Musical Analysis - Wikipedia

Musical analysis - Wikipedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_analysis
Musical analysis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Musical analysis "is the means of answering directly the question 'How
does it work?'."(Bent 1987, 5) The method employed to answer this
question, and indeed exactly what is meant by the question, differs from
analyst to analyst, and according to the purpose of the analysis.
According to Ian Bent (1987, 6), "its emergence as an approach and
method can be traced back to the 1750s. However it existed as a
scholarly tool, albeit an auxiliary one, from the Middle Ages onwards."
Adolf Bernhard Marx was influential in formalising concepts about
composition and music understanding towards the second half of the
19th century (Pederson 2001).
The principle of analysis has been variously criticized, especially by composers, such as Edgard
Varse's claim that, "to explain by means of [analysis] is to decompose, to mutilate the spirit of a
work" (quoted in Bernard 1981, 1).
Contents
1 Analyses
2 Techniques
2.1 Discretization
2.2 Composition
3 Analytical situations
3.1 Compositional analysis
3.2 Perceptual analysis
3.3 Analyses of the immanent level
3.4 Nonformalized analyses
3.5 Formalized analyses
3.6 Intermediary analyses
4 Divergent analyses
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Analyses
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Some analysts, such as Donald Francis Tovey (whose Essays in Musical Analysis are among the
most accessible musical analyses) have presented their analyses in prose. Others, such as Hans
Keller (who devised a technique he called Functional Analysis) used no prose commentary at all in
some of their work.
There have been many notable analysts other than Tovey and Keller. One of the best known and
most influential was Heinrich Schenker, who developed Schenkerian analysis, a method that seeks
to describe all tonal classical works as elaborations ("prolongations") of a simple contrapuntal
sequence. Ernst Kurth coined the term of "developmental motif". Rudolph Rti is notable for
tracing the development of small melodic motifs through a work, while Nicolas Ruwet's analysis
amounts to a kind of musical semiology.
Musicologists associated with the new musicology often use musical analysis (traditional or not)
along with or to support their examinations of the performance practice and social situations in
which music is produced and that produce music, and vice versa. Insights from the social
considerations may then yield insight into analysis methods.
Edward Cone (1989,) argues that musical analysis lies in between description and prescription.
Description consists of simple non-analytical activities such as labeling chords with Roman
numerals or tone-rows with integers or row-form, while the other extreme, prescription, consists of
"the insistence upon the validity of relationships not supported by the text." Analysis must, rather,
provide insight into listening without forcing a description of a piece that cannot be heard.
Techniques
Many techniques are used to analyze music. Metaphor and figurative description may be a part of
analysis, and a metaphor used to describe pieces, "reifies their features and relations in a
particularly pungent and insightful way: it makes sense of them in ways not formerly possible."
(Guck 1994, 71) Even absolute music may be viewed as a, "metaphor for the universe," or nature
as, "perfect form" (Dahlhaus 1989, 8, 29 cited in Bauer 2004, 131).
Discretization
The process of analysis often involves breaking the piece down into relatively simpler and smaller
parts. Often, the way these parts fit together and interact with each other is then examined. This
process of discretization or segmentation is often considered, as by Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990),
necessary for music to become accessible to analysis. Fred Lerdahl (1992, 11213) argues that
discretization is necessary even for perception by learned listeners, thus making it a basis of his
analyses, and finds pieces such as Artikulation by Gyrgy Ligeti inaccessible (Lerdahl 1988, 235)
while Rainer Wehinger (1970) created a "Hrpartitur" or "score for listening" for the piece,
representing different sonorous effects with specific graphic symbols much like a transcription.
Composition
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Analysis often displays a compositional impulse while composition often expresses "display[s] an
analytical impulse" but where "intertextual analyses often succeed through simple verbal
description there are good reasons to literally compose the proposed connections. We actually hear
how these songs resonate with one another, comment upon and affect one another...in a way, the
music speaks for itself" (BaileyShea 2007,). This analytic bent is most obvious in recomposition
including the mash-ups of popular music.
