Breeding of Field and Horti Crop Record Final

GPB 224 BREEDING OF FIELD AND
HORTICULTURAL CROPS (2+1)
PRACTICAL
PREPARED BY
Dr. K. SARAVANAN &
Dr. P. THANGAVEL
Professors
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS & PLANT BREEDING
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
ANNAMALAI NAGAR 608 002
TAMIL NADU INDIA
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING
GPB 224 BREEDING OF FIELD AND

HORTICULTURAL CROPS (2+1)
II B.Sc.,(Agri.) 2013 - 2014 Second Semester
Certified that Mr. / Miss. ________________________________________ of

Second B.Sc.(Agri.) Class bearing Reg. No. _____________________________ has duly
completed the Practicals conducted under my Supervision during the Second Semester of
2013 2014.
Examiners Course Teacher
1.
2.
CONTENTS
Ex. Date Name of the exercise Page Remarks

No No.
1 Rice Orzya sativa
2. Hybrid rice
3. Wheat Triticum sp
Maize Zea mays
4. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Pearl Millet Pennisetum americanum
Ragi Eleusine coracana
Tenai Setaria italica
Varagu Paspalum scrobiculatum
Kudiraivali Eiclinochloa colona
Panivaragu Panicum miliaceum
5. Red gram Cajanus cajan
Bengal gram Cicer arietinum
6. Green gram Vigna radiata
Black gram Vigna mungo
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata
Soyabean Glycine max
7. Ground nut Arachis hypoqaea
Sesame Sesamum indicum
Sunflower Helianthus annus
8. Mustrad Brassica sp.
Castor Ricinus communis
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Oil palm Elaies guineensis

CONTENTS
Ex. Date Name of the exercise Page Remarks
No No.
9. Cotton Gossypium sp.
Jute Corchorus sp.
10. Sugarcane Saccharum sp
Sugar beet Beta vulgaris
Potato Solanum tuberosum
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum
11. Forage crops
12. Bhendi Abelmoschus esculentus
Brinjal Solanum melongena
Chillies Capsicum annuum
13. Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum
Cucumber Cucumis sativus
14. Guava Psidium guajava
Banana Musa sp
Citrus Citrus sp
15. Papaya Carica papaya
Mango Mangefera indica
16. Chrysanthemum Dendranthema grandiflorum
Jasmine Jasminum sambac
Rose Polianthes tuberose
Marigold Tagetes erecta

Ex.No.1.
Date : RICE
Orzya sativa 2n = 2x : 24
Origin:
Assam and Meghalaya area in India and Jeophore track of Koraput dt. in Orissa.
Cytology:
Rice has a somatic chromosome number of 24 and a haploid number of 12 usually, five
pairs of chromosome are considered large, four medium and three small in size. The length of
individual chromosomes varies between 2 to 5 micron with total about 40.5 micron for 12
chromosomes.
Related wild species

O. glaberrima (2n:24)
O. rufipogan (2n:24)
O. nivara (2n:24)
O. officinalis (2n:24)
O. punctata (2n:24)
Floral Biology
1. The rice inflorescence is a panicle that is composed of spikelets.
2. A spikelet consists of two glumes, the rachilla and the floret.
The rachilla is small axis between the rudimentary glumes (the sterile lemmas) and the
fertile floret. The floret includes the lemma, palea and the flower. The flower consists of six
stamens unlike three in other cereals, one pistil containing one ovule and perianth represented
by odicules.
Anthesis:
Pollen shedding starts with the opening of flowers. Blooming of spikelets starts at the
apex of the panicle and proceed downward. The blooming normally occurs between 10 Am and
2Pm. A panicle remains in bloom for 2 to 4 days but may extend upto 7-10 days. Blooming is
asserted by temperature, humdity and light. Rice flower is normally self pollinated. The extend
of natural crossing varies from zero to 3% with an average of about 0.5% depending upon the
variety, the season, and the environment.
Selfing:
Selfing is very easy as for as paddy is concerned. We have to select the panicle and
remove the already opened flowers and cover the entire panicle with the paper cover or cloth
bag.
Hybridization: The first step in hybridization is emasculation.

1. Hand Emasculation
Emasculation is done with the aid of forceps. Before commencing the emasculation
process in the panicles we have to remove the already opened flowers and immature flowers.
The lemma and palea are gently pushed apart and six stamens are removed. When sufficient
number of flowers have been emasculated the rest of the spikelets are removed with the objects
of preventing the pollen grains from the flowers falling on the stigma of the emasculated
flowers. Then emasculated panicle is to be enclosed with a cloth or paper bag to prevent
contamination by foreign pollen.
2. Clipping method
Instead of force opening the spikelet we can cut off the top 1/3rd portion of the spikelet
by scissors and then remove the anthers either with forceps or suction. Without damaging the
reproductive organ, cover the emasculated flowers with butter paper bag.
3. Hot water method

Joda (1938) found that immersion of panicle in hot water (40 to 45C) for 10 minutes,
destroy the viability of the pollen without causing any damage to other floral organ. A large jug
or thermosflask is used as a water container and panicle can be immersed in water in the
morning an hour prior to normal anthesis.
Artificial Pollination Crossing

After doing the emasculation we have to cover the emasculated panicle by proper cover,
so as to prevent the contamination of the foreign pollen. Pollination is done in the next morning
when the stigma is receptive. Viable pollens from the desired male parent is collected and
dusted. Then again cover the entire panicle for another 3-4 days till the completion of
fertilization.
List of Improved Varieties in Rice
Duration Yield
Variety Parentage Season Remarks
(in days) (MT/Ha)
IR8 Peta x D.E.W.G 135 All seasons 5.0 to 7.5 Photo insensitive
IR20 IR 262 x TKM 6 130 to 135 All seasons 7.0 to 8.0 Resistant to Stemborer
IR34 Multiple cross 130 to 135 Jan-Feb, Sep-Oct 5.00 Fine grain
IR 1561 228/1
IR36 120 Dec-Jan 5.00 Dwarf, erect
IR 244/0.niv/CR 94-13
Resistant to RTV and
IR 50 IR 2153-14 x IR 28 x IR 36 105 April May 5.00
susceptible to Blast
IR 56 IR4432-53-22/PTB33/IR36 115 May-June 6.00 Resistant to Tungro
IR 60 - 105 to 110 May-Jun, Dec-Jan 5.20 Blast resist, high tillering
IR51657 -33-2-1/ IR20061-
IR 64 115 to 120 All seasons 6.10 Long, slender, semi dwarf
465-1-5-3
IR 19661-9-2-3/IR 15795 June July
IR 72 115 5.00 High tillering
199-3-3/ IR 9129-209-2-2-2 Dec Jan
IET 1444 TN 1 x CO 29 115 Jun-Jul, Apr-May 6.2 to 7.5 Resistant to blast
IET 7722 IR8 x Tadukkan 110 Dec-Jan, Apr-May 6.2 to 7.5 -
CO 25 CO 4 x ADT 10 165 to 180 July Sep 5 to 6.25 -
CO 29 CO 13 x CO 4 110 May-Jun, Jan-Feb - -
CO 33
IR 8 x ADT 27 105 Jul, Jan-Feb 5 to 6.5 Non-lodging
Karuna
CO36 IR 8 x CO 32 135 Jul-Aug 5.5 to 6.5 Photosensitive
CO 37 T(N) 1x CO 29 115 Jan-Feb, May-Jun 5 to 6.5 Responds to fertilizer
CO 40 IR 8 x CO 25 165 to 175 May-Jun, Jun-Jul 6.3 to 8.8 Tolerant to Blast
CO 41 CO 24 x IR 22 100 to 105 May-Jun, Dec-Jan 5.00 Fine grain
CO 42 RP 31-40-2x Hebmeymahng 135 to 140 June Jul 5.00 BPH Resistant
CO 43 Dasal x IR 20 135 to 140 Jun Jul 5.2 Susceptible to Sh.. blight
CO 44 ASD 15 x IR 20 135 to 140 Aug Sep 5.00 Medium slender
Rathu Heenathi / IR3403-
CO 45 135 to 140 Sep Oct 5.8 Long slender
267-1
CO 46 T 7 x IR 20 125 July Aug/ Sept-Oct 6.00 Resistant to BPH
Semi dwarf, Non lodging,
CO 47 IR 50 / CO 43 110 to 115 Jan-Feb / Apr-May 5.8
high yielding
CORH-1 IR 62829A x IR 10198-66-2 R 110 to 115 May June 6.3 High yielder, medium fine
CORH-2 IR58025A x C20 R 125 Jul Oct 6.07 Non-lodging, med. Grain
ADT 27 Norin 8 x GEB 24 105 May Jun 5.00 Good cooking quality
ADT 31 IR 8 x Cul. 340 105 Jun-Jul 4.5 -
ADT 33 IR 8 x Cul. 340 110 Apr-May, May-Jun 5.6 Resistant to BLB
ADT 34 IR8 x Rod Folele 107 May-Jul 6 to 6.5 Resist to Fulgorid, Stem
borer
ADT 35 Bhavani x Jaya 135 Jun-Jul, Dec-Jan 4.5 to 5 For moderate acid soils
ADT 36 Triveni x IR 20 110 Jun-Jul 5.00 Non dormancy
ADT 37 BG 280 12 x PTB 33 105 April May 6.3 White, short bold rice
ADT 38 Multiple cross of IR selections 130 to 135 Aug Sep 5.8 White, medium slender rice
ADT 39 IR 8 x IR 20 120 to 125 Sep Oct 5.00 Medium Slender
ADT 40 RPW 6-13 x Sona 145 to 150 Aug-Sep- Oct. 4.7 Semi dwarf, erect
ADT 41 Mutant from Basmati 370 105 to 115 Apr-May, Sep- Oct 4.7 Extra long slender, pleasant
mild aroma
ADT 42 AD9216 x ADT 29 110 to 115 April June 6.00 Long slender grain
ADT 43 IR 50 x I.W. Ponni 110 April- July 5.9 Medium Slender
ADT 44 OR 1128-7 S.1 (IET 14099 145-150 Jul-Aug 6.2 Res. To Green jassids and
IR 56 OR 142.99) selection blast Susceptible to BLB
ADT R 45 IR 50 x ADT 37 110 April July 6.14 High yielding than ASD 18
resist to Anaikomban
ADT R 46 ADT 38 x CO 45 135 Sept. Oct 6.2 Non lodging, high yielding
than ADT 38, ADT 39, CO 43,
tolerance to stemborer & leaf
folder
ADTRH1 IR 58025A x IR 66R 115 April-July 6.4 Long slender grain
ASD 1 Pure line from kar samba Red 115 Apr-May, Jun-Jul 3.5 -
AD 15 IR 8 x IR 22 120 to 125 Oct Nov 5 Fine rice
ASD 16 ADT 31 x CO 39 110 to 115 Apr May 5.6 Saline resistant
ASD 17 ADT 31/ Ratna / ASD 8/IR 8 101 Apr May 5.4 Semi bold grain
ASD 18 ADT 31 x IR.50 105 to 110 May Jun, Dec Jan 5.9 Resistant to Biast & BPH
ASD 19 Lainkanda x IR 30 120 to 132 October 5.8 White, short slender rice
ASD 20 IR 18348 x IR 2586 x IR 58 110 Apr May, Oct Nov, 6.7 To Replace IR 50
Dec Jan
Au 1 - 10.5 Jul- Aug 6.25 Saline resistant
Au 2 Selection from IR 42 140 to 145 - 5.2 Long bold grain
Bhavani Peta x BPL 76 130 to 135 Aug, Dec jan 5 Fine rice
Savithri Pankaj x Jagannath 155 to 160 Aug 5.5 White, short bold rice
Kannagi IR 8 xTKM 6 100 Jun Jul 5.6 -
Direct sowing, drought
MDU 1 IR 8 x Chitraikar 115 to 120 Jun Jul 2
resistant
MDU 2 CO 25 x IR 8 130 to 135 Aug 4.7 Cold tolerant, fine grain
MDU 3 IR 8 x W 1263 120 to 125 Sep Oct 5 Long slender grain
Resistant to blast, neck
MDU 4 AC 2836 x Jagannath 120 to 125 Sep Oct 5.8 sheath rot, brown leaf spot
cold stress
Drought tolerant, suitable for
Jun Jul, Sep Oct
MDU 5 O. glaberima x Pokkali 95 to 100 4.5 direct sowing. Medium
Jan Apr
slender grain
PVR 1 SRF 266 x MTU 1 150 Jul Aug 4 Saline resistant
NLR 9672 Bulk 9 x Milek kunning 160 to 170 Aug 4.5 Short bold grain
PMK 1 CO 25 x ADT 31 110 to 115 Jun Jul 3.2 Drought resistant
110 to 115 Sep Oct, Dec Jan 3.2 Non lodging, drought
PMK 2 IR 13564 149-3 x ASD 4
resistant
PY 1 Ponni x IR 8 130 to135 Aug 5 Fine grain
PY 2 Kannagi x Culture 2032 115 Dec Jan 4.5 Medium grain
Duration Yield
(in days) (MT/Ha)
145 to Aug 5.3 Semi dwarf, erect
PY 4 IR 8 x H4
150
IR 1721 14 x IR 1330 -33 150 Aug 5.00 Fine grain
Paiyur 1
2
Taichung 65 x Mayung 140 Aug Sep 5.00 Fine grain
Ponni
Epos. 80
Improved Taichung 65 / 2 135 to Aug 4.5 Medium slender grain
W. Ponni
x Mayung Epos 80 140
TKM 8 TN 1 x TKM 6 130 Jul Sep 5.5 -
105 Apr May, Dec 7.8 to 8 Red rice, suitable for dry
TKM 9 TKM 7 x IR8
Jan sowing
TKM 10 CO 31 x C22 135 - 2.56 Suitable for semi dry
110 to Aug Sep 3 Suitable for dry sowing
TKM 11 C22 x BJ 1
120
115 120 Under rainfed July 3 Suitable for direct sowing
TKM (R) Aug, Aug Sep drought resistant, high
TKM 9 x TKM 11
12 yielding than PMK 2 and
TKM 11
TPS 1 IR 8 x Kattai Samba 110 to May Jun 4.8 Semi dry red rice
115
TPS 2 IR 26 x CO 40 125 to Sep Oct 4.6 Non Lodging, Non
130 shattering
TRY 1 IR 578 172-2-2x BR 1- 135 to Samba 5.2 -
2- B-19 140
TRY (R) IET 6238 x IR36 115 to Jun Jul, Dec Jan 5.36 Suitable for alkaline soil
2 120 resistant to Blast
PMK (R) UBLRI 7 x CO 43 115 Sep Oct 3.025 Suitable for Ramnad,
3 Sivaganaga, Virudhunagar
and Thoothukudi
CO ( R)
CO 43 x ASD 19 130 135 Jan Feb 6.00 -
48
Seed
Age of
Note Duration Rate (Kg Spacing (cm) NPK (Kg / Ha.)
seedling
/ Ha.)
Short Below 120 days 60 12.5 x 10 22 days 120 :38:38
Medium 120 to 135 days 40 20 x 10 30 days 150: 50:50
Long Above 140 days 30 20 x 15 35 to 40 150:50:50
days
Ex.No.2
Date : HYBRID RICE
In hybrid rice seed production 3 lines are involved namely A line (male sterile line),
maintainer line (B), and restorer line (R).
Development of CMS lines in Hybrid Rice Breeding

Cytoplasmic male sterility is the most effective genetic tool for developing Fl rice
hybrids. About 95% of the area under CMS derived hybrid is occupied by hybrids from Wild
Abortive (WA) cytosterility system. New CMS lines are developed by transferring WA
cytosterility into the genetic backgrounds of alike breeding lines.
CMS should posses

1. Complete pollen sterility to avoid self-fertilization in hybrid seed production plots.
2. Stable pollen sterility over environments.
3. Good adoptability to cultural conditions for which hybrids are to be developed.
4. Good agronomic potential.
5. Fair to good general combining ability.
6. Agronomic and floral traits to allow sufficient cross pollination plots.
Development of Parental Lines

This involves developing male sterile line (A), Maintainer (B), and Restorer (R) lines.
Elite lines or varieties are selected from the on going inbred programme. These are then test
crossed as single plants with best available cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines. The test cross
Fls, their corresponding male parents and the best local varieties are grown in rows. If test
cross shows 95-100% pollen sterility, its male parent is a prospective maintainer. In this
situation the test cross Fl, which is, male sterile is backcrossed to the corresponding male
parent and male sterile plants in back cross Fl progenies are repeatedly backcrossed with
maintainer male parent. This way male sterile and maintainer lines are obtained in the genetic
background of the original male parent after about 6 generations.
Development of' R Line

If Fl shows normal pollen (> 80% fertility), the male parent can be considered a restorer
line for CMS line. Such restorers must be reconfirmed and purified genetically retest crossing on
a single plant basis.
Any line(x)
For eg: Male sterile lines
(R line)
F 1 Fertile
Hybrid Rice seed production
To produce hybrid seeds, male and female parents are planted alternately in specific
row ratios. The most common ratios are 6:2 and 8:2.
The following procedures are used to promote the cross pollination.
1. Planting across the wind direction to increase pollen dispersal on female plants.
2. Clipping the flag leaves of male sterile or restorer lines at booting to facilitate pollen
circulation.
3. Application of 20-30 ppm Gibberellin.
4. Supplementary pollination by rope pulling or rod shaking every 30 minutes during
flowering.
HYBRID RICE RELEASED IN INDIA
Yield
Hybrid
State Name Parentage Duration (MT / Remarks
Name
Ha)
Medium height, Male 10
CORH 1 Coimbatore,
IR 62829A x IR 10198 66 2R 110115 6.08 days shorter in age,
(MGR) Tamil Nadu
Medium fine grain.
Maruderu,
APHR 1 Andhra IR 58025A x Vnjaram R. 130- 135 7.14
days longer in age.
Pradesh
Maruderu,
Male 20 days longer in
APHR 2 Andhra IR 62829A x MDU 9992 R 120 125 7.52
age.
Pradesh
Mandiya 120
KRH 1 IR 58025 A x IR 9761 14 IR 6.02 days longer in age,
Karnataka 125
tolerant to blast
Male and female
synchronized flowering.
Chinsura, West
CNRH 3 IR 62829 A x Aajaya R. 125-130 7.49 Medium height, medium
Bengal
fine grain
Male10 days longer in age,

