Eddy Current Maths PDF

Electromagnetic Testing Eddy Current Mathematics
2014-December
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam Preparatory Self Study Notes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Fion Zhang at Shanghai

2014/November
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/
Shanghai
Impedance Phasol Diagrams
Greek letter
Eddy Current Inspection Formula
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Formula/ECFormula/ECFormula.htm
Units
Ohms Law:
According to Ohms Law, the voltage is the product of current and resistance.
V=IxR
Where V = Voltage in volts, I = Current in Amps and R = Resistance in Ohms
Inductance of a solenoid is given by:

L=oN2A/l
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance
Phase Angle and Impedance

Phase angle is expressed as follows:
tan = XL/R
Where:
= Phase Angle in degrees, XL = Inductive Reactance in ohms and R =
Resistance in ohms.
Impedance is defined as follows:
Where Z = Impedance in ohms, R = Resistance in ohms and XL = Reactance

in ohms.
Magnetic Permeability and Relative Magnetic Permeability

Magnetic permeability is the ratio between magnetic flux density and
magnetizing force.
=B/H
Where = Magnetic Permeability in Henries per meter (mu), B = Magnetic
Flux Density in Tesla, H = Magnetizing Force in Amps/meter.
Relative magnetic permeability is expressed as follows:
r = / o
Where r = Relative magnetic permeability (mu) and o = Magnetic
permeability of free space (Henries per meter = 1.257 * 10-6). r = 1 for nonferrous materials.
Conductivity and Resistivity

Conductivity and resistivity is related as follows:
=1/
Where = Conductivity (sigma) and =Resistivity (rho). Conductivity can be
quantified in Siemens per m (S/m) or in Aerospace NDT in % lACS
(International Annealed Copper Standard). One Siemen is the inverse of an
ohm. Another common unit used for conductivity measurement is Siemen per
cm (S/cm).
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity

Resistance can be defined as follows:
R = l /(A) or R = l/A
Where:
R = the resistance of a uniform cross section conductor in ohms (),
l = the length of the conductor in the same linear units as the conductivity or
resistivity is quantified,
A=Cross Sectional area,
= conductivity in S/m and
= Resistivity in m.
In eddy current testing, instead of describing conductivity in absolute terms,

an arbitrary unit has been widely adopted. Because the relative conductivities
of metals and alloys vary over a wide range, a conductivity benchmark has
been widely used. In 1913, the International Electrochemical Commission
established that a specified grade of high purity copper, fully annealed measuring 1 m long, having a uniform section of 1 mm2 and having a
resistance of 17.241 m at 20C (1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20C) - would be
arbitrarily considered 100 percent conductive. The symbol for conductivity is
and the unit is Siemens per meter. Conductivity is also often expressed as
a percentage of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
Conductivity & Resistivity

Relative
Conductivity*
Temperature
Coefficient of
Resistance**
Tensile
Strength
(lbs./sq. in.)
59
0.0039
30,000
45-50
30-45
Brass
28
0.002-0.007
70,000
Cadmium
19
0.0038
Chromium
55
Cobalt
16.3
0.0033
Constantin
3.24
0.00001
120,000
Copper:
Hard drawn
Annealed
89.5
100
0.00382
0.00393
60,000
30,000
65
0.0034
20,000
Metal
Aluminum (2S;
pure)
Aluminum (alloys):
Soft-annealed
Heat-treated
Gold
http://www.wisetool.com/designation/cond.htm

Iron:
Pure
Cast
Wrought
17.7
2-12
11.4
0.005
Lead
0.0039
3,000
Magnesium
0.004
33,000
Manganin
3.7
0.00001
150,000
Mercury
1.66
0.00089
Molybdenum
33.2
0.004
0.002
160,000
1.45
0.0004
150,000
12-16
0.006
120,000
Monel
Nichrome
Nickel

Nickel silver (18%)
5.3
0.00014
150,000
Phosphor bronze
36
0.0018
25,000
Platinum
15
0.003
55,000
Silver
106
0.0038
42,000
Steel
3-15
0.004-0.005
42,000-230,000
Tin
13
0.0042
4,000
Titanium
50,000
Titanium, 6A14V
130,000
Tungsten
28.9
0.0045
500,000
Zinc
28.2
0.0037
10,000
FIGURE 13. Normalized impedance diagram for long coil encircling solid
cylindrical non-ferromagnetic bar and for thin wall tube. Coil fill factor = 1.0.
Legend
k = () = electromagnetic wave
propagation constant for
conducting material
r = radius of conducting cylinder (m)
= magnetic permeability of bar (4 x107
Hm-1 if bar is nonmagnetic)
= electrical conductivity of bar (Sm-1)
= angular frequency = 2f where f =
frequency (Hz)
( L0G) = equivalent of () for
simplified electrical circuits,
where G = conductance (S) and L0 =
inductance in air (H)
Legend
k = () = electromagnetic wave propagation constant for
conducting material
r = radius of conducting cylinder (m)
= magnetic permeability of bar (4 x107 Hm-1 if bar is nonmagnetic)
= electrical conductivity of bar (Sm-1)
= angular frequency = 2 f where f = frequency (Hz)
( L0G) = equivalent of () for simplified electrical circuits,
where G = conductance (S) and L0 = inductance in air (H)
Keywords: ?
= (2/) = 1/() = 1/k = 1/( f )
For ( L0G) = () , L0G =
The magnetic permeability is the ratio of flux density B to magnetic field

intensity H:
= BH-1
where B = magnetic flux density (tesla) and H = magnetizing force or
magnetic field intensity (Am1). In free space, magnetic permeability
0 = 4 107 Hm1.
Magnetic permeability of free space:

