Ambient media: Advertising's new media opportunity?

Avi Shankar and Brett Horton

International Journal of Advertising
Vol. 18, No. 3, 1999

Title:
Author(s):
Source:
Issue:

Ambient media: Advertising's new media opportunity?

Avi Shankar and Brett Horton
International Journal of Advertising
Vol. 18, No. 3, 1999

Ambient media: advertising's new media opportunity?

Avi Shankar and Brett Horton
Ambient media have attracted considerable attention in the UK marketing and advertising trade press. This paper aims to
introduce these 'non-traditional out of home' media to a wider audience, provides a basic description of the various types of
ambient media and attempts to categorise ambient media to aid the academic development of this new area. Factors
encouraging the growth in the ambient media sector are discussed and a theoretical argument is offered that examines why
ambient media can 'work'. Research evidence and a short case study are also presented as examples of ambient media in
action.
INTRODUCTION
Who would have thought that takeaway lids, toilet walls and those fiddly holsters on petrol pumps would ever be
taken seriously?
Archer, 1998

Indeed; and are shopping trolleys really a viable, cost effective and important advertising medium? In fact, some of the largest
fmcg companies in the world are not only taking ambient media very seriously but they are also investing significant sums of
money in these alternative advertising media vehicles. UK industry forecasts suggest that the ambient media sector will be
worth 64 million in 1999 (Concord, 1999) making it the UK's fastest growing advertising medium. Accordingly, the media choice
for advertisers and their agencies, that was once dominated by the big five (television, press, posters, cinema and radio), is
now being supplemented by a fledgling group of 'non-traditional out of home' media known collectively as ambient media. The
importance of ambient media has also been recognised by the UK advertising industry. The trade press, (Marketing, 3 July
1997; Campaign, 23 May 1997; Marketing Week, 11 June 1998; and Media Week, 4th September 1998) have all had special
reports into the area and Marketing Week has also hosted a special half-day conference. However, interest in ambient media
amongst the academic community is negligible.
The purposes of this paper are generally:
l

to inform a wider academic audience of the developments in ambient media in the hope of encouraging further academic
research into this and related areas;

to encourage the inclusion of ambient media into the syllabi of marketing communication courses.

Downloaded from warc.com

Specifically, the first part of the paper seeks:

l

to describe and classify the various types of ambient media;

to attempt to account for factors that are contributing to the growth in ambient media.

Finally, the second half of the paper highlights:

the importance of ambient media for our understanding of consumer behaviour for fmcg products especially at the point of
purchase and;
how effective campaigns can be, that use ambient media as part of the advertising mix, by presenting some research evidence
and a case study.
DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING AMBIENT MEDIA
One of the simplest ways of describing (to both practitioners and academics) the sheer scope and variety offered by ambient
media is to categorise ambient media according to the environment in which the various media may be consumed (Concord,
1998 and 1999). This enables the practitioner to target precisely discrete groups in places where they are likely to be. Table 1
shows the environment (ranked by estimated sterling value) and then gives examples of the locations and actual ambient
vehicles available to advertisers in those locations.
TABLE 1: DESCRIBING AMBIENT MEDIA
Environment
Retail
Leisure
Travel

Other
Community
Corporate

Locations
Ambient media vehicles
Est. 1998 value (m)
Shopping centres; car parks; petrol stations; Trolley advertising; ticket advertising; take24.4
supermarkets; post offices; fast food outlets away lid advertising; postcard racks; floor
advertising; egg advertising; carrier bags
Cinemas; sports stadiums; pubs, clubs and Postcard racks; toilet wall advertising; beer
14.6
restaurants; fitness clubs, music venues
mat advertising; washroom floor advertising
Underground, train and buses/coaches
Posters on lorries, coaches, buses etc.;
9.0
(vehicles and stations); bus-stops; petrol andpetrol pump nozzles; stair riser advertising;
service stations; airports, etc
car park barrier advertising; ticket
advertising
Aerial and mobile media
Sponsored balloons; sky-writing
6.7
Schools, universities and colleges; libraries Posters; video screens; payroll advertising;
2.8
bookmarks; litter bins
Playgrounds; emergency services
Sponsorship opportunities
0.3
Council offices; company buildings etc.
Payroll advertising
0.2

