26 Applied HYdraulic Transients CHAPTER 2

.,Surge
and Watcr.HmIner Prtltr)ems,,'Electlical Analogies und Elec-
74. Paynter, lI' M.,
tronic Comp\rter Symposium, Trans' Amcr' Soc' Civit Engrs''
vol' ll8' 1953' pp-
96 2- 1009.
EQUATIONS OF UNSTEADY FLOW
75.Marris,A.w,,..LaJ8elYaterLevelDisplacementsinthesimplesurgeTank,,'Jour.
o!'Mech. ngrs" vol I l, 1959, pp' 446-454'
THROUGH CLOSED CONDUITS
Basic Enginecng, Trans. Amer. soc.
?6. Streeter, Y. L., Ftuid Mechanics,4ttt Ed" Mccaw-Hill Book Co'' New York' 1966'
p.15.
presented to the
M. H., "Resonance in Pressuized Piping Systems"' thesis
'' Chaudhry, of
TT.
British columbia, vancouver, canada, in partial fulfillment of the re-
;;;;;i;" 24'
qrir"m"n:t, fot the degree of doctor of philosophy' 1970'p'
dans les Installatios Hydautiques"'
7g. Rocard, Y., "Les Phenomene d'Auto-oscillation
Hermann, Pais, 193?'
Engineering Pub' h)orks
19.l^ng.r, C., "W,te, Hammer Effects in Power Conduits"'Civl
Reu., London, vol. 23, ios' 500-503, Feb'-May' 1948'
0. Sonin, C. C,, "Water-Hammer Damage to Oigawa Power
Station"'Jour' Engineering for
pp' lll*ll9' Unsteady flow through closed conduits is described by the dynamic and continu-
Power,Amer. Soc. Mech- l'ngrs', April 1960'
of lnci-
Sf. l""g"r, C., '"The Theory oiResonance in Hydropower Systems' Discussion ityequations. Inthischapter,thederivationoftheseequationsispresented,and
--dun"tsOccurringinPessurcsystems,"lour'BasicEngineerinE'Amer'Soc'Mech'
methods available for their solution are discussed.
6ngrs., vol. 85, Dec. 1963, pp' 63 t-640'
I. S.'
tz. iti"n.tv, G., Discussion oi-,"rn" Velociry of wtef HmmerWaves,"by Pearsall'
of Dngs" London' vot' 18Q' Pt 3E' G 2.1 ASSUMPJIONS
Syntposium on Surges in Pipelines, nst' Mech'
1965-1966, P. 25.
g3. pulling, w. i., ,.Literrture survey of water Hammer Incidents in operating Nuclear The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the equations:
PowerPlants,"RepottNo.WCAP'8799,l'ltstinghouseElectricCorporation'Pills' 1. Flow in the conduit is one-dimensional,r-3 and the velocity distribution is
burgh, PcnnsYlvana, Nov- 19?6'
uniform over the cross section of the conduit. :-
2. The conduit walls and the fluid are linearly elastic, i.e.,;stress is proportional
to strairi.a This is true for most conduits such as metal, concrete and wooden
pipes, and lined o unlined rock tunnels.
3. Formulas lor computing the steady-state friction losses in conduits dre yalid
during the transent state. The validity of this assurnption has not as yet been
verified. For computing frequency-dependent friction, Zielkes has developed
a procedure for laminar flows, and Hirose6 has proposed n empirical proce-
dure for turbulent flows. However, these procedures are too complex and
cumbersome lor general use, and we will not discuss them further.

2.2 DYNAMIC EQUATION

We will use the following notation: distance, x, discharge, Q,and flow velocity,
I/, are considered positive in the downstream direction (see Fig. 2.1), and /J is
the piezometric head at the centerline of the conduit above the specified datum.
[t us consider a hoizontal element of fluid having cross-sectional area I and
length 6x, within a conduit as shown in Fig. 2.1. If the piezometric head and
the velocity at distance x arc H and Z, then their corresponding values at x f 6x
are H + (AHldx) 6x and V + @Vl1/4 6x, respectively. In the x-direcrion, three

27

T
 Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 29

28 APPlied HYdraulic Transients

I
fl lf the Darcy-Weisbach formular is used for computing the friction losses,
lniionloneous hydroulic
en the shear frce
t fVz
s =;'n- rD 6x {2.3)

in which I = acceleation due to gravity, /= friction factor, and D = diameter

of the conduit. The resultant force, F, acting on the element is given by the
equation
F=Ft- Fr -S (2.4)

Substitution of the expressions for Ft, Fr, and S from fus. 2.1 through 2.3
into Eq.2.4 yields
AH- tfVz
tt=-7A*r*-?"ru* (2.s)
I

According to Newtonns second law of motion,

I I
t r+8x
o*r* Force = Mass X Acceleration. (2.6)
0
For the nuid erement
H x* {{ a, "*';::,':::::-,,,
= 1 ,-l
(o)
' I e.7)
Acceleration of the element ={dt) |

Substitution of Eqs. 2.5 and 2.7 into Eq.2.6 and division by ll 6x yield

f
dt -*Y-
4t'= oax !:
2D
(2.8)

We know from elementary calculus that the total derivative

(bl Frgs bodY diogrom dV aV AY dx
(2.9a)
Figure 2'l' Nottion for dynamic equation' dt a,
-=-+ dx dt

F' Fz are forces due to OI

force, F, , F2 , and S, are acling
on the element' and

pressure while i, th" ,h;;-i;rce due

to friction' If 7 = specific weight of dv av __av
n (2.eb)
conduit, and z = heiglrt of conduit above dt= at*
the fluid,. = cross-sectional area of a*
datum, then
(2.1) Substituting Eq. 2.9b into Eq. 2.8 and rearranging,
F=7A(II-z)
YrrY*raH *fv' =o (2.10)
F,="yV-,-Hu4, (2.2) il 0x "Dx 2D

)
30 Appled HYdraulic Transients Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 3 I

In most of the transient problems,? the term V@Vpx) is significantly

smaller
To account for
than the term vlot. Thetefore, the former may be neglected.
expression V2 inEq.2.l0 may be written as VlVl, in wich
therevene flow, the
I
lzl is the absolute vajue of I/. By writing Eq.2.l0 in terms of discharge, Q,
and ln f low Oulf low
-=.-} f