0 = 4 107 Hm1
Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic Flux: Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a
surface placed in a magnetic field.
We show magnetic flux with the Greek letter; . We find it with following formula;
=BA cos
Where is the magnetic flux and unit of is Weber (Wb)
B is the magnetic field and unit of B is Tesla
A is the area of the surface and unit of A is m2
Following pictures show the two different angle situation of magnetic flux.
http://www.physicstutorials.org/home/magnetism/magnetic-flux-and-magnetic-permeability
In (a), magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the surface, thus, since angle between
normal of the surface and magnetic field lines 0 and cos 0 =1 equation of magnetic
flux becomes;
=B A
In (b), since the angle between the normal of the system and magnetic field lines is
90 and cos 90 = 0 equation of magnetic flux become;
=B A cos 90 = B A 0 = 0
(a)
(b)
Magnetic Permeability - In previous units we have talked about heat

conductivity and electric conductivity of matters. In this unit we learn magnetic
permeability that is the quantity of ability to conduct magnetic flux. We show it
with . Magnetic permeability is the distinguishing property of the matter,
every matter has specific . Picture given below shows the behavior of
magnetic field lines in vacuum and in two different matters having different .
Magnetic permeability of the vacuum is denoted by; o and has value;

o = 4 .10-7 Wb/Amps.m
We find the permeability of the matter by following formula;
= B / H
Where; H is the magnetic field strength and B is the flux density
Relative permeability is the ratio of a specific medium permeability to the
permeability of vacuum.
r=/o
Diamagnetic matters:
If the relative permeability f the matter is a little bit lower than 1 then we say
these matters are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic matters:
If the relative permeability of the matter is a little bit higher than 1 then we say
these matters are paramagnetic.
Ferromagnetic matters:
If the relative permeability of the matter is higher than 1 with respect to
paramagnetic matters then we say these matters are ferromagnetic matters.
Magnetic Permeability
Standard Depth
Standard Depth of Penetration

Standard depth of penetration is given as follows:
Where = standard depth of penetration in m; f = frequency (Hz); =

Magnetic Permeability (Henries per meter); and = conductivity in S/m.
The influence of frequency and conductivity on standard depth of penetration
is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Influence of frequency and conductivity on standard depth of

penetration.
Current Density Change with Depth

The change in current density with depth is expressed as follows:
Jx = Jo ex/
Where Jx = Current Density at distance x below the surface (amps/m2); J0 =
Current Density at the surface (amps/m2); e = the base of the natural
logarithm (Euler's number) = 2.71828; x = Distance below the surface; and
= standard depth of penetration in meters.
Depth of Penetration and Probe Size

Smith et al have introduced the idea of spatial frequency.
Where D = the effective diameter of the probe field in meters, limiting the
depth of penetration to D/4. The probe effective diameter is considered to be
infinite in the usual equation.
Depth of Penetration & Current Density
http://www.suragus.com/en/company/eddy-current-testing-technology
Standard Depth Calculation
Where: = 0 x r
The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semiinfinite conductor. The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of
penetration. The equation for this calculation is:
Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)
Defect Detection / Electrical conductivity measurement
1/e or 37% of
surface density at
target
Defect Detection
(1/e)3 or 5% of
surface density at
material interface
Electrical conductivity measurement
The skin depth equation is strictly true only for infinitely thick material and
planar magnetic fields. Using the standard depth , calculated from the
above equation makes it a material/test parameter rather than a true measure
of penetration.
(1/e)
(1/e)2
(1/e)3
FIG. 4.1. Eddy current distribution with depth in a thick plate and resultant phase lag.
Sensitivity to defects depends on eddy current density at defect location.

Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth () of
penetration they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of
penetration (2 ), eddy current density has decreased to (1/ e)2 or 13.5% of
the surface density. At three depths (3), the eddy current density is down to
only (1/ e)3 or 5% of the surface density.
However, one should keep in mind these values only apply to thick sample
(thickness, t > 5r ) and planar magnetic excitation fields. Planar field
conditions require large diameter probes (diameter > 10t) in plate testing or
long coils (length > 5t) in tube testing. Real test coils will rarely meet these
requirements since they would possess low defect sensitivity. For thin plate or
tube samples, current density drops off less than calculated from Eq. (4.1).
For solid cylinders the overriding factor is a decrease to zero at the centre
resulting from geometry effects.
One should also note that the magnetic flux is attenuated across the sample,
but not completely. Although the currents are restricted to flow within
specimen boundaries, the magnetic field extends into the air space beyond.
This allows the inspection of multi-layer components separated by an air
space. The sensitivity to a subsurface defect depends on the eddy current
density at that depth, it is therefore important to know the effective depth of
penetration. The effective depth of penetration is arbitrarily defined as the
depth at which eddy current density decreases to 5% of the surface density.
For large probes and thick samples, this depth is about three standard depths
of penetration. Unfortunately, for most components and practical probe sizes,
this depth will be less than 3 , the eddy currents being attenuated more than
predicted by the skin depth equation.
Keywords:
For large probes and thick samples, this depth is about three standard depths
of penetration. Unfortunately, for most components and practical probe sizes,
this depth will be less than 3.
Standard Depth of Penetration Versus Frequency Chart
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Formula/ECFormula/DepthFreqChart/ECDepth.html
Magnetic Field & Size of Coil

Typically, the magnetic field in the axial direction is relatively strong only for
a distance of approximately one tenth of the coil diameter, and drops rapidly
to only approximately one tenth of the field strength near the coil at a distance
of one coil diameter.
D=Coil diameter
0.1D
0.10
Flaw Detection Depth

To penetrate deeply, therefore, large coil diameters are required. However as
the coil diameter increases, the sensitivity to small flaws, whether surface or
subsurface, decreases. For this reason, eddy current flaw detection is
generally limited to depths most commonly of up to approximately 5 mm only,
occasionally up to 10 mm.
For materials or components with greater cross-sections, eddy current testing
is usually used only for the detection of surface flaws and assessing material
properties, and radiography or ultrasonic testing is used to detect flaws which
lie below the surface, although eddy current testing can be used to detect
flaws near the surface. However, a very common application of eddy current
testing is for the detection of flaws in thin material and, for multilayer
structures, of flaws in a subsurface layer.
Phase Lag
Phase change with Depth

Phase change with depth is expressed as follows:
= 57.3 x /
Where, = Phase lag (degrees); 57.3 = 1 radian expressed in degrees; x =
Distance below the surface; and = standard depth of penetration.
The change in phase and current density with depth of penetration is depicted
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Phase and current density change with depth of penetration.
Frequency?????
Frequency is expressed as follows:
Where f = frequency (Hz); x= material thickness in meters; = Magnetic