Source: Concord, 1998

Cellnet (one of the UK's leading mobile phone network operators), for example, ran a campaign (Spring 1998) that wanted to
target business users of mobile phones when the phones were most likely to be in use, informing them of the availability of a
new traffic report service. According to the classification system this would translate to the travel or transport sector. Likely
locations would then be main road locations, buses/coaches and petrol and service stations. The final advertising mix included
posters on the back of National Express coaches and petrol pump nozzles in motorway services stations and petrol stations.
It is also suggested that other ways of grouping ambient media together may prove useful for the development of a greater
level of sophistication in the use of ambient media and to help the academic development of the subject area. For example,
during the early developments in services marketing, Lovelock (1983, p. 9) suggested that a 'more useful approach [to the
categorisation of services] may be to segment services into clusters that share certain marketing characteristics'. In developing
this idea within the context of ambient media a number of factors or marketing characteristics are considered to be important.
Downloaded from warc.com

First, what are the objectives of the proposed campaign (strategic or tactical)? Second, what is the relationship between the
ambient medium being used, the advertised product or service and its proximity to the point of sale (high or low)? This leads to
the development of a 2 x 2 matrix (see Table 2).
TABLE 2: CLASSIFICATION OF AMBIENT MEDIA

Strategic campaign objectives

Tactical campaign objectives

High
Toilet walls (e.g. COI anti-drink-drive in
public toilets)

Low
Stunt ambient media designed to generate
publicity; airline sky banners; skywriting; art
installations; painted aeroplanes (e.g. blue
Pepsi Concord); railway platform advertising
(e.g. Nike at Wimbledon)
Petrol pump nozzle advertising; toilet walls; Ticket (bus, rail, underground) advertising;
instore floor advertising; ticket advertising supermarket till rolls; credit card slips;
(e.g. bus and underground tickets,
betting slips
supermarket till rolls; credit card vouchers;
stair risers; trolley advertising

For example, is the campaign a reminder, close to the point-of-sale, of a product or service available at a nearby retail outlet a tactical point-of-sale advertising campaign (bottom left quadrant)? Is the campaign building on a strategic long-term brand
proposition (top left or top right quadrant)? Or is the campaign using alternative media merely to create PR coverage - stunt
ambient media (top right quadrant)? Finally, (bottom right quadrant), tactical campaigns where the ambient media is not close
to the point-of-sale for the product or service is an option that is not recommended. For tactical campaigns the strength of
ambient media is its proximity to the point of sale.
Classifying ambient media in this way is considered important for a number of reasons. First, it can help to improve the
perception, credibility and acceptability of ambient media in general by highlighting its strategic potential as part of an
integrated advertising mix. Strategically planned and well-executed campaigns can add to a brand's overall positioning (see
the Magic Radio case study later in this paper). Volkswagen, for example, have successfully used petrol pump nozzles to build
on the brand proposition for their VW Golf Tdi (turbo diesel injection) as one of the most economical cars in its class.
Second, the same medium, for example, petrol pumps, can be used both tactically (the majority of cases) and strategically (the
minority of cases). Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it can be seen that the main reason for using ambient media is to
communicate with consumers close to the point of sale. This type of consumer behaviour will be explored in more detail later.
The next section examines some of the underlying factors that are contributing to the rapid growth in ambient media.
ACCOUNTING FOR THE GROWTH IN AMBIENT MEDIA - CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Traditional marketing communications techniques are experiencing a decline in effectiveness. Suggested reasons for this
include fragmentation of markets, lack of accountability, increasing traditional media costs, diminishing and fragmenting
audiences and increasing advertising clutter (Evans et al. 1996). As a result communication practitioners are increasingly
questioning their own industry's received wisdom when it comes to media planning. Accordingly, new and potentially exciting
opportunities to communicate with consumers are being sought alongside the traditional methods. Supply-side factors are an
important part of this process and companies in the media marketplace are responding to the demand from agencies by
making new media vehicles available. There are now over 200 ambient media contractors and such is the growth in the sector
that established outdoor (poster) contractors (such as Mills & Allen; Maiden Outdoor; TDI; Adshel and The More Group) are
rapidly entering the ambient media marketplace. However, the ambient media marketplace is still in its infancy and it appears
that its ability to meet the demands of advertising agencies, in terms of quality of service, for example, is limited. With the
Downloaded from warc.com

