Transformers

Part 1
Flaviano D. Dula

ACAPP
AC Apparatus
& Devices

References
1. Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical
Technology in SI Units, Volume 1: Basic Electrical Engineering.

2. Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. A Textbook of Electrical

Technology in SI Units, Volume 2: AC and DC Machines.
3. Kosow, Irving L. Electric Machinery and Transformers. 2nd Ed.
4. Sarma, Mulukutla S. Electric Machine Steady-State Theory and
Dynamic Performance.
5. Cathey, Jimmie J. Electric Machine: Analysis and Design
Appying MATLAB.

Flaviano D. Dula

References
6.. El-hawary, Mohamad E. Principle of Electric Machines with
Power Electronic Applications.
7. Hubert, Charles I. Electric Machines Theory, Operation,
Applications, Adjustment, and Control. 2nd Ed.
8. Guru, Bhag S. and Hiziroglu, Hiiseyin R. Electric Machinery
and Transformers .

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
Definition:
A transformer is a static piece of
equipment used either for raising or
lowering the voltage of an a.c. supply
with a corresponding decrease or
increase in current.

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Transformers
The electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit.

The physical basis of a transformer is

mutual induction between two circuits linked
by a common magnetic flux.

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
Transformers have no moving parts,
rugged and durable in construction, thus
requiring very little attention.
They also have a very high efficiencyas high as 99%.

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
In its simplest form, it consists of two
inductive coils which are electrically separated
but magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance as shown in Fig.1.

The two coils posses high mutual

inductance. The first coil, in which energy is fed
from the a.c. supply mains, is called primary
winding and the other from which energy is
drawn out, is called secondary winding.
Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
It essentially consists of two windings,
the primary and secondary, wound on a
common laminated magnetic core as shown in
Fig.1.
Primary

Secondary

IP
VP

EP

NP

IS
NS

Fig.1

ES

VS

ZL

L
O
A
D

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers

where:

V1 = VP = primary line voltage, volts

V2

VS

secondary line or load voltage, volts

E1

EP

primary induced voltage, volts

E2

ES = secondary induced voltage, volts

N1 = NP

primary turns

N2 = NS

secondary turns

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
I1

IP

primary current, amperes

I2

IS

secondary currents, amperes

m = mutual flux, commonly shared by both

windings, linking coils 1 and 2, in weber (SI) or
lines(English)

Flaviano D. Dula

Transformers
If VP > VS , it is called a step-down transformer.
If VP < VS , it is called a step-up transformer.
Primary

Secondary

IP
VP

~~

IS

EP

NP

NS

ES

VS

ZL

L
O
A
D

Fig.1
Flaviano D. Dula

According to Faradays Laws of

Electromagnetic Induction
When an alternating voltage Vp is applied to
the primary, an alternating flux set up in the core.
This alternating flux links both the windings and
induces e.m.f.s EP and ES in them.
Primary

Secondary

IP

VP

~~

EP

NP

IS
NS

Fig.1

ES

VS

ZL

L
O
A
D

Flaviano D. Dula

Working Equations
Clearly,

and

Therefore,

EP

NP d
dt

ES

NS d
dt

E
E

P
S

N
N

P
S

Flaviano D. Dula

Working Equations
If NP >NS, then EP >ES (or VP >VS) and
we get a step-down transformer

On the other hand,

If NP<NS, then EP<ES (or VP<VS) and

we get a step-up transformer

Flaviano D. Dula

Figure 1
1.

If load is connected across the secondary

winding, the secondary e.m.f. ES will cause a
current IS to flow through the load.

2.

Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer

a.c. power from one circuit to another with
a change in voltage level.

Flaviano D. Dula

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i)

The transformer action is based on the

laws of electromagnetic induction.

(ii)

There is no electrical connection between

the primary and secondary. The a.c. power is
transferred from primary to secondary
through magnetic flux.

Flaviano D. Dula

The following points may be noted carefully:

(iii)

There is no change in frequency i.e.,

output power has the same frequency
as the input power. (fP = fS)

(iv)

The losses that occur in a transformer are:

(a) Core losses - eddy current and hysteresis losses, PC.
(b) Copper losses - in the resistance of the windings, IR.

Flaviano D. Dula

Note
In practice, these losses are very small so that
output power is nearly equal to the input primary
power.

Primary Power (PP) (PS) Secondary Power

In other words, a transformer has very high
efficiency.

Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer

Theory of an Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has
(i)

no winding resistances (i.e., no RP & RS)

(ii)

no leakage flux, l (i.e., the same flux links both the windings)

(iii)

no iron losses, PC (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in

the core

(iv)

no copper losses, PCU (i.e., no I2Rp & I2Rs) in the windings

(iv)

Core permeability is infinite, e.g. ( = )

(v)

Coefficient of coupling is unity, e.g. (k = 1)

k = M/L1L2
Flaviano D. Dula

Theory of an Ideal Transformer

(vi) Its efficiency () is 100%, e.g. Pin = Pout, or Pl = 0
(vii) Ratio of transformation: a
a =

NP/NS

VP/VS

EP/ES
IS/IP

In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two

purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core.
Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer On No-Load

Consider an ideal transformer on no-load i.e.,
secondary is open-circuited as shown in Fig.2(i).
Secondary

Primary

Im
VP

~~

IS = 0

EP

NP

NS

ES

VS

Fig.2(i)
Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer on No-Load

Under such conditions, the primary is
simply a coil of pure inductance. When an
alternating voltage VP is applied to the
primary, it draws a small magnetizing
current Im which lags behind the applied
voltage VP by 90.

Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer on No-Load

This alternating current Im produces an
alternating flux which is proportional to and
in phase with it (assuming permeability of the
magnetic circuit to be constant) .
This changing flux is linked both with
the primary and secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces self-induced e.m.f. in
the primary.
Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer on no-load

This self-induced e.m.f. EP is, at every

instant, equal to and in opposition to VP
(Lenzs law). It is also known as counter e.m.f
or back e.m.f of the primary.

Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer on No-load

Similarly, there is produced in the
secondary an induced e.m.f. ES which is known
as mutually induced e.m.f. This e.m.f. is antiphase with VP (Lenzs law) and its magnitude is
proportional to the rate of change of flux and
the number of secondary turns. Fig.2(ii) shows
the vectorial representation of the effective
values of the above quantities

No-load Phasor Diagram

90

90

E =V
S

Note: VP = EP

Fig.2(ii) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no-load.

Flaviano D. Dula

No-load Phasor Diagram

Since flux is common to both the
windings, it has been taken as the reference
phasor.
As shown in Fig.2(ii), the primary e.m.f. EP
and secondary e.m.f. ES lag behind the flux by
90. Note that EP and ES are in phase. But EP is
equal to VP and 180 out of phase with it.

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage VP of
frequency (f) is applied to the primary as shown in
Fig.2(i). The sinusoidal flux produced by the primary
can be represented as: = m sint weber.
Primary

Secondary

Im

VP ~

EP

NP

NS

ES

VS

Fig.2(i)
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E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

The instantaneous e.m.f. eP induced in the primary is

d
d
= - N
- NP
msint
P
dt
dt
= - NPmcost

=
=

- 2fN cost
P

2fNPmsin(t - 90)volts

.(i)

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

It is clear from the above equation that maximum value
of induced e.m.f. in the primary is
EmP

2fmN

The r.m.s. value of EP of the primary e.m.f. is

EP

EmP
2

or

4.44fmNP

2fmNP
2

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Similarly, ES

4.44fmN

In an ideal transformer,
EP VP and ES VS
Note. It is clear from exp.(i) above that e.m.f. EP
induced in the primary lags behind the flux by
90. Likewise, e.m.f. ES induced in the secondary
lags behind flux by 90.
Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Neumanns quantification of Faradays Law
states that the average EMF induced in a coil of N
turns is
N
Eave =
max X 10-8 volts
t
where: t is the time it takes mutual flux to rise

from zero to peak (or max.) value of

mutual flux in sec.
m is the maximum flux in core in lines or max.
f is the frequency of a.c. input in hertz (Hz).
Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

One cycle

m
0

360

t=
(1/4f)

t in sec

tT = 1/f

The average rate of change of flux in one quarter of a

cycle is
Eave = m x 10-8
(1/4)f

4fm x 10-8 lines/s

or volts
Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

and the average rate of change of flux per turn
means induced e.m.f. in volts is
Eave./turn

4fm x 10-8 volt/turn

or Eave.

4fmN x 10-8 volt

If flux m varies sinusoidally, then, r.m.s.

value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying
the average value with the form factor:

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Form factor of sine wave

r.m.s. value
average value

Emax/2
(/2)Emax

1.11

Therefore, the effective (or r.m.s.) value of e.m.f. per turn:

Erms/turn

1.11 x 4fm x 10-8 volt/turn

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Now The r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the
whole primary winding:

Ep

Where:

(induced e.m.f./turn) x no. of primary turns

4.44fm x10-8 (NP)

4.44fNP(BmA)x10-8
m

.(i)

BmA

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Similarly,
The r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole
secondary winding:

ES = 4.44fmNS x 10-8
=

4.44fNSBmA x 10-8

.. (ii)

Flaviano D. Dula

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

where

Bm x A

Bm is the maximum permissible flux density

A is the area of the transformer core

It is seen from eq.(i) and eq.(ii) that:

EP
NP

ES
NS

4.44fm

It means that e.m.f./turn is the same in both the

primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
Flaviano D. Dula

Transformation Ratio (a)

a
where:

EP/ES

NP/NS

a is the voltage or turn transformation ratio

EP
NP

Fig.3 If a

ES

NS

5(i.e. NP/NS), then EP

5ES
Flaviano D. Dula

For an Ideal Transformer on Load

EP VP

(i)

and

ES VS

as there is no voltage drop in the windings.

a = NP/NS = EP/ES VP/VS = IS/IP
where:

= turns or voltage ratio

VP/VS =
EP/ES =

nameplate voltage ratio

induced voltage ratio

Flaviano D. Dula

Ideal Transformer on Load

(ii) There are no losses. Therefore, input volt-amperes

(SP) to the primary are equal to the output voltamperes (SS) i.e.

or,

VPIP

VSIS

IS/IP

VP/VS

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of

voltage transformation ratio. This simply means
that if we raise the voltage, there is a corresponding
decrease of current.
Flaviano D. Dula

Real or Practical
Transformer

Practical Transformer
A practical transformer differs from the ideal
transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has:
(i) iron(or core) losses, Pi or PC
(ii) winding resistances, RP & RS and
(iii) magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance

XP & XS.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer
(i)

Iron Losses (PC or Ph+e)

Since the iron core is subjected to
alternating flux , there occurs eddy current
loss (Pe) and hysteresis loss (Ph) in it.
These two losses together are known
as iron losses or core losses (PC or Ph+e).

Flaviano D. Dula

Iron Losses (PC

or

Ph+e)

The iron losses depend upon the:

(i) supply frequency, f

(ii) maximum flux density in the core, Bm

(iii) volume of the core etc.

It may be noted that magnitude of iron losses is

quite small in a practical transformer.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer
(ii)

Winding Resistances , RP and RS

Since the windings consist of copper
conductors, it immediately follows that both
primary and secondary will have winding
resistance. The primary resistance RP and
secondary resistance RS act in series with the
respective windings as shown in Fig.4.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer With

Losses but No Magnetic
Leakage

Flaviano D. Dula

1. Real or Practical

Transformer
on No-Load

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

Consider a practical transformer on
no-load i.e. secondary on open-circuit as
shown in Fig.6(i).

Even when the transformer is on noload, the primary input current is NOT
wholly reactive.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

RP

VP

I0

RS

m
EP

IS = 0

ES
NP

VS

NS
m

Fig.4(i) shows the practical transformer on no-load but

no magnetic leakage

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

RP

VP

Ideal Transformer

IS = 0

I0
IC

Im

RC

Xm

Fig.4(ii)

EP

ES

NP

NS

VS

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

RP

I0

Or

IC

VP

Im
EP

RC

Xm

Fig.4(iii)
Note:

RC

1/GC

Xm

1/Bm

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

The primary input current under no-load condition
has to supply :
(i)

Iron Losses (Pcore)

The iron losses in the core (Pc) i.e. hysteresis

and eddy current loss.

It may be noted that magnitude of iron

losses is quite small in a practical transformer.

Practical Transformer on No-Load

With No Magnetic Leakage

(ii) Copper Losses (I02Rp)

A very small amount of copper loss in

the primary, I02RP. (there being no copper loss in

the secondary as it is open)
Hence the primary no-load current I0 is
not 90 behind the applied voltage VP but lags
it by an angle 0<90 as shown in the phasor
diagram in Fig.4(iv).

Phasor Diagram of a Practical

Transformer on No-load
VP

IC

or

I0

Im
EP

Fig.4(iv)

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

No-load input power: Po

V Ic

VP (I0cos0) watts

where cos0 is the primary power factor under no-load conditions

Practical Transformer on No-Load

As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig.4(iv),
the no-load primary current I0 can be resolved
into two rectangular components viz.
(i)

One in phase with V1 . This is known as the

active or working or iron loss component I (or IC )

because it mainly supplies the iron loss plus small
quantity of primary copper loss, I02RP .

Practical Transformer on No-Load

I = IC

I0cos0
PC /EP

EP /RC

if Zp is neglected, Ic

VP /RC

GCVP

Practical Transformer on No-Load

=

Note:

P0

no-load input power

VpIc = VP (I0cos0)

Pc + I02Rp

Pc = core or iron loss

V0

no-load input voltage, or

VP

no-load primary voltage (VP = V0)

I0 = no-load primary current

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

The component Im lagging behind VP by
90 and is known as magnetizing component
of I0. It is this component which produces the
mutual flux m in the core. It is wattless.
(ii)

I0sin0

EP /jXm

If Zp is neglected , Im

Clearly,

VP /jXm (or - jVPBm)

I is phasor sum of I and I (or I )

0

Practical Transformer on No-Load

No-load primary current: I0

I0

Im + Ic

I 2 + I 2 - 0
m

No load p.f.: cos0

cos0

=
=

I /I0 or IC /I0
P0 /VPI0
Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

where:

I0

no-load current or exciting current, ampere

IC

= I = I0cos0
=

core loss component of I0

active or energy or working component of the

no-load current, I0
in-phase with the primary voltage, VP

0 = hysteresis angle of advance or p.f. angle at

no-load
Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

Im

I0sin0

magnetizing current or the magnetizing

component of I0, amperes.