Permeability (Henries per meter); and = conductivity in S/m.
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=10953#4
Phase Lag
Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to
obtain information about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is
the shift in time between the eddy current response from a disruption on the
surface and a disruption at some distance below the surface. The generation
of eddy currents can be thought of as a time dependent process, meaning
that the eddy currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those
at the surface. Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the surface will
produce more phase lag than disruptions near the surface. Both the signal
voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth, which is
different from the phase angle discussed earlier. (With the phase angle, the
current shifted with respect to the voltage.)
Keywords:
Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth,
which is different from the phase angle discussed earlier. (With the phase
angle, the current shifted with respect to the voltage.)
Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes

it possible to estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference
specimens, determine the rough size of a defect. The signal produced by a
flaw depends on both the amplitude and phase of the eddy currents being
disrupted. A small surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar
effect on the magnitude of impedance in a test coil. However, because of the
increasing phase lag with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the
test coil impedance vector.
Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation. The phase lag angle
calculated with this equation is useful for estimating the subsurface depth of a
discontinuity that is concentrated at a specific depth. Discontinuities, such as
a crack that spans many depths, must be divided into sections along its
length and a weighted average determined for phase and amplitude at each
position below the surface.
Phase Lag
Eq. (4.2).
Where:
= phase lag
X = distance below surface
= standard depth of penetration
(1/e)
(1/e)2
(1/e)3
FIG. 4.1. Eddy current distribution with depth in a thick plate and resultant phase lag.
More on Phase lag

Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to
obtain information about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is
the shift in time between the eddy current response from a disruption on the
surface and a disruption at some distance below the surface. Phase lag can
be calculated using the equations to the right. The second equation simply
converts radians to degrees by multiplying by 180/p or 57.3.
The phase lag calculated with these equations should be about 1/2 the phase
rotation seen between the liftoff signal and a defect signal on an impedance
plane instrument. Therefore, choosing a frequency that results in a standard
depth of penetration of 1.25 times the expected depth of the defect will
produce a phase lag of 45o and this should appear as a 90o separation
between the liftoff and defect signals.
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Formula/ECFormula/PhaseLag1/PhaseLag.htm
The phase lag angle is useful for estimating the distance below the surface of
discontinuities that concentrated at a specific depth. Discontinuities such as
a crack must be divided into sections along its length and a weighted average
determined for phase and amplitude at each position below the surface. For
more information see the page explaining phase lag.
Where:
= phase lag
X = distance below surface in mm.
= standard depth of penetration in mm.
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Formula/ECFormula/PhaseLag1/PhaseLag.htm
FIG. 5.32. Impedance diagram showing the signals from a shallow inside
surface flaw and a shallow outside surface flaw at three different frequencies.
The increase in the phase separation and the decrease in the amplitude of the
outside surface flaw relative to that of the inside surface flaw with increasing
frequency 2f90 can be seen.
Phase separation
Phase lag = x/ radian

= ( f) -
= x( f) -
Impedance
Inductive reactance (XL) in terms of frequency and inductance is given

by:
XL = L = 2fL
Similarly the Capacitance Reactance:
XC = 1/(C) = 1/ (2f C)
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency, and its graph, plotted against frequency
() is a straight line. Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency, and its graph,
plotted against is a curve.
These two quantities are shown, together with R, plotted against in Fig 9.2.1 It can be seen
from this diagram that where XC and XL intersect, they are equal and so a graph of (XL XC )
must be zero at this point on the frequency axis.
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/lcr_series_92.php
Reactance Voltage = Current x Inductive Reactance

E1 = IXL
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/ac_theory/lcr_series_92.php
The Inductive & Capacitive Reactance

XL = L = 2 fL
XC = 1/(C) = 1/ (2fC)
The relationship between impedance

and its individual components
(resistance and inductive reactance) can
be represented using a vector as shown
below. The amplitude of the resistance
component is shown by a vector along
the x-axis and the amplitude of the
inductive reactance is shown by a vector
along the y-axis.
The amplitude of the impedance is
shown by a vector that stretches from
zero to a point that represents both the
resistance value in the x-direction and
the inductive reactance in the y-direction.
Eddy current instruments with
impedance plane displays present
information in this format.
3.1.1 Induction and Reception Function

There are two methods of sensing changes in the eddy current characteristics:
(a) The impedance method
(b) The send receive method
Impedance method
In the impedance method, the driving coil is monitored. As the changes in coil
voltage or a coil current are due to impedance changes in the coil, it is
possible to use the method for sensing any material parameters that result in
impedance changes. The resultant impedance is a sum of the coil impedance
(in air) plus the impedance generated by the eddy currents in the test material.
The impedance method of eddy current testing consists of monitoring the
voltage drop across a test coil. The impedance has resistive and inductive
components. The impedance magnitude is calculated from the equation:
|Z| = [ R2+ (XL)2 ] (Xc was assume nil)

Where: Z = impedance, R = resistance, XL = inductive reactance
and the impedance phase is calculated as:
= tan-1 (XL/ R)
Where: = phase angle, R = resistance, XL = inductive reactance
The voltage across the test coil is V= IZ, where I is the current through coil
and Z is the impedance.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/impcom.html
, = 2f
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/rlcser.html
Eddy Impedance plane responses
Magnetism
The magnetic field B surrounds the current carrying conductor. For a long
straight conductor carrying a unidirectional current, the lines of magnetic flux
are closed circular paths concentric with the axis of the conductor. Biot and
Savart deduced, from the experimental study of the field around a long
straight conductor, that the magnetic flux density B associated with the
infinitely long current carrying conductor at a point P which is at a radial
distance r, as illustrated in FIG. below, is
http://electrical4u.com/magnetic-flux-density-definition-calculation-formula/
Phase Shifts
Current Phase Shift Inductance a vector sum of resistance & reactance

If more resistance than inductive
reactance is present in the circuit,
the impedance line will move
toward the resistance line and the
phase shift will decrease. If more
inductive reactance is present in
the circuit, the impedance line will
shift toward the inductive
reactance line and the phase shift
will increase.
Capacitor circuit:
Current lead
voltage by 90o
Inductor circuit:
Current lagging
voltage by 90o
Resonance Frequency
3.2 Resonant Circuits

Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that
they are designed to operated. When the probe is operated outside of this
range, problems with the data can occur. When a probe is operated at too
high of a frequency, resonance can occurs in the circuit. In a parallel circuit
with resistance (R), inductance (XL) and capacitance (XC), as the frequency
increases XL decreases and XC increase. Resonance occurs when XL and
XC are equal but opposite in strength. At the resonant frequency, the total
impedance of the circuit appears to come only from resistance since XL and
XC cancel out.
Every circuit containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant
frequency that is inversely proportional to the square root of the product of the
capacitance and inductance.
Eddy current inspection
At resonant frequency Xc and XL

cancelled out each other. Thus the
phase angle is zero, only the
resistance component exist. The
current is at it maximum.
Balance Bridge Circuit
Coil impedance is normally balanced using an AC bridge circuit. A common

bridge circuit is shown in general form of FIG. 3.16. The arms of the bridge
are being indicated as impedance of unspecified sorts. The detector is
represented by a voltmeter. Balance is secured by adjustments of one or
more of the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by zero response of the
detector which means that points B and C are at the same potential (have the
same instantaneous voltage). Current will flow through the detector (voltmeter)
if points B and C on the bridge arms are at different voltage levels. Current
may flow in either direction depending on whether B or C is at higher potential.
FIG. 3.16. Common bridge circuit.

If the bridge is made of four impedance arms, having inductive and resistive
components, the voltage from A-B-D must equal the voltage from A-C-D in
both amplitude and phase for the bridge to be balanced.
FIG. 3.16. Common bridge circuit.
At balance:
I1Z1 = I2 Z2 and I1 Z3 = I2 Z4
From above equations we have:
(3.4)
The equation (3.4) states that ratio of impedance

of pair of adjacent arms must equal the ratio of
impedance of the other pair of adjacent arms for
bridge balance. In a typical bridge circuit in eddy
current instruments as shown in FIG. 3.17., the
probe coils are placed in parallel to the variable
resistors. The balancing is achieved by varying
these resistors until null or balance condition is
achieved.
FIG. 3.17. Common Testing

Arrangement
At balance:
IAZ1 = IB Z3 , IA Z2 = IB Z4
IA IB
IAZ1/ IA Z2 = IB Z3 / IB Z4
From above equations we have:
IA
(3.4)
The equation (3.4) states that ratio of impedance

of pair of adjacent arms must equal the ratio of
impedance of the other pair of adjacent arms for
bridge balance. In a typical bridge circuit in eddy
current instruments as shown in FIG. 3.17., the
probe coils are placed in parallel to the variable
resistors. The balancing is achieved by varying
these resistors until null or balance condition is
achieved.
FIG. 3.17. Common Testing

Arrangement
At balance:
V1=V1
IAZ1 = IB Z3 , IAZ2 = IBZ4
IAZ/ IA Z2 = IBZ3 / IBZ4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2XuRGrGZ_9M
Subject on Balance Circuit- more reading
A Maxwell bridge (in long form, a Maxwell-Wien bridge) is a type of

Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low
Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. It is a real product
bridge.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance
can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance
when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential
difference across the detector and hence no current flowing through it. The
unknown inductance then becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
With reference to the picture, in a typical application R1 and R4 are known
fixed entities, and R2 and C2 are known variable entities. R2 and C2 are
adjusted until the bridge is balanced.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_bridge
R3 and L3 can then be calculated based on the values of the other

components:
R4
C2
R2
R1
L3
R3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_bridge
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_8/10.html
Circuits Wheatstone Bridge Part 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kf5XkK0465A
Conductivity
Measurement
Influence of temperature on the resistivity

Higher temperature increases the thermal activity of the atoms in a metal
lattice. The thermal activity causes the atoms to vibrate around their normal
positions. The thermal vibration of the atoms increases the resistance to
electron flow, thereby lowering the conductivity of the metal. Lower
temperature reduces thermal oscillation of the atoms resulting in increased
electrical conductivity. The influence of temperature on the resistivity of a
metal can be determined from the following equation.
(4.3)
where
Rt = resistivity of the metal at the test temperature,
R0 = resistivity of the metal at standard temperature
= resistivity temperature coefficient
T = difference between the standard and test temperature (C).
From Eq. (4.3) it can be seen that if the temperature is increased, resistivity
increases and conductivity decreases from their ambient temperature levels.
Conversely, if temperature is decreased the resistivity decreases and
conductivity increases. To convert resistivity values, such as those obtained
from Eq. (4.3) to conductivity in terms of% IACS, the conversion formula is,
%IACS = 172.41/
(4.4)
Where:
IACS = international annealed copper standard
= resistivity (unit?)
IACS = 1.724110-8 m
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
3.3.2
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
In eddy current testing, instead of describing conductivity in absolute terms,

an arbitrary unit has been widely adopted. Because the relative conductivities
of metals and alloys vary over a wide range, a conductivity benchmark has
been widely used. In 1913, the International Electrochemical Commission
established that a specified grade of high purity copper, fully annealed measuring 1 m long, having a uniform section of 1 mm2 and having a
resistance of 1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20C (100% IACS = 1.7241x10-8
ohm-meter at 20C) - would be arbitrarily considered 100 percent conductive.
The symbol for conductivity is and the unit is Siemens per meter.
Conductivity is also often expressed as a percentage of the International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
Note:
100% IACS = 1.7241x10-8 ohm-meter at 20C
Example:
The eddy current conductivity should be corrected by using Equations (4.3)
and (4.4). In aluminium alloy, for example, a change of approximately 12%
IACS for a 55C change in temperature, using handbook resistivity values of
2.828 micro-ohm centimeters and a temperature coefficient of 0.0039 at 20C.
If the conductivity of commercially pure aluminium is 62% IACS at 20C, then
one would expect a conductivity of 55% IACS at 48C and a conductivity of
69% IACS at 10 C.
http://www.centurionndt.com/Technical%20Papers/condarticle.htm
Conductivity and its measurement