(2. r t)

InEqs.2.3,2.5,2.8,2-l0,and2.ll,theDarcy'Weisbachformulahasbeen
,r.d f- calculating the friction losses. If a general exponential formula had
been used for these losses, then the last term ofEq.2.11 could be written
as Figure 2.2. Notation for continuity equation.
of k, m,and uPon the formula em'
k/lSl^Pb, with the values depending
pioyl. For example, lor the Hazen'Williams formula, m = l '85 and b = 2'87 ' the pressure p is given by the equationa
it',it., u, derived above, for the Darcy'Weisbach formula, m = I and E = 3' li (.-_Y'-_v-1
p, I
.orr..t values ofm and are used,8 the results are independent ofthe formula
employed, i.e., the Darcy-Weisbach and the Hazen-Williams formulas would
give Lo=; i (2.15)

comparable results. in which e = the conduit walt tic*'llce, rhe change in hoop stress, 6o,
caused by 6p may be written as

23 CONTINUITY EQUATION
of fluid 'e'
6o = 6p =P 6r'
0t (2.16)
us consider the control volume shown in Fig. 2.2. The volume
e
[t
inflow, f^, and outflow, fror,, during time interval 6t ae Since the radius r has increased to r * r, the change in strain
fir= V rr' 6t (2. l 2)
au=f (2.17)
rour = (n-f ,,)*" u, (2. I 3)
lf the conduit walls are assumed linearly .tturti., tt,.n

in which r= radius of the conduit. The increase in the fluid volume,6lrn, dur' ^6o
L=- (2. l 8)
6e
ing time 6t is
aY in which E = Young's modulus of elasticity. substitution of expressions for 6o
6fin=flin-#"*=-a" a* 6, ,r' (2.14) and 6e from Eqs.2.l6 and 2.17 into Eq. 2.i8 yields

- = (Apl}t) 6t (rle\
The pressure change, 6p, during time interval 6r is (ap/006r' This
pressure 11 (2.|e)
the 6rlr
change causes the cnduit walls to expand or contract radially and causes

lengtt of the fluid element to decrease or increase due to fluid compressibility

(see Fig. 2.2).
Lt us firstconsider the volume change, 6fr., due to the radial expansion or r- dn 12

At -6,
(2.2o)
contractiorr* of the conduit. The radial or hoop stress, o, in a conduit due to
eE
The change in e volume o[ the element due to the radial expansion or contrac-
+To simplify the deivation, we are neglecting the elongation or shortening^of.the fluid ele- tion of the conduit is
*;;; ;; i Poi.ron atio effects. Any reader inteested in tlre derivation of the continuity
equation including thee effects should see Ref' 7' 6f,=2nr6x6r (2.2t)

)
32
' AiPlied HYdiaulic Transients
Equations ot Unsteady Flow Through Cosed Condrits. 33

wave. Expressions for a for various conduits and support conditions are pre.
Substituting for 6r from Eq' 2'20 yields
sented in Section 2.6.
6tr,=2t9
' *u, u,
dt elt
(2.22)

volume,6i'", due toCom' 2.4 GENERAL REMARKS ON DYNAMIC AND

Itus now derive an expression for the change in CONTINUITY EQUATION
psibility ol the fluid. The initial voiume of the fluid element

ff=f 6x (7.23) The dynamic equation, Eq. 2.11, and the continuity equaon,8q.2.30, are a
set of flrst-order partial differential equations. In these equations, there are two
The bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid, '(, is definedr as
independent variables, x and t, and two dependent variables, Q and H. Other
ffi vaiables, A and D, are characteristics of the conduit system and are time-
lx=ffi1
L--:J
rr.ros invariant but may be functions of . Although the wave velocity, a, depends
upon the characteristics of the system, laboratory tests have shown that it is sig-
By substituling tor lr from Eq- 2.21 and noting that p = (Dpidt) 6t' q' 2'24 nificantly reducede by reduction of pressure even when it emains above the
becomes vaporpressure. The friction factorf varies with the Reynolds number. However,
f is considered constant herein because the effecls of such a variation on the
uu"=#6|nr'a, (2.2s\ transient-state conditions are negligible.
Discussion about the type of Eqs. 2.I I and 2.30 now folkws:any reader not
we assume that the fluid density remains constant, then it follows
lf lrom the interested in the mathernatical delails may proceed to Section 2.5.
law ol conservation ol mass that Since the nonlinear terms in Eqs. 2.1 I and 2.30 involve only the flrst power
(2.26) of the derivtives, the eguations are clled quasi-lnear. These eguations may be
6fn + 6f"= Effr.
further classified aseUiptic, parabolic, ar hyp*bolc as follows:
Egs' 2'14' 2'22'ad Equations 2,1 I and 2.30 may be written in matrix form as
Substitution of expressions for 6firr,6lr, and 6-F" lrom
2.25 into the above equalion and division by nrz 6x 6'
yield

_aV _LdP _2r dP

(2.27) *{;i = -
[,r0,",] * ti] - [",,,",]
E K dt' eE dt
in which

*1
x.*(#.i)=o
(2.28) ,=[:, (2.31)

Let us define
Laol
and

--, = plr + (Kpleg)l

(2.29)
lr-su)
"=t'r j
---l- (2.32)
in which p = ma density of the fluid. Noting that p= pgff, rearranging the ,
terms, and substituting Q= VA,E4.L28 becg11s
The eigenvalues, tr, of matrix B determine tlre type of the set of equations.
L9*V=s
gA dx af
(2'30)
The characteristic equationro of matrix B is

)tz - a2 =0 (2.33'.)
It will be shown in the next chapter that a is the velocity of waterhamme

)
34 Applied HYdraulic Transients Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 3S

