1.

INTRODUCTION

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction

and Inheritance

DR. FENNY M. DWIVANY

BI-205
BIOLOGI-SITH ITB
 Organisms can reproduce sexually or
asexually
The life cycle of a multicellular organism includes
development
reproduction

Some organisms make exact copies of

themselves, asexual reproduction

Figure 1A
 Other organisms make similar copies of
themselves in a more complex process,
sexual reproduction

Figure 1B
Cells arise only from preexisting cells

All cells come from cells

Cellular reproduction is called cell division
Cell division allows an embryo to develop into
an adult
It also ensures the continuity of life from one
generation to the next
 THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE AND
MITOSIS

A eukaryotic cell has many more genes than

a prokaryotic cell
The genes are grouped into
multiple chromosomes,
found in the nucleus
The chromosomes of this
plant cell are stained
dark purple
Figure 4A
 Chromosomes contain a very long DNA
molecule with thousands of genes
Individual chromosomes are only visible
during cell division
They are packaged as chromatin
 Sister chromatids
Before a cell starts
dividing, the
chromosomes are
duplicated
This process
produces sister Centromere

chromatids

Figure 8.4B
 When the cell
divides, the sister
chromatids
Chromosome
separate duplication

Two daughter Sister

Centromere
cells are chromatids

produced
Each has a
complete and
Chromosome
identical set of distribution
to
chromosomes daughter
cells

Figure 8.4C
 The sister chromatids then separate and
move to opposite poles of the cell
The process of cytokinesis divides the cell into
two genetically identical cells
 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal
cells
In animals, cytokinesis
occurs by cleavage
This process pinches Cleavage
furrow
the cell apart

Cleavage Contracting ring of

furrow microfilaments

Figure 8.7A Daughter cells

 A Difference of Heredity
Genetics is the science of heredity
The parents of these puppies were a
mixture of different breeds
Their behavior
and
appearance is
more varied as
a result of their
diverse genetic
inheritance
 MENDELS PRINCIPLES
The science of genetics has ancient roots

The science of heredity dates back to

ancient attempts at selective breeding
Until the 20th century, however, many
biologists erroneously believed that
characteristics acquired during lifetime could be
passed on
characteristics of both parents blended
irreversibly in their offspring
Experimental genetics began in an abbey
garden
Modern genetics began with Gregor
Mendels quantitative experiments with pea
plants

Stamen

Carpel
Figure 9.2A, B
 White
Mendel crossed 1 Removed
stamens
from purple
pea plants that flower

differed in certain
characteristics Carpel
Stamens

2 Transferred
and traced the PARENTS Purple
pollen from
stamens of white
flower to carpel
(P)
traits from of purple flower

3 Pollinated carpel
generation to matured into pod

generation
This illustration
shows his 4 Planted
seeds
from pod
technique for OFF-
SPRING
(F1)
cross-fertilization
Figure 9.2C
 Mendel studied FLOWER
COLOR Purple White
seven pea
characteristics
FLOWER
POSITION
Axial Terminal

He hypothesized SEED

that there are COLOR Yellow Green

alternative forms SEED

SHAPE Round Wrinkled

of genes (although POD

he did not use that SHAPE Inflated Constricted

term), the units POD

COLOR Green Yellow
that determine
heredity
STEM
Figure 9.2D LENGTH Tall Dwarf
 Mendels principle of segregation describes
the inheritance of a single characteristic
From his P GENERATION
(true-breeding
parents)
experimental data, Purple flowers White flowers

Mendel deduced
that an organism
has two genes F1
generation
All plants have
purple flowers

(alleles) for each

inherited Fertilization
among F1
plants
characteristic (F1 x F1)

One characteristic
comes from each
parent F2
generation
3 1
/4 of plants /4 of plants
Figure 9.3A
have purple flowers have white flowers
 GENETIC MAKEUP (ALLELES)

A sperm or egg P PLANTS PP pp

carries only one

allele of each pair Gametes All P All p

The pairs of alleles

separate when F1 PLANTS
(hybrids) All Pp

gametes form
Gametes
This process
1 1
/2 P /2 p

describes Mendels
law of segregation Eggs
P P
Sperm

Alleles can be F2 PLANTS p

PP
p

dominant or Phenotypic ratio Pp Pp

3 purple : 1 white
recessive pp
Genotypic ratio
1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp
Figure 9.3B
 Homologous chromosomes bear the two
alleles for each characteristic
Alternative forms of a gene (alleles) reside
at the same locus on homologous
chromosomes
GENE LOCI
DOMINANT
allele
P a B