Analytical situations
Analysis is an activity most often engaged in by musicologists and most often applied to western
classical music, although music of non-western cultures and of unnotated oral traditions is also
often analysed. An analysis can be conducted on a single piece of music, on a portion or element of
a piece or on a collection of pieces. A musicologist's stance is his or her analytical situation. This
includes the physical dimension or corpus being studied, the level of stylistic relevance studied, and
whether the description provided by the analysis is of its immanent structure, compositional (or
poietic) processes, perceptual (or esthesic) processes (Nattiez 1990, 13536), all three, or a mixture.
Stylistic levels may be hierarchized as an inverted triangle:
universals of music
system (style) of reference
style of a genre or an epoch
style of composer X
style of a period in the life of a composer
work
(Nattiez 1990, 136, who also points to Nettl 1964, 177, Boretz 1972, 146, and Meyer)
Nattiez outlines six analytical situations, preferring the sixth:
Poietic processes
1
2 x
3 x
Immanent
structures of the
work
x
Immanent
analysis
x
Esthesic processes
Inductive
poietics
x
External
poietics
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x
Inductive
esthesics
x
x
External
esthesics
=
x
=
x
Communication between the three levels
x
6 x
(Nattiez 1990, 140)

Examples:
1. "...tackles only the immanent configuration of the work." Allen Forte's musical set theory
2. "...proceed[s] from an analysis of the neutral level to drawing conclusions about the poietic."
Reti (1951, 194206), analysis of Debussy's la Cathdrale engloutie
3. The reverse of the previous, taking "a poietic documentletters, plans, sketches ... and
analyzes the work in the light of this information." Paul Mie (1929), "stylistic analysis of
Beethoven in terms of the sketches"
4. The most common, grounded in "perceptive introspection, or in a certain number of general
ideas concerning musical perception ... a musicologist ... describes what they think is the
listener's perception of the passage" Meyer (1956, 48), analysis of measures 911 of Bach's C
minor fugue in Book I of the Well-Tempered Clavier
5. "Begins with information collected from listeners to attempt to understand how the work has
been perceived ... obviously how experimental psychologists would work"
6. "The case in which an immanent analysis is equally relevant to the poietic as to the esthesic."
Schenkerian analysis, which, based on the sketches of Beethoven (external poietics)
eventually show through analysis how the works must be played and perceived (inductive
esthesics)
Compositional analysis
Jacques Chailley (1951, 104) views analysis entirely from a compositional viewpoint, arguing that,
"since analysis consists of 'putting oneself in the composer's shoes,' and explaining what he was
experiencing as he was writing, it is obvious that we should not think of studying a work in terms
of criteria foreign to the author's own preoccupations, no more in tonal analysis than in harmonic
analysis."
Perceptual analysis
On the other hand, Fay (1971, 112) argues that, "analytic discussions of music are often concerned
with processes that are not immediately perceivable. It may be that the analyst is concerned merely
with applying a collection of rules concerning practice, or with the description of the compositional
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process. But whatever he [or she] aims, he often fails -- most notably in twentieth-century music -to illuminate our immediate musical experience," and thus views analysis entirely from a perceptual
viewpoint, as does Edward Cone (1960, 36), "true analysis works through and for the ear. The
greatest analysts are those with the keenest ears; their insights reveal how a piece of music should
be heard, which in turn implies how it should be played. An analysis is a direction for
performance," and Thomson (1970, 196): "It seems only reasonable to believe that a healthy
analytical point of view is that which is so nearly isomorphic with the perceptual act."