Hence,
L=Ja (2.34)
Since is eal, both eigenvalues are real and distinct, and hence Eqs. 2.ll and
2.33 form a set of hyperbolic partial differential equations.
2.5 METHODS FOR OLVING CONTINUITY AND
DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
As demonstrated previously, the dynamic and continuity equations are quasi'
linear, hyperboc, partial differential equations. A closed-form'olution of these
eouations is impossible. However, by neglecting or linearizng the nonlinear
graphical?'r
I'12 and analyticalt s-l s methods have been deeloped.
teims, uurious
These methods are approximate and cannot be used to malyze large systems or
systems having complex boundary conditions. Although some of these methods
have been programmed for analysis on a digital computer,r6'17 they are not pre'
sented herein because their programming is difficult. We will discuss techniques
that.aremore suitable for computer analysis, such as the implicit finite-diffeence
methodrs and the method of characteristic.8'lE-24
ln the implicit nite-difference method, the partial derivatives are replaced by
finite differences, and the resulting algebrac equations for the whole system are
then solved simultaneously. Depending upon the size of tho sytom, this involves
a simultaneous soiution of a large number of nonlirear equations. The analysis
by this method becomes even mo{e complicated in systems having complex
boundary conditions, which musi be solved by an iterative technique. The
method has the advantage that it is unconditionally stable. Therefore, larger
time steps can be used, which results in economizinBcomputer time. However,
the time step cannot be increased arbitrarily because it results in smoothing the
.K, of the fluid, the velocity of waterhammer waves depends upon the elastic
properties of the conduit, as well as on the external constraints. Elastic proper-
ties include the conduit size, wall thickness, and wall material; the external
constraints include the type of supports and the freedom of conduit movement
in the longitudinal direction. The bulk modulus of elastcity of a fluid depends
upon its temperature, pressure, and the quantity ofundissolved gases. pearsallls
has shown that the wave velocity changes by about I percent per 5oc. The fluid
compressibility is increased by the presence of free gases, and it has been found2s
that I part of air in 10,000 parts of water by volume reduces the wave velocity
by about 50 percent.*
solids in liquids have similar but tess drastic influence, unless they are com-
pressible. Laboratory9 and protospe tests25 have shown that the dissolved
gases tend to come out of solution when the pressure is reduced, even when it
remains above the vapor pressure. This causes a significant reduction in the wave
velocity. Therefore, the wave velocity for a positive wave may be higher than
that of negative wave. Further prototype tests are needed to quantiry the
reduction in the wave velocity due to eduction of pressures.
Halliwell26 presented the following general expreision fo the wave velocity:
a- (2.3s)
;ft +tKtE)
in which ry' is a nondimensional parameter that depends upon the elastic proper-
I
ties of the conduit; = Young's modulus of elasticity of the conduit waits; nd
K and p are the bulk modulus of elasticity and density of the fluid, respectively.
The moduli of elasticity of commonly used materials for conduit wal and the
bulk moduli of elasticity and mass densities of various liquids are listed in Tables
2.1 and2.2. ,

pressure peaks. Details of this method are presented in Section 6.7, Expressions for p for various conditions are as follows: ;
In the method of characteristics, the partial differential equations are firt con"
veted into ordinary differential equations, which are then olved by an explicit l. Risid Conduits
finite-difference technique. Because each boundary condition and each conduit
section are analyzed separately during a time step, this method is particularly
=0 Q.36)
suitable for systems with complex boundary conditons. The disadvantage of r:ll.
.

2. Thiek"Walled Elastic C;onduits

this method is that small time teps mut be used to satisfy the Courant condi' a. a. conduit anchored against longitudinal movement throuehout its lenpth
."+"a
tionr8 for stability. To overcome this, a combinati<n of the implicit linite 1
o&c,.lnc s.ctajts on{ mov,o,.Ato;-&"g',+,i; s, \rLd
difference and the method of characteristics2l may be used. This is discussed
in detail in ChaPter 3. t
ra
=z(t*qffi #*. (2.3.t)
ti
2.6 VELOCITY OF WATERHAMMER WAVE
in which u = the oisson's ratio and Ro and R = the external and intemal
{'
radii of the conduit.
An expresion for the velocity of waterlrammer waves in a rigid conduit was toat
tFora derivation ofexpressions for
derived in Section 1 .2. However, in addition to the bulk modulus of elasticity, the wave velocity in gasJiquid mixtrres, sei seqion 9.5.

)
 _ {,
i i ..
I
I
36 Applied Hydraulic Transient: - , Equatio.rs cif Unsteady FIow Through Closird Ccinuits 37

Tabte 2. l. Young's modulus of elasticity nd Poisson's ratio ftr various Table 2,2. Bulk modulus of elasticity and density of common
pipe materials.+ liquids at atmospheric pressure. *

Modulus of Elasticity, f** Bulk Modulus of

Materil (GPa) Poi.sson's Rtio Temperature Densi, pt Etasticity, i(t
Liquid ("c) (kg/m5) ' (GPe)
Aluminum lloY 68-73 0.33
Asbestos cement, transite 24 Benzene l5 880 r.05
78-r t0 0.36 Ethyl alcohol a 790 r.32
Bass Lbrorod-\. Glyccrin I5
Cast ion htdrc6, \3c&do 80-t 70 0.25 l,260 4.43
Concrete l4-30 .I-0.15 Keosine 20 804 r.32
Copper (6torra t07-t 31 0.34 Mercury 2A 70
3" 26.2
Glass {e clr o 46-?3 0.24 oil l5 900 t.5
Leud PIomO 4.8-17 a"44 lVater, fresh 20 999 2.t9
Mild steel 200-2t 2 a.27 Waler, sea l5 l,025 2-2',1
Plastics rCompiled fom Refs.
1.7 0.33 t?, 25, 32, and 33.
ABS TTo determine the spcifi-weEht of the tiquid, in lby'ft r, multipty
yalues given in thh column by 62.427 x lO jr.
Nylon t.4-2.75 the
Perspex 6-0 0.33 TTo convet tr into tblin., multlply the vlues in this colurnn
Eiven by
0.46 t45.O38 X l03.
1 PolyethYlene - 0.8
.t Polystyrene 5.0 0.4
PVC ieid 7.4-2.75 b. Conduit anchored against longitudinal movement at the upper end
Rocks
Ganite 50 0.28
Limeslone '55 0.21 g =ee'qt.zs _ ,l 12.4r\
Quarteite 24.O44.8

m*
andstone 2.754.8 0.28 c. Conduit with frequent expansion jointg
Schist 6.5-18.6
+Compiled from Refs. l2,25,and 3. (2.42)
';i;!;;;"ri'intoiu/n.',muttiplvthevaluesgiveninthiscolumnby 145.038X l0r
4. Tunnels Through Solid Rock
b. Conduit anchored against longitudinal movement at the uPPer end Halliwell26 has derived long expressions for f fo tined and unlined rock

v=,[ffi.*#] (2.38)
tunnels. usually, the rock characteristics cannot be precisely estimated be.
r c&ue of nonhomogeneous rock conditions and because of tire presence of Iis-
sures. Therefore, in our opinion, using Halliwell's expressions for practical
applications is unwaranted. Instead, the following expressions based on
c. Conduit with frequent exPanion joint
Parmakian's equations? may be used.

