Liquid Penetrant Testing

Compiled for ASNT by

David Quattlebaum, Jr.
Quattlebaum Consultants

Level I
Liquid Penetrant Testing

Lesson 1
Introduction to Liquid
Penetrant Testing

History of Liquid Penetrant Testing

1. Liquid penetrant testing is one of
the oldest methods of
nondestructive testing.
2. The origin of liquid penetrant
testing is generally attributed to
the inspection of wheel axles in
the railroad industry in the 1890s.

History of Liquid Penetrant Testing

3. The oil-and-whiting test involves
immersing test objects in oil and
then wiping with rags dampened
with kerosene. Powdered chalk
was used to dust the surface to
increase the visibility of any oil
leaking back onto the test object
surface.

Nondestructive Testing Methods

Nondestructive testing methods are
used for the following reasons:
1. To ensure product integrity and
reliability.
2. To avoid test object failure,
prevent accidents and save
lives.
3. To make user profits.

Nondestructive Testing Methods

4. To ensure customer satisfaction.
5. To aid in better product design.
6. To lower manufacturers costs.
7. To maintain uniform quality levels.
8. To ensure operations readiness.

Reasons for Selecting Liquid

Penetrant Testing
Some advantages of liquid penetrant
testing include the following:
1. Liquid penetrant testing quickly
examines all accessible surfaces.
2. Liquid penetrant testing detects
very small surface discontinuities.

Reasons for Selecting Liquid

Penetrant Testing
3. It can be used on a wide variety of
materials including ferrous and
nonferrous metals and alloys and
fired ceramics.
4. It uses relatively inexpensive and
nonsophisticated equipment.
5. Sensitivity magnifies size and
location of discontinuities.

Reasons for Selecting Liquid

Penetrant Testing
6. Sensitivity can be adjusted by selection
of penetrant, removal technique and
type of developer.
7. Technicians can visually detect
indications.
8. Liquid penetrant testing can be used
for inservice checks to resolve
production problems early.

Availability of Liquid Penetrant

There are three basic classification
types by dye.
1. Type I: Fluorescent penetrant.
2. Type II: Visible penetrant (color
contrast).
3. Type III: Dual mode (visible/
fluorescent).

Type I Fluorescent
Type 1 fluorescent is further classified
by five sensitivity levels as follows:
1. Level 1/2: Ultra low.
2. Level 1: Low.
3. Level 2: Medium.
4. Level 3: High.
5. Level 4: Ultra high.

Type II Fluorescent
There is no sensitivity level
classification for Type II penetrant
systems.

Method of Removal
Type I and II are further classified by
method of removal of excess penetrant.
1. Method A: Water washable.
2. Method B: Lipophilic
postemulsifiable.
3. Method C: Solvent removable.
4. Method D: Hydrophilic
postemulsifiable.

Developer Forms
Developers are classified as forms.
1. Form A: Dry powder.
2. Form B: Water soluble.
3. Form C: Water suspendible.
4. Form D: Nonaqueous Type I
(fluorescent).

Developer Forms
5. Form E: Nonaqueous Type II
(visible dye).
6. Form F: Special applications.

Solvent Classes
Solvents are divided into classes.
1. Class 1: Halogenated.
2. Class 2: Nonhalogenated.
3. Class 3: Special applications.

Qualification and Certification

Requirements
The following documents outline
personnel qualification and certification
requirements:
1. ASNT Recommended Practice No.
SNT-TC-1A.
2. ANSI/ASNT CP-189: Standard for
Qualification and Certification of
Nondestructive Personnel.

Qualification and Certification

Requirements
3. ACCP: ASNT Central
Certification Program.
4. NAS 410, National Aerospace
Standard Certification and
Qualification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel.

Training and Qualification Process

A person who is in the process of
training and qualification is
considered a trainee.

Three Basic Levels of Qualification

1. Level I.
2. Level II.
3. Level III.

Qualification Requirements
1. Organized training (required
class hours).
2. Required testing (general,
specific, practical).
3. Education (depends on written
practice).

Qualification Requirements
4. Experience (documented hours).
5. Physical attributes to perform
examinations (vision acuity and
color contrast test performed
annually).

Certification
Certification is a written testimony
that an individual has met all the
qualifications of a companys
written practice.

Safety Precautions: Fire

1. Materials are usually combustible.
2. Minimum flash point on open tanks is
usually 93 C (200 F).
3. Smoking and open flames should be
avoided.
4. Storage should be away from heat
and open flames.

Safety Precautions: Fire

5. Always review the material safety
data sheets (MSDS) for
precautions.

Skin Irritation
1. Drying action can occur on skin
from oil bases.
2. Avoid splashing of materials.
3. Wear protective gloves, aprons
and glasses.
4. Wash hands immediately when in
contact with penetrant materials.
5. Use protective hand creams.