increasing involvement of the already recognised 'outdoor' agencies, continued revenue growth and industry acceptance is
predicted.
Another factor also underpinning the growth of ambient media is the role it can play as part of a fully integrated marketing
communications campaign. Increasingly, practitioners are interested in communicating with consumers throughout the
consumer decision-making process. Certain ambient media offer the media planner the opportunity to communicate with
potential consumers close to and up to the point of purchase. Within this environment the main 'competitors' for ambient media
are sales promotion and point-of-sale merchandising. However, ambient media may offer some attractive advantages over
sales promotions, including shorter campaign lead times, for example. And, when compared with price promotions, ambient
campaigns incur no 'negative' effects like reduced price margins and the dilution of brand image. In fact, well executed ambient
campaigns should actually enhance brand image whether at the point of purchase or in other locations. However, it should be
remembered that ambient media are just that; a form of media, and can therefore fulfil a number of roles that need not be
limited to advertising. An ambient campaign could therefore be a form of publicity to gain press coverage, or it could be part of
a database building exercise or even a sales promotion. Its versatility is thus another factor encouraging its growth.
The move towards the definition and targeting of more highly defined segments of the marketplace is another factor that is
encouraging media planners to consider ambient media. The Cellnet example cited earlier is an example of this. Tabasco
sauce, the fiery American chilli sauce, ran an innovative campaign in South African restaurants for a mild version of the
product. The ambient medium used was branded toilet paper carrying the slogan: 'Don't you wish you'd had mild Tabasco
instead?'
The future for ambient media appears to be one of continued growth. However, even though ambient media is gaining
acceptability and credibility from advertising agencies and their clients, a number of issues need to be faced by its proponents.
Perhaps the most pressing is the need for ambient media to be more accountable. Ambient campaigns use a small proportion
of most advertising budgets and therefore the issue of its effectiveness is not yet of great importance. However if ambient
media are to continue to take a greater slice of advertising budgets they need to become more accountable. Beer-mat
campaigns for example, have been used effectively to launch new records. Each beer-mat is bar coded and, when redeemed
against the purchase, information can be collected and analysed and used for subsequent campaign developments.
Interestingly, it is suggested that when ambient campaigns are used tactically it may be easier to test their effectiveness (for
example, by using split area tests). Strategic ambient campaigns designed to build and support a long-term brand image may
be more difficult to evaluate, as are 'traditional' long-term brand-building advertising campaigns compared to shorter-term
tactical ones.
Another significant problem facing the industry is the complicated nature of its structure. Currently, the ambient industry is
made up of numerous small suppliers (over 200). One company, for example, handles petrol-pump nozzle advertising, another
shopping trolley advertising, and so on. An advertising agency wishing to use ambient media could choose to deal directly with
the individual suppliers, or it could use the services of an outdoor specialist who will strategically plan the campaign and
negotiate rates across the myriad of independent small suppliers. Some ad agency buyers are concerned about the levels of
service offered by the ambient suppliers, and the fragmented nature of the industry is probably partly responsible for this
perception. Allied to this is the problem of the lack of an industry-wide independent research body. At the moment, when a
television advertising campaign is bought, independent, industry-accepted research verifies that the adverts were transmitted
and how many ratings were achieved. However, if an agency wants to use petrol pump nozzles there is no industry-accepted
research body that can estimate or measure how many people picked up the petrol pumps and had the opportunity to see the
Downloaded from warc.com

ads (currently research tends to extrapolate and make highly dubious assumptions from other research sources). Moreover, it
would be very expensive for an advertiser to check if the ads were actually placed in the petrol stations. Ambient suppliers,
therefore, need to be able to offer these assurances to their clients (as some are indeed doing; for example, Site Reports) and
in turn the agencies perception of quality of service should increase. Continued revenue growth for ambient media will also be
aided, if the industry can explain why ambient campaigns have the potential to be so influential. The next section seeks to
explore some of these theoretical issues, specifically within the area where ambient media are currently most common: close
to or at the point of purchase.
Ambient media and consumer behaviour at the point of purchase
Ambient campaigns are mostly used to communicate with consumers close to the point of purchase (see Table 2). This section
seeks to explore the academic literature to help us understand why this might be the case and what lessons, if any, can be
learned from this analysis, both for practitioners and academics. Fifteen years ago, Quelch and Cannon-Bonventre (1983)
commented:
Retail stores have become the newest battleground in the war of consumer goods manufacturers to win customers.
As advertising costs soar, retail sales efforts deteriorate and consumers become more discriminating,
manufacturers are discovering the need to reach potential buyers directly at the time and place at which the buying
decision is made - the point of purchase.
The evidence of this battleground can be seen in any supermarket; instore tastings, recipe cards, sales promotions,
merchandising are all examples of communicating with consumers close to the point of sale. However, the first observation to
be made is the apparent paucity of research into consumer behaviour, in general, at the point of sale. Most consumer
behaviour decision-making models are derivatives of cognitive information-processing models that assume some sort of
rational, active, information seeking, information processing, utility-maximising consumer. Given that the focus of this paper is
fmcg products, many of which will be low involvement products, the previous description of consumer behaviour is not
considered applicable. As Foxall and Goldsmith (1994) suggest, with most fmcg products the following set of descriptors are
probably more accurate to describe consumers:
l