,/=r(ffi-i (2.39',)
a. Unlined tunnel

=l)
(2.43)
J. Thin -Wall e d El os t ic Co ndu its t=el
a. Conduit anchored against longtudinal movement throughout its length
in which G = modulus of rigidity of the rock.
b. Steel-lined tunnel
*=D;tt-*l (2.40)

in which D = conduit diamete and e = wall thickness.

1 ,,DE
=-
GD+Ee
(2.44l.

)
38 Applied Hydraulic Transients Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 39

in which e = thickness of the steel liner and E = modulus of elasticity of lollowing expression is clbtained fo a thick-walled conchdt having a sqtnre
steel. cross section:
5. Reinforced Concrete PiPes
pipe hang
The einforced concrete pipe is replaced by an equivalent steel ,=*(:)'.:(,.*) (2.41)
equivalent thicknessT

A" in which e = wall thickness, (l - e) = inside dimension of the conduit, and

ee=Erec+ (2.4s) G = shear modulus of the wall material.
,s
Based on the equations presented by Thorley and rwyman,so
the following
expression is obtained lor ry' for a thin-walled hexagonal cond.uit:
in which ec = thickness of the concrete pipe;'4, and/" are the coss-sectional
area and the spacing of steel bars, respectively; and,E, = ratio of the modulus
from
of elasticity of concrete to that of steel. Usually the value of .0, varies ,, = o.o38s (1)' (2.48)
in concrete pipe, a value of
0.06 to 0.1. However, to allow for any cracks the
ee, the wave velocity may be deter'
0.05 is suggested.? Having computed in which / = mean width of one of the flat sides or the rrexagonal section.
mined from Eq.2-35 using the moduluselasticity of steel'
6. Wood-Stave PiPes
pipe is
The thickness of a uniform teel PiPe equivalent to the wood-stave 2.7 CASE STUDY
staves, and
determined? from Eq. 2.45 using Er= t,ec = thiskness of wood
A, and /, are the cioss-sectional area and the spacing of the steel bands'
The data lor the steel penstock of the Kootenay canal hydroelectric power
respectirely. The wave velocity is then computed from Eq' 2'35'
plant, owned and operated by British corumbia Hydro and power
Authoriiy, ar.
7. Polyvinyl Chtoride (PVC) and Reinforced Plastic Pipe listed in the following table;
for com-
Investigations reported in Ref. 2? show that Eq' 2'35 can be used
in polyvinyl chloride and reinforcd plastic
puting riave velocity the @VC)
pip.s]proriaed a proper value of the nlodulus of elasticity for the wall ma-
Wd
terial is used. Length Diameler Thicknesq
8. Noncircular Cottdttits Pipe No. (m) (m) (mm) Remaks
The following expression for r/' is obtained from the equation for the
wave
by Jenkner2E by 244. 6.7 t l9 Expansion coupling at one end
velocity in the thin-walled rectattgular conduits derived '>)
36.5 5.55
.rsingihe steady-state bending theory and by aowing the corners of the Encased in concrete

conduit to rotate:
For conducting a transient analysis, the waterhammer wave velocity in each sec-
.
tlt
pbo
(2.46) tion of the penstock was determined as follows. The values of forsteel, G for
' =-
rse'd concrete, and-K and p for water were taken as 207 Gpa, 20.7 Gpa,Z.l9 Gpa,
and 999 kg/m', respectively.
in which 0 = 0.5(6 - 5a) + 0.5(d/b)3[6 - 5(]/4'z1,o= [l + (dib)3]/[1
+
d
(dtb)), = width of the conduit (longer side), and = dePth of the conduit
Pipe No. I
(shorter side).
Thorley and Guynrerze have included the influence of the shear force on
e bening deflection of the thick-walted (//e ( 20) rectangular conduits D 6.71
-=o6* =
while deriviirg the equations for the wave velocity. From these equations,
the
"'

I
 !' "i
!,

f
40 Applied HYdraulic Transients Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 41

As the pipe is anchored at one end, PROBLEMS

D 2.I. Derive the dynamic equation considering the conduit is incrined

tlr=-(1 .25- u) (Eq,2.al) at angre 0
e to the horizontal.
- 2.2. compute the velocity of waterhammer waves in a 3.05-nl-diameter
= 353(1.2s 0.30) steel
penstock having a wall thickness of 25 mm if it:
= 335.4 l. is embedded in a concrete dam
2, is anchored at the upseam end
A= (Eq.2.35) B
3. joints throughout its length.
has expansion
pll + (Kl9)tltl
2.3. Determine the velocjty of waterhamme waves in a reinforced concfete
K :
pipe having 1"25-m diameter,0.l5-m wall thickness, and
carrying water.
E-2'19
247
= o.olo6
The 2O-mm reinforcing bars have a spacing of 0.5 m, and the pipe has ex-
pansion joints throughout its iength.
2.19 X loe
2.4- A 0.2'm-diameter copper pipe having a wall thickness of 25 mm is convey-
99e(r +0.0106X33s.4)
ing kerosene oil at 20oc from a container to a valve. lf the valve is closed
= 694 m/s. instantly, at what velocity would the pressure wayes propagate in the pipe?
Assume the pipe is anchored at the upper end.
2.5. Figure 5.r0 shows the power conduits of an underground hydroelectric
Pipe No. 2 power station. compute the wave velocity in each section
of the conduit.
velocity in Assume modulus of rigidity of rock = 5.24 Cpa.
Equations for a steel-lined tunnei may be used to compute the wave
pipe No. 2.
DE ANSWERS
v- GD+EC @q.2.aa)
'r)
5.55X2q7X loe l. l4l3 m/s
= 2. 992 mls
zo.l x toe x 5.55 + 207 X r}e x.022 3. 978 m/s
= 9.62 2.3. 9J3 m/s
2.4. 1232 mls
a=
999(1+0.0106x9.62)
= l4l0 m/s. REFERENCES

l. Streeter, y. L., Ftuid Mechanics,Third Edition, McGraw-Hiil Book Co., New yok,
2.8 SUMMARY I 966.
2. streeter, V- L. (ed.), Handbook of uid Dynamic, Mccraw-Hill Book co.,
New york,
In this chapter, the derivation of the dynamic and continuity equations were r 961.

presented, anl the assumptions used in these. derivation were discussed.

