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Abstract
This paper examines the basics of cash management for financial
management and financial reporting purposes. This study makes use of
descriptive research method to examine the importance, essence, influence,
relationship, and impact of cash management on financial management
and financial reporting. It establishes the strong impact of cash
management on corporate survival, linkage to practically every account on
financial report, maximisation of shareholders wealth, fraud prevention and
detection, and liquidity enrichment. It also ascertains the need for the use of
net cash flows as a measure of performance. Organisations should give cash
management serious attention and make it a strategic partner, and should
maintain a dedicated cash module for cash management because accrual
accounting is not adequate for cash management. Regulatory bodies should
enhance disclosure requirements in respect of cash and cash equivalents to
enhance transparency and prevent creative cash management.
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Introduction
nine discusses foreign currency cash management; and lastly, section ten is
the conclusion and recommendations.
Disbursement/Outflows
Production expenses
Revenue
Personnel cost
(Financing, Investing)
Other inflows
Cash
Sundry Revenue
Capital expenditure
Sales
cost
&
Distribution
Office/Overhead
expenses
Statutory expenses
(i.e. tax)
Other outflows
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There is a thin line between cash forecast and cash budgets that many
cannot distinguish one from the other. This is because the procedures for
preparing the two are the same. Cash budget like every other forms of budget
relates to short-term financial expression of an organisations corporate
objectives for the entitys fiscal period, usually one year. In terms of
periodicity, cash budget like every other type of budget can be enhanced if
flexed to reflect business realities from time to time. Thirteen-week budget is
a regular form of cash budget. Due to the volatility of cash, there is need for
regular review of cash budget; fortnight or monthly budget is proactive for
effective cash management. On the other hand, Cash forecast is projection
tool of business reality.
Financial Management
Financial Reporting
Cash-flow Projection
Cash Book
Cash Budget
Cash/Bank Reconciliation
Cash Position
Cash-flows Statement
Cash-Flow Statement
(After adjusting for
timing differences &
amendments)
ready before any disbursement. Quality financial reporting system will have
the cash position reconcilable to ledger balances.
Once an enterprise does not operate cash only policy there are bound to
be account receivables. Therefore, customers/clients should be appropriately
prequalified to weed out ones with high default risk and reliable invoice
should be sent timely. Late payment of outstanding and bad debt is big
problem on cash management; they can result in cash flow problems that can
cripple organization of any size. Credit control can be a simple task where
there is stringent and keenly monitored credit management policy.
Conversely, delinquent debtors are ingenious with the truth when payment is
demanded. They come up with any of the various excuses such as the cheque
is in the post, the document to process payment is just being signed now, or
request for invoice to be resent? When credit control is getting to this level,
outsourcing could be the solution to improve cash flows, reduce debtor days
and potential bad debt, or management needs a very tactful credit
management.
Weekly credit control report is a vital cash management tool that
significantly assists management decision making. The report shows new
invoices, outstanding invoices, expected payments, payments received and
other details base on the nature of business and level of details required.
Collectability of debt and creditworthiness of the customer are effective
contingent consideration that affects cash inflows. Prompt collection from
customers/clients, minimum collection cost, aggressive follow up on overdue
invoices, and possibly, requires up-front deposits at the time of sale are great
formulae that aid business growth. There should be dynamic model for
customers/clients that have potentiality for risk. Day Sales Outstanding (DSO)
is a key performance indicator for measurement by outstanding enterprises.
Valuable cash management strategy is bared in a shorter Day Sales
Outstanding (DSO). Sales sell to anyone irrespective of the customer/client
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payment capacity that would often result to bad debt, to achieve their
performance. Sales commission plan should be drawn to give the enterprise
the best compensation; it should be at the best interest of the company and
should be aligned to corporate objectives. For instance, sales commission
could be structured such that commission would only be paid when customer
pays, to motivate collections, but should avoid sales taking up credit control
tasks rather than sales. Judicious use of Bad Debt Reserves to Receivables
ratio assists in improving cash flows and earning through strategic credit
management. Finally, the ultimate tool for credit control and management is
relationship. In a business experience, a credit control officer achieved what
other approaches, including restlessness and litigation, could not through
relationship. The best credit control officer is a relationship professional.