RC

fictitious resistance that accounts for the core-loss,

ohms.

Xm

fictitious magnetizing reactance that accounts for

the magnetizing reactance, ohms.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

VP

V0

voltage applied to primary at no-load, volts

No - load input power, P0

Pin, NL = P0 = VpIC

VPI0cos0 , watts

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

The following points should be noted carefully:
1. The no-load primary current I0 is very small as
compared to the full-load current. It is about 1
per cent of the full-load current.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on No-Load

2. As I0 is very small, the no-load primary
copper loss (i.e. I02RP) is negligibly small which
means that the no- load primary input power
is practically equal to the iron loss in the
transformer i.e.,
No-load input power: P0
(P0 or W0)

=
=

Iron loss, (Pi)

Pc + I02Rp

=0

Note
At no load, there is no current in the secondary
so that VS = ES. On the primary side, the drops in RP
and XP, due to I0 are also very small because of the
smallness of I0. Hence, we can say that at no-load (Rp
and Xp are equal to zero),

I0
VP = EP VP

Im

IC
EP
GC

-jBm
Flaviano D. Dula

In terms of Admittance, Y0
I0

VP

PC = IC2/GC = EP x IC

IC

Im
EP

Y0

GC

-jBm

Fig.4(v)

Admittance:

Y0

GC jBm

I0/EP

I0/VP

Flaviano D. Dula

Admittance
Where:

Conductance:
GC = 1/RC = IC/EP

Susceptance:
Bm = 1/Xm = Im/EP

IC/VP , mhos or siemens (S)

Im/VP, mhos or siemens (S)

PC = core loss. It is manifested as heat generated in the core

and it denotes the sum of Ph and Pe of the transformer.
Flaviano D. Dula

2. Real or Practical

Transformer
on Load

Practical Transformer on Load

(i)

Iron Losses (PC or Ph+e)

Since the iron core is subjected to
alternating flux , there occurs eddy current
loss (Pe) and hysteresis loss (Ph) in it.
These two losses together are known
as iron losses or core losses (PC or Ph+e).

Practical Transformer on Load

(ii)

Winding Resistances , RP & RS

Since the windings consist of copper

conductors, it immediately follows that both
primary and secondary will have winding
resistance. The primary resistance RP and
secondary resistance RS act in series with the
respective windings as shown in Fig.4.

Winding Resistances
When current flows through the
windings, there will be power loss as well as a
loss in voltage due to IR drop. This will affect
the power factor and EP will be less than VP
while VS will be less than ES.
VP > EP & ES > VS

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on Load

(iii)

Leakage Reactances, XP & XS

Both primary and secondary currents

produce flux. The flux m which links both the
windings is the useful flux and is called mutual
flux. However, primary current (IP) would
produce some flux lP which would not link the
secondary winding (See Fig.5).

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on Load

lP

Leakage flux

IP
VP

IS

NP

NS

Leakage flux

lS

ZL VS

Leakage flux

Fig.5 shows the leakage flux of the transformer.

Flaviano D. Dula

Practical Transformer on Load

Similarly, secondary current would produce
some flux lS that would not link the primary
winding. The flux such as lP or lS which links only
one winding is called leakage flux.
The leakage flux paths are mainly through the
air.

Flaviano D. Dula

Leakage Reactances, X & X

P

The effect of primary leakage flux lP is to

introduce an inductive reactance XP in series
with the primary winding resistance as shown
in Fig.5.
Similarly, the secondary leakage flux lP
introduces an inductive reactance XS in series
with the secondary winding resistance.

Flaviano D. Dula

Leakage Reactances, XP & XS

There will be NO power loss due to leakage
reactance. However, the presence of leakage
reactance in the windings changes the power
factor as well as there is voltage loss due to IX
drop.

Flaviano D. Dula

Note
Although leakage flux in a transformer
is quite small (about 5% of m) compared to
the mutual flux m, yet it cannot be ignored.
It is because leakage flux paths are through
air of high reluctance and hence require
considerable e.m.f..

Note
It may be noted that energy is
conveyed from the primary winding to
the secondary winding by mutual flux
m which links both the windings.

Flaviano D. Dula