It was 3. Rouse, H. (ed-), .Adt,anced Mcchanics of Fluids, John lViley &
Sons, Inc., New york,
quasiJinear, hyperbolic, partial differen' 1959.
demonstrated that these iquations are
4 ' Timoshenko, s., srengA o{ Materors, sccond Edition, part 2, Van
tial equations, and various methods available for their solution were discussed. New York,1941.
Nostand co., Inc.,

Expressions for the velocity of waterhammer waves in the closed

conduits were 5. zielke,w., "Frequency-Dependent Friction in Transient pipe Flow," Jour.
Eosic Ettgi-
presented. neering, Amcr. Sot- Mech. h.('rs., Mruh t 96g_

I
 Equations of Unsteady Flow Through Closed Conduits 43
42 APPlied Hydraulic Transients
28. Jenkne, W. R., "ber die Druckstossgcschwindigkeit in Rohrleitungen mit quadrati-
Transienl Fluid Flow Simulation of
6. Hirose, M-, "Frequency-Dependent Wall Sheo;-in Institute of Technology,
schen und rechteckigcn Querschnitten," Schweizerische Bauzeiruttg, vol. 89, Feb. 1971,
unsteady Turbulent itoi,i, uon"r't Ifesi, Massachusens pp.99-103.
29. Thorley, A, R. D. and Cuymer, G., "Pcssure Surge Propagation in Thick-Walled Con-
Publications' tnc" New Yok' 1963'
,. f;:itll]; .,warerhammer Anatvis'Dover
in'lvtit by the Method of Characteristics"' L'Energ'ia
duits of Rectangular Cross Section," Jou. Fluid Engineering,Anter. oc. Mech. Engn.,
8. Evangelisti, C., "Wutelt"mm"' vol.98, Sept. 1976, pp.455-460.
"' A;,,;;;,os. I 0-l 2, I e6e, pp' 67 3' 6s2' :?:.7
7 o' I 3e-8s8' 30. Thorley, A. R. D. and Twyman, J. W. R., "Propagation of Transient Pressure Waves in
..u*"-""i 'fiutf.o, foi Calcutation of Transient Flow." Poc" Firr
9. Streeter,V. l-., a Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor," Proc. Second Conf. on Pressure arges, London, pub-
presture rge, cantefbury, EnSland, published bv
Internatiotu! conereii-on lished by British Hydromechanic Research Assoc., 1977.
n"*ur"h Associatin, cranfietd, England, sept. 1972' nR' 31. Roark, R. J,, f'onnulas /orress and Stroin,4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book, New York,
British Hydrom""tnni.
Ar-l-Al-1 l. I 96s.
l0.Wye,C.R.,AdvancedEnneeringMothemotics'ThirdEdition'McGraw-HillBookCo" 32. Hydraulic Model, Manual olEngineering Practice No. 25, Committee of Hyd. Div. on
New York,1967' Hyd. Reseash, Amer, Soc. Civil Engineers, July 1942.
ll.Bergeron,L.,watelhamfierinHydruulicsandWaveur8eirEtectricity,JohnWiley& 33. Baumeister, T. (ed.), Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Tth ed., McGruw-
Soni, lnc., New Yok' l96l' Hill Book Co,, New York, 1967.
and Co'' Ltd" London' 1969'
12. ilki-; .,Analy of Surge,Macmilta by E' E' Hatmos' Ricado Garoni'
!3. Allievi, L., "Theory oi Wui.io*rn"," translated
Rome, I925' ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Publications' Inc'' New Yok'
t4. il;, b. il Hydraulic Tlansients,Dover op"raiionol calculus to'?u',
the solution
, of
15. wood, F. M.,."The npplication of Heavisides Joukowsky, N., "\Materhammer," Translatcd by O. Simin, Proc. Amer. lltater Works Assoc.,
l,rnr, Ame. soc. Mech. Engrs., vot.59, Nov' 1937' vol. 24, 1904, pp. l4l-424.
problems in \{arertrariir.r;,
' PP.703-713'
Kennison, H. F., "Surge-Wave Velocity-Concrete Pressure Pipe," Trdns. Amer. Soc, Mech.
l6.Harding,D.A.,"AMethodofProgrammingGraphicalsurgesinPipelines'-Proc'lnti' Ensn., Aug. 1956, pp. 1323-1328.
vol' 180' Pat 3E' pp' 83-97'
fidon o{ Mech-Sncs., iondon, N"v'.2-' 1965 ' fison, G., "Permanente en niet-permanente stromingen door leidingen in Kunststof," Ierli
presented to tha University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium, in partial fulfillment of the requiie-
lT.Enever,K.J.,..TheUseoftheComputerizedGraphicalMethodofsurgeAnalysiswith
on Presure Transients'The
particular Reference to a water suiply Problem:' sy*p- ments lo the degree ofdoctor ofengineering, 1960,
bity Universitv, London, Nov' 25' 1970' Mock, F. J., "Modetlbehandlung von Druckstossprobleme mit Hilfe von Kunststoffrohen,"
l8.Perkins,F.E.,Teoow,A'C',Eagleson'P'!''andlppen'A'T""Hydro-powerPlant Mitreilung No. 56, lnstitut lur Wassebau and Wasserwirtschaft, Teehnical University,
II Hydrodynamics Lab" Report
an IIl, Dept' of Civil Engineering' Berlin 1962.
Transients," Part
No. ?1, Massachusettlnstitute of Technology'SePt' 1964' Rahm, S. L. and Lindvall, G. K. 8., "A Lboratory lnvostigation olTransient Pressure \ilaves
..The Numerical olution or Hyperutic Partiat Differential Equations bv in Pre-Stessed Concrete Pipes," Proc. lOth Intemationol Assoc. for Hydraulic Research,
lg. Lister, M.,
theMethodofCharacteristics,"inRalson,A"andWlf'H'S'(eds')'Mathenatical London, 1963, pp. 4?-53.
Ciipuies,iohnWilev !o1s' & lnc" New York' 1960' pp' 165-179' Swaminathan, K. V., "Waterhammer Wave Velocity in Concrete Tunnels," lilater Powet,
Method for Disitat
o Charucteristics' American Elsevier'
20. Abbott, M. 8., .n Inioduction to the Method March 1965, 17-121.
New York' I966' Thorley, A. R. D., "Pre$urc Tansients in Hydraulics Pipelines," Amer. Soc. Mech. Engn.,
Paper No.68-WA/FE-2, Dec. 1968,8 pp.
2l.Streeter,V.L.andLai,C.,..WaterhammernalysislncludingFldFriction,'.Jou.
No' HY3' Mav 1962' Pp' 79-Ll2'
Hydraulics Ov., e^i,' ioi"Civil Ensrs''vot' 88' Swaflfield, J. A,, "The Influence of Bends on FluidTransients Proprgated in Incompressible
Pipe Flow," Proc. Instirution of Mech. Engn., vol. 183, Part l, No. 29, 1968-69, pp.
22.Streeter,V.L'andWVfi",f'n"HydrauficTronsients'McGw'HillBookCo''New
York,196?, PP'22'52' 603-6r4.
23.Streeter,V.L.,"WaterhammerAnalysis""lour''llydraulicsDiv"Amer'oc'Cipil Wood, D. J. and Funk, r. E., *A Bourtdary-Layer Theory for Transient Viscous Losses in
- -Sir^ pp' 1959-1971 ' Turbulent Flow," Jour. Basic Engineerin9, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engn., Series D,
,vol. 95 , No' HY6, Nov' 1969'
24, Evangelisti, G., soai, ', Gue'rini'
P" an Rossi' R'' "Some Applications of Water- vol. 92, No. 4, Dec. 1970, pp. 865-873.
t"'?:nerso Elettrica' Nos' I and 6'
hrmrne Anulvsis u, li"-"nri"J or'cn"acteristici Weyler, M. E., Steeter, V. L., and Larsen, F. S., "An Invcstigation of ths Effect of Cavita-
I 9?3, PP. ,'tZ,309'324' "' tion Bubble on the Momentum Loss in Transient Pipe Flow," lour. Batic Engineeing,
Proc' Sympotium on Surg'es
25. Pearsall, I.S., "The Velocily of Watehanmer Waves"' Amer. Soc. Mech, Engrs., Mach 1971, pp. l-10.
oMeih'fis'' Ensland' vol' 180' Pal 3['' Nov' 1965' pp' l2-2?' Safwat, H. H., "Measurements of Transient Flow Velocities for Waterhammer Applictions,"
in Pipelines,tnst. ..Veiocity
A. R., oi a Wutcit ommer lvave in an Elaslic Pipe," lour.,Hldrau' Amer. oc. ofMech, Engn.,Papet No. 7!-FE-29, May I97I, I pp.
26. Half iwell,
Iies Dir'., Aner. Soc. vil'Eng's' , vol' 89, No' HY4'
July 1963 ' pp' I -2.1 ' -- Trikha, A. K., "An Efficient Method for Simulating Frequency-Dependent Friction in
--
Watters, C. Z.' "ppson, n' ', Flammer' G' H'""'\lJater Hamme' in PVC and Rein- Transient Liquid Flow," Jour., Fluid Engineering, Amcr. Soc. Mech. Engrs., vol.97,
2?. "n vot. July t976'
forced plastic ppc.,l ou, Eld. Div.,.Amer. soc.
civil Engrs-, 102'
March I 975, pp. 97-l 05.
by Coldbeg' D' E'' and Stoner' M' A'' Irnc 1977')
pp. 831-843. (See ulso Discuision