Cash/Bank reconciliation is a methodological procedure of comparing
two sets of related cash/bank accounts or records from different systems and
any other sources, categorizing and analyzing differences, and making needed
amendments. Bank reconciliation is a powerful accounting and control
process by which an entity's cashbook balances is compared with the bank's
cash balance as of a given period to note any differences. Bank reconciliation
to a business is like a compass, map, and sextant to a traveller to navigate. It is
the heart of every organizations book keeping system. Bank reconciliation
unveils reconciling items, which result from timing difference, and adjusting
matters for necessary corrections. Life is not perfect, mistakes are made; bank
reconciliation exposes errors that are inadvertent and the deliberate ones,
timing differences and bank charges/interests to light. Effective and timely
management of bank reconciliation activities significantly increases
management ability to proactively identify and resolve issues that can result in
misstatements in financial reporting records. Simplicity of preparing bank
reconciliation statement is a function of the complexity of operations. The
daunting veracity of bank reconciliation statement is that it must balance,
nothing like limbo. Weird experience on reconciliation can be caused by
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many hushed reasons like incorrect beginning balance (i.e. item(s) not
considered in earlier reconciliation on cashbook, system error), errors (i.e.
transposition, addition, subtraction, commission, error on cheque register etc),
incorrect bank beginning balance (i.e. bank charges that hit statement after
dispatch of statement), and many others. These problems are preventable by
setting-up appropriate reconciliation and information management processes,
improving organization, training, and automation.
Reconciliation must be prepared on a timely basis at the end of a period,
reconciling items must be investigated and necessary adjustments should be
made in the accounting system, segregation of duties must be instituted, and
reconciliations should be appropriately filed and available for future
reference. Reconciliation is best done periodically in a continuum i.e. weekly,
monthly, or quarterly depending on the size, the level of activity, associated
risk of error and complexity of operation. Where the system is poor and
reconciliation has piled up for many periods, it is highly cumbersome and
difficult to reconcile. In such situation, there is a need for high technical skills
and experience, particularly on the comprehensive understanding of business
of the organization. To solve such problem there are two approaches:
periodic/graduating reconciliations and lump sum/single reconciliation. The
periodic/graduating reconciliation is easier, methodological, recommended,
but time-consuming, while experts use lump sum/single reconciliation that is
facilitated by the design and adoption of special reconciliation model.
Organizations can forestall the burden associated with reconciliation by using
automated bank reconciliation. Many accounting software come with bank
reconciliation automation, which reduces the time it takes to complete the
reconciliation considerably and simplify reconciliation unto a straightforward
task.
The external reporting counterpart of cash budget and management cash
flows analysis report is statement of cash flows. The comprehensive
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Cash flows from operations is taken from the Statement of Cash Flows
and average total liabilities is an average of total liabilities from several time
periods of liabilities taken from balance sheets. The higher the ratio, the better
the firm is financially flexible and able to discharge its obligation to creditors.
4.8 Net Income to Operating Cash flows Ratio
The net income to operating cash flows ratio is a very important cash
ratio; it reveals how much an enterprise is able to generate cash from earnings
and the long run sustainability of the firm. This ratio allows for comparing
earnings to cash flows, increasing earnings and decreasing cash flows is an
indication of decrease in earnings in the future. The occurrence of increasing
earnings combined with decreasing cash flows imply accounting shenanigans,
or cash management problems such as cash conversion cycle problem, poor
credit control and management; accounts receivables could increase because
customers do not have the cash to pay. An unforeseen sales slowdown could
push inventory levels up. However, these events can also foretell an earnings
slowdown. The calculation of the ratio is as below:
Net Income to Operating Cash flows Ratio = % Change in EPS / %
Change in Operating Cash flows
The numerator of this fraction is change in the earnings per Share (EPS),
represents a enterprises after tax profit divided by the number of shares. The
denominator is the change in operating cash flows, which is found right on the
cash flows statement, represents in a company's accounting earnings adjusted
for non-cash items and changes in working capital. Earnings management can
be detected with the use of net income to operating cash flows ratio
If the ratio falls below 1.00, then the company is not generating enough
cash to justify its performance. In this case, the company is either creative in
reporting or the cash management needs overhauling. The ratio is not
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exclusive; it can be compared with other firms and the trend analysis is a fine
tool. It is critical that cash flow from operations not lag behind net income for
an extended period of time. Whenever a company is not collecting the cash
related to its reported earnings, then it calls into question the quality of those
earnings. If net income to operating cash flows ratio was employed; big
corporate failures like W. T. Grant, Chrysler would have been averted.
4.9 Bad Debt Reserves to Receivables
Bad Debt Reserves to Receivables ratio measures the relationship
between bad debt reserves and days sales outstanding to discern how much
the enterprise is taking caution by making adequate prudence against bad
debts. This ratio is necessary on the premise that there is a problem of
possibility of understatement of uncollectable debts when bad debt reserves
are out pacing receivables. The most often adjusted account by external
auditors is receivables accounts and the associated reserves. To calculate this
figure, a company's accounts receivable balance for the end of a certain period
is divided by average sales per day during the same period.