Mandiya 130
KRH 2 IR 58025 A x KMR 3 R 7.40 Resistant to blast, long
Karnataka 135
slender grain
Hyderabad, Male 10 days longer in
125
DRRH 1 Andhra IR58025 A x IR 40750 82-2-2-3R 7.30 age, resistant to blast, long
130
Pradesh slender grain
Male and female
Pandth
Pandh Nagar, 115 synchronized flowering.
Sankar IR 58025 A UPRR 92 -133 R 6.80
Uttar Pradesh 120 Medium height, medium
Dhan 1
fine grain
Aduthurai, 110 Medium height, Male 7
ADTRH 1 IR 58025 A x IR 66 R 7.10
Tamil 115 days shorter in age
Male and Female
Coimbatore, 125 synchronized flowering.
CORH 2 IR 58025 A x C- 20 R 6.25
Tamil Nadu 130 Suitable to saline and
alkaline soil, bolder grain
Gujarat IR 58025 A x PR 827 35 3-1- 125 Male 12 days longer in
Sahyadri 6.64
Maharashtra 1-1-R 130 age, non longing
Narendr
Paisabad, Uttar 125 Male 15 days longer in
a Sankar IR 58025 A x NTR 3026 3-1-R 6.15
Pradesh 130 age, long fine grain.
Dhan 2
Pioneer
130 Resistant to blast and
PHB 71* Overseas - 7.86
135 BPH, long fine grain.
corporation
PA Hybrid Rice
- 120 - 130 6.18 -
6201* International
6444* - - 135 - 140 6.11 -
Pusa RH
- - 120 - 125 4.35 -
10
RH 204* - - 120 - 126 6.89 -
Suruchi
- - 130 - 135 5.94 -
5401*
PSD 3 - - 125 - 130 6.12 -
NSD 3 - - 130 - 135 5.15 -
DRRH 2 - - 112 - 116 5.35 -
CRHR 5 Orissa - 130 - 135 5.71 -
CRHR 7 Orissa - 130 - 135 6.07 -
Sahyadri
Maharashtra - 115 - 118 6.5 -
2
Sahyadri
Maharashtra - 123 - 126 7.5 -
3
HKRH 1 Haryana - 135 - 139 9.41 -
CORH 3 Tamil Nadu - 130 - 135 6.15 -
* Private hybrids
BASMATI RICE
Traditional Basmati varieties are tall, prone to lodging, late and poor in yield. The
incorporation of basmati quality in the high yielding semi-dwarf backgrounds has been quite
challenging one.
It is largely due to the complex nature of the quality as such and the complicated
inheritance of the quality components.
Rice of quality are characterized by pleasant aroma, linear kernal elongation on cooking
and soft texture.
Genetically, aroma is recessive and follows mendelian inheritance. Most of the other
components are polygenically inherited. Through stepwise convergent mode of breeding, IARI
breeders were successful to evolve high yielding basmati like varieties / culture. For example
Basmati 370, Pusa 150, Pusa 523, Pusa 443, Pusa 449, Pusa 506 & Kasturi (Basmati 370 x CR
88-17-1-5).
Ex. No: 3
Date : WHEAT
Triticum sp ( 2n = 14, 28, 42)
Floral biology
The inflorescence of wheat is a spike (spikelets attached to main rachis directly ie.
without pedicels) or ear. The spikelets are attached at the nodes of the zig zag rachis. The rachis
is solid and consists of alternate flattened nodes and inter nodes. A single spikelet is attached to
eachnode. In the spikelets there are florets which may be 3 to 5 in number and top most flower
will be usually sterile. The spikelet is having a pair of stiff glumes which are sterile enclosing the
florets. The colour of the glumes may vary from red, brown or black. Each floret is having a
lemma which is broad and having awn. Palea is thin and membranous.
Androecium : stamens three, the filaments are slender, anthers are bilobed and versatile, each
lobe has two loculi. The pollen grains are spherical or oval with smooth surface.
Gynoecium : superior ovary , unilocular, styles two, plumose stigma with 80 to 100 stigmatic
branches.
Anthesis and Pollination

Opening of flowers takes place after the emergence of ear from the sheath. It may take
place on the very first day of emergence or it may be delayed up to 10 days. In any plant first
formed tillers flower first followed by others. The flower opening in the spikelet starts from the
middle and proceeds in both the directions. It takes three to five days to complete flowering in
whole spike. Depending on weather conditions, flowering continues throughout the day but
peak flowering takes place in the morning 9 to 10.30 am. Generally, the anthers hang out from
the lemma and palea after dehiscing the pollen.
Emasculation techniques
Normally hand emasculation is the only method followed. The steps involved are as
follows.
Cut off the upper and lower spikelets of the ear with scissors. Of the remaining spikelets
remove completely every alternate spikelet on both sides of rachis. Press the glumes gently and
insert the needle to open the glumes, lemma and palea. Remove the three anthers in each floret
one by one. If the anthers are green and erect they can be removed together but if they are in
advanced stage of development they should be removed one by one. Normally the lower two
florets are emasculated and the rest are clipped off. After emasculation pollen from the selected
male parent is collected which will be yellow in colour. Pinch them and dust the pollen on the
emasculated flower. Cover the crossed head with butter paper bag properly labeling it. Fifteen
days after pollination, bags can be removed.
Agencies dealing with wheat research

1. International agency : CIMMYT, Mexico
2. National agency : All India coordinated wheat improvement project, PUSA
3. State level : No state level wheat research is being carried out in Tamil
Nadu, But at Wellington, Nilgris, a wheat substation is run by
ICAR
MAIZE
Zea mays 2n: 2x : 20
Maize is the queen of cereals
Origin
Maize is native to America- The two possible centres of origin suggested are
i. The highlands of Peru, Equador and Bolivia.
ii. The region of Southern Mexico and Central America.
Species
i. Zea mays (2n = 2x = 20) corn.
ii. Zea mexicana (2n = 2x = 20) Annual teosinte
iii. Zea perennis (2n = 4x = 40) perennial tetraploid teosinte.
iv. Zea diploperennis (2n = 2x = 20) perennial diploid teosinte.
Botany
In maize, male and female flowers are borne separately on the same plant
(monoecious). The male inflorescence (tassel) is located at the top of the plant. Tassel is a
branched panicle in which paired spikelets (one sessile and one pedicelled) are produced on
both the central axis and the branches.
Each spikelet consists of two lower most empty bracts called glumes, two staminate
florets each having three stamens and enclosed by lemma and palea. The female inflorescence
known as 'cob' or 'ear' arises about midway at a node on the main stalk. It is considered as a
modified lateral branch originating from an axillary bud on the main stem. The internodes of
this lateral branch are telescoped to form stout axis. From the lower node of this axis, modified
leaves in form of overlapping sheaths cover the inflorescence. These are called husks. On the
ear shoot, pistillate spikelets are borne in pairs in longitudinal rows. Each spikelet has two
flowers, one fertile and one sterile. This results in an uneven number of rows of kernels on the
ear. The hair like structures emerging from the top of the husks are called silks. Silk functions
both as stigma and style as it is receptive to fresh pollen grains throughout the entire length.
Floral Biology and Crossing

Maize is monoecious plant and under natural conditions it is cross pollinated as about
95% of the pistillate flowers on a cob receive pollen from near by other plants and about 5% of
the kernels are as a result of self pollination.
Maize is protandrous in which pollen shedding normally begins days before the
emergence of silk and continues 3-4 days after the silks are ready to be pollinated. It has been
estimated that single tassel may produce as many 25,000,000 pollen grains or an average of
over 25000 pollen grains for each kernel on an ear with 800-1000 kernels. Pollen grains remain
viable for 12-18 hrs and may be killed in few hours by heat or desiccation. In hot, dry, windy
condition, the pollen shedding may be terminated early or the tassel may be injured or the silk
may loose the moisture and the cumulative effect of all these may lead to barren cobs.
For crossing purposes, the top of an ear before the emergence of the silk is cut by a
sharp razor and covered with butter paper bag. On the same day, the tassel of the desired male
parent is covered with tassel bag.
The anthesis (dehiscence of anther) starts from the central shoot of the tassel from top
and proceeds downwards. This is done on those plants in which one fourth of the tassel has
dehisced. Pollination is carried out when a uniform growth of silk is visible. The tassel bag
containing freshly shed pollen grains is transferred over the cobs after removing the silk bags.
Before tassel bags arc put on the tassel, all details like date of pollination and breeding
programme to be carried out are clearly written by waterproof pencil. To avoid contamination
and to get enough pollen for pollination, tassel bags are put one day earlier. The date of
pollination will be one day later than the date of tasselling. The tassel bags are held in position
with the help of U clips.
Following Precautions are observed

1. Bagging of the tassels should be done in the previous evening to avoid contamination
from foreign pollen.
2. Programs and date of pollination must be written on the tassel bags.
3. The date of pollination must be one day later than the date of tasselling.
4. Pollination must be completed within one week of silk emergence.
Hybrids
1. Single cross Hybrid: A single cross is a hybrid progeny from a cross between two
unrelated inbred (AxB)
2. Three way cross: A three way cross is the hybrid progeny from a cross between a
single cross and an inbred. (AxB) x c.
3. Double cross hybrid: A double cross is the hybrid progeny from a cross between two
single crosses (AxB) x (CxD).
4. In India Several hybrids namely, Ganga 1, Ganga 101, Ranjit, Deccan, VL 54, Ganga Safed
2, High Starch, Ganga 3, Ganga 4, Ganga 5, and Deccan 101 were released.
List of Improved Varieties in Maize

Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (MT/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
Jul Aug,
K1 Composite variety 85 2 3 Drought resistant
Sep Oct
HB x (KZ 1027x CM
K2 85to 90 -do- 3 4.5 -do-
202 )
Unit Selection form
CO 1 105 to 90 -do- 3.38 6.25 -do-
Indonesia
Baby corn
Varietal selection 0.66
55 to 65 Througho Sweet corn, good
CO BC 1 from composite UMI Baby -
Seeds 100 ut the year green fodder
836 & UMI 836 1-2 corn
105
CROP SEED RATE SPACING NPK

15 Kgs/ ha for Hybrid 20 Kgs / ha
Maize 60 x 20 cm 135: 62.5:50
for varieties
Ex.No.4
Date : SORGHUM
Sorghum bicolor 2n : 2x : 20
Origin
The present day sorghum originated in Ethiopia and the nearby areas of East Africa. The
most probable progenitor of Sorghum bicolor is S. arundinaceum (2n: 2x: 20), which is a
complex wild species found in Tropical Africa. Based on the inflorescence sorghum is classified
as follows.
1. Bicolor 2. Guinea 3. Caudatum 4. Kafir and 5. Durra.
The Bicolor Race

Grain elongate, long clasping glumes, open panicle.
The caudatum race

Caudatum race markedly asymmetrical, predominant in Sudan, Nigeria and Uganda,
good yield, bright seed colour, important germplasm source for modern breeding programmes.
The Guinea Race

Grains flattened dorsoventrally. West African race, long glumes, open panicles, seed
small to large, hard, resistant to insect damage, tolerant to flooding.
The Kafir Race

Grains approximately symmetrical, more or less spherical, major race in East Africa,
semi compact to compact panicles agronomically important.
The Durra Race

Grains rounded obovate, bulging and widest above the middle, mostly found in Ethiopia,
Turkey, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Arabia, North Africa, Southern Sahara and India, early to late maturity,
source of many useful genes.
Floral Biology
The panicle varies from very loose to compact. The panicle has a central axis divided
into nodes and internodes. The secondary branches give rise to branches of third rank. The
panicle is generally carried well clear of the boot leaf, but in some varieties the lower part of the
panicle remains surrounded by the leaf sheath. In some varieties, the peduncle is recurved,
giving a pendent head referred to as gooseneck.
The panicle consists of the spikelets, which usually occur, in pairs. One member of this
pair is sessile, hermophrodite and fertile. The other is pedicellate, male or sterile. The sessile
spikelet consists of short central axis or rachilla and two glumes enclosing two florets. The
upper floret is fertile while the lower is reduced to scale (lemma). The fertile floret has a lemma,
a palea, 2 lodicules, 3 stamens and an ovary having 2 small styles each terminating in a feathery
stigma.
Flowering occurs generally prior to sunrise and in the early morning and may extend to
mid day under certain conditions. Blooming starts in the uppermost pancile branch and
proceeds downwards. The stigmas are receptive before flowering (equal to protogyny) and
remain receptive for 6-8 days. Pollen is viable only for a few hours under natural conditions and
loses its viability rapidly. Fertilization is completed within 2-4 hours after pollination.
Sorghum is normally self-pollinated but the stigmas exposed before the anthers dehisce
are cross-pollinated. Cross-pollination may be as high as 30% in Sudan grass. Therefore,
sorghum is classified as often cross pollinated.
Emasculation
1. Hand Emasculation: Only a part of the panicle is emasculated and remaining panicle is
clipped away. During clipping flowered tip and the lower panicle branches are
removed. About 50 florets (in clusters of two or three) which would normally flower the
following day are selected for emasculation. The emasculation needle is inserted at the
middle of florets and moved across the glume behind the anthers. The needle is rotated
90 and anthers lifted out. The emasculated panicle is covered by suitable paper bag.
2. Hot water method : In this method, the sorghum head is immersed in water at 48 C for
10 minutes.
3. Plastic bag/mass emasculation technique: In this method sorghum head is covered

with plastic bag. This creates high humidity inside the bag. Under such high humidity,
the florets open, the anthers emerge but shed no pollen. The anthers are knocked free of
the head by tapping. In this method, some selfing occurs. therefore, marker genes are
needed to identify the plants arising from selfed seed.
Pollination
Pollination should be done as soon as almost all of the florets comes to flower. On a dry
morning when normal pollen shedding is occurring between 6 and 7 A.M. the hand pollination
may begin around 9.30 A.M. Delaying pollination into afternoon should be avoided. The pollen
is collected in paper bags done is case of maize. Sorghum pollen kept in bags is viable for a short
period (10-20 minutes). For collection, appropriate heads may be bagged. If there is heavy dew
at night and the morning is calm with little air movement, the heads can be inserted into the
bags. In the morning and pollen shaken from them another technique is to clip the heads from
the plant early in the morning before pollen shedding and to place the heads in boxes or flower
pots kept in protected place. It is useful if the dew is heavy and there are early morning winds.
It is also useful when the head is poor pollen shedder. The collected pollen is dusted over an
emasculated head.
Hybrid Breeding
Seeds of hybrid sorghum are produced using cytoplasmic genetic male sterility, known
as A, B and R line system. Kafir 60 and ms combine kafir were the intial male sterile lines used
in hybrid sorghum programme.
The male sterile parent is called A line and its maintainer is called as B line. A and B
lines are isogenic except that the A line is male sterile and B line is male ferule. The difference in
lines is only in the cytoplasm where A line has sterile cytoplasm and B line has fertile cytoplasm.
Male sterile line A & B line is maintained in same field or different fields. The planting
ratios of A and B lines are 4:2. The isolation distance required is 300 m from other grain
varieties and 400 m from forage sorghum and Johnson grass. Four rows of B line are planted
around the field. B line is maintained by growing in isolation or by bagging the heads of B line
plants.
Similarly A line is planted in isolation with R line in ratio of 4:2 and the seed produced
on A line is hybrid and fertile. R line is maintained by growing in isolation or by bagging the
heads.
In commercial seed production, bulk production of A, B and R lines is termed as

foundation seed production and production of A x R hybrid seed is the certified seed.
Hybrids Released in India

1. CSH 1 - CK 60A X IS 84 2. CSH 2 - CK 60 A X IS 3691
3. CSH -3 - 29 A X IS 3691 4. CSH 4 - 1036 A X Swarna
5. CSH 6 - 2077 A X CS 3541 6. CSH 7 - 36A X 168
7. CSH 7 - 36 A X 168 8. CSH 8 - 36 A X PD 3-1-11
9. CSH 9 - 296 A X CS 3541 10. CSH 10 - 296 A X SB 1085
11. CSH 11 - 296 A X MR 750 12. CSH 12 R - 177 A X MA 148 138 -1-1-2
13. CSH 13 R - 296 A X RS 29.
Sorghum growing areas of the state can be clearly classified into different groups each
with its traditional land races of varieties.
1. Periyamanjal cholam tract

It extents over large area in Coimbatore & Erode dt. The are under sorghum is 1.5 lakh
ha. (Co20).
2. Talaivirichan tract
It comprises part of Salem, Dharmapuri and Vellore dt. It occupies 1.5 lakh ha. [Co 19 &
Paiyur 1 (Co 19 x Co24)].
3. Makkatai cholam tract
It comparises Trichy and Parts of Erode dt. If occupies 1.5 lakh ha.
4. Chencholam tract
It comprises of Salem dt. It covers an area of 0.5 lakh ha. (CO4) suitable for fodder.
5. Irungu cholam tract
It comprises of 2 lakh ha, mostly in Southern dt. of Tail Nadu (k4, k5, k7, k10).
6. Vellai cholam tract
It covers Coimbatore, Erode & Tenkasi zones of Tamil Nadu (k9 Tenkasi Vellai Cholam).
List of improved varieties in Sorghum

Variety Parentage Duration Season Yield (MT/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfe Irrigated
d
CSH1 CK 60 A x IS 84 90 Feb Mar 4 5 -
Jan Feb,
CSH 5 MS 207 A x CS 3541 90 to 100 4 5 -
Apr May
Jan Feb,
CSH 6 MS 2219A x CS 3541 90 to 95 2 5 -
Oct- Nov
PS from vellai
CO 10 100 Feb March - 3 -
cholam
Dec Jan,
CO 18 As 3834 x CO 9 95 to100 - - -
Apr May
CO 19 A mutant from CO 2 145 Sep Oct 0.9 - -
Interspecifuc CO 11
CO 20 55 to 60 All seasons 20.8 44.5 Fodder Cholam
x S. halapense
CO 21 A mutant form CSV 5 100 to 120 All seasons 2.75 5.25 Grain cum fodder
dwarf
3 way cross
CO 25 115 to 110 All seasons 3.68 6 -do-
derivatives
CO 26 MS 8271 x IS 3691 105 to 110 All seasons 3.5 4 Downymildew resistant
Jun Jul, Sep 2.49 Grain cum fodder, white
2.86 (G)
CO (S) 28 CO 25 x SPV 942 100 to 105 Oct., Dec (G) grain moderately resist to
12.6 (F)
Jan. 17.7 (F) mildew
COH3 2077 A x 699 Tall 105 to 110 All seasons 3 6 Striga resistant
Jan Feb, 6.5 (G) 20
COH 4 296A x TNS 30 105 to 110 - High yielder
Apr May (F)
161 MT
CO(SH) TNS30 x Sorghum Throughout Multi cut fodder cholam
65to 70 - (5
29 sudanensi the year high protein content
harvest)
Dec Jan,
K4 CO 18 x K2 90 3 - -
Apr May
Reselection from IS Except
K5 90 to 95 2.75 3.5 -
3541 summer
PS from local
K6 90 to 95 Apr may - 3 -
sencholam
K7 K3 x M35-1 105 to 110 Sep Oct 20 - Fodder cholam
K8 IS 1261 x SV 108 85 Sep- Oct 2.4 - Drought tolerant
Hybrid derivative
(M. 36200 x 2.0 -
K9 120 Apr July Drought tolerant
tenkasi Vellai) x 8.3 Fodder
tenkasi vellai
1.6 -
K10 K7 x SPV 102 110 to 115 Sep-Oct Good dry fodder
16 Fodder
1.560
K.7 Fodder Cholam Tolerant to drought, leaf
G
K11 x A 6552 Grain 110- 115 All seasons - spot, downy mildew &
10.
Cholam earhead bugs
360 F
MS 2219 A x IS
K Tall 90 to 95 All seasons 3.75 4.25 -
3541
May Jun
IS 3541 K2 x CO 19 95 to 100 - 5 -
Sep Oct
1.00
Non lodging
(G)
Paiyur 1 CO 19 x CO 24 145 to 150 Jun July - Photosensitive drought
9.00(G
tolerant
)
PS Germplasm Purattasipa 2.1 (G)
Paiyur 2 90 to 95 -
accession IS 15845 ttam 8.7 (F)
3 way cross Jun Jul,
BSR 1 105 to 110 3.5 6.5 Earhead bug resistant
derivative Dec Jan
2.62 Drought tolerant
Hybrid derivative Jun Jul, (G) nonlodging, resistant to
APK 1 105 to110 -
of TNS 30 x CO 26 Sep Oct 8.09 stemborer, downy
(F) mildew, leafspot
CUMBU (OR) PEARL MILLET
Pennisetum americanum 2n: 2x : 14
Origin
The sahel zone of West Africa.
Taxonomy
The genetic name Pennisetum is derived from two latin words Penna means feather and
seta means bristles. Five species have been used for cultivation in pearl millet.
1. Pennisetum typhoideum
2. Pennisetum spicatum
3. Pennisetum americanum
4. Pennisetum glacum.
5. Pennisetum typhoides
Presently the name accepted is Pennisetum americanum, Pennisetum is a poly basic genus
consisting of about 56 species with chromosome numbers as multiples of
x = 5, 7, 8 and 9.
Eg. Pennisetum ramosum (2n = 10) Pennisetum americanum (2n = 14)
Pennisetum purpurcum (2n = 28) Pennisetum masaicum (2n = 16, 32)
Pennisetum squamulatum (2n = 54) Pennisetum orientale (2n = 18, 27, 45, 54)
Several wild species have been used in crosses with pearl millet. For example, Napier
grass (Pennisetum purpureum) to develop perennial fodder varieties.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is called cylindrical spike like ear, with tapering tip. A rosette of bracts
consisting of bristles and spikelets united at the base are known as involucre that enclose a
flower cluster arising from the central rachis. Each involucre may include one to nine fertile
spikelets having one upper and one lower floret. The lower floret is staminate or sterile. The
staminate lower floret consists of a single lemma and three stamens. The upper floret is fertile
and has three anthers and one pistil with two feathery stylar branches. These structures are
enclosed between lemma & Palea.
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number is 2n: 14. The 7 pairs of the chromosomes are grouped
into 4 categories.
1. The two longest having median centromeres.
2. Two some what shorter with median to submedian centromeres.
3. Two medium sized with submedian centromeres.
4. The nucleolus organizing - short chromosome pairs.
Based on the karyotype the chromosomes are classified as.

