income. It is a device which portrays the effects of any type
of future planning by evaluating alternative course of action.
BREAKEVEN POINT;
Under this analysis at the breakeven point profit being zero, contribution is equal
to the fixed cost. If the actual volume of sales is higher than the breakeven volume, there
will be a profit.
Fixed Cost
Breakeven sales (in Rupees) = _____________________
Fixed Cost
Breakeven point (in units) = _________________
Contribution units
There are multiple products with different has a direct effect on the fixed cost
recovery and total profits of the firm. Different products have different profit volume
ratio because of different selling price and variable cost. The total profit depend to some
extent upon the proportion is the products are sold.
Fixed Cost
B/E Sales = _________________ * 100
Total Contribution
MARGIN OF SAFETY;
This is the difference between the sales and breakeven point. If the distance is
relatively short it indicates that a small drop in production or sales will reduces profit
considerably. If the distance is long it means that the businesses can still making profit
even after a serious drop in production. It is important that there should be a reasonable
margin of safety otherwise reduces level of production may prove dangerous.
Margin of Safety
Margin of Safety = _____________________ * 100
Sales
It can be appropriately used to solve most of the problems of cost volume profit
analysis.
Profit is different from the contribution which is net margin increasing after reducing
fixed expenses from the total contribution profit can be ascertained as given below
Operating leverage is determined by the firm’s sales revenue and its earnings before
interest and tax (EBIT). The earnings before interest and taxes are called as operating
profit ( EBIT), while financial leverage can be quite significant for the earning available
to ordinary shareholders.
EBIT
Financial Leverage = ____________
Profit
Contribution
Operating Leverage = ____________
EBIT
Contribution
Combined Leverage = _________________
EBT
The P/V ratio which establishes the relationship between contribution and sales is of
vital importance for studying the profitability of operation of a business. It reveals the
effects on profit of changes the volume. The profit volume ratio is also called the
contribution ratio or Marginal ratio.
Contribution
Contribution Margin ratio = ________________ * 100
Sale
TREND ANALYSIS:
Trend is the long term movement of a time series. It helps to ascertain the growth
factor. If a trend can be ascertained and tentative estimates concerning future is made
accordingly. The equation for the straight lines used to describe the linear relationship
between independent variable and the dependent variables.
Y = a + b(x)
The income statement discloses net profit or net loss on account of operations. A
comparative income statement will show the absolute figures for two or more periods.
The absolute change from one period to another and if desired. The change in terms of
percentages. Since, the figures for two or more periods are shown side by side; the reader
can quickly ascertain whether sales have increased or decreased, whether cost of sales has
increased or decreased etc.