make far less use of information;

show little sign of pre-purchase decision making based on rational processing of information;

brand trial used to obtain information about and to evaluate brands;

exhibit multibrand purchasing within a small portfolio of brands that share common product class characteristics;

are influenced in product and brand choice mainly by situational factors and in store information sources.

Foxall and Goldsmith (1994) p.30

It would appear therefore that environmental considerations are in fact quite important especially when low-involvement fmcg
purchases are made. Radical behaviourism therefore, with its emphasis on 'environmental determinism' (Foxall, 1995), could
provide the theoretical substance that underpins the observations made concerning point-of-purchase consumer behaviour. In
essence radical behaviourism explains 'behaviour, including thought and other "cognitive" activity, by reference to contingent
environmental stimuli rather than intrapersonal states and events such as mood and attitudes', (Foxall, 1995, p.20). As Foxall
points out, behaviourism was the dominant paradigm in the 1940s and 1950s but was superseded by the emergence of
cognitivism in the 1960s. However, as Philips and Bradshaw (1993) comment, there is little empirical evidence to support the
Downloaded from warc.com

theoretical positions that were subsequently developed by the cognitive-biased consumer behaviour models. Foxall, as one of
the leading exponents of radical behaviourism within consumer behaviour research, has synthesised much of his work into his
Behaviour Perspective Model (Foxall, 1992):
Consumer behaviour is the outcome of the current behaviour setting interacting with his/her learning history; this
behaviour produces consequences which modify the learning history and hence the consumer situation and
probability of behaviour.
Foxall, 1995, p.45

Consequences for Foxall are related to basic behaviourist notions of reward and punishment (for example, hedonic
reinforcement, aversion consequences and informational reinforcement). Philips and Bradshaw (1993) have developed some
of Foxall's ideas in the development of their interactive model of buyer behaviour. They see consumers as:
being in a continuous state of interaction with their environment. A significant element of this is the interaction
between the pre-disposition to purchase and the point-of -purchase, which continues right up to the moment of
product selection.
Phillips and Bradshaw, 1993

Before presenting some of the research evidence that could support the position now being developed, the final piece of the
conceptual jigsaw is the work of Ehrenberg and his attempts to link consumer behaviour and advertising. Most readers are
probably familiar with his ATR model, but recently he has modified this model to ATRN (Ehrenberg, 1997; Barnard &
Ehrenberg, 1997).
l

Awareness: consciousness of a new brand X tends to develop first, and then perhaps some initial interest;

Trial: one of two doubtful trial purchases of X may occur;

Reinforcement: satisfactory use of X may then lead to and/or reinforce a habitual propensity to buy and to 'like' X;

Nudging: consumers' propensities to buy X may at times either be enhanced (nudging) or decreased (competitors
nudging).

Ehrenberg, 1997, p.20

Ehrenberg's model has obvious similarities with the work of Foxall (such as, advertising as environmental stimuli and
reinforcement through trial). Interestingly, Ehrenberg does not specify the type of advertising. Initial advertising (press or TV
advertising, for example) for a new product will provide basic information, but according to Ehrenberg the informational role of
advertising is limited. Subsequent advertising has to 'reinforce and hopefully nudge the number of consumers to whom the
brand is salient (in their consideration set)', (Ehrenberg, 1997). It is suggested that ambient advertising, as part of an
integrated advertising mix, has the ability to do this par excellence, and its ability to nudge (over that, say, of press or TV
advertising) is increased because of its proximity to the point of purchase. To summarise, it would appear that environmental
stimuli are important ingredients in consumers' decision-making processes right up to the point of purchase, especially for lowinvolvement products. Being 'nudged' by appropriately placed advertising stimuli close to the point of sale, therefore, can
enhance the probability of purchase.
Research from POPAI (The Point-Of-Purchase Advertising Institute) supports Foxall and Goldsmith's (1994) belief that
Downloaded from warc.com