Chromosomes 1,2,3 & 5- metacentric.
Chromosomes 4 & 6 - submetacentric, &
Chromosomes 7 - subterminal.
Pearl millet is cross - pollinated because of protogyny. The stigmas remain receptive for
one to two days. Anthers emerge in two ways, the first way involves the perfect flowers and the
second way commences 2-3 days later involving the staminate florets. Anthesis starts from the
upper third of the head and proceeds towards the base. Under field conditions pollen grains are
viable for 5-7 hours. Around 5C pollen grains may be viable upto four days.
For cross pollination, about four fifths of the upper portion of the Spike is clipped and
the left over portion is bagged before the emergence of the stigmas. Likewise the ears of the
pollen parent are also bagged. As soon as the stigmas of the female parent emerge, the entire
panicle is dusted by shaking a pollen shedding spike of the male parent.
Hybrid Seed Production

Three line system is used to produce hybrid seed in pearl millets.
AxB B AxR
A Line F1
Maintenance of Maintenance of Hybrid seed
A line of Isolation B line in Isolation in isolation.
Procedure, for Utilization of CMS is Pearl Millet

The maintenance of the available cytoplasmic male sterile lines is the first important
step in the production of hybrids. This is achieved by growing cytoplasmic male sterile lines
(called A line) and the maintainer line (called B line) in isolated field. The A line is identical to
line B in genotypic constitution except that A line has sterile (S) cytoplasm, and is male sterile,
while B line carries normal (N) cytoplasm and is male fertile. By wind pollination, pollen from B
line pollinates A line. The seed set on A line is harvested separately. This again produces male
sterile plants. A line is used in the production of hybrids.
The desirable pollinators for A line (i.e. the restorers, R lines) are developed through
continous selfing and selection form the open pollinated populations or hybrid populations
derived from the crosses between the desirable genotypes. Some of the specific characters that
are usually sought in the pollinator are uniform and profuse tillering, good head size, good grain
size, good grain quality, medium to short plant height, resistance to serious diseases and pests,
abundant pollen production, reasonable level of photoinsensitivity and 100 percent fertility
restoration.
When selected lines are fairly uniform these are crossed with A-lines. The Fl hybrids
thus produced are studied mainly for fertility restoration and combining ability. The pollinators
that produce fertile hybrids are called R-lines.
The spontaneous occurrence of cytoplasmic male sterility due to interaction of
cytoplasm with a recessive nuclear gene in pearl millet was first discovered at Tiftan USA in
1955. This male sterility was transferred in two lines, 23A and 18 A by repeated back crossing
and as a result two cytoplasmic male sterile lines 23A and 18A were 'developed. Later, these
were released along with their maintainer 23 B and 18B.
Tiftan male sterile CMS 23A was introduced in India in 1962 and this gave impetus to
develop several male steriles and hybrids.
Using Tift 23A as female parent five pearl millet hybrids were developed and released
during 1965-1972 in India.
HB1 Tift 23 A x BlL3B

HB2 Tift 23 A x J88
HB3 Tift 23 A x Jl04 -High yielding
HB4 Tift 23 A x k560
HB5 Tift 23 A x k559.
Seed Production of Male Sterile Lines
The A and B lines are grown in isolation (1000m) in ratio of 4:1 or 4:2. The entire field is
planted with a border of B line to ensure adequate pollen supply to the A line.
Normally, the B line is sown ahead in the same day or a day earlier to avoid mixing up
during sowing. Strict roughing is done in both the lines. No pollen shedding is allowed in A lines.
The B line is harvested in advance and threshed separately. The A line is carefully harvested
and threshed separately without any admixture.
Hybrid Seed Production

A line (as female) and R line are planted in isolation (1000m) in row ratio of 4:2. The
male and female parent should have synchronous flowering. To some extent synchrony can be
manipulated by i) Differential dates of planting of the male parent, ii) Manipulation of water and
fertilizer to one of the parents and iii) Removal of the unusual early tillers.
List of improved varieties in Pearl Millet

Variety Parentage Duration Season Yield (MT/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
KM 1 MSS 141A x 104 70 to 80 All seasons 1.5 3 -
MS 5141 A x K560
KM 2 80 to 85 All seasons 2 3 -
D230
CO 6 90 All seasons 2 3 -do-
(CO 6 x BK 560) x PT
CO7 95 to 100 All seasons 2.5 3.5 -
192
CO8 Local selection 40 to 45 All seasons - 30 Fodder cumbu
Jun Jul, sep
Tillers with 5 to 8 earheads
CO CH 8 MS 732 A x PT 4450 80 to 50 Oct, Dec 3.68 2.84
resistant to Downy mildew
Jan
Synthetic variety
ICMS derived from inbred
85 to 90 April May 2 - -
7703 line selected from
seven crosses
ICMV Mass selection from Trroughout
80- 100 1.5 - Medium, slate grey seeds
155 NELC C4 the year
ICMV Throughout Exposed smooth deep grey
ICMV 88904, MP 221 75 80 2 -
221 the year seeds.
Selected lines from
Throughout
Raj 171 early gene pool 80 - 85 2 - Resist to DMD
the year
(ICRISAT)
WCC 75 Multiple crosses 95 Apr May 2 3 Composite cumbu
18 Days 7.5 cents /

Seedling age: Nursery
ha
CROP SEED RATE SPACING NPK
7.5 kgs / ha for transplanting, for
(H) 100:50:5
Cholam direct sowing 10 Kgs/ ha for 45 x 15 cm 16:8:0(R)
(V) 90:45:45
irrigated, 15 Kgs/ ha for rainfed
3.75Kgs/ ha for transplanting, for (H) 80:40:40
Cumbu 45x 15 cm 16:8:0(R)
direct sowing 5 kg/ ha. (V) 70:35:35
.
RAGI
Eleusine coracana 2n=36
Origin
Asia and Africa.
Species
Eleusine africana, Eleusine indica
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is terminal umbel of 2-10 straight thick sessile spikes 1-5 long with 1-
2 additional spikes one fourth to 3 below. The spike are otherwise called as fingers. They may
be 4-6. The number of fingers depend on variety. Length of the finger may also vary in different
varieties. Spikelets are often curved with 2-10 flowers. The lower glume is ovate, obtuse and
keeled with two lateral nerves close to keel. Based on the arrangement of spikes in an
inflorescence, the shape of the ear head is classified into
1. Top curved 2. In curved 3. Fist like 4. Open type 5. Cox - comb

In each of the spike, the order of flower opening is from top to bottom and in each of the
spikelet opening of the flower is from base to top. In each finger there are 70 spikelets. In each
spikelet there are about 5-7 flowers. In a spikelet only one flower opens in a day. Thus a
spikelet having 5 flowers will take 5 days to complete flowering. Finger consists of 70-80
spikelets takes about 8 days to complete flowering. The flowers open from 1 A.M to 5 A.M. and
the glumes close between 5 and 7 A.M.
Emasculation: There are two types of emasculation followed in Ragi.
1. Hand emasculation
2. Hot water emasculation.
Hand Emasculation
The entire plant is covered with a polythene bag on the previous day itself, in order to
create humidity inside the bag. The humidity thus developed facilitates the opening of flowers.
Then the anthers are removed by using needles or fine forceps.
Hot water Technique: The spikes before anthesis are immersed in hot water at 52C for 2
minutes.
For pollination contact method is followed in both the techniques. The spike, which is
ready to open in the next day morning, is taken from the selected male plant with sufficiently
long stalk and tied over the emasculated female spike. The other end of the stalk of male spike is
kept in water taken in polythene bag. This helps to keep the stalk moist for 2-3 days.
List of improved varieties in Ragi

Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (MT/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
CO 7 Pure line selection 100 Apr- May 2.75 4.5 Brown colour Grains
CO 10 Pure line selection 95 Feb Mar - 4.5 -
CO 11 Pure line selection 90 to 95 Dec Jan 3.25 4.75 -
Indag 5 x (Derived from
GPU 28 140 to 145 June July 3.5 - Highly resist to Blast
Indaf 9 x IE 1012
Jun Jul,
CO 12 Selection PR 722 110 to 120 3.25 4.75 Resistant to blast
Dec Jan
CO 13 CO 7 x TAH 107 90 to 100 All seasons 2.3 3.6 -
K5 Sarada x EC 158 105 May Jun, 1.1 1.8 -
Dec Jan
May Jun,
K6 - 75 to 80 4.5 5.5 -
Dec Jan
May Jun,
K7 CO 8 x K2 95 to 100 3.13 - -
Dec Jan
Apr May,
Indaf 5 Cauvery x IE 929 105 to 110 2.5 4 -
Dec Jun
Indaf 7 - 110 Sep & Feb 4.5 5 -
Jul Aug,
Indaf 9 K1 x IE 980 90 to 105 4.5 6 -
Jan Feb
Paiyur 1 Prueline selection 115 to 120 May June 1.8 3.12 Drought tolerant
PR 202 Sarad x EC 158 100 Jul Aug - 5 -
Dec Jan,
TRY 1 Selection form HR 374 102 - 4 Suits sodic salinesoils
May Jun
CROP Nursery SEED RATE SPACING NPK

5 Kgs /ha, Age of seedings : 17- 20
Ragi 12.5 cents /ha 15 x 15 cm 60:30:30 (I) 16:8:0(R)
day
TENAI (Fox Tail Millet)

Setaria italica
Floral biology
Inflorescence is a spike, terminal, dropping. The spikelets are oval or elliptical in shape
with two to three bristles. The spikelets contain two flowers partially protected by two
membranous glumes. Lower floret with L1 and P1, sterile, upper floret with L2, P2, stamens
three, styles two, lodicules two, fruit a caryopsis.

Flowering proceeds from the top down words in the main panicle and similarly from the
tip down wards in each of the panicle branches. The stigmatic branches are the first to emerge.
The anthers after emergence start dehiscing by longitudinal slits from the top to bottom the
process taking about three minutes. Five to ten minutes after the emergence of the first anther,
the other two are pushed out. After pollination the lodicules shrink and the glumes being to
close. The time taken for an ear head to complete its flowering varies from ten to fifteen days.
From the third to sixth day of emergence a large number of flowers open. There are two
maxima of flowering during a day, one between 10 pm and 12 midnight and other between 6
am and 8 am. Self pollination is the rule
VARAGU (Kodo Millet)

Paspalum scrobiculatum ( 2n = 40)

The spikelets are highly cleistogamous. Only 10 15 per cent of spikelets open under
coimbatore condition. Spikelets at the middle of spikes open first, gradually spread to either
ends. Spikelets open after midnight ie. From 2.30 am to 3.00 am and continue tille sunrise.
KUDIRAIVALI (Barn Yard Millet)
Eiclinochloa colona ( 2n = 34, 48, 54, 72)
The spikelets are more or less crowded on the spike like branches of the panicle. The
anthers are purple in colour. Order of flowering is from tip to the bottom of panicle. The total
flowering period extends from 19 22 days. Anthesis 5 am to 10 am. Self pollination is the
general rule.
PANIVARAGU (Proso Millet)

Panicum miliaceum
Inflorescence is a drooping panicle. The spikelets contain two flower partially enclosed
by the glumes. The flowers open between 10 am to 12 noon. The spikelets open and close
within 7 minutes. The anthers is begins from tip of the panicle and proceeds downwards.
Flowering completes within 7 to 10 days. Self pollination is the rule.
The spikelets are more or less crowded on the spike like branches of the panicle. The anthers
are purple in colour. Order of flowering is from tip to the bottom of panicle. The total flowering
period extends from 19 22 days. Anthesis 5 am to 10 am. Self pollination is the general rule.
Emasculation and crossing techniques in small millets

Hand emasculation is tedious because of small sized florets. To overcome this the
Russian method is followed. The principle in this method is to induce artificial flower opening
by increasing the temperature 1-2 C and immersing the panicle in normal could water will
prevent anther dehiscence but flowers will open.
(i) Select the panicle which first commenced flowering
(ii) Remove the already opened florets
(iii) Rub the selected panicle in between hands to increase the temperature by 1-2 C
for 2 minutes.
(iv) Immerse the panicle in cold water
(v) The flowers will open but anthers will not dehisce
(vi) Take out panicle from water and remove unopened flower
(vii) From opened florets remove anthers.
Pollination :
Collect the panicle from male parent which are in the process of flowering. Shake the
panicle on the emasculated florets. Tie the male panicle to the emasculated female panicle.
Cover it with butter paper bag which was immersed in water. The water in butter paper bag
will maintain humidity.
Ex.No 5.
Date : RED GRAM
Cajanus cajan 2n: 2n x 22
Origin
Africa
Progenitor
Cajanus cajanifolius
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number of red gram is 2n: 2x =22. The somatic chromosomes
are very small (1.35 to 2.7). The total length of chromosomes is
75.4 .
Floral Biology
The flowers borne is short racemes. Bracts are small with a think medium nerve
enclosing 1-3 young flower buds. The calyx tube is campanulate with numerous glandular hairs.
The corolla is highly zygomorphic, papilionaceous, and generally yellow. It includes one
standard petal, two wing petals, and two keel petals. Stamens are 10 diadelphous [(9) + 1]. The
stamens show dimorphism. Of the 10 stamens, four have short filaments and six including the
odd posterior one, have long filaments.
The ovary superior, sub sessile, densely pubescent with 2-9 ovules. The style is long,
filliform and glabrous. The stigma is capitate.

Anthesis usually occurs between 8.00 and 17.00 hrs and flowers may remain open for 6
to 48 hours. Flowering period appeared to be influenced by weather conditions. Red gram is
normally self fertilized with filament elongation and pollen occurring prior to flower opening.
The cross pollination occurs mainly due to insects.
Emasculation and Pollination

Stigma shows receptivity for the pollen early in the flowering stage usually a day or two
before the petals begin to unfold. Self pollination usually occurs just before flower open. The
anthers must be removed for the purpose of cross pollination. Shortly after the flowers have
been emasculated the stigma is pollinated from the foreign pollen.
The pod - setting may be a low as 2-4 percent in proportion to the flowering. This is
more a problem when crosses are made. Plant breeders may use seradix B Gibberillic acid and
GA paste made by GA 500 ppm to increase the pod set in hybridization.
Hybrid seed Production

Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility could be used for hybrid seed production. It
required 50 percent normal fertile plants from the female rows in the hybrid seed production
blocks and identification and collection of seed from male sterile plants in the maintenance
block. The genetic male sterility posses two problems.
1. The lines are maintained in the heterozygous state.
2. In the hybrid seed production block the prompt identification and removal of 50 per cent
normal fertile plants from within the female rows is additional operation e.g. ICPH 8.
Varieties
ICPH8 (Ms Prabhat x ICPL 161) It escaped disease such as Fusarium wilt and sterility
mosaic. Yield 30-40 q/ha. It performed well under drought and high moisture conditions.
List of improved varieties in Red gram
Duration
Variety Parentage Season Seed rate (Kg/Ha) Yield (Kg/Ha)
(in days)
R I R I
Pureline selection from
SA 1 180 Jun Aug 10 5 1250 -
Tiruppathur
Pureline selection form
CO 2 120 Feb Mar 25 12.5 750 1500
No . 4728
CO 4 PS from gene pool 130 Dec Jan 25 12.5 800 1750
CO 5 Mutant of CO 1 110 - 25 12.5 760 1440
CO 6 Mutant of SA 1 170 to 180 Jun Aug 10 5 893 -
Pureline selection from 2.3 /
BSR 1 180 Perennial Jun Jul 5 2.5 -
Myladumparai Plant
5200 (3
ICPL 87 ICRISAT variety 110 to 130 Jun Jul 30 1.5 -
picks)
Vamban Jun Aug,
Prabath x NY 34 95 to 100 - - 850 1200
1 Feb Mar
Jul Aug,
CORH 1 MST 21 x ICPL 87109 115 to 120 - - - -
Dec Jan
Jun Jult,
CORH 2 MS CO 5 x ICPL 83027 120 to 130 - - - 1000
Sep Oct
Vamban ICPL 341 x Bhavanisagar June /
170 to 180 - - - 1049
2 Local Aug.
June, Sep
APK 1 95 to 105 Oct Feb - - 906 -
ICPL 87101
Mar.
Strain Spacing NPK

Pure Crop Mixed R I
SA 1, CO 6, etc 90 x 30 240 x 30 12.5:25:0 25:50:0
Others 45 x 30
DAP foliar spray on 35th and 45 th day 5 Kgs/ ha. /per spray, Optimum population = 1,60,000 /ha
BENGAL GRAM (Chickpea)

Cicer arietinum ( 2n = 14, 16)
Floral biology
Flowers are zygomorphic, solitary, axillary and polypetalous with a vexillary

aestivation. Calyx tube is oblique, gamosepalous lanceolate and densely covered with hairs.
Stamens are ten in number and diadelphous (9+1) in condition. Ovary is superior with slightly
bent and blunt stigma. Majority of buds commence opening between 8 am to 11 am. The
duration of flowering is of 7 15 hours and all flowers close by sunset. Fruit a turgid pod,
normally containing one or two sees. Seeds vary in size and shape.
Anthesis
Anther dehiscence takes place in the bud a day before the flower opens. The flowers
bloom between 8 am to 11 am and proceed upto 3 pm. They open in two successive days and on
the second day the opening is earlier and the process is over by 11 am. The percentage of
cleistogamy varies from 10 40 per cent.
Selfing and Crossing Techniques
Equipment required
Fine forceps, small vial of alcohol, jewel tags, fine sharp pencil
Selfing
The mechanism which promotes self-pollination is cleistogamy and therefore, self
pollination is the rule in this crop, so there is no need of bagging. To have hundred per cent
selfing, bagging may be done.
Crossing
Buds that will open in one dya should be selected for hybridization. The bud is gently
held between thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and the standard is just turned above with
the help of forceps. Take out all the ten anthers by exposing wings and keel to ensure that all the
10 are removed and no anthers bursts. Observe carefully with magnifying lens for any remains
of anthers and bagging is done. Always dip the forceps in alcohol between the emasculations.
Venkataramans (1925) technique

Buds, 7 8 mm long, which are to open in the next morning are selected. Hold the
selected buds of proper size between the thumbs and the forefinger of your left hand. Vexillum
is turned upwards with the help of forceps to wings and their enclosures. Keel tube is then
carefully slit open with forceps and the undehisced anthers are gently removed. Dust the pollen
grains which are of yellow colour on the stigma and keel. Leave the wing and the standard
petals in their original position to avoid natural cross pollination,
Pollination
Flowers from the male parents should be picked in the morning of anthesis and dust its
pollen on the receptive stigma of the emasculated bud. If the pollen from these flowers is to be
used for late afternoon pollination, it can be refrigerated in separate bags until needed. Evening
emasculation and morning pollination as well as morning emasculation and immediate
pollination have been used. However, morning emasculation and immediate pollination was
found to be better. The pollen from one bud can pollinate 4- 6 emasculated buds.
Pollination should be done in the morning between 8 am to 12 noon. After pollination

the date should be recorded on the tag. Tags of varying colours may be used to code parents to
identify the given crosses such as BC1, F1, BC2
Ex.No. 6.
Date : GREEN GRAM
Vigna radiata (L) wilczek 2n: 2x = 22
Origin
India
Progenitor
Vigna radiata var Sublobata.
Cytology
The somatic chromosome number of mungbean is 2n: 2x = 22. The haploid chromatin
length is less than 20 . The arm ratio is 1.00 1.75, shows metacentric, 1.75 30
submetacentric, and > 3.0 subterminal chromosomes, majority of the chromosome of green
gram are metacentric. There are no subterminal and centric.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is terminal or axillary raceme with about more than 10 flowers /
peduncle. The flower is a typical paplionaceous with 5 sepals, 5 petals, 10 diadelphous (9+1)
stamens and monocarpellary ovary with hairy style.

