UNIT-14

BIOMOLECULES
KEY POINTS
EXPLANATIONS
Monosaccharides Cannot be hydrolyzed further .eg- glucose, fructose, ribose
Disaccharides
Sucrose (-D- glucose + -D-fructose) , Maltose(-D- glucose + -Dglucose) Lactose(-D-galactose + -D-glucose )
Polysaccharides Starch (two componentsAmylose and Amylopectin) polymer of -D- glucose
Amylose
Water soluble, 15-20% of starch.,
unbranched chain ,
C1 C4
glycosidic linkage.
Amylopectin
Water insoluble , 80-85% of starch., branched chain polymer,
C1C4 &
C1C6 glycosidic linkage
Cellulose
Straight chain polysaccharide of -D-glucose units/ joined by C1-C4glycosidic
linkage (-link), not digestible by human / constituent of cell wall of plant cells
Glycogen
Highly branched polymer of -D- glucose .found in liver, muscles and brain.
reducing sugars
Aldehydic/ ketonic groups free, so reduce Fehlings/ Tollens solution and. Egglucose fructose ,maltose and lactose
Non reducing
Aldehydic/ ketonic groups are bonded so cannot reduce Fehlings solution and
sugars
Tollens reagent. Eg- Sucrose
Anomers.
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in thier configuration of
the hydroxyl group at C-1, called anomeric carbon Such isomers, i.e., form
and -form, are called anomers.
Invert sugar
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (92.4) is more than
dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus,
hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro
(+) to laevo () and the product is named as invert sugar
Glycosidic
Linkage between two monosaccharide through Olinkage

Importance of
Carbohydrates

Essential amino
acids
Nonessential
amino acids

-Major portion of our food. / used as storage molecules as starch in plants and
glycogen in animals/.
-Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose./wood and cloth are
cellulose /
-Provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper,
lacquers and breweries.
-Which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through diet,
eg- Valine, Leucine
-Which can be synthesised in the body, need to take in diet
eg - Glycine, Alanine

zwitter ion.

In aqueous solution, amino acids exist as a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion.

Peptide linkage

Peptide linkage is an amide formed between COOH group and NH2 group of
two successive amino acids in peptide chain.

10- structure of
proteins:
20- structure of
proteins:

Sequence of amino acids that is said to be the primary structure of protein

3 structure of
proteins:
Fibrous proteins
Globular
proteins
Forces which
stabilise 2& 3
Denaturation of
Proteins

Fat soluble
vitamin
Water soluble
vitamin
Vitamins
sourcesDeficiency
diseases

Secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide

chain can exist.
They are found to exist in two types of structures viz. -helix and -pleated
sheet structure.
Further folding of the secondary structure. It gives rise to two major molecular
shapes viz. fibrous and globular.
Polypeptide chains run parallel, held together by hydrogen and disulphide
bonds, fibre like structure. Water insoluble .Eg- are keratin (in hair, wool, silk)
and myosin (present in muscles).
Chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape. Water soluble. EgInsulin and albumins
Hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, Vander Waals and electrostatic forces of
attraction.
When a protein is subjected to physical change like change in temperature or
chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to
this, globules unfold and helix gets uncoiled and protein loses its biological
activity. This is called denaturation of protein.
(During denaturation 2 and 3 structures are destroyed but 1 structure remains
intact.)
eg- The coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk
These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat
storing) tissues
B & C . these vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are
readily excreted in urine
Vit- A (Fish liver oil, carrots)- Night blindness
/
Vitamin B1
(Yeast, milk,)- Beriberi
Vit-B2 (Milk, eggwhite)- Cheilosis / Vit- B6 (Yeast, milk,)- Convulsions /
Vit- B12 (Meat, fish,)- anaemia
Vit C(Citrus fruits)- Scurvy,
/
Vit D(Exposure to sunlight, fish and
egg yolk)- Rickets, osteomalacia
Vit E(wheat oil, sunflower oil)- fragility of RBCs
/ Vit K(leafy vegetables)Increased blood clotting time

DNA
RNA
Nucleoside /
tides
Phosphodiester
link
Functions of
Nucleic Acids

pentose sugar (D-2-deoxyribose) + phosphoric acid + nitrogenious bases

( A , G , C, T )
pentose sugar (ribose) +
phosphoric acid + nitrogenious bases
(A , G , C, U )
Nucleoside sugar + base
Nucleotides sugar + base + phosphate
Linkage between two nucleotides in polynucleotides
DNA reserve genetic information, maintain the identity of different species e is
capable of self duplication during cell division, synthesizes protein in the cell.
A FEW QUESTIONS for Practice
1 Mark Questions

(Q.) Define the term bio molecules?