consumers exhibit little pre-purchase decision making for low-involvement products. POPAI's 1995 Buying Habits Survey
(cited in Shimp, 1997) found that 70 per cent of all decisions to purchase specific brands were made within supermarkets.
Shoppers were interviewed before entering the supermarket and again when leaving. Purchases were subsequently described
in one of the following ways:
l

Specifically planned purchases. These are specific brands that consumers said they were going to buy. This category
represented 30 per cent of total purchases.

Generally planned purchases. Here consumers indicated a category of products that they were going to buy, but the
specific brand decision was made instore. This category represented six per cent of total purchases.

Substitute purchases. This group represents the situation where a consumer indicates a brand preference prior to
entering the supermarket but emerges either with a competing brand or nothing at all.

Unplanned purchases. This group forms the majority (60 per cent) of all purchases made within the supermarket
environment and represents purchases made in store when no prior indication of intention to purchase was made.

Unplanned purchases can be further subdivided. Bayley and Nancarrow (1998) were particularly interested in unplanned
purchases that they regarded as impulse buys. They concluded that shoppers are 'reluctant to reduce any shopping
experience to an automatic or habitual task' (p. 32). Consumers therefore appear to like making some of their purchase
decisions in store and therefore have the potential to be influenced there. The next section offers some research evidence of
successful communication close to or at the point of sale. It is followed by a short case study highlighting the versatility of
ambient media and their strategic potential in helping to build brands.
THE EFFICACY OF AMBIENT MEDIA
Within the retail environment - trolley advertising
Independent research was conducted for the main trolley advertising contractor, Media Vehicle, with the agreement of one of
the UK's leading supermarket chains, Asda. The objective of the research was to evaluate the sales potential of supermarket
trolley advertising (specifically the absolute rates of sales of the brands being advertised). Thirty two stores were matched
according to: square footage of trading area, store volumes, till transactions, shopper demographics, and geographical
location. For a four week (base) period prior to any trolley advertising, sales were monitored along with physical inspection
audits (to ensure quality of space allocation, stock loading and so on). Trolley advertising was then introduced into half of the
stores for a four-week period while the remaining half acted as the control stores. EPOS data were continually checked during
the trial period and the physical inspection audits continued. During the advertising period the sterling sales of the advertised
lines increased by 15.6 % whilst sterling sales in the non-advertised stores declined by 2.9% giving a net weighted
improvement in sterling sales of 19 per cent. Given the importance of the retail environment and these results, it is surprising
that supermarket trolley-based advertising is not more common.
The strategic use of ambient media - The case of Magic Radio
Magic Radio (a commercial radio station) was launched in Yorkshire in 1997. It was an attempt by its owners EMAP to create a
new brand of radio station to replace three existing FM 'Gold' stations with a single AM station. In so doing EMAP wanted to
replicate the emotional relationship a radio station can forge with its listeners. From a business perspective the old stations
were not recruiting any new listeners, hence advertising revenues were stagnant or declining, and, furthermore, the typical
listener was not particularly appealing to advertisers. In launching the new radio station the advertising had to:
Downloaded from warc.com

achieve the repositioning of the listener profile to the commercially lucrative ABC1 30 -50 year old audience;

communicate the Magic brand proposition ('Music makes you feel good - as if by Magic');

accelerate trial of the new Magic brand by getting existing listeners and listeners of other stations to transfer their
allegiances to the new station.