Green gram is a self pollinated crop and cliestogamy in some times prevalent. The
anthers start dehiscing by 24 hr and are completely dehisced by 3.00 hr. The flowers open
between 06.00 to 8.00 hr and remain open till about 11.00 hr. Later they close between 14.00 to
16.00 hr. The corolla is shed by the following morning. Since the pollen shedding takes place
long before the petals open, self pollination is the rule. Pollination is effected in the bud stage on
the night previous to the opening of the flower.
Emasculation
For emasculation the young flower bud is held between thumb and forefinger. The
dissecting needle is inserted just under the standard obliquely along the top of the bud. The left
side of the standard and the left side of the standard and the left wing are pushed out ward
away from the bud and the left keel is removed in pieces. Exposed anthers are removed.
Pollination immediately after emasculation gives poor pod set as compared to evening
emasculation / next morning pollination.
List of improved varieties in Green gram

Duration
Variety Parentage Season Yield (Kg/Ha) Remarks
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
ADT 2 Pureline selection 95 Jan Feb 850 - -
Hyb. derivative of H. 70
ADT 3 65 Jan Feb 500 - -
16, Rajendra / G65
Jun Jul,
CO 4 Mutant of CO 1 85 910 1550 -
Feb Mar
Hybrid derivative of
CO 5 70 to 75 Jun Jul 900 - -
KM2 x MG 50.10 (G)
Hybrid derivative of No. Jun Jul,
KM 2 65 to 70 1200 -
127 x 8.9 Feb- Mar
Hybrid derivative of S8 x
Vamban 65 Jun Jul 770 - -
PIMS3
Jun July, Moderately resist to
VBN (GG 2) VGG 9 x MM 309 65 to 70 Sep Oct, 750 850 Mosaic & podborer.
Feb Mar Suitable to all dts.
Paiyur 1 85 to 90 Jun Jul 742 - -
DPT 703
Jun Jul,
K1 CO 4 x CO 5 62 to 67 Sep Oct, 670 - Drought Tolerant
Feb Mar
Jun Jul,
CO 6 WGG 37 x CO 5 62 to 67 Sep- Oct, 982 - -
Feb Mar
Resistant to mosaic,
Jun Jul, stem fly and stem
VRM (GG) 1 PS from K 851 60 979 -
Dec Jan borer, suitable to
vellore and TV malai
Crop Spacing Seed Rate NPK

R I
Black gram 30 x 10 20 Kgs / Ha 12.5:25:0 25:50:0
Green gram 30 x 10 20 Kgs / Ha
Optimum population = 3,25,000 / ha
BLACK GRAM
(Vigna mungo) 2n: 2x = 22
Origin
India.
Progenitor
V. mungo var. Silvestris
Cytology
The somatic chromosome number in black gram is 2n:2x =22. The haploid chromatin
length has been reported as 1.70. Majority of the chromosomes are metacentric i.e. arm ratio is
1.00 - 1.75. There are no subterminal / acrocentric chromosomes.
Floral Biology
Hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, hypogynous, complete, bright yellow or lemon yellow or
pale yellow, 5 sepals, gamosepalous, 5 petals, poly petalous, 10 stamens, diadelphous, filaments
alternately long and short, anthers uniform dithecous, introse, dorsifixed, style terminal hairy,
unilocular ovary with few ovules on marginal placentation.
Flowers start opening early in the morning and completely open between 7.00 and. 8.00
A.M. The anthers begin to shed pollen in the evening and anthesis is complete by mid - night in
closed buds. The next morning such buds are chosen for artificial crosses. Since the pollen
shedding takes place long before the flower opens, self pollination is the rule. Cliestogamy
prevails up to 40 percent.
For emasculation the young bud is kept between thumb and forefinger of the left hand.
The point of dissecting needle is inserted just under the standard petal in an oblique position
along the top of the bud. The left side of the standard and the left wing petal are pushed
outward away from the bud and held with the thumb of left hand. The left hand of keel is
removed in piles with forceps. The pistil and stigma are then exposed and the anthers are
carefully removed with forceps.
Evening emasculation followed by next morning pollination gave the highest pod
setting. For pollination, matured anthers are collected from open flowers and pollination is
done by gently pressing the ripe anthers against the stigma. The flowers may be bagged after
pollination until the pods are formed / matured.
List of improved varieties in black gram
Duration
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
Pureline selection from Suitable for rice
ADT 3 70 to 75 Jan Feb 720 (R) -
Tirunelveli fallows
ADT 4 (T9 x ADT 2) x Pant U14 70 to 75 Jan Feb 600 (R) - -do-
Pureline from Kanpur
ADT 5 65 Jan - 1323 -
variety
Pureline selection form
CO 5 70 to 75 Dec Jan 740 1270 -
Musiri local
Derivative form T9 x
KM 2 60 to 65 Dec Jan 690 - -
L64
Derivative from
TMV 1 65 to 70 Dec Jan - 1320 -
Midhiulundu x KM 1
Vamban 1 KM1 x H76 1 60 to 65 Dec Jan 700 840 -
Jun Jul, Drought tolerant
VBN 2 Spontaneous mutant. 60 to 70 750 -
Sep Oct resist to YMV
More protein
Jun Jul
VBN 3 LBG 402 x LBG 17 65 to 70 775 826 content, resistant to
Jan Feb
yellow moisaic
T9 Pureline selection 65 to 70 Dec Jan 750 1250 -
Suitable for black
K1 (KBG512) CO 3 x US 131 70 to 75 Jul Aug 707 -
cotton soil
Jun Jul, Not suitable for
VBN (BG) 4 CO 4 x BTU 102 75 to 80 Sep Oct, 790 890 clayey and problem
Feb- Mar soils
Jun July,
VBN (BG) 5 VBN 1 x UK 17 65 to 70 820 Resist to YMV
Sep- Oct
COWPEA
Vigna unguiculata 2n = 2n x 22
Origin
Africa
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number is 2n- 2x = 22. The chromosomes are small (1.6 -
3.7m). It consists of 1 short (19m), 7 medium (26 36m) and 3 long (4 + 45 m)
chromosomes.
Floral Biology
Bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic complete, pentamerous sepals 5, gamosepalous,
valvate, corolla papilionaceous, deters 5, polypetalous stamens, 10 diadelphous (9+1);
Filaments alternately long and short; anthers uniform, dithecous, introse, dorsi fixed, ovary
superior, monocarpellary unilocular with many ovules on marginal placentation style terminal
stigmas capitate, oblique.
A high rate of flower abortion occurs in the cow pea plant which normally produces
100-500 flower buds, or which 70-88% shed before anthesis and of the remaining abort half
about prematurely and rest produce the mature fruits. The flowers open between 7.00 and 9.00
A.M. The time of dehiscence of anthers may vary from 10.00 to 12.45 hrs and that the
fluctuation was closely influenced by environmental factors-
Emasculation
The flower buds likely to bloom the next day is selected for emasculation. The bud is
held between the thumb and the forefinger with the keeled side upper most. A needle is run
along the ridge where the two edges of the standard unite. One side of the standard is brought
down and secured in position with thumb. Same thing is done with one of the wings. This
exposed keel is spilt on the exposed side, about 1/16 inch from the stigma/ A section of keel is
also brought down and secured in position under the end of thumb. Now 10 stamens are seen.
They are removed with pointed forceps afterwards. The disturbed parts of standard, wing and
keel are brought into original position as far as possible. To prevent drying out of the
emasculated bud, a leaflet may be folded and pinned around the bud. A tissue paper can be used
to cover and protect the bud.
Pollination is done next morning from a freshly opened flower. The standard and wings
of male flower are removed. By slight depression of the keel, stigma covered with pollen grains
protrudes out. This itself can be used to brush for pollination cowpea flowers are highly
sensitive and drop off easily with slight mechanical disturbance or injury.
List of improved varieties in Cow pea
Duration
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
Hy. derivate (C 521 x All
CO 2 95 - 1375 -
C49 seasons
All
CO 4 Sele. From Russian Giant 85 - 960 -
seasons
Irradiation with All
CO 5 50 to 55 - 2150 Fodder
Gammarays seasons
All
CO 6 MS 9804 x C 152 65 to 70 670 - Vegetable type
seasons
Jun Jul, High yielding than
Irradiation of CO 4 with
CO (CP) 7 65 70 Sep Oct, 900 - CO 6, P 152, Vamban
20 KR Gammarays
Feb- Mar. 1
Jun Jul,
Paiyur1 Selection from VM 16 - 900 - -
Feb Mar
Devpd. by selection at All
Pusa 152 70 to 75 - 1200 -
IARI seasons
All
VBN 1 Selection from IDF 2020 55 to 65 - 950 White coloured seed
seasons
Througho Vegetable type, less
Purline selection from
VBN 2 75 to 85 ut the - 10581 fibre, golden colour
ID81 DI228 10
year seeds
Crop Spacing (cm) Seed Rate NPK

R I
Cowpea 30 x 15 20 Kgs / Ha 12.5:25:0 25:50:0
Optimum population = 3,50,000 / ha
SOYA BEAN
Glycine max 2n = 2x : 40
Origin
China
Cytology
Glycine is the only genus in the Fabaceae where species have diploid chromosome
number of 40 and 80 but not 20. The soybean chromosomes are classified into 2 large, 14
intermediate and 4 small.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence are axillary racemes. Soybean has a typical paplionaceous flower with
a tubular calyx of five unequal lobes. The corolla consists posterior banner petal, two lateral
wing petals and two anterior keel petals. The 10 stamens are in monodelphous pattern. The
Stigma is capitate. Hairs are present on the pistil, and the outer surface of the calyx tube.
In freshly opened flower the diadelphous stamens are elevated and the anthers form a
ring around the stigma. The pollen is thus directly shed on stigma resulting in to a high
percentage of natural self-pollination.
Natural cross - pollination varies from about less than 0,5% to 1%. The pollination may
occur a day before full opening of the flower i.e. the pollination may occur within the bud.
The environmental conditions necessary for successful artificial hybridization and
techniques involved of artificial hybridization is enhanced when the plants are free of moisture
or nutrient stress.
Special care is needed while emasculating the flower buds as they are very small.
Parental cultivars may be grown in pots so that the plant could be raised to desired height for
emasculation. For increased span of flowering, two three sets of sowings of the parental
cultivars are usually required. A floral bud at the appropriate stage is swollen and the corolla is
visible through the calyx. Five sepals are removed with forceps by jerking one stroke
pollination. In this process, 10 stamens are usually removed and if a few are left, they are
removed.
Pollination is carried out immediately after emasculation. Open flowers are collected
from male parent corolla is removed and the emasculated flower but stigma is brushed with the
anthers of the male flowers whose corollas are already removed. In event of a successful,
pollination a pod is visible in about seven days. The scar made by removal of the calyx, aids in
identifying the crossed pods. On a node, only crossed buds are allowed to develop and the
others are removed.
List of improved varieties in Soybean
Duration
(in days)
Rainfed Irrigated
CO2 UGM 21 x JS 335 75 to 80 Adi / 1343 - -
Marghzhi
pattam
ADT 1 Pureline selection from 85 to 80 Jan Feb - 1270 Rice fallows
HILL
Crop Spacing (cm) Seed Rate

NPK
Soy bean 30 x 15 80 Kgs / Ha Gypsum 220 kg 20:80:40
Optimum population 6,66,000
Ex. No.7
Date : GROUND NUT
Arachis hypoqaea 2n: 4x = 40
Origin
Brazil
Cytology
The chromosome number in a hypogaea is 2n=4x= 40. These chromosomes pair mostly
as bivalents but few multivalents have also been observed. The somatic chromosomes are small
and most have median centromere. The cultivars distinguished based on caryotypic differences.
At least 15 of the 20 chromosome pair have been differentiated.
Aneuploids are frequently reported. They occur spontaneously and can be produced by
chemical treatments or ionizing radiation. Out of 33 named species, 26 have chromosome
number confirmed. Most species are diploid (2n=20), Polyploid (2n=40) are reported in
Arachis.
Anthesis
Before anthesis the flower bud is 6 to 10 mm long, the day before anthesis 10-20 mm
and at anthesis 50-70 mm long.
The stigma becomes receptive to pollen 24 hours after the flower opens. Anthesis and
pollination usually occur at sunrise with self pollination taking place within the closed keel of
the flower. About 40% of the flowers fail to begin peg development and another 40% about
before pod development. The flowers wither 5 to 7 hours after opening.
Ringcut Procedure
In this procedure the vexillary aestivated corolla of the bud to be emasculated is excised
by a circular cut with a sharp blade at about 2 mm from its base (between 4 and 6pm). The
exposed anthers are removed with fine pointed forceps. This takes about 1.5 minutes per bud.
After emasculation an extended style is noticeable by about 8 am the next day. The female
flower is pollinated by applying pollen directly from a flower or with a fine brush. More than six
flowers can be pollinated in an minute.
The crossed flowers are marked by the excised corolla and immediate labeling is not
required. Proved gynophores (pegs) having dried flower at the tip. These gynophores are
introduced into small wire rings (4 mm diameter) marked with code number for cross sixty -
seventy days later. The plants are harvested and the pods carrying labels are isolated. The rainy
season is suitable for artificial hybridization. Soil is irrigated after pollination. Plants should not
be sprayed immediately after pollination. After pollination, other flowers developing on the
plants are removed. This helps in proper development of pegs from the hybridized flowers.
List of improved varieties in Ground nut
Duration Yield (Kg /
Variety Parentage Season Type
(Days) Ha )
TMV 1 Ms. Sel. Form Salown 135 Jun Jul 1450 Spreading
Jun Jul,
TMV 2 Ms. Sel form Gudiyatham 105 1250 Bunch
Dec Jan
TMV 3 Pure line from Brazil 135 Jun - Jul 1450 Spreading
TMV 4 Pure line from Caroliana 135 Jun Jul 1450 Spreading
TMV 6 PS from Virginia bunch 125 Jun Jul 950 Semi spreading
Jun Jul ,
TMV 7 Pureline from Tennsee 105 1400 Bunch
Dec- Jan
TMV 8
TMV 9 Extract of 3490 x 477 105 Jun Jul, 1530 Bunch
Dec Jan
Spontaneous mutant from 120 to
TMV 10 Jun Jul 1650 Semi spreading
Argentina 130
TMV 11
TMV 12 PS from Uganda 105 Jun Jul 1650 Bunch
Jun Jul,
CO 1 Ah 6279 x TMV 3 105 1675 Bunch
Dec Jan
CO 2 Mutant from POL 1 105 Apr May 1650 Bunch
June July, 1750 (R)
CO3 VRI 3 x JL 24 105 Bunch
Dec - Jan 2150 (I)
Apr May,
Jun- Jul Oct- 1500 (R) Moderately resistant
CO (GN) 4 TMV 10 x ICGS 82 110
Nov, Dec- 1950(I) to Tikka and Rust
Jan
Jun Jul, Bunch, drought
CO (GN) 5 Co 2 xICGS 86010 125 1585 (R)
Aug resistant
Apr -Mar
POL 1 PS from Malaysia 105 1450 Bunch
Dec Jan
Extract of Native Apr -Jun
POL 2 105 1500 Bunch
Tanganika x Pollachi red Dec-Jan
Apr Jun, 1500 (R)
VRI 1 TMV7 x FSB 7-2 105 Bunch
Dec Jan 1875 (I)
Jun Jul, 1791 (R)
VRI 2 JL 24 x CO2 105 Pods Bold
Aug Sep 2060 (I)
Jun Jul, 1668 (R)
VRI 3 J11 x Robou 33-1 90 Bunch
Dec- Jan 1882 (I)
105 to 1660 (R) High yielder, tolerant
VRI 4 VGS x NCAC 17090 Jun Jul
110 2171 (I) to rust, long shelf life
105 to 2133 (R) Resistant to rust 45
VRI (G)5 CG 26 x ICGS 44 Jun Jul
110 2384 (I) days seed dormancy
115 to Suitable for rainfed
ALR 1 POL 2 x PPG 4 Apr Mar 1840
120 resistance to leaf spot
Apr Mar,
(DH3-20 xUSA-20 ) (NCAC
ALR 2 105 Jul- Aug, 1740 Bunch
2232)
Dec- Jan
Bunch type Resistant
Apl May,
[(R 33-1x 1CG (FDRS) 68 110 to 1683 (R) to Rust
ALR 3 June- July
x (NcAC 17090 x ALRI)] 115 1886 (I)
Dec, Jan
Mass selection from Jun Jul,
JL 24 95 to 105 1650 Bunch
Taiwan variety Aug
ICGS 44 x (Robou 33 1
BSR 1 101 All seasons 2845 -
Nc Ac 2821)
Jun Jul, 50% oil percentage,
VRI (GN) 6 ALR 2 / VG 9513 100 105 2000
Dec Jan shelling 75%
Crop Spacing Seed rate NPK Kgs /ha

Ground nut 30 x 10 cm 140 Kgs kernels /Ha. R I
10:10:45 17:34:54
SESAME
Sesamum indicum 2n: 26
Origin
India, Ethiopia, and Afghan Persian region. Sesame is the only cultivated species of the
genus sesamum, which contains 35 other species. It has the somatic chromosome number 26.
But wild relatives has the variable chromosome number.
Sesamum alatum 2n: 26 Sesamum laciniatum 2n: 32

Sesamum prostratum 2n: 32 Sesamum occidentale 2n: 64
Sesamum radiatum 2n: 64
Flower Biology
Flowers arise from the leaf axis as well as from the upper portion of the main stem.
There may be one to three flowers per axil. Sesame flowers are Zygomorphic calyx is 5 small,
corolla is a two lipped, five lobed united at the base (tubular), and campanulate. There are
about five stamens, out of which four are functional and one is sterile. Stamens are inserted at
the corolla base and arranged in two pairs of two number.
On pair is shorter than the other. The stigma is bifid. Ovary is superior. The fruit is a
capsule, which may be bicarpellate or tetra carpelate.