I
 CHAPTER 3 Method of Characteristics 45

METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS (#.

^,, #) . ^,, (#. * #). *etet = o (3.3)

If H = H(x, t) and, e = e@, t)are solutions of Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2, thenthe total
derivatiyes may be written as

dQ dx
dt =P9*dQ
0t dx dt (3.4)

and

dH _AH . aH dx
3.I INTRODUCTION dt dt dx dt (3 5)
ln the last chapter, it was demonstrated that the equations describing the By detining the unknown multiplier I as
,tansient-state flow in closed conduitj_arg_hypgrbolic, partial dil&rer,rli?l"elua-
I

I
_tions, and a number of methods available for their solution were discussed. The (3.6)
details of the methrld of qlraracteristiQs are presented in this chapter. The equa-
tions for simulating a conduit are derived, and the boundary conditions lor a
l

I number of sirnple end conditions are developed. The srability and convergence
I
criteria for the stability of the finite-differenoe scheme are then presented, and a ).= t! (3.7)
procedure for the analysis of piping systems is outlined. The chapter concludes
I with the presentation of a case study. and by using Eqs. 3.4 and 3.5, Eq.3.3 can be written
as
We will endeavor to keep the derivation of the equations f,ree of advanced
I

ll
mathematics. Readers having an elementary knowledge ol partial differential
equations should be able to follow the development ol these equations; those
#.*ff.fi^n,=r] (3 8)

ll:
interested in a rigorous treatment should refer to Refs. I through 9. In deriving c+
these equations, we will follow the general approach proposed by Listertl and
lii

l:
later adopted by Streeter and Wylie.to A number of innovations presented by
Evangelisti2 will also be outlined. ff=o ) (3 e)

and
[
3.2 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS
tti
To facilitate discussion, let us rewrite the dynamic and continuity
(Eqs. 2.1 I and 2.30) derived in the last chapter as
equations # *#-*oet=o) (3. I 0)
[:
if C.
[[i
r., =ff+toY*fiowr=o (3.1)
dx)
dt=-o (3.1 I )
'
rl