Extensive research was conducted which established that two distinct strands of advertising were needed. First, specific
advertising had to raise potential listeners' awareness of the new station, with essentially a rational message. This was
achieved through the use of TV advertising in the Yorkshire TV area designed to rapidly build 3+ coverage. Second, an
emotional angle was sought. Because listeners often see radio as an intimate personal medium, during the launch phase of
the new station Magic had to attempt to replicate the emotional attachment that many listeners have with their favourite radio
stations (in particular Magic wanted to retain the listener loyalty from the three FM 'Gold' stations). Media opportunities were
therefore needed to touch people's everyday life and thereby to encourage sampling of the new radio station by
communicating that Magic cared for its listeners. Ambient media were chosen for this phase of the advertising as it was
considered the most appropriate way to communicate with people as they were living their lives. The key times in which radio
brands need to become established are breakfast time and drive time. At these time listeners are normally eating or driving
and ambient media opportunities were sought revolving around these two themes. The final ambient media mix involved
supermarket till receipts, trolley advertising, petrol pump nozzles and petrol receipts.
However, rather than simply implementing a standard advertising campaign, two competitions were run. A free food
competition (utilising supermarket till receipts and trolley advertising) was run, asking people to send in their receipts, listen to
Magic at 8.15 a.m. each morning and if their receipt was drawn out of the hat their food bill was paid for them. This promotion
had the added advantage of helping to build a listener database for subsequent retention-based direct marketing activity. A
similar competition was run at drive time. When a 'drive'-related song was played, listeners had to phone the station. The
winner had their petrol bills paid for a month. Special merchandising teams also gave out car stickers at petrol forecourts and
helped drivers to retune their car radios to Magic. Additional ambient media (postcards in pubs, clubs and bars) were also
used to reinforce the TV ads. Finally, the advertising mix was completed with the use of pre-selected six-sheet Adshel poster
sites, which targeted motorists and shoppers and so helped to mesh the entire campaign together. The results of the
campaign were considered highly successful by both the client and agency. The cost per response for the free food
competition was 1.50 (compared with an average cost per response of 25 in print, 35 for satellite TV and 50 for ITV). Around
13,000 names were also added to Magic's new database. The free petrol competition caused an upturn in calls to the station
of 25 per cent, again adding valuable names to the database. The re-profiling of the listen base was also successful, with a
larger proportion falling into the 30-50 age group and with the share of the station listening of the core 35-44 audience
doubling to 15 per cent.
CONCLUSIONS
Implications for practitioners - service users & suppliers
Given the theoretical context and the continuing marketplace developments, ambient media will continue to grow. As the
marketplace develops, the proliferation of ambient vehicles will continue. However, unless an advertiser is the first to use a
new ambient vehicle (and therefore can expect to gain a certain amount of kudos and PR coverage), the choice of vehicle
should be carefully considered. Those that 'work' (for example, petrol pump advertising and trolley advertising) will continue to
Downloaded from warc.com

develop to offer clients a more improved level of service, and those that do not work (such as egg advertising) will disappear.
Objectives should be identified at least in terms of overall scope (i.e. strategic or tactical), and ambient media should be used
synergistically with the rest of the advertising and communication mix. Ambient media offering the greatest potential in terms of
usage and marketing efficacy are within the retail, leisure and travel sectors (see Table 1).
Where to purchase ambient media also needs to be carefully considered and will probably depend on: organisational factors
(for example, an agency may be tied through strategic alliances to use the services of particular companies); the complexity of
the campaign (for example, if a single ambient vehicle is being used, direct purchasing from that supplier may make more
sense than if multiple ambient vehicles are being considered, when the services of an intermediary or broker may be more
applicable); and previous experience of using ambient media. As far as ambient media suppliers are concerned, they need to
focus on proving audience delivery figures and obtain more independent verifications of the effectiveness of their campaigns.
Perhaps they should also try to come more in line with the mainstream outdoor media and look to registering with the industrywide research body POSTAR. This will significantly help the development and credibility of ambient media in general. Finally,
ambient media may be important within the international marketing communications mix. In many countries with poorly
developed media infrastructures the ability to buy advertising space is limited. Ambient media offer the international advertiser
the ability to advertise, close to the point of sale.
Implications for academics
Ambient media should now be viewed as an integral part of the advertising and marketing communications mix and therefore
merits its place on the syllabi of all marketing communication courses. This will ensure that future generations of marketers will
be more familiar with the advertising options open to them. A number of theoretical issues are also worthy of further
consideration. The hegemonic position of cognitive models of consumer behaviour has been questioned and this also has
important implications for those teaching on consumer behaviour courses. Should academics begin to embrace Foxall's radical
behaviourist ideas and disseminate his ideas to future generations of marketers? This paper has also implicitly supported the
'weak' view of advertising and therefore questions the dominance of traditional models of advertising, (based on the notion of
the hierarchy of effects - DAGMAR and AIDA), that are to be found in most marketing and marketing communication text books
(see Shankar, 1999). Finally, it is hoped that this paper will stimulate some research activity into the area of ambient media
and also into consumer behaviour at the point of sale. The ambient media industry wants to become more credible and
academics can offer a degree of credibility. Partnership research, therefore, investigating specific aspects of the ambient
media industry, should be possible. Finally, as Philips and Bradshaw (1993) suggested, academics should be researching
what consumers are actually doing in shops and not laboratories or focus groups: 'point-of-sale studies represent whole new
areas of interest within market research, they also represent a move back to a much older tradition within the profession, the
tradition of observation research' (Philips and Bradshaw, 1993, p.61).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Nigel Mansell at Concord, Jessica Hatfield at The Media Vehicle and Alan Greanly at Media
Initiatives for their help and collaboration.
REFERENCES
Archer, B. (1998) 'Ambient Media Grows Up', Campaign, 22 May, 34-35.