(Ans) Bio molecules may be defined as the complex lifeless chemical substances which form the
basis of life, i.e., they not only build up living systems (creatures) but are also responsible for their
growth, maintenance and their ability to reproduce.
(Q.) Define the term photosynthesis? Give its general chemical equation?
(Ans) Photosynthesis may be defined as a chemical process through which plants make their own
food by the reaction of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight with the help of plant
chlorophyll.
x CO2 + y H2O ----->Cx(H2O)y + x O2
(Q.) Define Monosaccharides.
(Ans) These are the simplest carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed to smaller molecules.
Their general formula is (CH2O)n, where n = 3-7.
(Q.) Define the term Oligosaccharides?
(Ans) Those carbohydrates which give 2 to 10 molecules of monosaccharides in hydrolysis.
(Q.) Define Disaccharides.
(Ans) Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides are called disaccharides. e.g.,
C12H22O11 + H2O
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
sucrose
glucose Fructoes
(Q.) What is difference between Reducing and non-reducing sugars or carbohydrates?
(Ans) All those carbohydrates which contain aldehydic and ketonic group in the hemiacetal or
hemiketal form and reduce Tollens reagent or Fehlings solution are called reducing carbohydrates
while others which do not reduce these reagents are called non-reducing reagents.
(Q.) Explain the term mutarotation?
(Ans) Mutarotation is the change in the specific rotation of an optically active compound with
time, to an equilibrium mixture.
(Q.) Define glycosidic linkage?
(Ans) The two monosaccharide units are joined together through an ethereal or oxide linkage
formed by the loss of a molecule of H2O. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units
through oxygen atoms is called glycosidic linkage.
(Q.) Give a chemical equation for obtaining Maltose?

(Ans) Maltose is obtained by partial hydrolysis of starch by the enzyme diastase present in malt
i.e., sprouted barley seeds.
2(C6H10O5)n + n H2O
n C6H12O6
(Q.) What are the main sources of vitamins?
(Ans) The main sources of vitamins are milk, butter, cheese, fruits, green vegetables, meat, fish,
eggs, etc.
(Q.) Give two methods for the preparation of glucose?
(Ans) The methods for the preparation of glucose are:
(i) From sucrose (Cane Sugar).
When sucrose is hydrolysed by boiling with dil. HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, an equimolar
mixture of glucose or fructose is obtained.
C12H22O11 + H2O

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

(ii) From starch.

Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dil. H2SO4 at 393 K
under pressure.
(C6H10O5)n + n H2O

n C6H12O6

(Q.) Define Carbohydrates? Give their basic classification depending upon their behaviour
towards hydrolysis.
(Ans) Carbohydrates are defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketone
substances which give these on hydrolysis.
These are broadly classified as:
(i) Monosaccharides.
(ii) Oligosaccharides.
(iii) Polysaccharides.
(Q.) What is Milk sugar? Give its characteristics.
(Ans) Lactose occurs in milk so, it is called milk sugar. Lactose on hydrolysis with dilute acids
yields an equimolar mixture of D-glucose and D-galactose. It is a reducing sugar since it forms an
osazone. It undergoes mutarotation and also reduces Tollens or Fehlings solution.
(Q.) Define the term vitamins? State its importance.
(Ans) Vitamins may be defined as group of bio-molecules (other than fats, carbohydrates and
proteins) which are required in small amounts for normal metabolic processes and for the life,
growth and health of human beings and animal organisms.Vitamins neither supply energy nor help
in building tissues of the cells. They play an important role in keeping good health of human beings
and animals. Their deficiency causes serious disturbances and diseases in the body.
(Q.) What do you understand by denaturation of proteins?
(Ans) When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like in temperature or
chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold
and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein.

(Q.) Give the D and L configurations of Glyceraldehyde?

(Ans)

(Q.) Give the chemical structure of sucrose & explain why sucrose is non reducing sugar.
(Ans)

The two monosaccharide are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of -glucose and C2
of -fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond
formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
(Q.) Give a broad classification of vitamins?
(Ans) Vitamins are complex organic molecules.They can be broadly classified as:
(i) Water soluble vitamins: These include vitamin B-complex and vitamin C.
(ii) Fat soluble vitamins: These are oily substances that are not readily soluble in water. However,
they are soluble in fat. These include vitamins A,D,E and K. Nucleic acids are bipolar (i.e. polymers
present in the living system). They are also called polynucleotides since the repeating structural unit
of nucleic acids is a nucleotide.
General structure of a Nucleotide can be given as:

(Q.) Write a short note on cellulose and give its chemical structure.
(Ans)

Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant
kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain
polysaccharide composed only of -D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage
between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of t he next glucose unit.
(Q.) Give a short note on Zwitter ion?