Air Pollution
1. Dust and vapors are nontoxic.
2. Inhalation of excessive amounts can
be a health hazard.
3. Exhaust fans should be installed for
the use of dry developers.
4. Fans should be used in test areas to
remove vapors.
5. Always follow recommendations for
respirator or mask use.

Ultraviolet Radiation
1. 365 nm ultraviolet radiation
causes fluorescence of penetrant
material.
2. Higher frequencies are harmful to
humans.
3. Ultraviolet lamp filters are used to
prevent these harmful rays from
harming humans.

Ultraviolet Radiation
4. Filters should be inspected for
cracks and replaced as
necessary.
5. Protective lenses or goggles
should be used.

Lesson 2
Liquid Penetrant Processing

Procedures and Techniques

1. Procedures can be broad and
cover several specific techniques.
2. Each procedure and technique
should be approved and signed by
a certified Level III.

Precleaning of Test Objects

Cleaning processes include the
following:
1. Solvent.
2. Detergents.
3. Vapor degreasing.
4. Steam cleaning.

Precleaning of Test Objects

5. Ultrasonics.
6. Chemical.
7. Paint strippers.

Precleaning of Test Objects

All cleaning methods must meet the
following requirements:
1. Local environmental
requirements.
2. Health and safety requirements.
3. Cause no harm to the test object.

Precleaning of Test Objects

4. Substrate should be wiped clean
with an approved solvent
cleaner.
5. Solvent cleaner should be
allowed to dry completely before
application of penetrant.

Preparation of Test Objects

1. The surface properties of the test
object determine surface
preparation.
2. High nickel alloys, titaniums and
stainless steels require the use of
low sulfur and chloride products.

Preparation of Test Objects

3. Surfaces need to be free of foreign
materials which block open
discontinuities.
4. Cleaning operations such as power
wire brushing, grit blasting, shot
peening and other metal smearing
operations should be avoided.

Precleaning and Postcleaning

1. Liquid penetrant test will be
ineffective if substrate is not
physically and chemically cleaned
and dried.
2. Liquid penetrant residue may have a
harmful effect on test object if not
properly removed before placing it in
service.

Precleaning and Postcleaning

3. The compatibility of cleaning
agents and penetrant materials
should be verified to ensure an
acceptable penetrant test.

Solvent Cleaning
1. The application of solvent
cleaning may be immersion,
sprayed, brushed or wiped.
2. Solvent cleaning is commonly
used for spot inspections.

Solvent Cleaning
3. Solvent cleaners must evaporate
readily and completely from the
substrate.
4. Solvent cleaners should be used
to remove organic contaminants
only.

Solvent Cleaning
Test object
being cleaned
with a solventdamped, lintfree cloth prior
to application
of penetrant.

Detergent Cleaning
Cleaning is accomplished by the use
of immersion tanks and or detergent
solutions. Cleaning is accomplished
as follows:
1. Detergents wet the substrate.
2. Penetrates various soils.
3. Emulsification.
4. Saponification (change to soap).
5. Substrate is rinsed and dried.

Detergent Cleaning Equipment

1. Suitable rinsing stations.
2. Suitable drying stations.
3. Thorough rinsing and drying after
detergent cleaning will leave the
substrate physically and chemically
clean for liquid penetrant testing.

Vapor Degreasing
Vapor degreasing is effective for the
following procedures:
1. Removal of oils.
2. Removal of greases.
3. Removal of other similar organic
contaminations.
4. Vapor degreasing does not
require a rinse or drying (oven)
step.

Vapor Degreasing
5. Vapor degreasing can be
hazardous to the environment.
6. Vapor degreasing safety is a large
concern due to health hazards.
7. Vapor degreasing is limited to
cleaning of substrates that have
been approved for this type of
cleaning method.

Steam Cleaning
Precleaning with steam and alkaline
detergents provide ideal cleaning.
1. Alkaline detergent emulsifies,
softens or dissolves organic
contamination.

Steam Cleaning
2. Steam provides mechanical action
for removal of
detergents/contaminations from the
surface of the substrate.
3. Steam cleaning is suitable for
cleaning large, unwieldy
components which are not easily
submerged.

Ultrasonic Cleaning
1. Ultrasonic cleaning is often
combined with detergent or
alkaline cleaning.
2. Combined ultrasonic cleaning
improves efficiency and reduces
cleaning time.

Ultrasonic Cleaning
3. Ultrasonic cleaning is useful for
cleaning large quantities of small
test objects.
4. Ultrasonic agitation requires
special approval on some
substrates.

Rust and Surface Scale Removal

Approved commercial rust and surface
scale removers include the following:
1. Acid rust removers.
2. Alkaline rust removers.
These require special equipment, and
specific procedures should be followed.

Paint Removal
Paint removal methods include the
following:
1. Dissolving hot tank paint

strippers.