The SI unit of conductivity is the Siemens/metre (S/m), but because it is a
very small unit, its multiple, the megaSiemens/metre (MS/m) is more
commonly used.
Eddy current conductivity meters usually give readouts in the practical unit of
conductivity,% IACS (% International Annealed Copper Standard), which give
the conductivity relative to annealed commercially pure copper. To convert %
IACS to MS/m, multiply by 0.58, and to convert MS/m to % IACS, multiply by
1.724.
For instance, the conductivity of Type 304 stainless steel is 2.5% IACS or
1.45MS/m. Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity, and some publications on
eddy current testing refer to resistivity values rather than conductivity values.
However, conductivity in % IACS is universally used in the aluminium and
aerospace industries.
Fill Factors
Centering, fill factor (Eta)

In an encircling coil, or an internal coil, fill factor Eta is a measure of how
well the conductor (test specimen) fits the coil. It is necessary to maintain a
constant relationship between the diameter of the coil and the diameter of the
conductor. Again, small changes in the diameter of the conductor can cause
changes in the impedance of the coil. This can be useful in detecting changes
in the diameter of the conductor but it can also mask other indications.
For an external coil:
Fill Factor = (D1/D2)2
(4.5)
For an internal coil:

Fill Factor = (D2/D1)2
where
= fill factor
D1 = part diameter
D2 = coil diameter
(4.6)
Thus the fill factor must be less than 1 since if = 1 the coil is exactly the
same size as the material. However, the closer the fill factor is to 1 the more
precise the test. The fill factor can also be expressed as a %. For maximum
sensitivity, the fill factor should be as high as possible compatible with easy
movement of the probe in the tube. Note that the fill factor can never exceed
1 (100%).
Frequency Selections
Probe and frequency selection

The essential requirements for the detection of subsurface flaws are,
sufficient penetration for sensitivity to the subsurface flaws sought, and
sufficient phase separation of the signals for the location or depth of the flaws
to be identified. As standard depth of penetration increases, the phase
difference between discontinuities of different depth decreases. Therefore,
making interpretation of location or depth of the flaws difficult. Example: If the
frequency is set to obtain a standard depth of penetration of 2 mm, the
separation between discontinuities at 1 mm and 2 mm would be 57. If the
frequency is set to obtain a standard depth of penetration of 4 mm, the
separation between discontinuities at 1 mm and 2 mm would be 28.5.
Keywords:
As standard depth of penetration increases, the phase difference between
discontinuities of different depth decreases.
An acceptable compromise which gives both adequate sensitivity to

subsurface flaws and adequate phase separation between near side and far
side flaw signals is to use a frequency for which the thickness (t) = 0.8 . At
this frequency, the signal from a shallow far side flaw is close to 90
clockwise from the signal from a shallow near side flaw, so this frequency is
termed f90. By substituting t = 0.8 into the standard depth of penetration
formula, and changing Hz to kHz, the following formula is obtained:
f90 = 280/ (t2)
(5.1)
Where:
f90 = the operating frequency (kHz),
t = the thickness or depth of material to be tested (mm), and
= the conductivity of the test material (% IACS).
FIG. 5.15. Eddy current signals from a thin plate with a shallow near side flaw,
a shallow far side flaw, and a through hole, at three different frequencies.
1. At 25 kHz (a), the sensitivity to far side flaws is high, but the phase
difference between near side and far side signals is relatively small.
2. At 200 kHz (c), the phase separation between near side and jar side
signals is large. but the sensitivity to far side flaws is poor.
3. For this test part, a test frequency of100 kHz (b) shows both good
sensitivity to far side flaws and good phase separation between near side
and far side signals.
To obtain adequate depth of penetration, not only must the frequency be

lower than for the detection of surface flaws, but also the coil diameter must
be larger. On flat surfaces, a spot probe, either absolute or reflection, should
be used in order to obtain stable signals (see FIG. 5.16). On curved surfaces,
a spot probe with a concave face or a pencil probe should be used. Spring
loaded spot probes can be used to minimize lift-off, and shielded spot probes
are available for scanning close to edges, fasteners, and sharp changes in
configuration.
Probes Frequency
Typically, for aluminium alloys, frequencies in the range approximately 200

kHz to 500 kHz are appropriate, with approximately 200 kHz being preferred.
For low conductivity materials like stainless steel, nickel alloys, and titanium
alloys, the penetration would be excessive at these frequencies, and higher
frequencies are required. Typically 2 MHz to 6 MHz should be used.
Al: .2MHz ~ .5MHz
SS, Ni, Ti & Alloys: 2MHz ~ 6MHz
Ferromagnetic Mtls: ?
Impedance Phasol
Diagrams
Eddy Impedance plane responses
FIGURE 11. Measured conductivity locus, with conductivity expressed in

siemens per meter (percentages of International Annealed Copper Standard)
FIG. 5.19. Impedance diagrams and the conductivity curve at three different
frequencies, showing that, as frequency increases, the operating point moves
down the conductivity curve. It can also be seen that the angle between
the conductivity and lift-off curve is quite small for operating points near the
top of the conductivity curve, but greater in the middle and lower parts of the
curve. The increased sensitivity to variations in conductivity towards the
centre of the conductivity curve can also be seen.
20KHz
100KHz
1000KHz
FIG. 5.24. Impedance diagram showing the conductivity curve and the locus
of the operating points for thin red brass (conductivity approximately 40%
IACS) at 120 kHz (the thickness curve). The thickness curve meets the
conductivity curve when the thickness equals the Effective Depth of
Penetration (EDP).
FIG. 5.25. Impedance diagram showing the conductivity curve, and the
thickness curve for brass at a frequency of 120 kHz, the f90 frequency for a
thickness of 0.165 mm. The operating point for this thickness is shown, and liftoff curves for this and various other thicknesses are also shown.
FIG. 5.32. Impedance diagram showing the signals from a shallow inside
surface flaw and a shallow outside surface flaw at three different frequencies.
The increase in the phase separation and the decrease in the amplitude of the
outside surface flaw relative to that of the inside surface flaw with increasing
frequency 2f90 can be seen.
Phase separation
Phase lag = x/ radian