I L,=o'#+ s,tff=o (3.2) Note that Eq. 3'8 is valid if Eq. 3.9 is satisfred and that
Eq.3.r0is vaiid if Eq.
,l
3'll is satisfied. In other words, by imposing the relations given by Eqs. :.e
Let us consider a linear combination of Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2,i.e., and 3.1 I, we have converted the partial irrerential
equations
into ordinary differential equations in the independent yaiable irqr.
:.r uno s.z;
L=L1+l'.L2 /.
44
 Method of Characteristics 4'l
46 Applied HYdraulic Transients
having slopes
In the x-f plane, Eqs,3.9 and 3.11 represent two straight lines
Mathematically' these lines divide the
ti/r. lt.r. re called characteristic /rres'
x-fplaneintotworegions,whichmaybedominatedbytwodiflerertkindsof
,"iriion, i.e., the olution may be discontinuous along these lines'e Physically'
example' a disturbance
;;t ;prtt.;t the path traveised by a disturbance' For time Ar'
after
oini (Fig. 3.1i at tinre r, would
reach point P
"i Prior to presenting a proceure for solving Eqs' 3'8 and 3'10' let us first dis-
cussthephysicalsignificanceofcharacteristiclinesinthex-plane.Tofacilitate
discussion,iet us consider a single pipeline shown in Fig' 3'2' The compatibility

,irrilo^t teqs. 3.8 and 3.10) ; 'ntid "tong the pipe length. (i'e'' for 0 (x (l')
the ends ('':l and at
and special boundary condiions are required at it-1-l.l
consiant'head
,'= ; 1nig. 3.3). ln the exarnple undei consideration, there isa end (at x = )'
,"r.*i, uith. upp., end (at ' = O) an avalve at the downstream 3'2.
Let us assume
.rJ ,f'rt transienrconditions are produced by closing the valve' is instanta-
Figure Single PiPeline.

iirt t.r. flow in the pipe at

is steady time f = 0 when the valve
and the line BC
neouslyclosed.Thisreducestheflowthroughthevalvetozeroandresultsina in
pressure wave travels influenced by the upstream boundary and the initial conditions,
;;rr;;.rise at the valve. Because oltl.ris pressure rise, a
,.pu,*,,theregionsinfluencedbythedownstreamboundaryandtheinitial
conditions. In other word, the characteristic lines on the x-f
theupstreamdirection.Ifthepathofthiswaveisplottedonthex-f-plane,it plane represent
clear from this figure
will be represented by line 8C os.shown in Fig. 3.4. It is the traveling paths of perturbations initiated at various
locations in the system'
conditions because
that the conditons in Region I depend only upon the initial
ii, ,pr,r.rrn boundary nditions dd not change' whereas in Regio. II they the Thus'
;;;.rd upon the condltions inrposed by the downstream boundary'
If are im'
.trara"teristic line BC separates iht t*o types of solutios' excitations
points A B,then the region.influenced by.the initiai
posed simultaneously at and.'

in Fig. 3.5; the characteristic line ,4C sepafates the regions

conditions is as shown
Regon o( VolidllY
CompoliMlily Equolions
I Eos. J.8 ond 3.lO)

lo+at
Choroclcrsc Lins

lo

Figure 3.3. Regions of validity for r single pipeline.

Figure 3.1. Characteristic lines in x-l plane'

)
 i

48 Applied Hydraulic Trarrsients Method of Characteristics 49

dH=Hp-H (3. I 3)

Similarly, we can write along the negative characteristic ltne BP.

dQ=Qp- Qa (3. l 4)

dH=Hp-He (3. I s)

The subscripts in Eqs.3.l2 through 3.15 refer to the locations on the x-t
plane. Substituting Eqs. 3.12 and 3.13 into 8q.3.8 and Eqs.3.l4 and 3.15 into
Eq. 3.10, computing the lriction term at the points A and B, and multiplying
throughout by Ar, we obtain

Figure 3.4, Excitation at downstretrm end.

(ep - e,) *
* <o, - Hl) + ffi oneot =o (3.1 6)

and

To solve Eqs. 3.8 through 3.1l, a number of finite-difference schemes have

been proposed: Streeter and Wyliero use a first-order finitedifference technique;
Evangelisti2 suggests a predictor-corrector method; and Listerrr employs both
(ep - eil -
ff ur, - Hil ffi + ou,e,, - o (3.1 7)

first- and second-order finitedifference schemes. Because the time intervals used Equation 3.16 can be written as

in solving these equations for practical problems are usually srall, a first-order Qp=Cp- CoHp (3.r 8)
technique suggested by Streeter and. Wylie is sufliciently accurate and is dis-
cussed here. However, il the friction losses are large, then a first-order approxi-
and Eq. 3.17 as
matjon may yield unstable results. For such cases, a predictor-corrector method (3 le)
Qp=Cn+CaHp
or a second-order approxinration (see Section 7.4) should be used to avoid
instability of the finitedifference scheme. in which
?
Referring to Fig. 3.1 , let the conditions at time r = ,o be known. These are
either initially known (i.e.. at f = 0, these are initial steady-state conditions) or cr=ea**rn #etteal (3.20)
have been calculated for the previous time step. We want to compule the
unknown conditions at to + At. Relerring to Fig. 3.1, we can write along the
positive characteristic line AP,
cn = Oa
{ a, #eaeal (3.2t)

dQ = (3.t 2) and
Qp- Qt
^ _gA
vo --l (3.22)
t
I c
= a't Note that Eq. 3.18 is valid along the positive characteristic line,4Pand Eq.3.l9
along the negative characteristic line 8P. The values of the constants C, anC,
are known for each time step, and the constant Co 'depends upon the conduit
t -!L properties. We will refer to Eq. 3.18 as the posifiue charocteristic equation and
=o
Eq. 3.19 as the negative characteristic equation. In Eqs.3.l8 and 3.19, we have
two unknowns, namely,f/p and Qp. The values of these unknowns can be deter-
x mined by simultaneously solving these equations, i.e.,

Figure 3.5. Excitation at upstream and downstream ends. Qe=0.5(Cr+Cn (3.23)

I
 Method of Characteristics 5l
50 Applied HYdraulic Transients
3.18 is used for the downstfeam boundaries and Eq.3.l9 for the upstreatn
boundaries.
A number of simple boundary conditions are developed in this section while
in
complex boundary conditions such as for pumps and tufbines are derived
Chafter 4 and 5 and for waterhammer control devices, in Chapter l0'

Constant-Head Reservoir at Upstream End (Fig. 3-7)