2. Bond release paint strippers.

3. Solvent paint strippers.
These require special equipment, and
specific procedures should be followed.

Etching
1. Acid or alkaline solutions are
used to remove smeared metal
from operations, including the
following:
a. Power wire brushing.
b. Sand blasting.

Etching
2. Solutions open up grinding burrs
and remove smeared metals.
3. Etching and neutralization
processes use either
tanks/immersion or manual
equipment.

Precleaning Processes to be
Avoided
The following methods should not
be used before liquid penetrant
tests:
1. Blasting (shot, sand, grit,
pressure, etc.).
2. Liquid honing.

Precleaning Processes to be
Avoided
3. Emery cloth.
4. Power wire brushes.
These processes tend to close
discontinuities by smearing
metal, peening or cold working
the surface.

Drying Test Objects

Test objects and potential
discontinuities should be completely
dry of cleaner before the application
of penetrant.
1. Any remaining cleaner may
prevent capillary action of the
penetrant into discontinuities.

Drying Test Objects

2. Some procedures require
application of isopropyl alcohol
or acetone to promote drying.
3. Drying ovens are sometimes
required.

Dwell Time
1. Penetrant dwell time is a period
of time to allow penetrant to
enter and fill any discontinuities
open to the surface through
capillary action.

Dwell Time
2. Liquid penetrant is drawn out of
discontinuity entrapments to the test
object surface during the
so-called development time or
developer dwell time.
3. Liquid penetrant may spread into the
developer coating to form enhanced
indications. This is sometimes
referred to as reverse capillary action.

Application of Penetrant
Penetrant applications include
the following:
1. Spraying.
2. Brushing.
3. Pouring.
4. Dipping.

Application of Penetrant
Test surfaces should remain wetted
the entire penetrant dwell time.
Ultraviolet radiation sources may
assist when using fluorescents.

Application of Penetrant:
Color Contrast
Application of
penetrant also
includes the HAZ;
technicians should
review procedures
to ensure
complete
coverage for area
of interest.

Application of Penetrant:
Fluorescent
Test object held in
suspension while
required dwell
time elapses for
fluorescent
process.

Adequate Illumination
1. Fluorescent rinse station
requires about 100 lux (10 ftc) of
ambient (white) light and less
than 100 W/cm2 of near
ultraviolet radiation (UV-A).

Adequate Illumination
2. Fluorescent evaluation station
should be about 1000 W/cm2 of
near ultraviolet radiation (UV-A) as
measured at the test surface, and
the ambient (white) light should not
be greater than 20 lux (2 ftc).

Adequate Illumination
3. Visible dye penetrant (color
contrast) usually requires 1000
lux (100 ftc) at the test surface.
These levels should always be
verified against the governing
procedure, standard or
specification.

Adequate Illumination:
Ultraviolet Radiation Meter
Typical
ultraviolet
radiation meter
used for
fluorescent
processes.

Adequate Illumination:
Ultraviolet Radiation Meter
Typical test
fixture for
verification of
adequate
illumination at a
fixed distance
from the meter.

Adequate Illumination:
Ambient Light Meters
Illumination
meters for the
measurement of
ambient (white)
light in footcandles or lux.

Penetrant: Water Rinse

(Methods A, B and D)
After the required dwell/ emulsification
time, the examination area should be:
1. Water rinsed. Course droplets are
preferred, as the mechanical
action is dependent on the size of
drops and velocity at impact.

Penetrant: Water Rinse

(Methods A, B and D)
2. Applied at an oblique angle (45
to 75 is most effective angle).
3. Normal distances of 15 to 61 cm
(6 to 24 in.) are acceptable and
provide a uniform rate of
removal.

Penetrant: Water Rinse

(Methods A, B and D)
4. Temperature range for rinse water is

10 to 38 C (50 to
100 F).
5. Water pressure of about 69 to 241
kPa (10 to 35 psi) is generally used.
The pressure should not exceed 276
kPa
(40 psi).

Typical Water Rinse Station

Test objects being
rinsed while
viewed under a
fluorescent light to
ensure adequate
cleaning.

Solvent Removable
After the required dwell time, the
following functions should be performed:
1. Wipe test area with a lint-free,
absorbent towel that has a color
contrast with the penetrant.
2. Use a clean section with each
swipe.

Solvent Removable
3. After removal of the bulk of
penetrant, lightly dampen a
clean cloth. Do not soak or
saturate the cloth with cleaner.
Continue to swipe area until no
evidence of penetrant is
observed.

Solvent Removable
4. Make a final swipe with a clean
dry cloth and verify that there is
no evidence of penetrant on the
cloth. Allow the cleaner to
evaporate before the application
of developer.

Developer Application and Drying

The basic types of developer are as
follows:
1. Form A: Dry powder (fine
powder form).
2. Form B: Water soluble (liquid
dip tanks).