The flowers often open early in the morning between 5 and 7 AM. The pollen is released
shortly after anthesis and remains viable for 24 hours. The stigma receptive one day earlier to
anthesis and remains receptive for one to two more days after anthesis.
Sesame flowers are generally self pollinated. But local conditions and insect populations
can lead up to high rate of cross pollination. Seed coat colour can be used as marker gene for
estimating the amount of natural cross pollination.
Selfing
Selfing can be done by smearing of semisolid clay on the upper portion of the tubular
petals of unopened flower, there by preventing the flowers from opening. This semisolid clay on
drying does not allow the tubular petals to open, but hold them closed.
Artificial hybridization (Crossing)

The flowers expected to open in the next day are selected. Emasculation is done in the
evening between 3 pm and 6pm by removing the corolla tube along with epipetalous stamens.
Then the emasculated flowers are covered with a piece of straw tube bent at the top to avoid
contamination from foreign pollen, otherwise emasculated flowers can also be covered with
bags.
List of improved varieties in Sesame
Duration Yield (Kg /
(Days) Ha )
Erect with branching
Jan Feb, 450 650 (R) and short internodes
CO1 (TMV 3 x SL 1878) x SL 1878 85 to 90
Jul Aug 750 790 (I) on the main stem
1983
South Arcot local & malaber Feb Mar , 450 850 (R) Bushy with profuse
TMV 3 80 to 85
variety Oct Dec 625 790 (I) branching
TMV 4 PS from Sattur local 85 to 90 Feb- Mar 700 950 (I) -do-
Erect with moderate
TMV 5 PS from andrha Pradesh Var. 80 to 85 Jun Jul 450 650 (R)
branch
TMV 6 PS from Andhra Pradesh Var. 85 to 90 Feb Mar 700 875(I) -do-
Jul Aug, 1125 (R) Moderate in height
KRR 6 Karur Bombay white 110
Nov- Dec 1250 (I) and profuse branching
Paiyur 1 SL x 2511 x SL 2314 90 Feb Mar 644 (I) Bushy
Oct Nov, 607 (R) Erect & moderate
SVPR 1 Selection from Western Ghat 75 to 80
Feb Mar 807(I) branching
Kharif, 450 650 (R)
VRI 1 PS from Thiukattupuli local 70 to 75 Moderately branching
Rabi, Sumr. 650 900 (I)

Gingelly 15 x 15 cm 5 Kgs / Ha R I
23 :13:13 35 :23:23
SUNFLOWER
Helianthus annus 2n : 2x : 34
Origin
United states of America
Cytology
The genus Helianthus has a basic chromosome number of 17 and includes diploid,
tetraploid, and hexaploid species. The 17 chromosomes divide into four groups based on the
position of the centromere. The first group has two pairs of satellite chromosome with sub
median centromeres, the second group has five pairs with sub median centromeres. The third
group has six pairs with sub median centromeres. The fourth group has four pairs with sub
median to sub terminal centromeres. The chromsome length of 17 chromosomes varies from
3.05 to 6.20m.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is called capitulum or head. The flowers of outer whorl of the head
and called as ray florets. The other flowers arranged in concentric rings over the reminder of
the head are called as disc flowers.
Sunflower is highly cross pollinated crop, mainly through insects and to limited extent
by wind. The flower opening starts from outer side of the head and proceeds towards centre of
the head. The heads bloom within 5-10 days depending upon size and season. Anthesis occurs
between 5 to 8 AM. The pollen grain viability lasts for 12 hours. The stigma remains receptive
for two - three days.
Setting is done by bagging of the head. The bagging material could be cotton cloth, paper
bags or plastic netting. Emasculation is done as follows.
Hand Emasculation
Emasculation done by removing the anther tube with forceps early in the morning.
Unemasculated flowers are removed.
Without Emasculation
Considering hand emasculation tedious sometimes crosses are made without
emasculation. Hybrid plants are differentiated from selfed ones on the basis of vigour or the
presence of marker genes.
Pollination
Pollination is carried out by collecting pollen from heads which are already bagged prior
to flowering. Pollen can be collected from flowering heads in to paper bags by light tap of the
hand on the back of the head. Pollination is usually done in the same day morning after
emasculation. Pollen can be applied by a small piece of cotton, a camel hair brush, a small
section of lead. Paper or other suitable material that is dipped in the pollen and gently drawn
over the receptive surface of the stigmas. Freshly collected pollen is more effective in
pollination. Pollen can be stored without serious loss of viability for 1-2 weeks in cork
stoppered vials at ordinary room temperature.
Development of Hybrids
The basic step in developing a hybrid cultivar as follows.
1. Development of inbred lines.
2. Testing combining ability.
3. Conversion of inbreds into cytoplasmic male sterile and restorer lines.
4. Production of hybrids.
For developing inbreds, phenotypically superior plants are selected in a base population
and are selfed. During harvesting also selection is made for desirable traits. After harvesting
selection is done for oil content in the laboratory. Plant-row progenies are grown in the
following season. Again selection is done both among and within progenies, and the selected
plants are self-pollinated. This process is continued upto 5-6 generations and inbred lines are
produced. During inbreeding, it is desirable to select for self-fertility so that the inbred lines are
easily maintained and produce highly self fertile hybrids which may give rise to high seed yields
when insect pollinator population is less than optimum.
The inbred lines produced are crossed with open pollinated populations to produce top
cross progenies or may be used in production of single crosses by crossing with two tester lines
of good general combining ability. The hybrids thus produced are evaluated and combining
ability determined. For these programmes, the seed is either produced by hand pollination
without emasculation or by natural crossing in isolation. For complete hybridization induction
of male sterility by giberellic acid is also done.
The inbred lines are used in the production of single crosses of three way hybrids using
cytoplasmic male sterility and fertility restorer system. The inbred lines can be converted into
cytoplasmic male sterile lines by repeated back cross method.
Development of fertility restorer line is accomplished by incorporation of dominant
restorer genes in the male parent through back crossing where established inbred line is used
as recurrent parent.
In another method, the line carrying the restorer gene may be crossed with a
cytoplasmic male sterile line and from the resultant male fertile hybrids, lines homozygous for
the restorer genes and having other desired characters may be isolated by continuous self
pollination. Under the above scheme of cytoplasmic and genetic fertility restoration system. A
line is maintained by planting it in isolation along with B line and A line is planted is another
isolation with fertility restorer line to produce commercial hybrid.
Varieties
Col - Selection from cernianke 60, Russian Origin, Head diameter 8 to 10 cm. Resistant
to Alternaria leaf spot.
Modern - Selection from cernianke 65 being early and dwarf suitable for mixed as well
as multiple cropping system. Suitable for all seasons. Tolerant to drought, seeds deep black in
colour, 100 seed weight 4-5g Diameter of Head 12-15 cm.
Hybrid BSH -1
Female : CMS 234
Male : RHA275
High self fertility, head diameter 12-15 cm, 100 seed weight 6-8g Tolerant to drought.
List of improved varieties in Sunflower

Duration Yield (Kg
(Days) / Ha)
Straight introduction from All 1000 (R) Medium size & black
K1 85 to 90
Russia (EC 68414) seasons 1250 (I) coloured seed
Spontaneous mutant form All 750 (R) Small, shiny with fanit grey
K2 70 to 75
cernianka EC 101495 seasons 1000 (I) marking seed
Isolation from Cernianka Jun Jul, 800 (R) Medium size and dark grey
CO1 65
66 Russian Origin Sep Oct 900 (I) coloured seed
Jun Jul, 900 (R) Medium, dark grey to black
CO 2 Multi cross derivative 70
sep Oct 1000 (I) seed
Gamma irradiated mutant Adipatta 1250 (R) Oral linear and dark grey
CO 3 90
from CO2 m 1600(I) seed.
All 1600 (R) High yielder, Oil content
CO4 Ext. from dwarf x surge 80 to 85
seasons 1750 (I) 39.7%
Jun Jul, 900 (R) Medium black coloured
Morden Sele. From Cernianka 66 75
Sep Oct 1000(I) seed
Jun Jul, 1250 (R)
BSH 1 (Hy.) CMS 234 A x RHA 274 85 -do-
Sep Oct 1500 (I)
Jun Jul, 1000 (R)
EC 68415 Introduction from Russia 90 -do-
Sep Oct 1250 (I)
Apr-May,
MSFH 1 (Hy.) MHS 71 x MHR 48 90 1500 (I) -do-
Oct Nov
Dense flower head,
1650 (R)
TNCSH 1 CMS 234 A x RHA 272 85 90 moderately resistant to
1850 (I)
leafspot & rust

Sunflower 60 x 30 cm 15 Kg /Ha R I
40 :20:20 40 :20:20
Ex.No : 8
Date : MUSTARD / RAPE
Brassica sp. ( 2n = 16, 18, 20, 34, 36, 38)
Crop name Local name Species name

Mustard (Indian mustard) Rai Brassica juncea
Mustard (black mustard) Banarsi rai Brassica nigra
Rape ( turnip rape) Yellow sarson Brassica campestris var. yellow sarson
Brown sarson Brassica campestris var. brown sarson
Rape ( Indian rape) Torai Brassica campestris var toria
Rocket (rocket cress) Taramira Eruca sativa
Floral biology
The genus Brassica belongs to curuciferae family and it contains many species of
economic interest. B. napus, B. carinata and B. juncea are self fertile although a great degree of
cross pollination may occur.
The flower is regular, bisexual and hypogynous with four free sepals into two whorls.
The inflorescence is racemose and flowering is indeterminate, beginning at the lowest bud on
the main raceme. The flower begin opening vary early in the morning and are fully opened by 8
9 am. The flowering period may last 2 3 weeks. The stigma is normally receptive for three
days after the opening of flower (Mohammad, 1935). As soon as the flower opens, the anthers
become extrose and dehisce when the petals completely shed. All the pollen are shed on the day
flowers open, provided the dry weather occurs. The flower forms a funnel shaped structure
during the evening. The pollen can be stored for 4 5 weeks without the loss of viability. The
pollen analysis of different Brassica species indicates that fertilization is affected within 24
hours after pollination. The syncarpous ovary develps into pod (siliqua) with two carpels
separated by a false septum. The strains with three or four carpels have also been reported in
literature.
Equipment required
Dissecting forceps, dissecting scissors, tags for recording parents and dates, Glassine
bags for covering spikes, paper clips for closing glassine bags, pencil.
Selfing
Select the young buds on the raceme. Remove all the opended buds. In the self-fertile
species B.napus and B juncea, self pollinated seeds can be obtained by simply enclosing the
young buds with a glassine bags. Move the bags upto the raceme at least twice or thrice during
the flowering period. Remove the bags just after the transformation of bud into siliqua
Crossing Techniques
For successful hybridization, select young buds which are about to open for
emasculation. The bud is opended with the help of fine and pointed forceps. The sepals, petals
and anthers are removed. Some breeders prefer to leave the petals and sepals as such since
they protect the stigma. Generally the emasculation is accomplished during the day but evening
are mostly preferred or favoured. The number of buds to be emasculated depends upon the
type of hybridization. In interspecific or intergeneric hybridization, large number of buds are
emasculated to get few seeds. Protect the emasculated bud from the foreign pollen by using the
plastic bags for upto one week following the pollination. If a number of different cross
combinations are to be attempted on the same raceme, small plastic bags may be used to
protect each flower. The small lighter tags are attached to the pedicel after pollination. Lastly,
write the name of the cross and date of pollination on the tags.
Pollination
First of all collect the pollen from the male parent by using the camel hair brush. Dust
the pollen on the tip of the stigma of the emasculated bud gently. Collected pollen can be stored
upto five weeks without the loss of viability. Cover the emasculated bud after pollination with
the plastic bags. Care must be taken to clean the camel hair brush between the different
pollinations.
CASTOR
Ricinus communis ( 2n = 20)
Related species
R. chinensis, R. thanzibarensis, R.cambogensis, R. africanus, R. mexicanus
Floral biology
The main stem terminates with a primary inflorescence which is large and known as
spike. The spike consists of unisexual flowers known as staminate and these flowers are
grouped at the base. The pistillate flowers are located in the upper part of inflorescence;
hermaphrodite flowers have also been observed, usually at the top of the inflorescence. The
stigma is divided into three branches towards its upper portion. Ovary is covered usually with
fleshy green spikes out growth. Pollen is shed late in the morning in dry weather. The capsule is
normally triloculate and contains three and occasionally four seeds. Castor is a cross pollinated
plant and some amount of self-pollination can occur. The female flower opens before the male
flower and hence, there is a high degree of cross-pollination. The flowering period may be long.
The period of opening of flower is longer than that of the female flower. The flowering period of
one flower lasts for one to two days.
Selfing
Bag the inflorescence before the mature bud are open. All the open flowers should be
removed prior to bagging.
Crossing
Select the young inflorescence, Remove all the staminate buds and all such
inflorescences are bagged and tagged. A week later, staminate flowers of the desired male
parents are collected in the morning when anthers are about to dehisce. Keep the flowers for
about two hours in a fully open paper bag. Apply the loose pollen with a camel hair brush to the
stigmas of emasculated flower after lifting the bag. The bar is again tied with a paper clip.
Repeat the pollination of the same inflorescence two or three times for 2 to 3 days interval as
the pistilate buds open.
The instruments and hands used in the pollination should be wiped with 95 per cent
ethanol after each operation to avoid contamination.
COCONUT
Cocos nucifera ( 2n = 32)
India has the second largest area under coconut; the first being the Philippines. In Sanskrit it is
called kalpavriksha the tree of heaven or the Paradise tree which provides all needs of life. It
is industrial crop yielding both oil and fibre.
Floral biology
Cocos nucifera, a tall slender unarmed palm of height 20 25 m, carries a big crown
with large sized leaves and bunches of fruits. Inflorescence is a spadix. It stout and erect
enclosed by the tough spathe which splits when inflorescence is mature. The axis of the
inflorescence is simply branched with the branches bearing sessile flowers, both staminate and
pistillate. Each of the branches may carry one or more sistillate flowers at the base and a
number of staminate flowers throughout the length of the branch or spike.
The palm is monoecious with staminate pistillate flowers on the same plant.
Pistillate flowers : Ovary superior, tricarpellary with three ovules, the stigma is not prominent
and stigmatic knobs become receptive as the ovary emerges out of the perianth lobes.
Staminate flowers : Numerous small having a perianth of six lobes a small, acute outer whorl
of 3 and an inner whorl of 3 longer stames six anthers erect linear.
Fruit : a drupe; the outer layers of the pericarviz., the epicarp and mesocarp are fibrous. The
endocarp is very hard and forms and shell. Within this endocarp soft white endosperm
enclosing inside a big cavity filled with extra cellular fluid. The embryo lies at the base of the
seed.
Inflorescence : it takes nearly 34 months for the inflorescence to develop from the time of
initiation to opening of the spathe. It has been worked out that a single spadix may have 150 to
5000 male flowers and 25 60 female flowers with an average of 3000 male flowers and 25
female flowers per spadix.
Anthesis and pollination

Most of the flowers open only after the spread out of the spikes. The staminate flowers
begin to bloom earlier that the pistillate flowers. The flowers bloom throughout the day. The
maximum opening is found to be between 8 am and 10 am. The anthesis of the flowers is from
the apex downwards. Most of the staminate flowers open by the 15th day after opening of the
spathe. The male phase has been found to be often for about 14 days and may vary form 10 18
days depending upon varieties and environmental conditions. The pollen grains are smooth and
spherical carried easily by wind and remain viable for six days.
Pistillate flowers begin to open about 3 days after the opening of the spathe. The
receptivity of the stigma is made out by it whitish appearance and at the same time the 3
nectaries by the side also secrete a sugary secretion. The stigma remains receptive for 1 3
days.
Staminate flowering phase is over before the pistillate flowers open and interval varies.
There is also overlapping of the two phases. When there is overlapping self pollination takes
place. But cross pollination takes place to great extent.
Self pollination : intraspadix pollination (overlapping of male and female phases)

Inter spadix pollination (two inflorescence of same plant)
Cross pollination : anemophillous (wind) ; entomophillous (insect)
Emasculation
All male flowers should be removed 3 days after inflorescence open. This process is
known as emasculation. Spikelets are cut about 15 cm away from the female flowers. Remaining
male flowers should be removed by hand.
Bagging
Emasculation is carried out 3 days after the natural opening of inflorescence. Poorly
developed female flowers are removed 14 days after the opening of the inflorescence.
Inflorescence is then covered with the muslin cloth bag which has a polythene window and a
sleeve. After the inflorescence is inserted in to the bag it should be carefully closed and
insecticide is applied at the base to prevent the entry of insect. The inflorescence should be
bagged atleast 6 days before the female flowers become receptive. This is because under
normal conditions pollen could be viable for about 6 days and when the inflorescence is bagged
after 14 days of opening if there is any pollen it will not be viable when female flower become
receptive.
Controlled cross pollination

Female become receptive 21 23 days after the inflorescence open. At this stage the
pistil end become whitish and nectar oozes out and flower is suitable for pollination. Before
pollination hand should be washed with 75 per cent ethyl alcohol. Pollen selected from male
tree should be applied in female tree through the sleeve. Then the pollen will quickly germinate
once applied in this manner. It is preferable to apply pollen from same tree on 2 consecutive
days as all female will not be receptive on same day.
Removal of pollination bag

