Name: IROY, Ian Christopher V.

Subject: THEORY 1
Section: CE 4-1
______________

Chapter : _____________
Date Due: ________

Date Submitted:

Title: __________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 2: LOADS ON STRUCTURE

SUMMARY
DEAD LOADS
- A dead load when on a structure it is the result of the weight or a force
that exerted on an object of permanent components like the beams,
columns, floor slabs as well as walls. These components usually
produce the same constant 'dead' load that is during the lifespan of the
building.
LIVE LOADS
- Live loads, or imposed loads, are
temporary, of short duration, or a moving
load. These dynamic loads may involve
considerations
such
as
impact,
momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of
fluids and material fatigue. Live loads,
sometimes also referred to as probabilistic
loads, include all the forces that are
variable within the object's normal
operation cycle not including construction
or environmental loads.
- Weight of everything superimposed on, or temporarily attached to, a
structure (people, machinery and equipment, furniture, appliances,
etc.) but not that of the material utilized in its construction or of anything
permanently attached to it.
IMPACT LOADS
- Impact Loading, generally when the strength of machine elements
are considered. It is assumed that the loading is static or applied
gradually. This loading condition is often not the case, the loading may
be cyclic requiring assessment for fatigue. Fatigue Index or it may
involve impact or suddenly applied loads. When loads are applied
suddenly and when the loads are applied as impact loads the resulting

stresses induced in the machine elements are much higher than if the
loads are applied gradually. It is normal practice to design machines
such that impact loads are eliminated or reduced by inclusion of shock
absorbers.
WIND LOADS
- when structures block the flow of wind, the winds kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind
loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density
and velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape
and stiffness of the structure, and the roughness of its surface. For
design purposes, wind loadings can be treated using either a static or a
dynamic approach.
SNOW LOADS
- Snow load is the weight of the snow (generally reported in pounds per
square foot). The weight of the snow
will vary depending on its water
content. Snow load on the ground
can provide a rough indication of
roof snow load, but roof snow loads
also depend upon factors such as
melting and re-freezing of snow and
ice, drifting, roof slope, type of roof,
and design features.
- The amount of weight that a roof can safely support is based on local
building code requirements and should be available within the design
specifications for your building. If the structure or roof has structural
deterioration, the roof might support less weight than would otherwise
be expected.
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
- The total force exerted on a structure by an earthquake.
- The seismic loads on the structure during an earthquake result from
inertia forces which were created by ground accelerations. The
magnitude of these loads is a function of the following factors: mass of
the building, the dynamic properties of the building, the intensity,
duration, and frequency content of the ground motion, and soilstructure interaction.

 HYDROSTATIC
&
SOIL
PRESSURES
- when structures are used to
retain water, soil, or granular
materials,
the
pressure
developed by these loadings
becomes
an
important
criterion for their design. Examples of such types of structures
include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining walls. Here the
laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the
intensity of the loadings on the structure.
THERMAL AND OTHER EFFECTS
- statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due
to temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors,
and differential settlements of supports. Although these effects are
usually not addressed in building codes, they may cause significant
stresses in structures and should be considered in their designs.
LOAD COMBINATIONS
- as stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a
structure have been estimated, an engineer must consider all loads
that might act simultaneously on the structure at a given time. For
example, it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and the maximum
wind loads will occur simultaneously. Based on past experience and
probability analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard specifies various load
combinations to be considered when designing structures. It is
important to realize that the structure must be designed to have
adequate strength to resist the most unfavorable of all the load
combinations. In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety
requirements, a structure must also satisfy any serviceability
requirements related to its intended use. For example, a high-rise
building may be perfectly safe, yet unserviceable if it deflects or
vibrates excessively due to wind. The serviceability requirements
are specified in building codes for most common types of structures
and are usually concerned with deflections, vibrations, cracking,
corrosion, and fatigue.