Developer Application and Drying

3. Form C: Water suspendible (liquid
dip tanks).
4. Form D: Nonaqueous Type I
(aerosol spray cans).
5. Form D: Nonaqueous Type II
(aerosol spray cans).
6. Specific application developers.

Dry Powder Developer Form A

Dry powder developers are applied
to dry test object surfaces by the
following methods:
1. Air suspension.
2. Electrostatic spraying (common in
automated systems).

Dry Powder Developer Form A

3. Test object immersion.
4. The powder is light and fluffy and
clings to the test object surfaces in
a fine film.
5. Dry powder is most useful on rough
surfaces and automated processing
using fluorescent penetrants.

Water Soluble Developer Form B

Developers consist of a powder
dissolved in water and applied by the
following means:
1. Dipping a test object in the
solution.
2. Flowing the solution over a test
object.

Water Soluble Developer Form B

3. Spraying the solution onto the test
object. This type of aqueous
developer forms a translucent film.
4. Water soluble developer can be
used for fluorescent dyes.
5. Not recommended for use with
visible dye.

Water Soluble Developer Form B

6. Not recommended for use with
water washable. Water in the
developer may remove water
washable penetrant from
discontinuities.
7. Can save time during processing,
since drying is included in the
developer dwell time.

Water Soluble Developer Form B

8. Supplied as a dry concentrate that
must be mixed and maintained at the
proper ratio of developer to water.
9. Developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant
contamination and water evaporation
per approved specifications.

Water Suspendible Developer

Form C
1. Supplied as a dry concentrate that
must be mixed and maintained at the
proper ratio of developer to water.
2. Suspended aqueous developer does
not dissolve in water so it must be
thoroughly agitated just before
application to suspend the particles in
water.

Water Suspendible Developer

Form C
3. Development of indications does
not begin until the moisture is
completely evaporated from the
developer.
4. Thickness of the coating and its
white color work well with visible
dyes.

Water Suspendible Developer

Form C
5. Test objects should be checked to
ensure a uniform coating of
developer has been applied.
6. Developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant
contamination and water
evaporation per approved
specifications with a hydrometer.

Water Suspendible Developer

Form C
7. Removal of dried suspendible
developers may be more difficult
because they are not soluble in
water.
8. All aqueous developers necessarily
contain biocides, corrosion
inhibitors and wetting agents.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I and II
1. Nonaqueous (solvent
suspendible) developers are
supplied in the ready-to-use
condition, frequently in aerosol
cans.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I and II
2. Nonaqueous developer is the most
sensitive form of developer
because the solvent action
contributes to the absorption and
adsorption mechanisms of the
developer by entering the
discontinuity and dissolving into the
liquid penetrant.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I and II
a. Adsorption is the surrounding
of the developer particles by
adhesion, which coats the
surface of the particles.
b. Absorption is the assimilation
of penetrant into the bulk of the
particles.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I and II
Prior to spraying of developer, the
following procedures should be
followed:
1. Aerosol can requires agitation
before spraying.
2. The test object must be
thoroughly dry.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I and II
3. Several thin, uniform coats are
preferred over one heavy coat.
4. A check spray should be
performed before spraying the
test surface to prevent spattering
of the developer.

Nonaqueous (Aerosol Can)

Type I & II
Visible
fluorescent
portable kit.

Development/Dwell Time
1. The development of indications
does not begin until the moisture is
completely evaporated from the
developer.
2. The test object must be monitored
very closely during the developer
dwell time to properly evaluate the
indications as they form.

Development/Dwell Time
3. Typically, the developer dwell time
is a minimum of 10 min. Always
reference the specifications.
4. The point at which the developer
dwell time begins depends on the
type of developer being used.

Development/Dwell Time
5. Wet developer dwell time begins
as soon as the developer is dry.
6. Dry and nonaqueous developer
dwell times begin at application.

Interpretation and Evaluation

1. Interpretation: The determination
of whether indications are relevant
or nonrelevant.
2. Evaluation: A review, following
interpretation of the indications
noted, to determine whether they
meet specified acceptance criteria.

Types of Indications
Indications form on the surface of test
objects during examinations because
of discontinuities located on the
surfaces. They may be classified as
the following:
1. False indications.
2. Nonrelevant indications.

Types of Indications
3. Relevant indications.
a. Linear indications are those
which contain a major dimension at
least three times the minor
dimension.
b. Round indications are those
whose major dimension is
less than
three times the
minor dimension.

Types of Indications
This is a general rule of thumb.
Refer to the specification or
procedure.

Discontinuities
1. A discontinuity is an interruption in
the normal structure of the test
object. It may not be a defect.
2. If, during the evaluation phase, it is
determined that the discontinuity
interferes with the serviceability of the
test object or it does not meet the
acceptance criteria, the discontinuity
is then classified as a defect.