(Ans) Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids. These are water soluble , high melting
solids and behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to
the presence of both acidic (carboxylic group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same
molecule. In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group can accept a
proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion.

(Q.) How are peptides formed? Show the formation of peptide bond with diagram.
(Ans) Peptides are amides formed by the condensation of amino group of one -amino acid with
the carboxyl group of another molecule of the same or different -amino acid with the elimination
of awater molecule. They are classified as di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. eg.

UNIT 15
POLYMERS

(i) Natural

Found in plants and animals, e.g. Proteins, cellulose, natural

rubber, silk, wool.

(ii) Synthetic

Man-made e.g. Nylon, polyester, neoprene, Bakelite, Teflon, PVC,

polystyrene

(i) Linear Polymer

This consist of long and straight chain repeating units e.g.

Polythene (HDPE), PVC, nylon, polyester.

This contain linear chains having some branches e.g. amylopectin,

glycogen etc.
Strong covalent bonds are present between various linear polymer
(iii) Cross Linked
chains. E.g. Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde polymer, melamine,
Polymers
polymer etc.
These are formed by the repeated addition of monomer molecules
(i) Addition Polymers possessing multiple bonds, e.g., polythene, polypropene,
polystyrene, PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate)

(ii) Condensation
Polymers

These are formed by the repeated condensation reaction of

different bifunctional or trifunctional monomers, with the
elimination of small molecules like water, HCL, NH3, alcohol etc.
eg. Bakelite, nylon, polyester, urea-formaldehyde resin.

(D) Based on Molecular

Forces

(ii) Branched
Polymers

(i) Elastomers

Forces of interaction between polymer chains are weakest, e.g.

natural rubber, neoprene, and vulcanized rubber.

(ii) Fibers

Strong hydrogen bonds are present between the polymer chains.

They have high tensile strength e.g., nylon, polyester, silk, wool,
orlon, rayon etc.

(iii) Thermoplastics

They are linear / slightly branched chains molecules capable of

repeated softening on heating and hardening on cooling e.g. ,
polythene, PVC, polystrene, polypropene.

(E) Based On Growth Of

Polymerization

(C) Based On Mode of

Polymerization:

(B) Based on
Structure

(A) Based on
Source

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS-

(i) Addition Polymers

or Chain Growth
They follow mostly free radical mechanism.
Polymers

(ii) Condensation
Polymers or Step
Growth Polymers

Because they are formed in gradual steps.

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1.

2.

3.

Define the terms:

(i) Homopolymerization
(ii) Copolymerization
(iii) Addition polymer
(iv) Condensation polymer

[2012]
[2010]
[2007, 09,11C]
[2007, 09,11C]

Write the monomers of:

(i) Neoprene
(ii) PMMA
(iii) Buna-N
(iv) Nylon-6, polypropene

[2011]
[2006C, 2010]
[2006]
[2009C, 2006, 2012]

Write the difference between:

(i) Elastomer & fibre
(ii) Homopolymer & copolymer

[2008C]
[2008C,2010]

A Few question on Polymers

(Q.) Give the structure of natural rubber?
(Ans)

(1 Mark)

(Q.) Define the term polymerization?

(1 Mark)
(Ans) The repeating structural units formed from some simple and reactive molecules (monomers)
are linked together by covalent bonds. This process of formation of polymers from their respective
monomers is called polymerization.
(Q.) Define Elastomers?
(1 Mark)
(Ans) Elastomers are rubber-like solids with elastic properties. In elastomers, the polymer chain is
heldtogether by weak intermolecular forces which allow the polymer to be stretched.
e.g. buna-S, buna-N neoprene.
(Q.) What are fibers?
(1 Mark)
(Ans) Fibers are the thread forming solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus.
These polymers possess strong intermolecular forces.Thus leading to close packing of chains and
imparting crystalline nature. e.g., polyamides( nylon 6,6) and polyesters( terylene), etc.
(Q.) Define Thermoplastics polymers?
(1 Mark)
(Ans) Thermoplastic polymers are the linear or slightly branched chain molecules capable of
repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling. Some examples of thermoplastics are
polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyl, etc
(Q.) Define Thermosetting plastics?
(1 Mark)
(Ans) Thermosetting polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules which on heating
undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and again become infusible. Some examples of
thermosetting plastics are bakelite, urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.
(Q.) Give the method of preparation of polyacrylonitrile?
(2
Marks)
(Ans) The addition polymerization of acrylonitrile in presence of a peroxide catalyst leads to the
formation of polyacrylonitrile. It is used as a substitute for wool in making fibers as orlon or acrilan.