Bad Debt Reserves to Receivables = Bad Debt reserves / Days Sales
Outstanding (DSO)
Days sales outstanding (DSO) is a ratio used to measure the average
length of time that a firm's receivables are outstanding. When DSOs are
increasing, then in most cases the company should book a similar increase in
bad debt reserves. If it does not, then that could serve as an important warning
sign. Bad debt reserve account is on balance sheet. Any receivable written off
during a period depletes bad debt reserve balance, while additional provision
increases the balance. Normally, like in the golden rule of double entry,
increase in reserve leads to corresponding increase in bad debt expenses
during reporting period.
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transactions, are better done through bank. Good finance practice is to release
confirmed cheque so that cheques get cleared on time to allow beneficiaries
access to fund. Not releasing cheques timely can cost the organisation
tremendously in the end; organisation can be deprived of the imperative
service/good thereby telling drastically on operations, loss of reputation,
which can lead to payments in cash or draft. Additional costs such as
commission, lead-time, interest on bank draft, transport cost, security hazard
of carrying cash.
Some organisations by nature of operation maintain high sum of cash in
hand. Such organisation should make additional security arrangement; aside
private office security, additional arrangement of keeping one or two police
from nearest police station on payroll will drastically avert burglary and
robbery. It is noteworthy to mention that petty cash is the most susceptible
accounts of all cash accounts to fraud; therefore, there should be strong, strict,
consistent control. Personnel in charge should not be allowed to be in charge
for too long, because exclusive understanding and awareness of loopholes can
be too costly for organisation. Cash theft has variety, such as understated
sales, sales register manipulation, skimming, collection procedures, false
entries to sales account, theft of cheques received, cheques for currency
substitution, lapping accounts, inventory padding, theft of cash from register,
and deposit lapping. Similarly, fraudulent disbursements can be personal
purchases with company funds, returning merchandise for cash, false refunds,
deposits in transit, small disbursements, check tampering, billing schemes,
and false voids. Teaming and lading, pilfering, and other forms of fraud can
be perpetrated over period of time that can exceed the shareholders fund.
Incidents of imprudent management of cash that resulted to erosion of
shareholders fund abound: Parmalat, the biggest dairy company in Europe
based in Italy that collapsed in 2003, went under because of non-existent cash
in bank, Satyam Computer Services overstated cash by $1.5 billion but the
company was saved by Indians, Bernard L. Madoff Investment utilised ponzi
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scheme to strip people about $17 billion to satisfy his veracious craving for
cash, Tyco International used creative accounting to divert companys fund to
its CEO and CFO
Company laws require that the management of an enterprise is
responsible for ensuring internal control system. It is appalling how often
organizations rely utterly on external auditors to improve internal control
system. Management should ensure that internal controls system guarantee the
cash. In addition, the cash balances are properly described and classified and
adequate disclosures are made of restricted or committed funds and of cash
not subject to immediate withdrawal.
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One major problem with the current global capitalism is the wrong
impression that earnings are the acme of organization success. This
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Foreign exchange rate fluctuation can push a bottom line from profit
unto loss. Contrary to the believe by some finance folks that exchange
difference is an ordinary paper profit/loss, the risk of foreign exchange is
basically on profit and it is real. The main issue on foreign currency
management is hedging of exposure to adverse foreign exchange difference
and encouragement of currency speculation for profit. Generally, foreign
exchange risk hedging is either forward contract or option rate. To reduce
inherent foreign exchange risk conversion, enterprise can hedge the risk by
forward contracts, fixed forward or floating/option contracts; invoicing
foreign clients/customers in local currency; and matching income against
expense/expenditure in the domiciliary bank account. Other strategies are
protection clause on sale price in foreign currency or adjusted exchange rate
moves outside a defined range; invoicing in a strong currency; and pricing
policy, by building extra profit margin into selling price to act as a cushion in
the event that exchange rates move adversely.
Superior foreign exchange management utilises innovation to
strategically manage cash to achieve organisations objectives by adopting
integrated liquidity and investment to optimise cash and enhance efficient
allocation of resources. The basic manual to unleash the immense opportunity
is the central/reserve banks foreign exchange manual as updated from time to
time. For instance, proceeds of export in the domiciliary account afford
exporters (of goods/services) unfettered access to funds like ability to make
offshore fund transfer above the statutory limit. Another example is the
opportunity to transfer cash above the statutory limit as invisible transaction.
To hedge losses that can result from foreign exchange transactions,
multinational organisation should settle intercompany indebtedness through
intercompany accounts and settle the net payable through foreign exchange.
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should tread the path of prudency and disclosures of foreign currency impacts
(particularly on earnings) to minimise creativity.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Management Override Of Internal Controls: The Achilles Heel of Fraud
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American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Inc., New York, NY
10036-8775, http://www.aicpa.org.
Baharom,
K.,
2009,
Article
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