Once female flowers get pollinated the pistil end become brownish and then black. After
all females have been pollinated the pollination bag should be removed and inflorescence
tagged. Important aspects of pollination; in all varieties male mature about 3-8 days after
opening of inflorescence. Female become receptive from 21-23 days after opening. In tall
varieties normally cross pollination occur. In dwarf varieties there will be overlapping of male
and female phase and for selfing the spath is removed 1-2 days prior to opening of
inflorescence. Spikelets are cut 20 cm apart from female flowers. The whole inflorescence is
bagged with polythene bag without sleeve.
OIL PALM
Elaies guineensis (2n = 32)
The oil entered international trade in 19th century for the production of candles, soap
and lubricant. The first plantation started in 1910. now it is the second largest crop. It
contributes 20 per cent of vegetable oil content.
Floral biology
Erect tree, attaining 3m. crown with 20 40 leaves. Inflorescence, a spadix, monoecious,
male and female inflorescence separate in the same plant, sometimes in the same inflorescence.
Inflorescence compound spike or spadix with spirally arranged spikelet. Male short, stout
peduncle. Each with 1200 closely packed minute male flowers sunck in the rachial tissue of the
spike. Each male flower will have 6 perianth, 6 stamens with sagetate anther. Female spadix,
rounded and 30 cm long and carrying many spikelets. Female flower terminated by spine and
pair of bracteole. The style dwarfed at top. Fruits are borne in large bunches of nearly 2000.
average weight of each bunch 23 kg. some time 82 kg. fruit sessile ovoid drupe varying from
yellow to orange or nearly black.
Pollination
Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop. Assisted pollination is done to ensure fertilization of
all female flowers. However, this is not necessary if the pollination weevil Elaedobius
kamerunicus is introduced in the plantation. They congregate and multiply on male
inflorescence during flower opening. The weevils also visit the female flowers and pollinate
them effectively.
Ex. No. 9
Date :
COTTON
Gossypium arboreum 2n: 2x : 26 G. herbaceum 2n : 2x : 26

G. barbadense 2n : 4x : 52 G hirsutum 2n : 4x : 52
Cytology
The diploid chromosome number in Asiatic cotton is 26 while that in the new world cotton
is 52. The somatic chromosome length of G. hirsutum has been shown to vary between 0.8 and
1.8 micron and that herbaceum between 1.5 and 2.5 micron. The relative chromosome size for
the seven genomes (A-G) has been classified into.
1. The C genomes have very large chromosomes.
2. The E and F genomes have large chromosomes which are slightly larger than those of A
and B genomes.
3. The B genomes have large chromosomes, some of which are slightly larger than those of
the A genomes.
4. The A genomes have moderately large chromosomes.
5. The G genomes have chromosomes which are moderately large chromosomes.
6. The D genomes have small chromosomes.
Botany
Two types of branches are usually produced - vegetative or monopodial and fruiting or
sympodial branches. Vegetative branches structurally like the main stem, they bear flowers and
fruits only after rebranching. The fruiting branches or sympodial branches may be produced by
both the main stem and the vegetative branches. All the flowers and bolls produced on cotton
plant originate from fruiting branches.
Floral Biology
There are three triangular bracts at the base of the flower. They completely enclose and
protect tender, growing flower parts. Calyx has five sepals which remain attached permanently
with the boll. Five petals from the corolla which may be white, yellow or red. The petals turn
pink or red the day after pollination and later fall from the plant. There are numerous stamens,
which form a tube around the style. Anthers are arranged in five rows on the staminal tube.
Pistil has 3-5 carpels. The flower buds appear at first as small, green pyramidal structures
known as Squares.
Hybridization
Normally pollen is shed directly on the stigma when the anthers open pollen is rarely
windborne as it is heavy and sticky. Cross pollination to the extent of 5 to 30% is possible by
insects, mostly honey bees.
For hybridization, emasculation is done one day earlier of flower opening. Corolla is
removed by hand or cut away with small scissors. At this stage the anthers are compressed
around the staminal column and the protruding stigma can be seen. Sepals are also cut away.
Stamens are removed with forceps. Ripe anthers are collected from the pollen parent in a small
cool drink straw whose one end is closed. This straw containing the anthers is slipped over the
stigma of the emasculated flower and this structure is enclosed with the bracts by wire.
Alternatively, ripe anthers can be rubbed over the stigma of the emasculated flower.
List of improved varieties in Cotton
Duration Yield
(in days) (Kg/Ha)
MCU5 Multiple cross 165 Aug Sep 1850 Extra long staple 70s
Verticillium wilt
MCU-5VT Multiple cross 165 Aug sep 1850
tolerant
X- ray irradiation of Jan Feb,
MCU7 140 1330 Medium staple 40s
XL 1143 EE May Jun
MCU 9 MCU 8 x MCU 5 165 Aug Sep 2100 Extra long staple 70s
Gamma lrradiation of 2100 /
MCU 10 150 to 160 Sep Oct Medium staple 40s
MCU 4 750 ( R)
MCU 5 x Egyptian
MCU 11 155 to 165 Aug - Sep 2200 Extra long staple
hirsutum hybrid
High yielding than
MCU 12 LRA 5166 x MCU 11 150 to 160 Aug / Feb.
MCU5, LRA 5166
Laxmi x Reba B.50 x 2000 /
LRA 5166 150 Sep Oct Medium staple 40 s
AC 122 750(R)
K8 Multiple cross 170 Sep Oct 550 Rainfed, Medium staple
K9 H4 x 0896 150 Sep Oct 725 -do-
K10 K9 x 11876 140 Sep Oct 725 -do-
Suvin Sujatha x Vincent 200 Aug Sep 1020 Extra long staple, 100s
Jayalaxmi DS 28 x SB (YF) 425 180 Aug - Sep 2880 High yielding 36.5%
Interspecific hybrid
TCHB 213 150 Aug - Sep 2215 Early maturity
TCH 1218 x TCB 209
Summer irri. & rice
SVPR 1 MUC 6 x AC 129/2 135 Feb Jul 1542
fallows medium staple
Drought tolerant,
SVPR 3 LH 900 x 1301 DD 135 to 140 Feb Mar 1294 (I)
tolerant to stem weevil
Paiyur 1 MCU 10 x SRT 1 140 to 145 Sep Oct 1173 Medium staple
TNB 1 Giza 7 x SB 1086 160 Aug Sep 1800 Extra long staple 100s
Varalaxmi Laxmi x SB 289E 180 Aug Sep 3750 Extra staple 80s
Khandwa 2 MB x Reda Feb- Mar,
JKHY 1 165 3500 -
B 50 Sep Oct
PKV-HY-2 AK 32 x DHY 286 1 175 -do- 3500 -
Supriya MCU5 x CP 1998 150 -do- - White fly tolerant
ADT1 Selection from MCU 7 120 to 125 -do- 1260 Rice fallows
KC 2 MCU 10 x KC1 140 to 150 Sep Oct 772 Medium staple 40s
Seed Rate kgs /ha Spacing N:P:K

Note Rice fallow
Seed with Fuzz Delinted (cm) (Kg/ ha)
NPK
Hybrids 3.75 kg 2.50 kg 120 x 60 (Kg/Ha.) 120:60:60
60:30:30
Sparing 60
Varieties 15 kg 7.5 kg 75 x 30 80: 40: 40
x 30 cm
JUTE
Corchorus capsularis ; Corchorus olitorius (2n = 14)
Origin : Africa,
C. capsularis white jute, C. olitorius called Tossa yellow to grey colour.
Floral biology
The inflorescence in both species is a condensed axillary cyme with a group of 2 to 5
flowers. The flowers have 5 sepals and 5 petals. In C.capsularis, the flower is 0.3 to 0.5 cm in
length and has 20-30 stamens and in C.olitorius, the flower is about 1 cm in length and has 30-
60 stamens. Ovary superior, 5 carpelled, syncarpous in axile placentation. Style is short and
stigma is flat.
Anthesis
It starts one to two hours after sunrise in C.capsularis and about an hour before sunrise
in C.olitorius. the stamens usually burst before anthesis. Self pollination is the rule in both
species. The natural crossing C.capsularis is higher rate and it is due to the wind pollination and
insect visitation.
Selfing and crossing techniques

To ensure self fertilization, the flowers may be protected by covering them with fine
mesh muslin bags or a polyethylene lantern. This is necessary in the C.capsularis species where
cross pollination is much higher.
The supports by bamboo stakes are given to the bags which are covering the flowers,
since the jute is a tall plant and inflorescence is at the top.
Cross pollination between varieties within a species are readily made but the
interspecific crosses are rarely successful. This is due to endosperm abortion. Emasculation is
done one day ahead or at the time of opening of the flowers. Normally, the first bud to open in
an inflorescence is emasculated and the other buds are removed. The most advanced bud in the
inflorescence can be identified from its size and yellow colour of the petals and anthers. The
buds selected is opened and the stamens are removed with fine pointed forceps. The
emasculated flowers are covered with small butter paper bags to protect them from the dew
and rain.
Pollination
Pollination is made following morning upto 9.30 am in case of C. olitorius and upto
around 11 am in case of C. capsuaris. The stigma of the emasculated flower is lightly touched
with a ripe anther and the pollen is dusted on the stigma. After pollination, the flowers are
bagged for 24 hours. Seed capsules matured in about 6 weeks.
Varieties
JRC 321, JRC 212, JRC 7447, JRC 212, D 154, JRO 1108, JRO 632, JRO 878, JRO 7835, JRO
620
Ex.No. 10
Date :
SUGARCANE
Saccharum sp.
Origin
New Guinea for S.officinarum, Northern India for S.barberi, and S.sinense, S.barberi
originated in North India from S. spontaneum by mutation and selection, or hybridization
between S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. The wild progenitor for S. officinarum is S.
robustum.
Cultivated Species
1. Saccharum officinarum (2n=80)
Cultivars of this species are called noble canes because of their fine thick stem to
differentiate them from thin canes of S.barberi and S.sinense. The process of crossing with
S.spontaneum and back crossing to the noble cane is called nobilization. It is only suitable to
typical conditions and requires a favourable soil land climate to perform well. The stems are
stout and thick, high in sucrose, low in fibre and with a comparatively soft rind. Culms are pale
or dark green to dark yellow, red or purple, sometimes striped. Leaves are broad. These are
susceptible to most major diseases including mosaic, streak, red rot, root rot and gummosis.
2. Saccharum barberi (2n = 82-124)

This species represent cultivars used for sugar production in Northern India from the
earliest times. These are indigenous subtropical forms which evolved in northern India. They
show substantial variation.
3. Saccharum sinense
It was distributed in India under the name China and became an important commercial
cultivar of the pansahi group which occur between Bihar and Bengal in India. Clones of S.sinense
are tall, hardy and vigorous with wide adaptability and early maturity. The leaves are broader
than those of S.barberi. It has high fibre content and poor quality juice. The inflorescence rachis
has long hairs. Glumes are four and the lodicules are non-ciliate. They have resistance to Mosaic,
root rot, and gummosis but susceptible to red rot and streak.
Wild Species
1. Saccharum spontaneum
This is like a perennial grass with free tillering and often with aggressive rhizomes. The
culms are slender, hard pithy and often hollow with little juice. The internodes are long whitish
at maturity usually with waxy bloom. Natural hybridization of this species with S.officinarum
may have produced S.barberi and S.sinense.
2. Saccharum robustum
It is a perennial, grow up to 10m. The stems are hard, woody and pithy in centre with
little juice. Inflorescence rachis is without long hairs. Third glume is reduced or absent.
S.robustum probably gave rice to S.officinarum with which it is inter-fertile. It is completely
susceptible to Mosaic, Virus and leaf scale.
Cytogenetics
S.officinarum had diploid chromosome number of 2n=80. Clones with minor deviation
in chromosome numbers (aneuploids) are also found Triploids (2n=120) are found rarely
among setted progenies of S.officinarum.
Diploid chromosome number in S.barberi and S.sinense has been reported to vary in the
five morphologically distinct group as.
i. Sunnobile - 2n = 82 and 116.

ii. Mungo - 2n = 82
iii.Nargon - 2n = 107 and 124
iv. Sareth - 2n = 90 and 92
v. Pansahi-2n = 118.
S.robustum chromosome ranges from 60-194, and may reach even upto about 200. S
robustum has two karyotypes 2n=60 and 2n=80.
Floral Biology
The inflorescence is open panicle and is known as arrow or tassel. The panicle are
characterized by shape, degree of branching and size. On the ultimate branches, the spikelets
are borne in pairs at each node.
Two spikelets, one sessile and one pedicelled borne together at each node. They are
surrounded by a basal ring of silky hairs which are longer than spikelet. A spikelet contains the
following parts starting from. the outer portion.
i. Outer glume (glume 1 Gl)
ii. Inner glume (glume 2 G2)
iii. Lower sterile floret, represented by sterile lemma, i.e. thrid glume (G3) shorter than
outer and inner glumes.
iv. Upper hermaphrodite, floret consisting of fertile lemma (fourth glume), which is
absent in S. officinarum but present in S spontaneum and a fertile palea,
There are two lodicules, whorls of three stamens and a single carpel.. Fruit is minute
caryopsis, about 1 mm long. Whorls of silky hairs at base help in wind dispersal. Mature fruits
are shed after about three weeks of fertilization.
Crossing
Lack of flower induction and synchronization are barriers in sugarcane crossing
programme. Flowering of sugarcane is rare in subtropics. Experiments of photoperiod
requirements have indicated that sugarcane can be classified as intermediate day plant based
on the development of panicle and flowers. A dark period around 12.30 hr in general, has been
found necessary for induction of flowering. Sites have been identified in India, Brazil, Barbados,
Hawai, Fiji, Indonesia, and Philippines where most clones of sugarcane flower. In varieties
difficult to flower, exposing the plants to 4 hr extra darkness in continuation of normal height
for 6-8 weeks at the transformation stages has been found effective.
Synchronization of flowering between early and late flowering varieties is possible by
manipulation of 4 hr extra darkness and 4 hr extra light.

The spikelet open about sunrise, beginning at the top of the panicle and proceeding
downwards and form the tips of the branches inwards, over a period of 5-15 days.
Approximately 1/6 to 1/10th of the panicle opens each day. The swelling of each lodicules by
water uptake causes the glumes to be pushed apart and the stigmas comes out. The anthers
dehisce about three hours after the elongation of the filaments. High humidity delays anthesis
Natural pollination is by wind.
Stalk Preservation during crossing
The sulfurous acid technique is generally used by sugarcane breeders. A sulfurous acid
solution (1 part in 2000) keeps the inflorescence alive for several weeks.
Marcotting
It was first used in India and now used in many countries. Generally, a plastic sleeve
containing a growth medium is secured about 5 to 10 nodes above the base of the stalk to
induce rooting.
Potted Plants
For clones and species not representing to the sulfurous acid technique or marcotting,
the sugarcane clones are grown in small containers.
Crossing in Field
The system is common in India. Pollen proof enclosures made of cloth (cloth lanterns)
are used to cover the arrow of female and male parent before anthesis. Male arrow (which is
protected) is introduced into this lantern and it is shaken for 5-6 days.
The crossing may be done either with the arrows attached to the parent plants or with
arrows served and transported to a central crossing area and maintained in a living condition
by means indicated above. Female and male arrows can be enclosed in a common lantern if they
are planted to each other.
List of improved varieties in Sugarcane
Cane
Duration
Variety Parentage Season yield
(Months)
(MT/ Ha)
CO
Q 64 x CO 775 10 Mid 124
C671
CO C 771 CO 419 x CO 658 10 Mid late 140
CO C 779 CO C 419 x CO 853 12 Mid late 205
CO 62198 CO 34 / 120 x CO 775 12 Mid late 125
CO 419 POJ 2878 x CO 290 12 Mid late 113
CO 6304 CO 419 x CO 605 12 Mid late 115
CO C 85061 Derived from CO 6304 11 Early 129
CO C 86062 MS 68 /47 GC 11 Early 134
CO Si 86071 CO 775 x CO 842 11 Mid late 132
CO C 8001 PO 2974 x CO 658 11 Mid late 103
COC 90063 CO 6304 x CO C 671 12 Mid late 124
CO C 92061 CO 7314 CC x CO 6314 as female 12 Early 131
CO 8208 CO 62198 x CO C 671 12 Mid late 136
CO 85019 CO 7201 x CO 775 12 Jna Mar 115
CO C 91061 CO C 779 GC 10 - 11 Early 131
CO C 85061 CO 6304 GC 10- 11 Early 128
CO G 93076 CO C 772 x CO 419 12 Mid late 132
CO 84036 Sele. From CO 7314 12 Mid late 134
CO 8362 CO 6304 x CO 671 12 Mid late 124
CO 86010 CO 740 x CO 7409 10 to 12 Early 146
CO G94077 CO 740 x CO775 11 Early 133
Co. si 95071 CO C 671 / MS 6847 10 Early 143
Co. si 96071 CO C 82061 8 to 11 Early 132.7
CO C 98061 Derived from C 80172 10 to 11 Early 120
CO Si 98071 PO 91 x CO 62198 12 Mid late 144.7
CO 86249 COI 64 x CO A 7601 12 Early mid 128.7
CO C 99061 CO. 6806 x CO. 740 11 to 12 Mid Late 130 .3
Seed rate Setts /Ha. Spacing NPK (Kg/ Ha.)

Single bud 1,87,500
Two budded 75,000 80 cm 275:60:112.5
Three budded 50, 000
SUGAR BEET
Beta vulgaris. ( 2n = 18)
Related species :
B. macrocarpa (2n = 18), B.foliosa (2n = 36, 52), B. flomatogona (2n = 18,36),
B. procumbens (2n = 18), B. webbiana (2n = 18)
Floral biology
Terminal open panicle. Flowers occur singly or in groups of 2-7, small, sessile, bracteate,
bisexual, pentamerous, perianth 5, lobed, stames 5 ovary 3 carpelled, syncarpous, unilocular,
style and stigma are short. The perianths of a cluster of flowers borne in a single axil, fuse to
form a multigerm or seed ball.
Sugar beet is normally cross pollinated crop. Sugar beet exhibits high degree of self
incompatibility although high self-fertile lines exist. Cross pollination is also through with and
insects.
Selfing
It is achieved and natural crossing is prevented by bagging branches of seed beets.
Although sugar beet is self-incompatible, under proper environmental conditions (cooler
climate), a few seeds will be set from self-pollination.
Crossing
Artificial cross-pollination are made in sugar beet by removing all flowr clusters in a
branch except 8 to 10 that are just ready to bloom. Then, 5 stamens are emasculated with a
dissecting needle or a fine pointed pencil. Pollen from the desired male parent is dusted over
the stigma of the emasculated flower through camel hair brush. Pollination is made 1 week after
emasculation. Hence, emasculated flower is bagged to prevent contamination from foreign
pollen.
By using a dominant red hypocotyls character as a marker, the emasculation process

may be eliminated in the crosses involving self-incompatible lines and the hybrid plants are
recognized by the red colour markings. Male sterile lines are also reported which could be
utilized in breeding of hybrid sugar beet.
Varieties
Diploid mutigerm variety : Resistant to major sugar beet diseases
Danish polyploidy multigerm variety : Maribo Magnapoly, Maribo Megapoly
POTATO
Solanum tuberosum ( 2n = 48)
Origin : South Peru and Bolivia,