P a b
RECESSIVE
allele
GENOTYPE: PP aa Bb

HOMOZYGOUS HOMOZYGOUS HETEROZYGOUS

for the for the
dominant allele recessive allele Figure 9.4
 The principle of independent assortment is
revealed by tracking two characteristics at
once

By looking at two characteristics at once,

Mendel found that the alleles of a pair
segregate independently of other allele pairs
during gamete formation
This is known as the principle of independent
assortment
 HYPOTHESIS: HYPOTHESIS:
DEPENDENT ASSORTMENT INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

RRYY rryy
P RRYY rryy
GENERATION

Gametes RY ry Gametes RY ry

F1 RrYy RrYy
GENERATION

1 1 1 1
Eggs /2 RY /2 RY Sperm Eggs /4 RY /4 RY

1 1 1 1
/2 ry /2 ry /4 rY /4 rY
RRYY
1 1
/4 Ry /4 Ry
RrYY RrYY
F2 1 1
GENERATION /4 ry /4 ry
RRYy rrYY RrYy

RrYy RrYy RrYy RrYy 9

/16 Yellow
round
Actual results 3 Green
rrYy RRyy rrYy /16
contradict round
hypothesis ACTUAL
Rryy Rryy 3 Yellow
RESULTS /16
wrinkled
SUPPORT
HYPOTHESIS 1 Yellow
rryy /16
wrinkled
Figure 9.5A
 Independent assortment of two genes in
the Labrador retriever

Blind Blind

PHENOTYPES Black coat, Black coat, Chocolate coat, Chocolate coat,

normal vision blind (PRA) normal vision blind (PRA)
GENOTYPES B_N_ B_nn bbN_ bbnn

MATING OF HETEROZYOTES BbNn BbNn

(black, normal vision)
PHENOTYPIC RATIO 9 black coat, 3 black coat, 3 chocolate coat, 1 chocolate coat,
OF OFFSPRING normal vision blind (PRA) normal vision blind (PRA)

Figure 9.5B
 Geneticists use the testcross to determine
unknown genotypes
The offspring of a testcross often reveal the
genotype of an individual when it is unknown

TESTCROSS:

GENOTYPES B_ bb

Two possibilities for the black dog:

BB or Bb

B B b
GAMETES

b Bb b Bb bb

Figure 9.6 OFFSPRING All black 1 black : 1 chocolate

 Mendels principles reflect the rules of
probability

F1 GENOTYPES
Inheritance follows
Bb female Bb male
the rules of Formation of eggs Formation of sperm

probability
The rule of B
1
/2
B
1
/2
multiplication and the B B 1
/2
rule of addition can b b
1 1
/2 /4
be used to determine b B B b

the probability of 1
/4 1
/4

certain events b b
F2 GENOTYPES
occurring 1
/4
Figure 9.7
 Connection: Genetic traits in humans can be
tracked through family pedigrees

The inheritance of many

human traits follows
Mendels principles and
the rules of probability

Figure 9.8A
 Family pedigrees are used to determine
patterns of inheritance and individual
genotypes

Dd Dd D_? D_?
Joshua Abigail John Hepzibah
Lambert Linnell Eddy Daggett

D_? dd Dd
Abigail Jonathan Elizabeth
Lambert Lambert Eddy

Dd Dd dd Dd Dd Dd dd

Female Male
Deaf

Figure 9.8B Hearing

 Connection: Many inherited disorders in
humans are controlled by a single gene
Most such Normal Normal
PARENTS Dd Dd
disorders are
caused by D D
Eggs Sperm
autosomal DD
Normal

recessive d

Dd Dd
d

Normal Normal
alleles OFFSPRING
(carrier) (carrier)

Examples: dd
Deaf
cystic fibrosis,
sickle-cell
disease Figure 9.9A
 A few are caused by dominant alleles
Examples: achondroplasia, Huntingtons
disease

Figure 9.9B