Analyses of the immanent level

Analyses of the immanent level include analyses by Alder, Heinrich Schenker, and the "ontological
structuralism" of the analyses of Pierre Boulez, who says in his analysis of The Rite of Spring
(Boulez 1966, 142), "must I repeat here that I have not pretended to discover a creative process, but
concern myself with the result, whose only tangibles are mathematical relationships? If I have been
able to find all these structural characteristics, it is because they are there, and I don't care whether
they were put there consciously or unconsciously, or with what degree of acuteness they informed
[the composer's] understanding of his conception; I care very little for all such interaction between
the work and 'genius.'"
Again, Nattiez (1990, 13839) argues that the above three approaches, by themselves, are
necessarily incomplete and that an analysis of all three levels is required. Jean Molino (1975a,
5051) shows that musical analysis shifted from an emphasis upon the poietic vantage point to an
esthesic one at the beginning of the eighteenth century (Nattiez 1990, 137).
Nonformalized analyses
Nattiez distinguishes between nonformalized and formalized analyses. Nonformalized analyses,
apart from musical and analytical terms, do not use resources or techniques other than language. He
further distinguishes nonformalized analyses between impressionistic, paraphrases, or hermeneutic
readings of the text (explications de texte). Impressionistic analyses are in "a more or less
high-literary style, proceeding from an initial selection of elements deemed characteristic," such as
the following description of the opening of Claude Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun:
"The alternation of binary and ternary divisions of the eighth notes, the sly feints made by the three
pauses, soften the phrase so much, render it so fluid, that it escapes all arithmetical rigors. It floats
between heaven and earth like a Gregorian chant; it glides over signposts marking traditional
divisions; it slips so furtively between various keys that it frees itself effortlessly from their grasp,
and one must await the first appearance of a harmonic underpinning before the melody takes
graceful leave of this causal atonality" (Vuillermoz 1957, 64).
Paraphrases are a "respeaking" in plain words of the events of the text with little interpretation or
addition, such as the following description of the "Boure" of Bach's Third Suite: "An anacrusis, an
initial phrase in D major. The figure marked (a) is immediately repeated, descending through a
third, and it is employed throughout the piece. This phrase is immediately elided into its
consequent, which modulates from D to A major. This figure (a) is used again two times, higher
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each time; this section is repeated" (Warburton 1952, 151).

"Hermeneutic reading of a musical text is based on a description, a 'naming' of the melody's
elements, but adds to it a hermeneutic and phenomenological depth that, in the hands of a talented
writer, can result in genuine interpretive masterworks.... All the illustrations in Abraham's and
Dahlhaus's Melodielehre (1972) are historical in character; Rosen's essays in The Classical Style
(1971) seek to grasp the essence of an epoch's style; Meyer's analysis of Beethoven's Farewell
Sonata (1973: 242-68) penetrates melody from the vantage point of perceived structures." He gives
as a last example the following description of Franz Schubert's Unfinished Symphony: "The
transition from first to second subject is always a difficult piece of musical draughtsmanship; and in
the rare cases where Schubert accomplishes it with smoothness, the effort otherwise exhausts him
to the verge of dullness (as in the slow movement of the otherwise great A minor Quartet). Hence,
in his most inspired works the transition is accomplished by an abrupt coup de thtre; and of all
such coups, no doubt the crudest is that in the Unfinished Symphony. Very well then; here is a new
thing in the history of the symphony, not more new, not more simple than the new things which
turned up in each of Beethoven's nine. Never mind its historic origin, take it on its merits. Is it not a
most impressive moment?" (Tovey 1978, 2131990, 162163).
Formalized analyses
Formalized analyses propose models for melodic functions or simulate music. Meyer distinguishes
between global models, which "provide an image of the whole corpus being studied, by listing
characteristics, classifying phenomena, or both; they furnish statistical evaluation," and linear
models which "do not try to reconstitute the whole melody in order of real time succession of
melodic events. Linear models ... describe a corpus by means of a system of rules encompassing
not only the hierarchical organization of the melody, but also the distribution, environment, and
context of events, examples including the explanation of "succession of pitches in New Guinean
chants in terms of distributional constraints governing each melodic interval" by Chenoweth (1972,
1979), the transformational analysis by Herndon (1974, 1975), and the "grammar for the soprano
part in Bach's chorales [which,] when tested by computer ... allows us to generate melodies in
Bach's style" by Baroni and Jacoboni (1976,).