(Q.) Define copolymerization? Give chemical reaction showing formation of copolymer.(2

Marks)
(Ans) Copolymerisation is a polymerization reaction in which a mixture of more than one
monomeric species is allowed to polymerise and form a copolymer. For example, a mixture of a 1,3
butadiene and styrene form a copolymer.

(Q.) Describe the method for the preparation of neoprene?

(2
Marks)
(Ans) Neoprene or poly chloroprene is formed by the free radical polymerization of chloroprene.

(Q.) Differentiate between Addition and Condensation polymers?

(2 Marks)
(Ans)
S.No
Addition Polymers
Condensation polymers
1.
They are formed by the repeated
They are formed by repeated condensation reaction
addition of molecules possessing between two different bi-functional and tri-functional
double or triple bonds.
monomeric units.
2.
E.g. polythene
E.g. nylon 66
(Q.) Differentiate between Homopolymers and Copolymers with example.
(2 Marks)
(Ans) Homopolymers: The addition polymers formed by the repeated addition of monomer
molecules possessing double or triple bonds, are known as homopolymers.
E.g., nCH2 = CH2----->---(CH2CH2)--Ethene polythene
Copolymers: The polymers formed by addition polymerization of two different monomers are
termed as copolymers.
E.g., nCH2 = CHCH = CH2 + nC6H5CH=CH2---->---[CH2CH = CHCH2CH2
CH(C6H5)]n--(Q.) Give the differences between homopolymers and copolymers?
(2 Marks)
(Ans)
S.No.
Homopolymers
Copolymers
1
The addition polymers formed by the
The polymers formed by the addition
polymerisation of a single monomeric unit are polymerisation of two different monomers
called Homopolymers.
are termed as copolymers.
2
E.g. Polythene.
E.g. Buna-S
(Q.) What is synthetic rubber?
(2
Marks)

(Ans) Synthetic rubber is any vulcanisable rubber like polymer, which is capable of getting
stretched twice its length. However, it returns to its original shape and size as soon as the external
stretching force is released.
(Q.) Give the method of preparation of Teflon and its uses.
(3 Marks)
(Ans) Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon) is manufactured by heating tetrafluroethene with a free
radical or persulphate catalyst at high temperature. It is chemically inert in nature. It is used for
making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non-stick surface coated utensils.

Tetraflouroethane
Teflon
(Q.) What are the different types of structural polymers? Give examples?
(3 Marks)
(Ans) There are three different types of structural polymers:
(1) Linear polymers: These polymers consist of long and straight chains.
e.g. polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.
(2) Branched chain polymers: These polymers contain linear chains having some branches.
e.g. low density polythene.
(3) Cross linked polymers (network polymers): These are usually formed from bi-functional and trifunctional monomers and contain strong covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains.
e.g. bakelite, melamine etc.
(Q.) Give the method for preparing Bakelite?
(3
Marks)
(Ans) Bakelite is manufactured from Phenol-formaldehyde polymers. It is obtained by the
condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in thepresence of an acid or base catalyst. The
initial product formed is a linear chain called Novolac used in paints. Novolac on heating with
formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to form infusible solid mass called bakelite.

(Q.) Give the method of preparation and uses of nylon 6?

Marks)
(Ans) Nylon 6 is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at high temperature.

(3

Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, and fabrics and ropes.
(Q.) How are condensation polymers formed? Explain giving one example. (3 Marks)
(Ans) The condensation polymers are formed by repeated condensation reaction between two
different bi-functional or tri-functional monomeric units. During this process, a small molecule of
water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride, etc is eliminated. E.g. terylene, nylon 6,6, nylon 6, etc.
Preparation of nylon 6,6:
nH2N(CH2)6NH2 + nHOOC(CH2)4COOH ----->---(NH(CH2)6NHCO(CH2)4CO)n--- + n H2O