= (f) -
FIG. 5.35. Impedance diagram showing flaw signals and a signal from an inside
surface ferromagnetic condition at three different frequencies. The insert shows
the signals at 19 rotated to their approximate orientation on an eddy current
instrument display.
FIG. 5.36 shows the signal from a ferromagnetic condition at the outside
surface. It could be confused with a signal from a dent, but the two can readily
be distinguished if required by retesting at a different test frequency. The signal
from a ferromagnetic condition at the outside surface will show phase rotation
with respect to the signal from an inside surface flaw, as stated above, whereas
a dent signal will remain approximately 180 from the inside surface flaw signal.
FIG. 5.36. The signals from a typical absolute probe from flaws. an outside
surface ferromagnetic condition, a dent, a ferromagnetic baffle plate and a nonferromagnetic support tested at f90.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
conductivity measurement
permeability measurement
metal thickness measurement
coating thickness measurements
flaw detection
Conductivity
Conductivity versus Probe Impedance

constant frequency
1
Titanium, 6Al-4V
Normalized Reactance
0.8
Inconel
Stainless
Steel, 304
0.6
Copper 70%,
Nickel 30%
0.4
Lead
0.2
Copper
Magnesium, A280
Nickel
Aluminum, 7075-T6
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Normalized Resistance
0.4
0.5
Conductivity versus Alloying & Temper
IACS = International Annealed Copper Standard

IACS = 5.8107 -1m-1 at 20 C
IACS = 1.724110-8 m
60
Conductivity [% IACS]
2014
2024
6061
7075
50
T0
T0
40
T6
T72
T6
30
T6
T8
T0
T0
T73
T76
T4
T3 T4
T3 T4
20
Various Aluminum Alloys
T6
Apparent Eddy Current Conductivity
magnetic field
probe coil
specimen
1.0
0.8
lift-off
curves
0.6
0.4
conductivity
(frequency)
curve
0.2
0
eddy currents
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
high accuracy ( 0.1 %)

controlled penetration depth
3
=0
=s
0.5
Lift-Off Curvature
inductive
(low frequency)
lift-off
=0
=s
lift-off
=0
2
2
conductivity
Vertical Component.
Vertical Component.
=s
capacitive
(high frequency)
conductivity
Horizontal Component
Horizontal Component
Inductive Lift Off Effects

4 mm diameter
8 mm diameter
2.0
2.0
1.5 %IACS
-1.0
63.5 m
50.8 m
38.1 m
25.4 m
19.1 m
12.7 m
6.4 m
-1.5
-1.5
0.0 m
-2.0
-2.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
0.1
1
10
Frequency [MHz]
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
100
0.1
1
10
Frequency [MHz]
100
80
80
70
70
63.5 m
60
60
50.8 m
50
50
38.1 m
25.4 m
AECL [m] . .
AECL [m] .
1.5 %IACS
1.5
Relative AECC [%].
Relative AECC [%] .
1.5
40
30
20
40
30
20
10
10
-10
-10
0.1
1
10
Frequency [MHz]
100
19.1 m
12.7 m
6.4 m
0.0 m
0.1
1
10
Frequency [MHz]
100
Instrument Calibration
conductivity spectra comparison on IN718 specimens of
different peening intensities.
3.0
12A Nortec
8A Nortec
4A Nortec
12A Agilent
8A Agilent
4A Agilent
12A UniWest
8A UniWest
4A UniWest
12A Stanford
8A Stanford
4A Stanford
2.5
AECC Change [%] .
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0.1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]
Nortec 2000S, Agilent 4294A, Stanford Research SR844, and UniWest US-450
Permeability Phasol Diagram
Magnetic Susceptibility
paramagnetic materials with small ferromagnetic phase content
moderately high susceptibility
low susceptibility
1.0
4
r = 4
permeability
2
1
frequency
(conductivity)
1
0
permeability
0.8
lift-off
0.6
frequency
(conductivity)
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8

1
1.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
increasing magnetic susceptibility decreases the

apparent eddy current conductivity (AECC)
0.5
Magnetic Susceptibility versus Cold Works
cold work (plastic deformation at room temperature) causes

martensitic (ferromagnetic) phase transformation
in austenitic stainless steels
Magnetic Susceptibility
101
SS304L
SS302
SS304
100
10-1
10-2
SS305
10-3
IN718
IN625
IN276
10-4
0
10
20
30
Cold Work [%]
40
50
60
Metal Thickness Phasol Diagram
Thickness versus Normalized Impedance

scanning
probe coil
thickness loss due to corrosion, erosion, etc.

1
0.8
thinning
0.6
0.4
thick
plate
0.2
f = 0.05 MHz
f = 0.2 MHz
f = 1 MHz
0.8
lift-off
Re { F }
aluminum ( = 46 %IACS)
0.6
0.4
F ( x ) e x / e i x /
0.2
thin
plate
0
-0.2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

0.6
2
Depth [mm]
Thickness Correction
Vic-3D simulation, Inconel plates ( = 1.33 %IACS)

ao = 4.5 mm, ai = 2.25 mm, h = 2.25 mm
Conductivity [%IACS]
1.4
1.3
thickness
1.0 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm
2.5 mm
3.0 mm
3.5 mm
4.0 mm
5.0 mm
6.0 mm
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
10
Coating Thickness Phasol Diagrams
Non-Conductive Coating
probe coil, ao
non-conducting
coating
t
d
conducting substrate
ao > t, d > , AECL = + t
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1
ao = 4 mm, experimental
lift-off:
63.5 m
50.8 m
38.1 m
25.4 m
19.1 m
12.7 m
6.4 m
0 m
1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]
AECL [m]
AECL [m]
ao = 4 mm, simulated
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1
1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]
Conductive Coating
probe coil, ao
conducting
coating
z = e
z
Je
conducting substrate (s,s)

approximate:
large transducer, weak perturbation

equivalent depth:
e
s
2
1
AECC( f ) e
2 f
s s
1
( z ) AECC
4 z2
s s
analytical:
Fourier decomposition (Dodd and Deeds)
numerical:
finite element, finite difference, volume integral, etc.