Global models are further distinguished as analysis by traits, which "identify the presence or
absence of a particular variable, and makes a collective image of the song, genre, or style being
considered by means of a table, or classificatory analysis, which sorts phenomena into classes," one
example being "trait listing" by Helen Roberts (1955, 222), and classificatory analysis, which "sorts
phenomena into classes," examples being the universal system for classifying melodic contours by
Kolinski (1956). Classificatory analyses often call themselves taxonomical. "Making the basis for
the analysis explicit is a fundamental criterion in this approach, so delimiting units is always
accompanied by carefully defining units in terms of their constituent variables."
Intermediary analyses
Nattiez lastly proposes intermediary models "between reductive formal precision, and impressionist
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laxity." These include Schenker, Meyer (classification of melodic structure in Meyer 1973, chapter
7), Narmour, and Lerdahl-Jackendoff's "use of graphics without appealing to a system of
formalized rules," complementing and not replacing the verbal analyses. These are in contrast to the
formalized models of Babbitt (1972) and Boretz (1969). According to Nattiez, Boretz "seems to be
confusing his own formal, logical model with an immanent essence he then ascribes to music," and
Babbitt "defines a musical theory as a hypothetical-deductive system ... but if we look closely at
what he says, we quickly realize that the theory also seeks to legitimize a music yet to come; that
is, that it is also normative ... transforming the value of the theory into an aesthetic norm ... from an
anthropological standpoint, that is a risk that is difficult to countenance." Similarly, "Boretz
enthusiastically embraces logical formalism, while evading the question of knowing how the
datawhose formalization he proposeshave been obtained" (Nattiez 1990, 167).
Divergent analyses
Typically a given work is analyzed by more than one person and different or divergent analyses are
created. For instance, the first two bars of the prelude to Claude Debussy's Pellas et Mlisande:
Debussy Pelleas et Melisande prelude opening.
Play
are analyzed differently by Leibowitz (1971), Laloy, van Appledorn, and Christ (1966). Leibowitz
analyses this succession harmonically as D minor:I-VII-V, ignoring melodic motion, Laloy analyses
the succession as D:I-V, seeing the G in the second measure as an ornament, and both van
Appledorn and Christ (1966,) analyses the succession as D:I-VII.
Nattiez (1990, 173) argues that this divergence is due to the analysts' respective analytic situations,
and to what he calls transcendent principles (1997b: 853, what George Holton might call
"themata"), the "philosophical project[s]", "underlying principles", or a prioris of analyses, one
example being Nattiez's use of the tripartitional definition of sign, and what, after epistemological
historian Paul Veyne, he calls plots.
Van Appledorn sees the succession as D:I-VII so as to allow the interpretation of the first chord in
measure five, which Laloy sees as a dominant seventh on D (V/IV) with a diminished fifth (despite
that the IV doesn't arrive till measure twelve), while van Appledorn sees it as a French sixth on D,
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D-F-Ab-[C] in the usual second inversion. This means that D is the second degree and the
required reference to the first degree, C, being established by the D:VII or C major chord. "The
need to explain the chord in measure five establishes that C-E-G is 'equally important' as the
D-(F)-A of measure one." Leibowitz (1971,) gives only the bass for chord, E indicating the
progression I-II an "unreal" progression in keeping with his "dialectic between the real and the
unreal" used in the analysis, while Christ explains the chord as an augmented eleventh with a bass
of B, interpreting it as a traditional tertian extended chord.
Debussy's Plleas et Mlisande prelude, measures 56.

Play
Not only does an analyst select particular traits, they arrange them according to a plot [intrigue]....