(Q.) What are natural and synthetic polymers? Give 2 examples of each.
(3 Marks)
(Ans) Natural polymers: Polymers which are found in plants and animals are called natural
polymers. e.g. proteins, cellulose starch etc.
Synthetic polymers: Man made polymers are called synthetic polymers. They consists of a number
of smaller molecules to form large molecules. e.g. nylon 6,6 and Buna-S.
(Q.) Define the term polyesters? How is it manufactured?
(3
Marks)
(Ans) Polyesters are the condensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols. e.g. Dacron or
Terylene.
It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in
the presence of zinc acetate-antimony trioxide catalyst.
(Q.) Explainvulcanisation of rubber?
(3
Marks)
(Ans) Natural rubber becomes soft at high temperatures and brittle at low temperatures. It has a
high water absorption capacity. It is soluble in non-polar solvents and is non-resistant to attack by
oxidizing agents.
To improve upon these physical properties, the process of vulcanization is carried out. It consists of
heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur with a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K. On
vulcanisation, sulphur forms cross links at reactive sites of double bonds and thus the rubber gets
stiffened.
(Q.) Give three examples of biodegradable polymers?
(3 Marks)
(Ans) (1) phbv
(2) Nylon-2
(3) nylon-6

UNIT 16
CHEMISTRY IN EVERY DAY LIFE

DRUGS

CHEMOTHERAPY

Drugs are chemical of low molecular masses, which interact with macro
molecular targets and produce a biological response.

The use of chemicals to cure illness/ailments is called chemotherapy.

Drugs
for
a
particular type of
1. On the basis of pharmacological effects
problem.
e.g.
analgesics for pain
relieving.
Action on drug on a
2. On the basis of Drug Action
particular biological
CLASSIFICATIONS
process
OF DRUGS
Drugs
having
3. On the Basis Chemical Action
similar
structure.
E.g. sulpha drugs
Drugs
interacting
with biomolecules
4. On the Basis of Molecular targets
as
lipids
and
protiens
ENZYMES AS
(a) Enzymes have
DRUG TARGETS
active sites which
hold the substrate
(i) Catalytic Action of Enzymes
molecule. It can be
attracted by reacting
molecules.
(b) Substrate is
bonded to active
sites
through
hydrogen
bonds,
ionic bonds, vander
waal or dipole dipole interactions
(ii) Drug Enzyme Interactions
(a) Drug complete
with
natural
substrate for their
attachments on the
active
sites
of
enzymes. They are
called competitive
inhibitors.
(b) Some drugs
binds to a different
site of the enzyme
called
allosteric
sites which changes
the shape of active

sites.

RECEPTORS AS
DRUG TARGETS

ANTAGONISTS

AGONISTS

ANTACIDS

ANTI
HISTAMINES

10

11

TRANQULIZERS

Receptors are proteins that are crucial to

bodys communication process. In the body
message between two neurons and that
between
neurons
to
muscles
is
communicated through certain chemicals.
These chemicals known as chemical
messengers are received at the binding sites
of receptor proteins. To accommodate a
messengers shapes of receptors sites are
changed.

The drugs that bind to the receptor site and

inhibit its natural functions.
Drugs mimic the natural messenger by
switching on the receptor.
These are compounds which neutralize
excess acid of stomach
The drugs which interfere with the natural
action of histamines and prevent the allergic
reaction.
The class of chemical compounds used for
treatment of stress, mild or even severe
mental diseases.
They reduce pain without causing
impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion or some other disturbance of the
nervous system.

There are a large number of

receptors in the body that
interact with different
chemical messengers hence
one medicine is not suitable
for different type of diseases.

e.g. Aluminium hydroxide,

Magnesium hydroxide.
e.g. ranitidine, tegament, avil.
e.g. luminal, seconal, equanil,
iproniagid.

e.g. aspirin: Use antipyretic

as well as analgesic. It
prevents platelets coagulation,
because of its anti-blood
ANALGESICS
clotting action aspirin finds
use in prevention of heart
attacks.
saridon, phenacetin.
ANTIMICROBIALS They tend to prevent / destroy or inhibit the pathogenic actions of microbes
as bacteria, virus, fungi etc. They are classified as

(i) Antibiotics: Those are chemical substances which are produced by microorganism and used to kill the pathogenic micro organism. e.g. penicillin,
offloxacin
(a) Narrow spectrum Antibiotics

(b) Broad spectrum Antibiotics

12

ANTIFERTILITY
DRUGS

13

ARTIFICIAL
SWEETNING
AGENTS

14

FOOD
PRESERVATIVES
CLEANSING
AGENTS

15

16

SYNTHETIC
DETERGENTS

These are affective mainly

against gram positive or gram
negative
bacteria.
e.g.
penicillin, streptomycin
They kill or inhibit a wide
range of micro-organism. E.g.
chloramphenicol, tetracycline.

(ii) Antiseptics or Disinfectant: These

are which either kill / inhibit the growth of
micro - organism antiseptic applied to the
living tissues such as wounds , cuts, ulcers
etc.

e.g. furacine, chloroxylenol &

terpinol (Dettol). Disinfectant is
applied to inanimate objects such
as floors, drainage system. e.g.
0.2% solution of phenol is an
antiseptic while 1% solution is
disinfectant.