False Indications
1. A nondestructive testing indication that
is interpreted to be caused by a
discontinuity at a location where no
discontinuity exists.
2. False indications are nonrelevant.
3. In some reference documents, false
indications and nonrelevant indications
are considered to be the same thing.

False Indications
4. False indications are caused by the
following reasons:
a. Lack of cleanliness by poor
processing conditions.
b. Lack of cleanliness in the
testing booth or other aspects
of the penetrant process.

False Indications
c. Penetrant on the hands of
technicians.
d. Contamination of wet or dry
developer.
e. Penetrant from other test
objects.
f. Penetrant on examination table.
g. Fluorescent specks or particles.

False Indications
5. Cleaning and reprocessing a test
object is required when false
indications are noted.
6. A typical false indication is a
piece of lint on a part that
resembles a crack during
ultraviolet radiation testing.

False Indications
7. The most serious problem with
false indications is determining
whether the indication is masking
a relevant indication.

Typical False Indication

Marks from
handling tool

Patch from
contact with
another test
object

Fingerprints
left by
technician
Lint and dirt

Nonrelevant Indications
Nonrelevant indications are caused
by surface irregularities or test
object configuration and are not
detrimental to the serviceability of
the test object. They may appear on
test objects at the following
locations:

Nonrelevant Indications
1. Press fitted joints.
2. Riveted connections.
3. Spot welds.
4. Substrates with rough surfaces.

Relevant Indications
1. Relevant indications are those that
are caused by discontinuities on
the surface of a test object.
2. All relevant indications are
discontinuities, but not all
discontinuities are defects.

Relevant Indications
3. Relevant indications are classified
as:
a. Continuous line indications.
b. Intermittent line indications.
c. Round or dot indications.
Within these groups there are
large, small, weak and diffused
indications.

Continuous Line Indications

1. Continuous line indications are
discontinuities.
a. Cracks.
b. Seams.
c. Cold shuts.
d. Forging laps.

Continuous Line Indications

2. Continuous line indications can be
jagged, like most cracks, or very
straight, like a seam indication.
3. The degree of bleed out depends
on factors such as the width and
depth of the indication and the
penetrant and developer dwell
times.

Intermittent Line Indications

1. Intermittent line indications are
caused by the same discontinuities
as continuous line indications.
2. The difference is that these
indications have been affected by
previous processing steps,
inservice use or are partially
subsurface. Therefore, they are not
continuous lines.

Round or Dot Indications

1. Round or dot indications are caused
by porosity, pin holes, a porous
surface or a coarse grain structure.
2. Round indications also can be
caused by crater cracks because
they tend to trap large amounts of
penetrant.

Round or Dot Indications

3. A round indication becomes a
linear indication when the length
of the indication is more than
three times the width.

Postcleaning
Postcleaning can involve the following:
1. Vapor degreasing.
2. Solvent soak.
3. Ultrasonic cleaning.
Other postcleaning operations may be
required by specifications and
procedures.

Lesson 3
Liquid Penetrant
Testing Methods

Introduction
1. Test methods are developed for the
detection of discontinuities that are
open to the surface, such as
cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts,
laminations, through leakage or
lack of fusion.

Introduction
2. Application of the methods are
applicable to in-process and final
manufacturing of components,
inservice tests and maintenance
activities.

Introduction
3. The different methods can be
effectively used for the examination
of nonporous, metallic materials
(both ferrous and nonferrous) and
of nonmetallic materials such as
glazed or fully densified ceramics,
certain nonporous plastics and
glass.

Introduction
4. Once a method has been
selected and discontinuities are
detected by evidence of
indications from the examination,
they must be interpreted or
classified and then evaluated.

Introduction
5. Evaluation requires codes,
specifications or procedures to
define the type, size, location
and direction of indications
considered acceptable or
unacceptable.

Introduction
6. Classification/method of penetrant
testing requires consideration of the
following:
a. Type of dye penetrant.
b. Method of removal.
c. Penetrant sensitivities.
d. Form of developer.
e. Classes of solvent removers.

Method Characteristics:
Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible
The following factors should be
considered when choosing between
Type I fluorescent and Type II visible:
1. Availability of dark area and
power source.
2. Level of sensitivity required.
3. Type of indication sought.

Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible

4. Size and location of surface to be
examined.
5. Availability of cleaning processes.
6. Type I has five levels of
sensitivity: 1/2 ,1, 2, 3, and 4; 4
being most sensitive.
7. Type II has no sensitivity level
rating.

Type I Fluorescent versus Type II Visible

8. Type I is usually required when a
specific level of sensitivity is desired.
9. Type I fluorescent should never
follow Type II visible. The visible dye
may quench the fluorescent dye
properties, and the visible dye may
fill the discontinuity, eliminating a
fluorescent indication.

Solvent or Water Removable

1. Portable solvent or manual water
removable kits allow field testing.
2. Materials are supplied in aerosol
spray cans.
3. One technician can carry
equipment.