(Vic-3D, Opera 3D, etc.)
Simplistic Inversion of AECC Spectra

0.254-mm-thick surface layer of 1% excess conductivity
1.2
uniform
input profile
AECC Change [%]
Conductivity Change [%]
1.2
0.8
0.6
inverted from
AECC
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001
-0.2
0
Depth [mm]
10
1000
Frequency [MHz]
1.2
1.2
Gaussian
input profile
AECC Change [%]
Conductivity Change [%]
0.1
0.8
0.6
inverted from
AECC
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]
0.8
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001
0.1
10
1000
Frequency [MHz]
Flaw Detection Phasol Diagrams
Impedance Diagram
1
0.8
conductivity
(frequency)
lift-off
0.6
crack
depth
0.4
flawless
material
2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
apparent eddy current conductivity (AECC) decreases

apparent eddy current lift-off (AECL) increases
0.5
Crack Contrast & Resolution

Vic-3D simulation
ao = 1 mm, ai = 0.75 mm, h = 1.5 mm
austenitic stainless steel, = 2.5 %IACS, r = 1
probe coil
f = 5 MHz, 0.19 mm
crack
Normalized AECC
1
-10% threshold
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
detection
threshold
0
0
semi-circular crack
2
3
Flaw Length [mm]
Eddy Current of Small Fatigue Crack
probe coil
crack
0.5 0.5, 2 MHz, 0.060-diameter coil

Al2024, 0.025-mil crack
Ti-6Al-4V, 0.026-mil-crack
Crystallographic Texture
J E
generally anisotropic
J1
1
J 0
2
J 3
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
hexagonal (transversely isotropic)

J1
1
J 0
2
J 3
0
E1
E
2
E3
0
2
0
0
0
cubic (isotropic)
J1
1
J 0
2
J 3
0
E1
E
2
E3
0
1
0
0
0
E1
E
2
E3
x1
x3
m
basal plane
x2
surface plane
1 2
conductivity normal to the basal plane
n () 1 cos 2 2 sin 2
conductivity in the basal plane
polar angle from the normal of the basal plane
m ( ) 1 sin 2 2 cos 2
M 2
a ( ) 1 sin 2 2 (1 cos 2 )]
m minimum conductivity in the surface plane

M maximum conductivity in the surface plane
a
average conductivity in the surface plane
Electric Birefringence Due to Texture

500 kHz, racetrack coil
equiaxed GTD-111
1.05
1.40
1.04
1.38
highly textured Ti-6Al-4V plate
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.36
1.34
1.32
1.30
30 60 90 120 150 180

Azimuthal Angle [deg]
30 60 90 120 150 180

Azimuthal Angle [deg]
Grain Noise in Ti-6Al-4V

1 1, 2 MHz, 0.060-diameter coil
as-received billet material
solution treated and annealed
heat-treated, coarse
heat-treated, very coarse
heat-treated, large colonies
equiaxed beta annealed
Eddy Current versus Acoustic Microscopy
1 1, coarse grained Ti-6Al-4V sample

5 MHz eddy current
40 MHz acoustic
Inhomogeneity
AECC Images of Waspaloy and IN100 Specimens

inhomogeneous Waspaloy
homogeneous IN100
4.2 2.1, 6 MHz
2.2 1.1, 6 MHz
conductivity range 1.38-1.47 %IACS
conductivity range 1.33-1.34 %IACS
3 % relative variation
0.4 % relative variation
Conductive Material Noise

as-forged Waspaloy
1.50
1.48
1.46
AECC [%IACS]
1.44
1.42
1.40
1.38
1.36
Spot 1 (1.441 %IACS)
1.34

1.32
Spot 4 (1.382% IACS)
1.30
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]
no (average) frequency dependence
10
Magnetic Susceptibility Material Noise

1 1, stainless steel 304
intact
0.510.260.03 mm3 edm notch
f = 0.1 MHz, AECC 6.4 %
f = 0.1 MHz, AECC 8.6 %
f = 5 MHz, AECC 0.8 %
f = 5 MHz, AECC 1.2 %
Impedance Phase
Responses
Phasor Diagram
Steel
Al
If the eddy current circuit is balanced

in air and then placed on a piece of
aluminum, the resistance component
will increase (eddy currents are being
generated in the aluminum and this
takes energy away from the coil,
which shows up as resistance) and
the inductive reactance of the coil
decreases (the magnetic field created
by the eddy currents opposes the
coil's magnetic field and the net effect
is a weaker magnetic field to produce
inductance). If a crack is present in
the material, fewer eddy currents will
be able to form and the resistance will
go back down and the inductive
reactance will go back up. Changes in
conductivity will cause the eddy
current signal to change in a different
way.
Impedance Plane Respond - Non magnetic materials
The resistance component R will increase

(eddy currents are being generated in the aluminum and this takes
energy away from the coil, which shows up as resistance)
The inductive reactance XL of the coil decreases
(the magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's
magnetic field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to
produce inductance).
If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be

able to form and the resistance will go back down and the
inductive reactance will go back up.
Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to

change in a different way.
Discussion
Topic: Discuss on Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal
to change in a different way.
Answer: Increase in conductivity will increase the intensity of eddy current on
the surface of material, the strong eddy current generated will reduce the
current of the coil, show-up as R &XL
Magnetic Materials
When a probe is placed on a magnetic

material such as steel, something different
happens. Just like with aluminum
(conductive but not magnetic), eddy
currents form, taking energy away from the
coil, which shows up as an increase in the
coils resistance. And, just like with the
aluminum, the eddy currents generate their
own magnetic field that opposes the coils
magnetic field. However, you will note for
the diagram that the reactance increases.
This is because the magnetic permeability
of the steel concentrates the coil's
magnetic field. This increase in the
magnetic field strength completely
overshadows the magnetic field of the
eddy currents. The presence of a crack or
a change in the conductivity will produce a
change in the eddy current signal similar to
that seen with aluminum.
The eddy currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which
shows up as an increase in the coils resistance.
The reactance increases. This is because the magnetic permeability
of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic field.
This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows
the effects magnetic field of the eddy currents on decreasing the
inductive reactance.
This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows the

magnetic field of the eddy currents.
The inductive reactance XL of the coil decreases
(the magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's magnetic
field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to produce inductance).
The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will produce a

change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with aluminum.
If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be able
to form and the resistance will go back down and the inductive
reactance will go back up
Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change
in a different way.