These are the chemical substances used to

control pregnancy. They are also called
contraceptives or birth control pills.
These are the chemical compounds which
give sweetning effects to the foods
without adding calorie. They are good for
the diabatic patients.
They prevent spoilage of food to
microbial growth.
1. SOAPS: They are sodium or potassium
salts of long chain fatty acids. They are
obtained by the saponification reaction,
when fatty acids are heated with aqueous
sodium hydroxide. They do not work well
in hard water.
They are cleaning agents having
properties of soaps, but actually contain
no soap. They can used in both soft and
hard water. They are:

e.g. Mifepristone, Norethindrone.

e.g. aspartame, saccharin, alitame,

sucrolose.
e.g. salt, sugar and sodium
benzoate, BHT, BHA
They are biodegradable.

(i) Anionic Detergents: They are

sodium salts of sulphonated long
chain alcohols or hydro carbons.
E.g. Sodium lauryl sulphonate. Its
anionic part is responsible for
cleansing action
(ii) Cationic Detergents: They are
quarternary ammonium salts of
amines with acetates, chlorides or
bromides. They are expensive and
used to limited extent. E.g.
cetyltrimethylammoniumbromide.
Its cationic part is responsible for
cleansing action

17
18

BIO
DEGREDABLE
DETERGENTS
NON BIO
DEGREDABLE
DETERGENTS:

The detergents which are linear or less

branched and can be attacked by microorganism are bio degradable.
The detergents which are highly branched
and can not be decomposed by microorganism are called non-bio degradable
detergents. It creates water pollution.

(iii) Non-ionic Detergents: They

do not contain any ions. Some
liquid dish washing detergents
which are of non-ionic type
E.g. Sodium-4 - (1-dodecyl)
benzene / sulphonate.

N.B.: SOLVE ALL THE EXERCISE AS WELL AS INTEXT QUESTIONS.

IMPORTANT TOOLS / NOTES FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (CLASS XII)
KEY FOR CONVERSIONS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
S.No
1

Reagent
KMnO4 / H+

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Group Out
-CH2OH

Group In
-COOH

LiAlH4

-COOH

-CH2OH

Cu / 573 K
or
CrO3
PCl5 or SOCl2
Cl2 / or Cl2 /
UV
Aq NaOH / KOH
KCN
AgCN
Alcoholic KOH
Mg / dry ether
HBr
H2 / Pd-BaSO4
Zn-Hg / HCl
NH3 /
Br2 / NaOH or
NaOBr
HNO2 or
NaNO2/HCl
CHCl3 / alc KOH
P2O5
H3O+
OHLiAlH4
Red P / Cl2

-CH2OH

-CHO

-OH
-H

-Cl
-Cl

-X
-X
-X
-HX
>=<
-COCl
>C=O
-COOH
-CONH2

-OH
-CN
-NC
=
Mg
H, Br
-CHO
-CH2-CONH2
-NH2

-NH2

-OH

-NH2
-CONH2
-CN
-CN
-CN
-H of acid

-NC
-CN
-COOH
-CONH2
-CH2NH2
-Cl

Remark
Strong Oxidation (20 alcohol
gives ketone)
Strong Reduction (ketone
gives 20 alcohol)
Dehydrogenation
Free radical substitution
Nucleophilic substitution
Steping Up of a compound
Dehydrohalogenation (Stzf)
R-X R-MgX
Markovnikov
Rosenmund Reduction
Clemmension Reduction
-COOH + NH3 -COONH4
Step Down ( Hoffmann)
HONO
Carbyl amine
Dehydration
Hydrolysis
Reduction
HVZ Reaction

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43

KEY FOR CONVERSIONS IN BENZENE RING :

Fe / X2 /dark
-H
-X
CH3Cl / AlCl3(anhyd)
-H
-CH3
CH3COCl /
-H
-COCH3
AlCl3(anhyd)
Conc.HNO3/con.H2SO4
-H
-NO2
Conc H2SO4
-H
-SO3H
KMnO4 / H+
-R
-COOH
CrO2Cl2 / H+
-CH3
-CHO
Sn / HCl or Fe/HCl
NaOH / 623K / 300
atm
Zn dust /
NaNO2 / dil HCl / 273278 K
CuCl / HCl or
Cu/HCl
CuBr / HBr or
Cu/HBr
CuCN / KCN
KI
HBF4 /
H3PO2 or
CH3CH2OH
H2O / 283 K
HBF4/ NaNO2, Cu /
C6H5-OH
C6H5-NH2