Solvent or Water Removable

4. Available in Type I and II
materials.
5. Aerosol cans do not require daily
calibration or contamination
checks.

Inline Penetrant Systems

1. Inline systems normally consist
of bulk penetrant materials in
tanks.
2. Type I fluorescent is usually
used.
3. Water rinse or emulsification is
used.

Inline Penetrant Systems

4. Type I, Method A is most common.
Methods B or D are also used for
inline testing.
5. Normally used for large volumes
of manufactured test objects. The
type of indication sought will
dictate method and sensitivity.

Lipophilic Emulsification
1. Method B is lipophilic (oil loving).
2. Application is done by dipping.
Agitation of the test object is
prohibited.
3. Brush-on or spray-on is not
permitted.

Lipophilic Emulsification
4. The mechanism of lipophilic is by
diffusion.
5. Emulsification time is critical and
must be carefully controlled for
reproducible results.

Hydrophilic Emulsification
1. Method D is hydrophilic (water loving).
2. Works through detergent or surfactant
reaction.
3. Prewashing removes 60 to 80% of the
surface layer of penetrant.
4. Following the prerinse, hydrophilic
emulsifier or remover is applied by
immersion or spray.

Hydrophilic Emulsification
5. Concentration by immersion is
usually 5 to 30% by volume.
6. Slight agitation is necessary to
remove the colloidal suspension
of penetrant and emulsifier from
the surface and to expose fresh
penetrant.

Hydrophilic Emulsification
7. Agitation is done by gently
moving the submerged test object
in the remover, or by an air
manifold in the bottom of the tank.
8. Only enough air to cause slight
bubbling is required.

Hydrophilic Emulsification
9. The mechanism of spray
hydrophilic emulsifier is a
combination of chemical and
mechanical action.
10. Immediately following the
remover, a fresh water rinse of the
entire test object is required. This
stops the action of any remaining
remover on the test object.

Hydrophilic Emulsification
11. Concentration of spray
removers is usually 0.5 to 1%
by volume; up to 5% may be
used.

Lesson 4
Liquid Penetrant
Testing Equipment

Liquid Penetrant Testing Units

1. Liquid penetrant testing units can be
arranged so test objects are moved in
the following ways:

a. Manually.
b. Mechanically assisted.
c. Semiautomatic.
d. Fully automatic.

Liquid Penetrant Testing Units

2. The choice depends on budget, timing
and the long-term system performance.
3. The size of testing unit is largely
dependent on size and type of test
object. The layout of the system may
take on various designs depending on
the facilities available, production rate
desired and ease of handling test
objects.

Liquid Penetrant Stations

Testing stations requirements are
dependent on the following factors:
1. Type of penetrant used.
2. Processing requirements.
3. Size of test objects.
4. Quantity/production rate desired.

Auxiliary Equipment
1. Auxiliary equipment located at
the penetrant test station (other
than cleaning stations) is
required to perform penetrant
testing.
2. Auxiliary equipment may be built
in at one or more test stations.

Auxiliary Equipment
Ultraviolet lamp
Ultraviolet lamp

Dryer Station
Drain Station
Emulsifier Station

Test Station

Penetrant Station

Developer Station
Rinse Station
Control Panel

Ultraviolet
lamp
Rinse Station
Handheld sprayer
Drain Station
Penetrant
Station

Developer
Station

Dryer Rest Station

Test
Station

Dryer
Developer Station
Rinse Station

Test Station
White Light

Ultraviolet
Lamps

Drain Station
Penetrant Station

Hand hose (pump fed)

Hand hose water
Hand hose
(pump fed)

Ultraviolet Lamp

Modular Units
Stations are supplied in modular units
to allow many configurations, such as
straight line, L- or U-shaped
arrangements.

Liquid Penetrant Tank with Cover

Drain and Rest Station

Wash Station

Drying Oven

Dry Developer Station

Testing Station

Multiple Component Inline Liquid

Penetrant System

Multiple Component Inline Liquid

Penetrant System

Self-Contained, Water Washable

Fluorescent Unit

Testing Station Pumps

Various pumps are installed at the
penetrant, emulsifier, rinse and developer
stations as applicable. They are required
for the following procedures:
1. Agitation of the solutions.
2. Pump drain-off material into
proper
tanks for reuse or filtration
for disposal.

Testing Station Pumps

3. Used to power handheld sprayer
and applicators.
4. Require routine maintenance to
ensure reliability.

Sprayers and Applicators

1. Sprayers and applicators are
frequently used at the penetrant,
emulsifier, rinse and developer
stations.
2. They decrease test time by
permitting rapid and even
application of penetrant materials.

Sprayers and Applicators

3. Conventional and electrostatic
sprayers are used for penetrants,
dry and suspended developers.

Electrostatic Spray Systems

1. Application with an electrostatic
spray system does the following:
a. Minimizes consumption of
liquid penetrant materials and
reduces pooling of penetrant.
b. Helps ensure complete even
coverage of complete
surfaces.