Potato is a segmental tetraploid with a bsic chromosome number 12.
Related species :
S. stenotomum (2n = 24), S. Sparsipilum (2n = 24),
S. demissum (2n = 72), S.chacoense (2n = 24)
Floral biology
A few flowers in monochasial cymes, pedicelled, hermaphrodite, bracteate, calyx 5,
gamosepalous, 5 lobed, petals 5, five lobed, gamopetalous, stames 5, epipetalous, ovary
superior, bicarpellary with many ovules in axile placentation, style simple stigma capitate.
Antheis
Time of opening and closing of flowers vary with varieties. Flowers open mostly in the
early morning. Cool weather favours flower formation. Pollination is through insects. Most of
the varieties are male sterile and self incompatible lines are also not ruled out. Diploid species
are male fertile and produced abundant pollen.
Crossing
Emasculation is done in the evening. Flower buds that open in the next day morning are
selected and rest of the buds and flowers in the branch are removed. The petals are gently
pushed apart along the sutures and 5 stamens are removed with fine pointed forceps. Then,
the emasculated flowers are bagged.
In fully self incompatible lines, emasculation is unnecessary.
Pollination
Pollination is done in the early morning. Fully mature anthers from varieties possessing
viable pollen are selected. The anther may be held in hand in an inverted position and the
pollen released over the stigma by splitting open the anther lobe with fine-pointed forceps.
After pollination, the flowers are again bagged.
To overcome the difficulty in production of flowers and flower drop, cut floral branches
are grown in the glass house. In this procedure, stems are cut and placed in a solution
containing IAA 5ppm for about 1 day and then transferred to another wide mouth-bottles
containing nutrient solution. The nutrient solution is replaced for every 15 days. Satisfactory
pollination can be made on the cut branches.
Varieties
Kufri red, White Rose, Kufri muthu, Up to Date, Great Scot, president, Magnum bonum,
Kufri kisan, Kufri kuber, Kufri kundan and Kufri sindhuri.
TOBACCO
Nicotiana tabacum ( 2n = 48)
Origin : South Peru and Bolivia,

Potato is a segmental tetraploid with a bsic chromosome number 12.
Related species :
2n = 18 2n = 24 2n = 48
N. alata N. sylvestris N. tabacum
N. sanderae N. tomentosa N. rustica
N. longidorfi N. glutinosa
N. glauca
N. panculata
N. tomentosiformis
Floral biology
Terminal receme flowers, pedicellate and hermaphrodite. Sepals 5 forming a calyx tube,
pubescent, corolla 5, pubescent, tubular, stamens 5, 4 being long and 5th being shorter, ovary
superior, bicarpellary, many ovules on axile placentation. Style slender, stigma capitate.
Tobacco is normally self pollinated, although 4 per cent cross pollination occurs due to
insects.
Selfing
Bagging is desirable to ensure self pollination
Crossing
Artificial cross pollination are easy, if normal mature flowers are used. All open flowers
are removed before emasculation. The proper stage for emasculation may be identified by the
presence of pink colour in the tip of the petals of the unopended flowers.
The nearly mature flowers are emasculated by tearing the petals apart and removal off
anthers. At the same time, flowers from the desired pollen parent are selected and with the
point of a sharp knife, a slit is made to the mature anther and the pollen is dusted to the stigma.
After pollination, the flowers are tagged and bagged to keep away from foreign pollen.
Ex.No. 11
Date :
FORAGE CROPS
Forage Grasses Legume Fodder

Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum Alfalfa /Lucerne Medicago sativa
Bajra Napier hybrid BN hybrid Velimasal Desmanthus virgatus
Guinea grass Panicum maximum Clitoria Clitoria ternate
Para grass/ water grass Brachiaria mutica Subabul Luecaena leucocephala
Johnson grass Sorghum halepense Stylosanthes Stylosanthes scabra
Sudan grass Sorghum sudanense Desmanthus Desmodium tortuosum
Spear grass Heteropogon contortus
Problems in forage crops

a. Most forage species are cross pollinated, makes it difficult to propagate and maintain
the identity of lines due to heterozygous in nature.
b. Self incompatibility
c. Small floral parts. This makes difficult in hybridization.
d. Apomixes
e. Poor seed production and low viability of seeds
f. Difference in performance in wider and close (normal) spacing, grazing management
etc.,
g. Polyploidy
h. Variation in different reproductive systems
i. Since most of them are perennials, require many years to evaluate the tenotypes.
j. Many of forage produce weak seedlings and hence, crop establishment is not
satisfactory.
A. Forage Grasses
Floral biology
In general, the inflorescence is pyramidal branched panicle; flowers are sessile form
spikes, spikelets often with G1, G2, L1, L2, Lodicultes 2, stamens 3 and gynoecium is syperior one
celled ovary, bifid stigma. Blooming normally begins near the apex of the inflorescence and
progresses more or less regularly towards the base. Blooming favoured at temperature 20 to
25 C. There is wide variation in anthesis of flowers.
Crossing technique
1. Hand emasculation and pollination (as in sorghum)

2. bagging inflorescence of parent clones following emasculation of the seed parent.
Paper covers are used for covering the inflorescence.
3. Mutual pollination by bagging together the inflorescence of the parent clones
without emasculation.
4. by hot water method : panicle is immersed in hot water around 40-45 C for about 5
minutes.
B. Forage Legumes
Floral biology
The flowers are typical legume types ; Calyx 5 united, corolla 5(standard 1, wing 2, keel
2 free), stamens 10 ( 9 + 1 or 8 + 2, staminodes in few), gynoecium superior, monocarpellary.
The petals partially joined and enclose the stamens and pistil. Most legumes are self pollinated
and nectar is secreted at the base of the corolla tube. In red clover (Trifolium pretense) the
stigma slightly protrudes above the anthers at the time of flowering. When the insect alights on
the keel, due to pressure by weight, expose anthers and stigma. In alfalfa or Lucerne (Medicago
sativa) pollen is dispersed by an explosive action commonly known as tripping.
Selfing and crossing techniques
Young buds are covered with partument paper bags in selfing. Tripping by force is done
in racemes of alfalfa.
Emasculation of flowers and crossing is done as in black gram/green gram.
Economically important characters preferred in forage crop improvement
1. High biomass of green fodder

2. Early regeneration and it should withstand multicut.
3. Plant species should have the ability to withstand trampling and grazing by animal.
4. Increased protein, mineral or other nutrients.
5. It should be free from toxic substances
6. It should grow in mixtures
7. Easiness for establishment and eradication.
8. Palatability
9. Digestibility
Ex.No. 12
Date :
OKRA / BHENDI
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench
Relate species
1. A. moschatus Medikus- subsp. Moschatus var moschatus- subsp. Moschatus var
betulifolius (Mast) Hochr- subsp biakensis(Hochr) Borss- subsp tuberosus (Span) Borss
2. A. manihot (L) Medikus- subsp tetraphyllus (Roxb ex Hornem) Borss var tetraphyllus -
var pungens
3. A. esculentus (L) Moench
4. A. tuberculatus Pal & Singh
5. A. ficulneus (L) W & A.ex. Wight
6. A. crinitus Wall
7. A. angulosus Wall ex. W, & A
8. A. caillei (A. Chev) Stevels
Out of the above, the first three species are wild and cultivated forms, whereas the
remaining are all wild forms. The adoption of this new classification requires the amendment of
the determination key of Abelmoschus to acommodate the distinction between A. esculentus and
A. tuberculatus as well as the distinction between A. manihot, A. tetraphyllus and A. callei. The
existing botanical descriptors (A. tuberculatus, A.manihot and A.tetraphyllus) need to be
compared with the variation in the accessions of the global base collection and other existing
collections. The intraspecific classification in A. moschatus, A. tetraphyllus, A. esculentus and A.
angulosus should however receive further attention (IBPGR, 1991).
The chromosome number (2n) of A. esculentus L. (Moench) have been variably reported
by different authors, The most frequently observed somatic chromosome number, however, is
2n=130, although Dutta and Naug (1968) suggest that the numbers 2n=72, 108, 120, 132 and
144 are in regular series of polyploids with n=12.
Floral Biology
Bisexual, solitary, axillary with about 2 cm long pedicel, epicalyx 8 to 10, narrow hairy
bracteoles which fall before the fruit reaches maturity. Calys 5, hairy sepals completely fused
and form a protective covering for bud. Calyx split longitudinally as flower opens and falls with
corolla after anthesis. Corolla 5, yellow with crimson spot on claw, 5-7 cm long, obovate. Anther
filaments united to form a staminal column (monodelphous staminal tube). Staminal column
fused to the base of petals, numerous stamens, anther reniform. Ovary superior,
pentacarpellary syncarpous, ovules in axile placentation, stigma 5-9 deep red.

Flower bud initiation, flowering, anthesis and stigma receptivity are influenced by
genotype and climatic factors like temperature and humidity. The flower buds are initiated at
22-26 days and the first flower opened 41-48 days after sowing. Once, initiated flowering
continues for 40-60 days. Anthesis was observed between 6 a.m and 10 a.m. Anthers dehisce
before flower opening, and hence self pollination may occur at anthesis. The dehiscence of
anthers is transverse and complete dehiscence occurs in 5-10 minutes. Pollen fertility is
maximum in the period between an hour before and an hour after opening of the flower. Pollen
stored at 24 hours at room temperature (27 C) and 88% relative humidity was not viable. The
stigma was most receptive on the day of flowering (90-100%). Stigma receptivity was also
observed the day before flowering (50-70%) and the day after (1-15%). Flowers open only
once in the morning and close after pollination on the same day. The following morning the
corolla withers.
Okra has perfect flowers (male and female reproductive parts in the same flower) and is
self-pollinating. If okra flowers are bagged to exclude pollinators, 100% of the flowers will set
seed. It has been found experimentally that there is no significant difference in fruit set under
open-pollinated, self-pollinated (by bagging alone) and self-pollinated (hand pollination of
bagged flowers), indicating that it is potentially a self-pollinated crop. The flowers are very
attractive to bees and the plants are cross-pollination also occur. The cross pollination upto the
extent of 4-19% (with maximum of 42.2% ) has been reported.
Selfing
Crossing
The removal of androecium (stamens) from bisexual flower is called as emasculation.
The buds opened next day, were selected in female parent and emasculation was carried out by
removing the androecium along with the corolla. These emasculated buds were covered with
butter paper pockets to avoid cross pollination and also for easy identification of emasculated
flower for pollination. The emasculation was carried out daily from 2-00 to 6-00 pm. Care was
also taken to remove the unemasculated flowers as per treatment and during emasculation to
avoid genetic contamination in the crossed ones.
The transfer of pollen from male parent to female parent is called as pollination. The
just opened flowers were picked from the male parent in a separate brown paper pockets and
used for crossing of emasculated flowers. One male flower was used to pollinate four, six, eight
and ten female emasculated buds as par the treatments and after crossing different colour
thread was tied to the pedicel of the crossed buds for easy identification of the crossed bud.
Pollination was carried out daily between 8-00 am to 4-00 pm depending upon the treatments.
The crossing was carried out for a period of eight weeks from the initiation of flowering. The
buds and flowers that appeared subsequently after the stopping of crossing programme were
manually removed to facilitate better development of the crossed fruits and to avoid the selfed
seeds in the hybrid.
BRINJAL
Solanum melongena L (2n = 24)
Floral biology
Brinjal flowers are large, violet coloured and solitary or in clusters of two or more.
Flower is complete, actinomorphic and hermaphrodite. Flower consists of calyx: sepals 5,
united, persistent; corolla: petals 5, united, usually cup shaped; Androecium : stamens 5 ,
alternate with corolla; Gynoecium: carpels are united, ovary superior. The hypogynus
gynoecium is syncarp located obliquely in relation to the median. In most varieties the perfect
flowers are borne singly and opposite the leaves. In brinjal, heterostyly is a common feature.
Four types of flowers have been reported depending on the length of styles, viz. (i) long-styled
with large ovary, (ii) medium-styled with medium size ovary, (iii) Pseudoshort-styled with
rudimentary ovary and (iv) true short-styled with very rudimentary ovary.
It has been reported that long and medium-styled flowers produce fruits whereas
pseudo-short and short-styled flowers do not set any fruits. Further, chances of cross
pollination are more in long style flowers. The percentage of long and medium styled flowers is
a varietal character. Fruit setting of long- styled flowers varies from 70% to 86.7% in different
varieties. In medium styled flowers, fruit set ranges from 12.5% to 55.6%. All varieties have
flowers with different style length. The position of the stigma in relation to stamens varies with
the cultivars and can also vary in different flowers of same cultivar. Stigmas are either found
above, on the same level as or below the stamens and the highest percentage of fruit set is
found where the stigma is above the stamens. In short-styled flowers the androecium is fertile
but the stigma is smaller with underdeveloped papillae and lower sugar content than that in
long-styled flowers. There is no pollen germination on the stigma or penetration of pollen tube
into short styles.

Brinjal is usually self-pollinated, but the extent of cross-pollination has been reported as
high as 48% and hence it is classified as cross-pollinated crop. The cone-like formation of
anthers favors self- pollination; but since the stigma ultimately projects beyond the anthers,
there is an ample opportunity for cross-pollination. The rates of natural cross-pollination may
vary depending on genotype, location, and insect activity. The extent of outcrossing has been
reported from 3 to7% in China and from 0 to 8.2% (with a mean of 2.7%) at Asian Vegetable
Research Development Centre; however the Indian researchers have reported 2 to 48% .
Flowers generally emerge 40-45 days after transplanting. The anthesis and dehiscence
in brinjal are mainly influenced by the daylight, temperature and humidity and therefore the
exact timing for every area should be determined by observation and experience. Usually
anthesis starts from 6 to 7.30 AM and continues up to 11 AM Peak time for anthesis is 8.30 to
10.30 AM The pollen dehiscence starts from 9.30 to 10 AM Stigma receptivity is highest during
anthesis. The receptivity of the stigma could be observed from the plump and sticky appearance
which gradually turns brown with the loss of receptivity. The stamens dehisce at the same time
stigma is receptive so that self pollination is a rule, although there is some cross pollination by
insects also. The period of effective receptivity ranges from a day prior to flower opening.
Pollen is most fertile immediately after the anther dehiscence. Pollen remains viable for a day.
Opening of anthers is mostly by pore or slit at or near the apex. Repeated pollination and pollen
from different plants increases both fruit and seed set. pollen viable for 7-10 days and stigma
receptive for 6-8 days. Maximum fruit set was observed when stigma received pollen from
many different plants
Selfing
Crossing techniques
For emasculation, a healthy long or medium styled, well developed bud from the central
portion of the plant is selected. The bud is opened gently with the help of fine pointed forceps
one or two days before the opening of the bud and all the five anthers are carefully removed.
For pollination, freshly dehiscing anthers are picked up and are slit vertically with fine needle to
get sufficient pollen at the tip of the needle. Pollen are applied on the stigma of the emasculated
flower bud. It is labelled and covered with small pollination bag.
CHILLIES / CAPSICUM
Capsicum annuum L (2n = 24)
Floral biology
Usually borne singly and are terminal, but due to the branching they appear to be
axillary; pedicels upto 1.5 cm long. Calyx campanulate, shortly dentate 10 ribbed, about 2 mm
long enlarging and enclosing base of fruits. Corolla rotate, campanulate, deeply 5-partite 8-15
mm in diameter, white or greenish stamens, 5-6 inserted near base of corolla, anthers bluish,
dehiscing longitudinally. Occasionally anthers are yellow in colour. Ovary two celled, superior,
style simple, white or purple, stigma capitate.
Both self and cross pollination occur, the later being about 16 per cent by bees, ants and
thrips. Flowering begins 1-2 months after planting and it takes another month for fruiting.
Flowers open in the morning between 5.00 am and 6.00 am. Anthers normally dehisce between
8.00 am and 11.00 am. Flower opening and anther dehiscence depend on the weather
conditions to a large extent. During cool as well as cloudy days, the flower opening is delayed.
Pollens are fertile on the day of anthesis and stigma is receptive for about 24 hours after flower
opening.
Selfing
Crossing
Flowers are emasculated in bud stage. Pollen is transferred to the stigma either from
mature undehisced anthers by scooping it out through the lateral sutures with the needle or by
touching a freshly dehisced anther to the stigma with the forceps. Hands and tools (a pair of
sharp-pointed forceps, a needle, a pair of scissors) are washed with 95% ethyl alcohol. A roll of
cheese cloth, some light weight cotton string and balls of different colours of thread are also
needed. Pollinated flowers are identified by loosely typing coloured thread around the delicate
pedicels, preferably enclosing a leaf petiole for protection. Different colours of string can be
used for different crosses on the same plant, and white for the selfs. Pollinated flowers are
protected from bees by a double layer of cheese cloth, loosely wrapped around the branch,
enclosing leaves and flowers, and securely fastened. Appropriately marked plastic labels
describing the cross, the date, are attached to a bamboo stake marking the chosen plant.
Pollinated flowers are periodically checked and the cheese cloth removed in 4-6 days. Fruits
normally mature in about 45 days.
Ex.No. 13
Date :
TOMATO
Lycopersicon esculentum ( 2n = 24)
Origin peru
Related Species
L. pimpinellifolium , L. cheesmanii, L. parviflorum, Lpennelli, L. hirsutum,
L. chilense, L. peruvianum.
Floral Biology
Yellow in colour, borne in clusters, extra axillary in position, the flower cluster appears
like racemose cyme with dichotomous branching. Flower pedicel is highly pubescent, very thin
and green in colour. The flower cluster is called a truss. Calyx grey in colour, 5 7 sepals,
alternate with petals, persistent, valvate aestivation, corolla 5-7, bright yellow in clour,
alternate to sepals, valvate aestivation, Stamens 5, greenish yellow, free at the base and united
at the top. The anther dehisce longitudinally. Gynoecium multi coloured syncarpous with
numerous ovules in each locule; style pale green and present within the anthredial cone.
Anthesis and Polination

Anthesis starts at 6.30 am and continuous upto 11.00 am. Anther dehiscence is
longitudinal. It occurs 1-2 days after opening of corolla. The stamen shed its pollen when the
style grows up through anther tube, thus self pollination occurs. When the stigma protrudes
above the anther tube, chances of cross pollination through bees increase. The optimum
temperature for pollination is around 21C.
Selfing
Crossing
Emasculation is usually done 1 day prior to anthesis. At this stage, the sepals have
started to separate and the anthers and corolla are beginning to change from light to dark
yellow. The stigma is fully receptive at this stage allowing for pollination even immediately after
emasculation.
CUCUMBER
Crop Botanical Name 2n No Mode of reproduction

Cucumber Cucumis sativus 14 CP
Muskmelon Cucumis melo 24 CP
Pumpkin Cucurbia species 40 CP
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 22 CP
Botany
It belong to family cucurbitaceae, genus cucumic, C. sativus L.
The key characters of this genus are fleshy fruits, many seeded pepo, solitary flowers,
lemon yellow to deep orange or shallowly lobed leaves not pinnatified, and corolla is
rotate, deeply 5 parted and small.
The genus cucumis has 40 spp, of which 8 are from India. All these are nonoecious. It at
7 and 12 base chromosome.
Flower biology
Inflorescence Inflorescence is cymose . Cucumber is monoecious i.e. male and female
flowers present on the same plant. Flowers are bracteate , pedicellate , unisexual,
actinomorphic , pentamerous and epigynous . Anthesis The whole developmental process from
the initial bud stage to the stage when the flower is detached from the pedicel was divided into
8 stages. Opening and closing of the male flowers are mainly influenced by the sunrise and
sunset, that is, by light and the time of the day.
Anthesis
Anthers in all varieties dehisced between temperature ranges of 20.5-21.5C. Pollen
fertility was considerable up to noon and by afternoon (2.00 PM) fertility was greatly reduced,
and it was negligible by evening. Stigma receptivity was for very short duration and pollination
should be carried out within 2 hours after anthesis. Rise in temperature causes early drying of
stigmatic secretion. Different floral abnormalities like mixed inflorescence, hermaphroditism ,
fusion, dimorphic female flowers, reduction and increase in the floral parts were observed. A
greater tendency was observed in exotic collections towards these abnormalities.
The whole development process from the initial bud stage to stage when lower detaches
fro pedicel has been divided into 8 stages. opening and closing of flower depend on sun raise
and sun set that is light and time of day. Temperature of anther dehisce between 20.5 to
21.5c.pollen fertility is considered up to noon and by afternoon and by evening it is reduced.
stigmatic receptivity is of very short duration and pollen should be carried within 2 hrs of
anthesis.rise in temperature causes early drying of stigmatic secretion.
Pollination
All the vine crops depend on insects to transfer pollen from the male to the female
blossoms. Each female blossom must be visited 15-20 times in order for adequate pollination to
occur. Poorly pollinated fruit develop as crooks and nubs. Introduce one colony of honeybees
for every hectare (2.5 acres). Aim to have the hives in the field at first bloom.
Emasculation and pollination