Our sense of the component parts of a musical work, like our sense of historical 'facts,' is mediated
by lived experience." (176)
While John Blacking (1973, 1718), among others, holds that "there is ultimately only one
explanation and ... this could be discovered by a context-sensitive analysis of the music in culture,"
according to Nattiez (1990: 168) and others, "there is never only one valid musical analysis for any
given work." Blacking gives as example: "everyone disagrees hotly and stakes his [or her]
academic reputation on what Mozart really meant in this or that bar of his symphonies, concertos,
or quartets. If we knew exactly what went on inside Mozart's mind when he wrote them, there
could be only one explanation". (93) However, Nattiez points out that even if we could determine
"what Mozart was thinking" we would still be lacking an analysis of the neutral and esthesic levels.
Roger Scruton (1978, 17576), in a review of Nattiez's Fondements, says one may, "describe it as
you like so long as you hear it correctly ... certain descriptions suggest wrong ways of hearing it ...
what is obvious to hear [in Plleas et Mlisande] is the contrast in mood and atmosphere between
the 'modal' passage and the bars which follow it." Nattiez counters that if compositional intent were
identical to perception, "historians of musical language could take a permanent nap.... Scruton sets
himself up as a universal, absolute conscience for the 'right' perception of the Plleas et Mlisande.
But hearing is an active symbolic process (which must be explained): nothing in perception is
self-evident."
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Thus Nattiez suggests that analyses, especially those intending "a semiological orientation, should
... at least include a comparative critique of already-written analyses, when they exist, so as to
explain why the work has taken on this or that image constructed by this or that writer: all analysis
is a representation; [and] an explanation of the analytical criteria used in the new analysis, so that
any critique of this new analysis could be situated in relation to that analysis's own objectives and
methods. As Jean-Claude Gardin so rightly remarks, 'no physicist, no biologist is surprised when
asked to indicate, in the context of a new theory, the physical data and the mental operations that
led to its formulation' Gardin (1974, 69). Making one's procedures explicit would help to create a
cumulative progress in knowledge." (177)
See also
List of music software (Section: Music analysis software)
References
Babbitt, Milton. 1972. "Contemporary Music Composition and Music Theory as
Contemporary Intellectual History". In Perspectives in Musicology: The Inaugural Lectures of
the Ph. D. Program in Music at the City University of New York, edited by Barry S. Brook,
Edward Downes, and Sherman Van Solkema, 270307. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN
0-393-02142-4. Reprinted, New York: Pendragon Press, 1985. ISBN 0-918728-50-9.
BaileyShea, Matt (2007). "Filleted Mignon: A New Recipe for Analysis and Recomposition
(http://mto.societymusictheory.org/issues/mto.07.13.4
/mto.07.13.4.baileyshea.html#FN3REF)". Music Theory Online 13, no. 4 (December).
Bauer, Amy (2004). "'Tone-Color, Movement, Changing Harmonic Planes': Cognition,
Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist
Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology, edited by Arved Ashby, 12152. Eastman
Studies in Music 29. Rochester: University of Rochester Press; Woodbridge: Boydell and
Brewer, Ltd. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
Bent, Ian (1987). Analysis. London: McMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-41732-1.
Bernard, Jonathan. 1981. "Pitch/Register in the Music of Edgar Varse." Music Theory
Spectrum 3:125.
Blacking, John (1973). How Musical Is Man?. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Cited
in Nattiez (1990).
Boretz, Benjamin. 1969. "Meta-Variations: Studies in the Foundationbs of Musical Thought
(I)". Perspectives of New Music 8, no. 1 (FallWinter): 174.
Boretz, Benjamin. 1972. "Meta-Variations, Part IV: Analytic Fallout (I)". Perspectives of New
Music 11, no. 1 (FallWinter): 146223.