Electrostatic Spray Systems

2. Requires penetrant material have
an electrostatic charge.
3. Suitable for parts too large for
immersion.
4. Spray systems virtually eliminate
contamination of reservoirs of
penetrant materials.

Electrostatic Spray Systems

5. For application with electrostatic
spray, the technician applies
fluorescent penetrant with a
handheld spray gun that makes
atomized particles attract to the
test object.

Automatic Electrostatic Spray

Two
reciprocating
electrostatic
spray guns in a
conveyorized
installation used
to apply
penetrant.

Lamps for Penetrant Stations

1. Ambient and ultraviolet radiation
lamps are installed as required to
ensure adequate illumination at all
stations.
2. When using fluorescent materials,
lamps are installed at the rinse and
inspection booths.

Lamps for Penetrant Stations

3. Illumination should be checked
with calibrated instruments as
required by procedures and
specifications at the testing area.

Illumination Instruments
Ultraviolet Light
Meter

White Light
Meters

Liquid Penetrant Station Timers

Timers are used at penetrant
stations to monitor the following:
1. Penetrant dwell times.
2. Emulsifier dwell times.
3. Developer dwell time.
4. Drying cycles.

Thermostats and Thermometers

Thermostats and thermometers are
used to monitor and control
temperatures of the following:
1. Penetrant materials.
2. Drying ovens.
3. Test objects.
4. Atmosphere.

Exhaust Fans for Penetrant Stations

1. Exhaust fans are used when testing
is performed in confined spaces.
2. Fans remove fumes and dust
particulate from the test area.
3. Prolonged breathing of penetrant
vapors, emulsifier vapors or solvent
remover vapors may cause
headaches, nausea, tightness or
pain in the chest.

Refractometer
Used to
measure the
concentration
of hydrophilic
emulsifier in
water.

Hydrometer
A hydrometer is used to measure
specific gravity of water-based wet
developers.

Hydrometer
Ballast

Stem

Scale
Body

A hydrometer floats vertically in

developer, and specific gravity is
read from scale at fluid level.

Portable Penetrant Equipment

1. For use when testing is required
at a location remote from
stationary equipment.
2. For use when small portions of a
large object require testing.

Portable Penetrant Equipment

3. Available in fluorescent and
visible dye kits which are
compact and lightweight.
4. May be applied by spray from
aerosol cans or applied with a
brush.

Visible Dye Penetrant Kit

The contents of a visible dye penetrant kit
consist of the following:
1. Solvent cleaner.
2. Penetrant remover.
3. Visible penetrant.
4. Application brushes or pads.
5. Nonaqueous wet developer.
6. Lint-free wiping cloths.

Visible Dye Penetrant Kit

Typical
portable
visible dye kit.

Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

The fluorescent penetrant kit combines
portability with high visibility and normally
contains:
1. Portable ultraviolet lamp.
2. Solvent cleaner.
3. Penetrant remover.
4. Fluorescent penetrant.

Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

5. Application brushes or pads.
6. Developer, either nonaqueous wet
or dry.
7. Lint-free wiping towels.
8. Hood to provide darkened area for
viewing of indications.

Portable Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

Ultraviolet Radiation Illumination

1. Most common, handheld ultraviolet
mercury vapor lamps will produce
light in the wavelength range of 320
to 440 nm.
2. Fluorescent penetrant dyes are
usually in the range of 475 to 575
nm, which is in the visible spectrum
of green to yellow.

Ultraviolet Radiation Illumination

3. Equipment checks should be
performed as defined in the
specification or procedure being
used for the testing.

Lamp Filters
1. A filter that transmits nearultraviolet radiation while absorbing
other wavelengths.
2. The most common UV-A light
consists of a mercury bulb housed
with a filter that is powered by a
constant voltage transformer
producing wavelengths in the
range of 320 to 400 nm.

Lamp Filters
3. The filter used in front of the highpressure mercury vapor light has a
peak transmission at a wavelength
of 365 nm.
4. A warm-up time is required for the
mercury bulb to reach full intensity
and the light should remain on to
avoid cycling, which reduces the
life of the bulb.

Lamp Filters
5. Regular cleaning of the bulb and
filter is required to remove dust,
oil, dirt and fluorescent
contamination that can reduce
the ultraviolet radiation intensity.

Ultraviolet Radiation Sources

Common sources of nearultraviolet radiation include:
1. Enclosed mercury vapor arc
lamps.
2. Metal halide or halogen
lamps.
3. Integrally filtered tubular
fluorescent lamps.