Halogination
Friedel Craft alkylation
Friedel Craft acylation
Nitration
Sulphonation
Oxidation
Mild oxidation(Etard
Reaction)
Reduction

-NO2
-Cl

-NH2
-OH

-OH
-NH2

-H
-N2+Cl-

-N2+Cl-

-Cl

Sandmeyer or Gattermann

-N2+Cl-

-Br

Sandmeyer or Gattermann

-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-

-CN
-I
-F
-H

Sandmeyer

-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-N2+Cl-

-OH
-NO2
-N=N-C6H5-OH
-N=N-C6H5-NH2

Diazo reaction

Coupling ( p-hydroxy)
Coupling ( p-amino)

Reactions of Grignard Reagent

Grignard reagent +

R-MgX

Any one below + H2O

H2O or ROH or RNH2

H-CHO
R-CHO
R-CO-R
CO2
R-CN
HCOOR
RCOOR

Product
R-H
R-CH2-OH (10 alc)
R-CH(OH)-R (20 alc)
R2C(OH)-R (30 alc)
R-COOH
R-CO-R
Aldehyde
Ketone

NB: i) During reaction generally changes take place in the functional group only so see the
functional
group very carefully.
ii) Remember structural formula of all the common organic compounds ( with their IUPAC and
common names)
iii) Wurtz Reaction and Aldol Condensation are not included in the table although they are
Very important for conversions so study them .
iv) By taking examples practice all the above cases (from 1 to 43 and Grignard)

v) Practice only from NCERT book.

vi) Start practicing NOW !
How to use the table? See below.
Example: See no 7 in the
table

Directional Properties of groups in benzene ring for electrophilic substitution

Ortho-para directing group: -R, -OH, -NH2, -X, -OR, -NHR, -NR2, -NHCOCH3, -CH2Cl, -SH,
-Ph
Meta-directing group:
-NH3+

-NO2 , -CHO, -COOH , COOR , -CN, -SO3H , -COCH3, -CCl3 ,

NAME REACTIONS (ORGANIC CHEMISTRY)