Chailley, Jacques. 1951. La musique mdivale, with a preface by Gustave Cohen. Les grands
musiciens 1. Paris: Coudrier.
Chenoweth. 1972..
Christ, William (1966), Materials and Structure of Music (1 ed.), Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
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Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-560342-0, OCLC 412237 LCC MT6 M347 1966
(https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=CALL%2B&
searchArg=MT6+M347+1966&searchType=1&recCount=25). Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Cone, Edward. 1989. "Analysis Today". In Music: A View from Delft, edited by, 3954.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11470-5; ISBN 978-0-226-11469-9.
Cited in Satyendra.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. The Idea of Absolute Music, translated by Roger Lustig. Chicago and
London: University of Chicago Press.
Guck, Marion A. (1994). "Rehabilitating the incorrigible", Theory, Analysis and Meaning in
Music, ed. Anthony Pople. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press:57-74.
Laloy, L. (1902). "Sur deux accords", Revue musicale. Reprinted in La musique retrouve.
Paris: Plon, 1928, pp. 11518. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Lerdahl, Fred (1988/1992). Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems. Contemporary
Music Review 6, no. 2:97121.
Leibowitz, Ren. (1971). "Pellas et Mlisande ou les fantmes de la ralit", Les Temps
Modernes, no. 305:891922. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Marx, Adolf Bernhard. 183747. Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition IIV.Leipzig:
Breitkopf & Hrtel.
Meyer. 1973..
Molino Jean. 1975a..
Molino Jean. 1975b..
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques 1990. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated
by Caroline Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02714-5. French
original: Musicologie gnrale et smiologue, Paris:, 1987.
Nettl, Bruno. 1964..
Pederson, Sanna. 2001. "Marx, (Friedrich Heinrich) Adolf Bernhard [Samuel Moses]". The
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and
John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Reti, Rudolph. 1951. The Thematic Process in Music..
Rosen, Charles. 1971. The Classical Style..
Satyendra, Ramon. "Analyzing the Unity within Contrast: Chick Corea's 'Starlight'". Cited in
Stein (2005).
Scruton, Roger. 1978..
Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517010-5.
Tovey, Donald Francis. 1978..
Van Appledorn, M.-J. (1966). "Stylistic Study of Claude Debussy's Opera Pellas et
Mlisande". Ph.D. Diss., Rochester: Eastman School of Music. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
Vuillermoz. 1957..
Warburton. 1952..
Wehinger, Rainer. 1970..
Further reading
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Cook, Nicholas (1992). A Guide to Musical Analysis. ISBN 0-393-96255-5.

Hoek, D.J. (2007). Analyses of Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Music, 1940-2000. ISBN
0-8108-5887-8.
Kresky, Jeffrey (1977). Tonal Music: Twelve Analytic Studies. ISBN 0-253-37011-6.
Poirier, Lucien, ed. (1983). Rpertoire bibliographique de textes de presentation generale et
d'analyse d'oeuvres musicales canadienne, 1900-1980 = Canadian Musical Works,
1900-1980: a Bibliography of General and Analytical Sources. ISBN 0-9690583-2-2
External links
Example Musical Analyses showing the relationship between voice leading and chord
progression patterns Harmony.org.uk (http://www.harmony.org.uk
/book/musical_analysis.htm)
Benoit Meudic, IRCAM, Musical Pattern Extraction: from Repetition to Musical Structure
(http://recherche.ircam.fr/equipes/repmus/RMPapers/CMMR-meudic2003.pdf)
Morphogenesis of chords and scales (http://www.lamadeguido.com/morphogenesis.htm)
Chords and scales classification
Application of virtual pitch theory in music analysis (PDF) (http://www.lamadeguido.com
/artangles.pdf)
iAnalyse (http://ianalyse.pierrecouprie.fr), a musical analysis aided software by Pierre
Couprie
Mapping Tonal Harmony (http://mdecks.com/mapharmony.html), app to study harmonic
functions and progressions in all keys
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