Ultraviolet Radiation Sources

4. Tubular fluorescent lamps.
5. Metallic or carbon arcs.
6. Incandescent lamps.

Ultraviolet Radiation Sources

Tubular Fluorescent Cold

Discharge Sources
1. Tubular fluorescent lamps are
quite low in output and only usable
in a very few special applications.
2. Available in sizes from 2 W to
more than 60 W input.
3. Contain low pressure mercury
vapor glow discharges.
4. Made of a purple-red filter glass.

Subdued White Light Inspection

1. Improved penetrant materials
have made it possible to test in
less than total darkness.
2. Medium to large indications can
be detected under fairly high
ambient (white) light.

Subdued White Light Inspection

3. Fluorescent testing is possible
outdoors.
4. Requirements for ambient
(white) light must be met using
black cloth or other shielding.

Light Meters
1. White light sensors measure in
foot-candles or lux.
2. Ultraviolet radiation sensors
measure in microwatts per
centimeter squared (W/cm2).

Materials for Liquid

Penetrant Testing
Materials used in liquid penetrant
testing include:
1. Penetrants.
2. Emulsifiers.
3. Removers.
4. Cleaners.
5. Developers.

Precleaning and Postcleaning

1. Materials must be compatible
with the penetrant.
2. Manufacturers will recommend
an approved cleaner for their
products.

Water Washable Penetrants

1. Highly penetrating, oily liquids
containing a built in emulsifying
agent that renders the oily media
washable with water.
2. The simplest to use are visible
penetrants or color contrast
penetrants, because no fluorescent
lighting is required.

Water Washable Penetrants

3. Greater visibility is obtained if
fluorescent penetrants are used
and viewed under ultraviolet
radiation.

Postemulsification Penetrants
1. Postemulsification penetrants
are available as either visible or
fluorescent penetrants.
2. These penetrants have the
advantage of eliminating some
of the danger of over rinsing.

Emulsifiers
1. When applied to a post-emulsification
penetrant, emulsifiers combine with
the penetrant to make the resultant
mixture water washable.
2. The emulsifier, usually dyed orange
to contrast with the penetrant, may be
either lipophilic (oil base) or
hydrophilic (detergent water base).

Emulsifiers

Typical Emulsifier Dip Tank

Lipophilic Emulsifiers
1. They begin emulsifying on contact
with the penetrant.
2. Emulsifiers can never be applied by
brushing.
3. The mixture of penetrant and
emulsifier can be removed with a
standard water rinse.
4. Renders the penetrant water
washable.

Hydrophilic Emulsifiers
1. Function by displacing the excess
penetrant film on the surface
through detergent action.
2. Force of water spray or
air/mechanical agitation in an open
dip tank provides the scrubbing
action while the detergent
displaces the film of penetrant.

Hydrophilic Emulsifiers
3. Emulsification time will vary,
depending on its concentration,
which can be monitored using a
suitable refractometer.
4. Hydrophilic emulsifiers (removers)
can also be used as contact
emulsifiers.

Hydrophilic Emulsifiers
5. These penetrants have the
advantage of eliminating some of
the danger of over rinsing.
6. Require agitation to allow fresh
emulsifier to contact the surface
penetrant.
7. Render the penetrant water
washable.

Solvent Removers
1. Used to remove excess
penetrant from test surfaces.
2. Must be approved by the
penetrant manufacturer and
penetrant procedure or
specification.

Developers
1. Development of penetrant
indications is the process of bringing
the penetrant out of discontinuities
open to the surface through blotting
action of the applied developer.
2. This increases the visibility of the
indications under suitable visible
white light or fluorescent light.

Dry Developer
1. Fluffy powder that is applied to dry
test surfaces.
2. Most adaptable to rough surfaces
and automatic processing.
3. Easiest to remove.

Dry Developer
4. Care should be taken not to
contaminate developer with
fluorescent penetrant.
5. Penetrant contamination may
cause specks that appear as
indications.

Nonaqueous Wet Developer

1. Suspension of developer
particles in a rapid drying
solvent.
2. Used with solvent removable
processing.
3. Applied only to dry surfaces.
4. This type of developer is
intended for application by spray
only.

Water-Based Developers
1. Applied before drying the test
object.
2. Water suspendible developer:
Particles are held in suspension
in water and require continuous
agitation to keep the particles in
suspension.

Water-Based Developers
3. Water soluble developer: Powder
is dissolved in water, forming a
solution; once mixed they remain
mixed.

Special Purpose Penetrants

1. There are low sulfur and low
chlorine materials for testing
nickel alloys, certain stainless
steels and titanium.
2. High and low temperature
penetrants are available for
special applications.

Special Purpose Penetrants

3. Low-energy emulsifiers and
inhibited solvent removers are
available to slow emulsification and
the removal of excess penetrant.
4. Wax and plastic film developers
absorb and fix penetrant indications
to provide record of the test.

Precautions
1. Ensure that the test object is not
damaged or overheated during
the test.
2. The technician must ensure that
solvent wont harm the test object.
3. Review the MSDS frequently.