1. Finkelstein -

2. Swarts -

CH3Br + NaI

CH3-I + NaBr

CH3Br + AgF

CH3F + AgBr
CH3

3. FriedelCraftsAlkylation

H3C

A n h y d r o u s A lC l3

Cl

COCH3

C H 3C O C l

4. FriedelCraftsAcylation

5. Wurtz -

A n h y d r o u s A lC l3

H3C

Cl

Cl

Cl

CH3

H3C

CH3

Na Cl

Cl

2N a

6. Fittig

2N a

D ry e th e r

Na Cl

Cl

7. Wurtz-Fittig

Cl

CH3

OH

8. Kolbes
reaction

2N a

Na Cl

OH

ONa

Na OH

CH3

D ry e th e r

i) C O
ii) H

2
+

COOH

OH

OH

ONa

C H 3C l + N a O H

CHO

9. ReimerTiemann

10. Williamsons

11. Stephen

CH3-Br + CH3-ONa

H3C

CN

CHO

CH3-O- CH3 + NaBr

SnCl2 + HCl

H3C

CH

NH

CH3

H 3O

H3C

CHO

CHO

C r O 2 C l2

12. Etard

H 3O

CHO

C O / H C l

13. Gatterman
Koch

A n h y d r o u s A lC l3

14. Rosenmund
reduction

H3C

H
Cl

15.Clemmensen
reduction

H3C

16. Wolff-Kishner
reduction

17. Tollens test

18. Fehlings
test

H3C

Pd / B aSO

H3C

Zn - H g
CH3

O
C

C onc. H C l

i) N H 2 -N H

H3C

CH2 CH3

R-COO- + 2Ag
NH3

R-CHO + 2 Cu2+ + 5 OH-

CH2 CH3

CH3 i i ) K O H / E t h y l e n e g l y c o l /

R-CHO + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3 OH-

H3C

+ 2H2O + 4

Silver

R-COO- + Cu2O

+ 3H2O

19.Iodoform
Reaction

20. Aldol
Condensation

21. Cannizzaro

I2 / N aO H

C
H3C

CH3

22. Hell-VolhardZelinsky
(HVZ)

C onc. N aO H

HCHO

H3C

COOH

HCOON a

24. Carbylamine

NH2

26. Gatterman

N2 Cl

OH
H

N2

N2

Cl

C u / H C l

27.Coupling
Reaction

NH2

Cl

25. Sandmeyer.

COOH

R-NC + 3 KCl + 3 H2O

C u C l / H C l

N2 Cl

OH

H3C

N aO H

R-NH2 + CHCl3 + 3 KOH

N2 Cl

CHO

Cl

B r2

H3C

H2C

ii) H 2 O

H3C

H3C CH CH

i) C l2 / R e d P h o s p h o r u s

23.Hoffmann
bromamide
degradation

H3C CH CH2 CHO

CHO

HCHO

Yellow

OH

d il N a O H

2 H3C

CHI3 + CH3COONa

O R , N aO I

OH

ELECTRON DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS

OH

+ I : O- , COO- , (CH3)3C , (CH3)2CH , CH3CH2 , CH3

(electron donating)

- I : NR3+ , SR2+ , NH3+, NO2 , SO2R , CN , COOH , F , Cl , Br , I , OR , OH, NH2 (ewithdrawing)

+R (+M)

: OH , NH2 , OR , NHR , X

(electron donating)

-R (-M)

: NO2 , CN , CHO , COOH , COCH3

(electron

withdrawing)

DIRECTIVE INFLUENCE OF SUBSTITUENTS IN BENZENE RING

(for electrophilic substitution reactions)
EFFECT OF THE GROUP

DIRECTING

ACTIVATING / DEACTIVATING

+I

Ortho / Para

Activating

+I,+R

Ortho / Para

Activating

-I<+R

Ortho / Para

Activating

-I>+R

Ortho / Para

Deactivating

-I

Meta

Deactivating

-I, -R

Meta

Deactivating

Example: - I > + R
: - X , - CH=CH2 , -CH=CH-COOH , -CH2-Cl
These groups are deactivating but exceptionally o / p directing due to +E effect by the attacking
reagents electron density increases at -ortho and -para position .
If two groups are present initially
1.When both the groups present in benzene ring are o/p directing than the order of influence :
O- > NH2 > NR2 > OH > OCH3 > NHCOCH3 > CH3 > X
2.When both the groups present in benzene ring are meta directing than the order of influence :
(CH3)3N+ > NO2 > CN > SO3H > CHO > COCH3 > COOH
3.When one group is o/p and another is m directing than o/p directing group takes priority

Distinction By Single Chemical Test

1.

All aldehydes ( R-CHO) give Tollens Test and produce silver mirror.
RCHO + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3 OH- RCOO- + 2 Ag
+ 2H2O + 4 NH3
Tollens Reagent
silver ppt
Note: HCOOH(methanoic acid ) also gives this test, ketones(RCOR) do not give this test

2.

3.

All aldehydes (R-CHO) and ketones(RCOR) give 2,4-DNP test

RCOR + 2,4-DNP Orange ppt
R-CHO + 2,4-DNP Orange ppt
Aldehydes and ketones having CH3CO- (keto methyl) group give Iodoform Test. Alcohols
having
CH3CH- group also give Iodoform Test.
|
OH
CH3CHO + 3I2 + 4 NaOH CHI3
+ HCOONa + 3 NaI + 3H2O
Yellow ppt
The following compounds give Iodoform Test: ethanol (C2H5OH), propan-2-ol
(CH3CH(OH)CH3),ethanal(CH3CHO), propanone(CH3COCH3),butanone (
CH3COCH2CH3), pentan-2-one (CH3COCH2 CH2CH3) , acetophenone ( PhCOCH3 )

4. All carboxylic acids ( R-COOH) give Bicarbonate Test

RCOOH + NaHCO3 RCOONa + CO2
+ H2O
Brisk effervescence
5. Phenol gives FeCl3 Test
C6H5OH + FeCl3 (C6H5O)3Fe + 3 HCl
(neutral)
(violet color)
6. All primary amines (R/Ar -NH2) give Carbyl Amine Test
R-NH2 + CHCl3 + KOH(alc) R-NC
+ KCl +
offensive smell

H2O

7. Aniline gives Azo Dye Test ( Only for aromatic amines)

C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + HCl C6H5N2+Cl- ;

then add -naphthol orange dye

8. All alcohols (ROH) give Sodium (Na) metal test

R-OH + Na R-ONa + H2
(bubbles)
9. For esters (RCOOR) : Hydrolyses first. Then see the products ( acid & alcohol) and give a test to
identify them
10. All alkenes (C=C) and alkynes (CC) decolorizes Br2 water from red to colorless
11. Lucas Test to distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
Lucas reagent: ZnCl2/HCl
30-alcohol + Lucas reagent immediate turbidity
20-alcohol + Lucas reagent turbidity after sometime

10-alcohol + Lucas reagent no turbidity