Downloaded from warc.com

10

Bayley, G. & Nancarrow, C. (1998) 'The imp in impulse buying: researching a dark side variable', Market Research Society
Conference Papers, 17 -33.
Barnard, N. & Ehrenberg, A. (1997) 'Advertising: Strongly Persuasive or Nudging?', Journal of Advertising Research,
January/February, 21-31.
Concord (1998) Ambient Media 1998, London: Concord.
Concord (1999) Ambient Media 1999, London: Concord.
Ehrenberg, A. (1997) 'How do consumers come to buy a new brand?' Admap, March, 20-24.
Evans, M., O'Malley, L. & Patterson, M. (1996) 'Direct marketing communications in the UK: a study of growth, past, present
and future', Journal of Marketing Communications, Vol. 2, 51-65.
Foxall, G. (1992) 'The behavioural perspective model of purchase and consumption: from consumer theory to marketing
practice', Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 20, 189-198.
Foxall, G. (1995) 'Science and interpretation in consumer research: a radical behaviourist perspective', European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 29. No. 9, 3-99.
Foxall, G. & Goldsmith, R.E. (1994) Consumer Psychology For Marketing, London: Routledge.
Lovelock, C. H. (1983) 'Classifying services to gain strategic marketing insights' Journal of Marketing, Vol. 47, 9-20.
Phillips, H. & Bradshaw, R. (1993 'How customers actually shop: customer interaction at the point of sale', Journal of the
Market Research Society, Vol. 35 No. 1, 51-62.
POPAI (1995) 'Point of Purchase Consumer Buying Habits Study', Englewood. N.J.: in Shimp, T.A. (1997) Advertising,
Promotion & Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, 4th Ed, The Dryden Press: Fort Worth.
Shankar, A. (in press) 'Advertising's Imbroglio', Journal of Marketing Communications.
Quelch, J.A. & Cannon-Bonventre, C. (1983) 'Better marketing at the point of purchase', Harvard Business Review,
November-December, 162-169.

NOTES & EXHIBITS

Avi Shankar

Avi Shankar is currently a lecturer in Marketing at Bristol Business School. After obtaining a degree in Psychology
Downloaded from warc.com

11

from the University of Bristol and discovering the delights of the South Pacific, he worked for a number of years in
advertising sales and marketing for two leading independent television companies. Once disillusionment crept in
he took himself back to Bristol where he completed a Masters degree in Marketing at Bristol Business School. His
research interests include all aspects of advertising and he is currently working on his PhD on music consumption.

Brett Horton

Brett Horton heads the marketing team at leading independent outdoor advertising specialist Concord and across
the Alban Group. He is a pioneer in the field of outdoor advertising market analysis. His work spans the entire
medium including research into ambient media, bus advertising, outdoor category trends, optimum campaign
weights and point-of-action media. To obtain copies of these and other studies he is contactable on +44 (0)171 543
4400.

Copyright Warc 1999

Warc Ltd.
85 Newman Street, London, United Kingdom, W1T 3EX
Tel: +44 (0)20 7467 8100, Fax: +(0)20 7467 8101
www.warc.com
All rights reserved including database rights. This electronic file is for the personal use of authorised users based at the subscribing company's office location. It may not be reproduced, posted on
intranets, extranets or the internet, e-mailed, archived or shared electronically either within the purchasers organisation or externally without express written permission from Warc.

Downloaded from warc.com

12