The increase of Inductive Reactance: this is
due to concentration of magnetic field by the
effects magnetic permeability of steel
The increase in Resistance R: this was due to the

decrease in current due to generation of eddy current,
shown-up as increase in resistance R.
Exercise: Explains the impedance plane responds for Aluminum and

Steel
Al:
1. Eddy current reduces coil current showup as R,XL
2. Crack reduce eddy current, reduce the

effects on R & XL
2
3
1
3. Increase in conductivity increase eddy

current, increasing the effects on R & XL
Steel:
1. Eddy current reduces coil current showup as R,XL. However net XL increase,
as magnetic permeability of the steel
concentrates the coil's magnetic field
In the applet below, liftoff curves can be generated for several nonconductive
materials with various electrical conductivities. With the probe held away from
the metal surface, zero and clear the graph. Then slowly move the probe to
the surface of the material. Lift the probe back up, select a different material
and touch it back to the sample surface.
Impedance Plane Respond Fe, Cu, Al
Fe
Al
Cu
Question: Why impedance plane respond of steel

(Fe) in the same quadrant as the non-magnetic Cu
and Al
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Instrumentation/Popups/applet3/applet3.htm
Experiment
Generate a family of liftoff curves for the different materials available in the
applet using a frequency of 10kHz. Note the relative position of each of the
curves. Repeat at 500kHz and 2MHz. (Note: it might be helpful to capture
an image of the complete set of curves for each frequency for comparison.)
1) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two
high conductivity materials?
2) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two
low conductivity materials?
The impedance calculations in the above applet are based on codes by Jack Blitz from "Electrical
and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing," 2nd ed., Chapman and Hill
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance
Hurray
With phase analysis eddy current instruments, an operator can produce

impedance plane loci plots or curves automatically on a flying dot
oscilloscope or integral cathode ray tube. Such impedance plane plots can be
presented for the following material conditions (as shown in Fig. 8):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
liftoff and edge effects,

cracks,
material separation and spacing,
permeability,
specimen thinning,
conductivity and
plating thickness.
Evaluation of these plots shows that ferromagnetic material conditions

produce higher values of inductive reactance than values obtained from
nonmagnetic material conditions. Hence the magnetic domain is at the upper
quadrant of the impedance plane whereas nonmagnetic materials are in the
lower quadrant. The separation of the two domains occurs at the inductive
reactance values obtained with the coil removed from the conductor (sample);
this is proportional to the value of the coils self-inductance L.
FIGURE 8. Impedance changes in relation to one another on impedance

plane.
Legend
Ca = crack in aluminum
Cs = crack in steel
Pa = plating (aluminum on copper)
Pc = plating (copper on aluminum)
Pn = plating (nonmagnetic)
S = spacing between Al layers
T = thinning in aluminum
= permeability
m = conductivity for magnetic materials
n = conductivity for nonmagnetic materials
Electric & Magnetic

Factors
Conductivity
Magnetic
(Permeability & Dimensions)
A. Heat treatment give the metal
A. Length of the test sample
B. Cold working performed on the metal
B. Thickness of the test sample
C. Aging process used on the metal
C. Cross sectional area of the test sample
D. Hardness
Crack & discontinuities
Characteristic Frequency
fg
31. The abscissa values on the impedance plane shown in Figure 2 are given
in terms of:
A. Absolute conductivity
B. Normalized resistance
C. Absolute inductance
D. Normalized inductance
32. In Figure 2 (an impedance diagram for solid nonmagnetic rod), the fg or
characteristic frequency is calculated by the formula:
A. fg= /d
B. fg= /d
C. fg= 5060/d
D. fg= R/L
33. In Figure 2, a change in the f/fg ratio will result in:
A. A change in only the magnitude of the voltage across the coil
B. A change in only the phase of the voltage across the coil
C. A change in both the phase and magnitude of the voltage across the
coil
D. No change in the phase or magnitude of the voltage across the coil
34. In Figure 3, the solid curves are plots for different values of:
A. Heat treatment
B. Conductivity
C. Fill factor
D. Permeability
3.1.2 Limiting Frequency fg of Encircling Coils

Encircling coils are used more frequently than surface-mounted coils. With
encircling coils, the degree of filling has a similar effect to clearance with
surface-mounted coils. The degree of filling is the ratio of the test material
cross-sectional area to the coil cross-sectional area. Figure 3.7 shows the
effect of degree of filling on the impedance plane of the encircling coil. For
tubes, the limiting frequency (point where ohmic losses of the material
are the greatest) can be calculated precisely from Eq. (3.2):
Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training Guide, Second Edition, by Paul E. Mix
fg = 5056/( di w r)
(3.2)
Where:
fg = limiting frequency
= conductivity
di = inner diameter
w = wall thickness
r (rel) = relative permeability
For Solid Rod:
fg = 5060/(rd 2)
(3.2)
Where:
d= solid rod diameter
Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training Guide, Second Edition, by Paul E. Mix
Figure 4
Figure 5
51. Which of the following is not a factor that affects the inductance of an eddy current
test coil
A. Diameter of coils
L=oN2A/l
B. Test frequency
C. Overall shape of the coils
D. Distance from other coils
52. The formula used to calculate the impedance of an eddy current test coil is: D
53. An out of phase condition between current and voltage:

A. Can exist only in the primary winding of an eddy current coil
B. Can exist only in the secondary winding of an eddy current coil
C. Can exist in both the primary and secondary windings of an eddy current coil
D. Exists only in the test specimen
Inductance
The increasing magnetic
flux due to the changing
current creates an
opposing emf in the circuit.
The inductor resists the
change in the current in
the circuit. If the current
changes quickly the
inductor responds harshly.
If the current changes
slowly the inductor barely
notices. Once the current
stops changing the
inductor seems to
disappear.
http://sdsu-physics.org/physics180/physics196/Topics/inductance.html
Discussion
Topic: What is Pulse Eddy Current
Good Luck!
Good Luck!

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Electromagnetic Testing Eddy Current Mathematics

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