In monoecious plants,the pistilaste and staminate flowers are covered with butter paper
bags one day prior to anthesis. In andromaonocious flowers, the bisexual flower are
emasculated a day before flower opening by anthers and petals with forceps. Pollen from the
bagged male flower is dusted on the stigma of the female emasculated flower .the pistil is
bagged after pollination.
Ex.No. 14
Date :
GUAVA
Psidium guajava (X= 11)(2N:2X:22)(2N:3X:33)
Family : Myrtaceae
Floral biology
The guava flower has a superior calyx with 5 lobes and the corolla of 6-10 petals
arranged in one and two whorls. The androecium consists of 160 to 400 thin filaments carrying
bilobed anthers closely packed together. The gynoecium consists of an inferior ovary,
syncarpous with axile placentation and subulate terminal style. The style is smooth and red at
the summit. It is larger than filaments but bent over stamens in bud stage . Three flowering
seasons were reported in the peninsular regions of India, namely, ambe bahar, mrig bahar and
hatti or hastha bahar. In north Indian subtropics, there are only two flowering seasons,
however, have reported three distinct flowering and fruiting periods in spring, rainy and winter
seasons in Delhi. The peak anthesis was found to be between 5.00 and 6.30 AM in most of the
varieties. However, in Chittidar and Lucknow Round, it was observed between 6.30 and 7.00
AM
The dehiscence of anthers starts 15 to 30 minutes after anthesis in all the varieties and
continues up to 2 hours. After dehiscence, the anthers assume a whitish colour caused by the
pollen. No fixed relation has been observed between the atmospheric temperature and
humidity and the time of anthesis and dehiscence.Pollen fertility has been found to be high in all
the cultivars of guava.
BANANA
Musa sp. (2n :22,33,44)
Family : Musaceae
Floral Biology
Flowers are placed in the axils of the bracts, arranged biseriately and number about 12
to 20 per node. Basal flowers behave as pistillate flowers while the terminal ones as staminate.
At the bottom end, they form a bulbous male bud. Pistillate flowers are large in size and have
well developed ovaries. Stamens (5) are reduced to staminodes, ovary inferior and trilocular.
Sytle stiff and long, stigma club shaped and sticky. Staminate flowers have long stamens 5,
filaments filiform, free, anthers two lobed. The female and male flowers opne by 6.30-8.00 a.m.
Hybridization Technique
Undehisced anthers of male flowers are collected and twisted gently to force them to
dehisce. Using a soft hairbrush, the pollen grains are taken out and smeared gently over the
stigmatic surface of the female flowers, which opened on the day of pollination. The pollinated
flowers are to be covered with soft cloth bag.
CITRUS
Citrus sp. (2n : 18)
Family :Rutaceae
Floral biology
Flowers are produced on current season growth in cymes, both axillary and terminal
position. Two types of flowers, perfect and imperfect are found. The flowers are white in colour
in most of the species except lemon and citron where they are purplish on the outside. Flower
opening, starts from morning and extends up to evening but maximum anthesis is between
11.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon. The viability of pollen grains varies from 45-80% depending upon the
season. The dehiscence of anthers takes place there 45 minutes before anthesis or within 45
minutes after anthesis. It varies up to 5 hours after anthesis. The receptivity of stigma starts
either 15 minutes to 2 hours before anthesis or within 35 minutes to 5 horus after anthesis
depending upon weather. The receptivity lasts for 4-8 days after anthesis.
Hybridization Technique
The mature flower buds on the female parent are emasculated early in the morning on
the day of opening and are bagged. The flowers to be used as male parent are bagged the
previous evening. The next morning as the day warms up; the anthers dehisce releasing the
pollen grains when these flowers can be plucked to pollinate the receptive stigmas of
emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are bagged, opened after about a week and allowed
to mature into ripe fruits. In some cases, especially when the trifoliate orange is used as male
parent, difficulties are encountered as its flowering is over before other citrus varieties flower.
Therefore, pollen has to be stored at low humidity and temperature.
Seeds from mature fruits are extracted and sown immediately in sterilized sand and soil
mixture. When seedlings are about 15 cm high, hybrid seedlings are identified. Particularly
those showing some morphological characters of male parent and others are rejected.
Electrophoresis methods can also be employed for identification of zygotic seedlings.
Identification of hybrid seedlings having P. trifoliate as male parent is easily done by looking for
trifoliate character. The hybrid seedlings parent is easily done by looking for trifoliate
character. The hybrid seedlings are grown to mature trees in the field and the seedlings raised
from the fruits are evaluated for resistance to various disease, insect pests, nematodes and for
suitability as scion or rootstock.
Ex.No. 15
Date :
PAPAYA
Carica papaya 2n: 18
Family :Caricaceae
Hybridization:
Using a dioecious lines It has been established that female plants are more productive
than hermaphrodite ones. Due to the crossing, most of the cultivars are highly variable. Hence it
is considered appropriate to sibmate the selected female and male plants so as to bring
homozygosity. Hence, suitable male plants are selected from the same progeny, which have
resemblance to female plants in vegetative characters, such as stem and leaf colour, stem
thickness and height at flowering etc. Progenies raised from SI inbreds are screened and
desired male and female plants are selected for further sibmating. This process is to be
continued for 7-8 generations to achieve uniformity of a group a characters.
Using gynodioecious lines
It involves selfing regular and prolific bearing hermaphrodite and or crossing

(sibmating) the female with hermaphrodite. Suitable hermaphrodite plants, which do not vary
with climatic changes, are selected. Of the various types of the flower produced by a
hermaphrodite plants elongata and pentandra types are selected for selfing. Selfing is to be
continued in selected hermaphrodite plants for atleast three generations for uniformity of
characters. In the case of female and hermaphrodite plants, sibmating between desired types of
female plants are selected and sibmated with hermaphrodite plant. Seedling raised from S1
inbred is screened and desired female and hermaphrodite plants are selected for further
sibmating. This process is to be continued for 7-8 generations till homozygosity is achieved.
Crossing between two or more parents and selecting the derived progenies with good
attributes in the advanced generations has been employed as a method to develop new cultivar.
CO.3. is a hybrid derivative between CO.2 x Sunrise Solo. Similarly, CO.7 is a gynodioecious
cultivar developed from the crosses of CP.75 (Pusa Delicious x CO.2) x Coorg Honey Dew. Fruits
are with red flesh and very sweet in taste.
MANGO
Mangefera indica (2n : 40)
Family : Anacardiaceae
Floral biology
Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open
between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11.a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m.
and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma
becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily;
nectar is present to attract the insects. The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3
weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers male and
perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the
variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in
Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.
Hybridization
Since a large number of male and perfect flowers are borne on a mango panicle, it
requires a special crossing technique. The panicle should be bagged with a muslin bag (60 cm x
30 cm) fully stretched and fixed with two rings and a rod made of spliced bamboo. A piece of
thick iron wire can also be made into a good frame for stretching the muslin bag over the
panicle. Staminate flowers of the selected panicle to be used as female parent should be
removed daily before dehiscence. Panicles of the variety selected as male parent should also be
bagged before their flowers begin to open. Freshly dehisced male flowers should be carried in a
small petridish lined with a filter paper and covered with another petridish to protect the
flower from contamination with foreign pollen carried by insects. Perfect flowers should be
emasculated early in the morning before dehisced. Freshly dehisced anther of the male parent
should gently be brushed against the stigma which should then be examined under lens to see if
pollen grains have adhered to it. As the pollination of flowers in any one panicle is carried over
a number of days, only the pollinated flowers should be allowed to remain on the panicle. It has
been found advantageous to keep the panicles enclosed in bags till the fruits set and develop
slightly.
The conventional method of pollination is time consuming, cost intensive and inefficient
because of tallness and difficult to handle trees and poor fruit set. Caging technique for
crossing, developed at IARI following the discovery of self incompatibility in Dashehari, Langra,
Chausa and Bombay Green, involves planting of grafted plants of the self incompatible varieties
along with those of male parents enclosed in an insect proof cage and allowing pollination by
freshly rared house flies and thus doing away with the tedious hand pollination.
Ex.No. 16
Date :
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Dendranthema grandiflorum 2n=2x=18
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the Greek words chrysos (gold)
and anthemon (flower).
Taxonomy
The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several
genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemum in the
genus Dendranthema. The naming of the genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in 1999 changed the defining species of the
genus to Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist's chrysanthemum to the
genus Chrysanthemum. The other species previously included in the narrow view of the
genus Chrysanthemum are now transferred to the genus Glebionis. The other genera separate
from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemumm, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum,
Rhodanthemum and Tanacetum.
Description
Wild Chrysanthemum taxa are herbaceous perennial plants or subshrubs. They have
alternately arranged leaves divided into leaflets with toothed or occasionally smooth edges. The
compound inflorescence is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The
head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries. The simple row of ray florets are white, yellow
or red; many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great
variety of colors. The disc florets of wild taxa are yellow. The fruit is a ribbed achene
History
Chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the
15th century BC. Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by the year 1630. The plant is
renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen in Chinese and East Asian art. The plant is particularly
significant during the Double Ninth Festival. The flower may have been brought to Japan in the
eighth century AD, and the Emperor adopted the flower as his official seal. The "Festival of
Happiness" in Japan celebrates the flower.
Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John
Stevens imported acultivated variety known as 'Dark Purple' from England. The introduction
was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.[5]
JASMINE
Jasminum sambac(L) Aiton
The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However,
natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac (2n=39), Jasminum flexile (2n=52),
Jasminum primulinum (2n=39), and Jasminum angustifolium(2n=52)
Other names : Moghra, Kundumalligai, Arabian Jasmine. Mallika are some of the other names
used for the Jasmine. In India Jasmine is called the 'Moonshine in the garden'.
Description : Jasmine is a evergreen semi vining shrub. It grows to the height of 8- 10 feet. The
flower is about one inch. It has oval green rich leaves, which have five to nine leaflets. Each
leaflet is 2-3 inches long. Jasmine flowers are white in colour. Its stems are slender, trailing,
green and glaborous.
Other Species : Jasminum amplexicule, Jasminum angulare, Jasminum angusgustifolium,

Jasminum arborescens, Jasminum atttenuatum, Jasminum auriculatum, azoricum, Jasminum
bessianum, Jasminum cinnamomifolium, Jasminum coffeinum, Jasminum crabibianum,
Jasminum cuspidatumkmkm are some of the related species of the Jasmine plant.
Location : Jasmine plant is found in almost all the parts of India. They are widely grown in the
Nagarhole National Park in India.
Cultivation methods : It is propagated through the softwood cuttings, semi hard wood cuttings
and through simple layering. It needs water regularly. It is mostly propagated in the summer
season. It is planted 6 inches deep inside the soil. It requires moist and well drained soil.
Remove the weeds present inside the soil before planting the tree. The soil should consists of
cow dung before planting the Jasmine plant. It requires frequent pruning for its fast growth. It
needs warm temperature and proper watering from time to time. It grows in full Sun to partial
shade. It should be fertilized in a month period. Jasmine Plant should be kept at least eight feet
apart in order to save the later growth of the plant from jamming together. Tips of the plants
should be pinched to stimulate lateral growth and frequent prunning. Younger plants should be
tied with the stems to give a fairly heavy support.
Medicinal uses : The Jasmine flower is used for removing intestinal worms and is also used for
jaundice and venereal diseases. The flower buds are useful in treating ulcers, vesicles, boils, skin
diseases and eye disorders. The leaves extracts against breast tumours. Drinking Jasmine tea
regularly helps in curing cancer. Its oil is very effective in calming and relaxing.
Other uses : Jasmine oil is used used for making perfumes and incense. Its flowers are used to
flavour Jasmine tea and other herbal or black tea. Its oil is also used in creams, shampoos and
soaps. In India Jasmine flowers are stringed together to make garlands. Women in India wear
this flower in their hair. Some communities even use this flower to cover the face of the
bridegroom.
Cultural Importance : In India the Jasmine plant is related to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.
Jasmine flowes are used in the religious offerings.
ROSE
Polianthes tuberose - 2n=30
A rose is a woody perennial of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are
over 100 species. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, climbing or trailing with
stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually
large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are
native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa.
Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Rose
plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in
height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide
range of garden roses.
The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa, which was perhaps borrowed
from Oscan,
The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which
usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink,
though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of
some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and
appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries
that develop into achenes. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.
POLLINATION AND POLLEN DISPERSAL
Rose pollen tends to be large and heavy and is likely to be carried by insects rather than
disperse by wind. Hybrid Tea and Floribunda roses are generally self-pollinated, a trait which
has been enhanced through several centuries of breeding. The close proximity of the anthers
and stigmata, coupled with the fact that modern hybrid roses have been selected both to
contain more petals (generally 25 to 35) and for slow opening of the petals, has resulted in
greatly reduced access by insects or wind. Pollen tends to be shed in the un-opened bloom,
resulting in a high occurrence of self-pollination (Bell 1988).
MARIGOLD
Tagetes erecta 2n = 24, 48
Marigolds are hardy, annual plants and are great plants for cheering up any garden.
Broadly, there are two genuses which are referred to by the common name, Marigolds viz.
Tagetes and Celandula. Tagetes includes African Marigolds and French Marigolds. Celandula
includes Pot Marigolds.
Marigolds come in different colors, yellow and orange being the most common. Most of
the marigolds have strong, pungent odor and have great value in cosmetic treatment. There are
many varieties of Marigolds available today.
Some of the major Marigold varieties are listed below:
African or American Marigolds (Tagetes erecta) : These marigolds are tall, erect-growing
plants up to three feet in height. The flowers are globe-shaped and large. Flowers may measure
up to 5 inches across. African Marigolds are very good bedding plants. These flowers are yellow
to orange and do not include red colored Marigolds. The Africans take longer to reach flowering
stage than the French type.
French Marigolds (Tagetes patula): Marigold cultivars in this group grow 5 inches to 18
inches high. Flower colors are red, orange and yellow. Red and orange bicolor patterns are also
found. Flowers are smaller (2 inches across). French Marigolds are ideal for edging flowerbeds
and in mass plantings. They also do well in containers and window boxes.
Signet Marigolds (T. signata 'pumila'): The signet Marigolds produce compact plants with
finely divided, lacy foliage and clusters of small, single flowers. They have yellow to orange
colored, edible flowers. The flowers of signet marigolds have a spicy tarragon flavor. The foliage
has a pleasant lemon fragrance. Signet Marigolds are excellent plants for edging beds and in
window boxes.
Mule Marigolds: These marigolds are the sterile hybrids of tall African and dwarf French
marigolds, hence known as mule Marigolds. Most triploid cultivars grow from 12 to 18 inches
high. Though they have the combined qualities of their parents, their rate of germination is low.
Facts About Marigolds
Marigold (Calendula) is an extremely effective herb for the treatment of skin problems and can
be used wherever there is inflammation of the skin, whether due to infection or physical
damage; for example, crural ulceration, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, anal fissures, mastitis,
sebaceous cysts, impetigo or other inflamed cutaneous lesions.
As an ointment, Marigold (Calendula) is an excellent cosmetic remedy for repairing minor
damage to the skin such as sub dermal broken capillaries or sunburn. The sap from the stem is
reputed to remove warts, corns and calluses.
In the 12th century Macer wrote that merely looking at the Marigold plant would improve
the eyesight and lighten the mood.
In South Asia, bright yellow and orange Marigold flowers are used in their thousands
and placed in garlands and to decorate religious statues and buildings. They are also used as
offerings and decoration at funerals, weddings and other ceremonies.
Pigments in Marigolds are sometimes extracted and used as a food coloring for humans
and livestock.
Propagating and Growing Marigolds
Marigolds can be propagated by seeds. The plants need about 45 days to flower after
seeding. Marigold seeds should be sown 2 cm apart. Cover seeds with 1/4 inch of potting soil.
Water sufficiently. Plants will appear within a few days. When true leaves have formed,
transplant into individual containers or outdoors.
Marigolds are robust, non-fussy plants that bring a lot of sunshine in your garden. Marigolds
can be grown easily.
1. Plant your seeds in half-sunny or sunny locations.
2. The soil must be well-drained, moist and fertile.
3. Add potash fertilizers to prolong the flowering period.
4. Pinch off the first flowers before they open. This will lead to a larger number of flowers.
Care for Marigolds
Marigolds have a pungent odor which keeps insects at bay, but they can be bothered by
slugs. Also, tall American and Triploid Marigold varieties need staking to protect them from
strong winds and heavy rainfall. Learn more on growing and taking care of Marigolds. Also have
a look at some other Flowers

Breeding of Field and Horti Crop Record Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Breeding of Field and Horti Crop Record Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GPB 224 BREEDING OF FIELD AND

HORTICULTURAL CROPS (2+1)

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

GPB 224 BREEDING OF FIELD AND

II B.Sc.,(Agri.) 2013 - 2014 Second Semester

Certified that Mr. / Miss. ________________________________________ of

Examiners Course Teacher

Ex. Date Name of the exercise Page Remarks

Maize Zea mays

4. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor

Pearl Millet Pennisetum americanum

Ragi Eleusine coracana

Tenai Setaria italica

Varagu Paspalum scrobiculatum

Kudiraivali Eiclinochloa colona

Panivaragu Panicum miliaceum

5. Red gram Cajanus cajan

Bengal gram Cicer arietinum

6. Green gram Vigna radiata

Black gram Vigna mungo

Cowpea Vigna unguiculata

Soyabean Glycine max

7. Ground nut Arachis hypoqaea

Sesame Sesamum indicum

Sunflower Helianthus annus

8. Mustrad Brassica sp.

Castor Ricinus communis

Coconut Cocos nucifera

Oil palm Elaies guineensis

Jute Corchorus sp.

10. Sugarcane Saccharum sp

Sugar beet Beta vulgaris

Potato Solanum tuberosum

Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum

11. Forage crops

12. Bhendi Abelmoschus esculentus

Brinjal Solanum melongena

Chillies Capsicum annuum

13. Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum

Cucumber Cucumis sativus

14. Guava Psidium guajava

15. Papaya Carica papaya

Mango Mangefera indica

16. Chrysanthemum Dendranthema grandiflorum

Jasmine Jasminum sambac

Rose Polianthes tuberose

Marigold Tagetes erecta

Related wild species

Hybridization: The first step in hybridization is emasculation.

3. Hot water method

Artificial Pollination Crossing

Development of CMS lines in Hybrid Rice Breeding

CMS should posses

Development of Parental Lines

Development of' R Line

Male10 days longer in age,

Anthesis and Pollination

Agencies dealing with wheat research

Floral Biology and Crossing

Following Precautions are observed

List of Improved Varieties in Maize

CROP SEED RATE SPACING NPK

The Bicolor Race

The caudatum race