If the entrance losses as well as the velocity head are negligible, then
t= lo
HP=Hr", (3.24)

Equation
in which^Elr", = height of the reservoir water surlace above the datum.
3.19 for the upPer end thus becomes
lnlcriot .clon
(3.2s)
A Dovnslrcom boundorY Qp=Cn*CaHres
However, if the velocity head o the entrance loses are not small, then
o l,tpstrcom boundarY these

Figure 3,6. Characteristic grid. may be considered in the analysis as follows:

Let the entrance losses be given by the equation

or Eq' 3'19' Thus'
Now the value of Il can be determined either from Eq' 3'18 . k2h
Lv urine Eqs. 3.lg ind3.23,condirions at all interior points (see Fig.3.6) at the h"=fr (3.26)
be determined. However,at the boundaries,either Eq.
end of the time step can
available. Therefore, as discussed above, we need special bound"
3.18 or 3.19 is
ary conditions to determine the condition at the boundariefat time
to+ Lt.
.. gy Grode Line
To illustrate how to use the above equations, we will aSain consider
pifeline of Fig. 3.2. The pipeline is divided into n equal reaches(Fig'
the single
3'6)' and fH bh
obtained' Then'
ihe steady-staie conditions at the grid points at t = toare first
Grodc Linc
to determine the conditions at , = to + At, Eqs. 3.18 and 3.23 are used for the

interiorpoints,andspecialboundaryconditionsareusedfortheendcondi.
tions. .los" look at Fig. 3.6 shows that the conditions at the boundaries at
t = to + Ar must be known for calculating the conditions at f = to+2At atthe
+ Lt are
interior points adjacent to the boundaries. Now conditions at , = to 'i1

kno*n all the grid points, and the conditions at t = to+2atare determined
1i
^t pro'
by following the procedure just outlined' In this manner, the computations
time are determined'
ceed step-byltep until transient conditions for the required

3.3 BOI.JNDARY CONDITIONS

In the last section we discussed that special boundary conditions are required to (o) ( b)
determine the conditions at the boundaries. These are developed by solving 3.7. Constantlevel uPtream resevoir.
Equation Figure
Eq. 3.18, 3.19, or both, and the conditions imposed by the boundary'

I
 t 'l
,. ,i

52 Apptied. Hydraulic 'Iransients Me hod of Characteristics 5r

in which k is the coelficient of entrance loss. Refering to Fig. 3.7, then reflerring to Fig" 3.8a

Hp = H,."- (1 + k);=
OL
(3.27') Hp=H,.r- (l - Xl9
gA2
(3.31)
gA'

(Eq. In 8q.3.30, & is assigned a negative value lor tlre reverse flow.
Solving Eq. 3.27 and the negative characteristic equation 3.l e)
Elirnination of //p from Eqs. 3.31 and 3.18 yields
simultaneouslY,
krQb- Qp+ kr=o (3.32)
-l +Vl + 4klct+ c'HJ (3.28)
2k, in which

in which rnr=T:r\
. C,(l + k) (3.33)
' (2sA')
(3.2e)

Now //p can be determined from Eq.3.27 .

F<rr the reverse flow, k is assigned a negative value in Eqs. 3.27 and 3.29. Solving Eq.3.32 for Qp,

Constant-Head Reservoir at Downstream End (Fig. 3.8)

^
ar =1+\n'TE
z*,
(3.34)

If the head losses at the entrance to the.reservoir are Now //p rnay be determined frorn Eq, 3.18. If the exit loss and the velocity
head are negligible, then
.
n" =
ko'P
(3.30) Hp = Hr"" (3.3s)
zsA2
and it follows from Eq. 3,18 that

Qp=Cp- CoHrr* (3.36)

Encrgy Grode Line- g Dead End at Downstream End (Fig. 3.9)

At the dead end, Qp = 0. Hence, from the positive characteristic equation (Eq.
3 .l 8), it follows that
C^
[{o,CO
= -'!- (3.31)

(o) (b)
Figure 3.8. Constant-level downtream leervoir' Figure 3.9. Dead end.

)
 t'"
r' .::? .::i -. ll
Ird
+ I
l3 '-r",
':'- '
t
t _ *.- ..-..' - . l,rlethod of Characteristics 55

54 APPlied HYdraulic Transients

in which 6, = (rQ)al(CoH)' Solving for Qp and neglecting the negative sign
Valve at Downstream End (Fig' 3'10) with the radical term
(3.42)
can be written Qp=0.5(-C,+\E;4CeC,)
Steady'state flow through a valve
a

(CoA,)o.,/l[fi (3'38)
Qo = Now f/ may be determined from Eq' 3'18'
to .*pui. the transient-state co;ditions lor an opening or a closingvalve'r
inwhichsubscfiptondicatessteady.stateconditions,C=coefficientofdis. either in a tabula form or by
arca' ol the valve opening' versus curves (Fig.3.l0b and c) may be specified
.flurg.,H,hea uPstream of the valve' and Au =
-'a.qu*ion= that z = I corresponds to a valve opening at which
for the transient state as an algebraic expression. Note
similar to Eq. 3.3g may be written under a head ofll,'
(3'39) the flow through the valve is Q,
Qp = (CaA")l,@fr;.
rela'
square. of.both sides and defining the
Dividing Eq. 3.39 by Eq' 3'38, taking Orifice at Lower End
opening r = (CdA,)l(CAu\o'we obtain
tlr. u"ti.
Foranorifice,theopeningrenrainsconstant'Therelore'theaboveequatons
oi=ffn, (3.40) may be used with r = I .

Eq'
characteristic equation (8q.3.18) into
substirution for ffp from the positive Series Junction (Fig. 3'l l)
3.40 yields
+ C,Qp - crcu =o (3.41) Intheprecedingdiscussion,weconsideredonlyoneconduit,andtheboundary
Ql waseitherattheuPstreamoratthedownstreanrend,Therefore,nospecialcare
since there was only
had to be taken to designate the varibles at the boundary
However, if the boundary is at the
Hydroulic one conduit section unier consideration.
junctionoftwoormoreconduits,thenthevariablesatdifferentsectionsof
purpose' we will use. two sub-
various conduits have to be specified' For this
number' while the second
scripts. The first ,uUr.ripi will designate the conduit
flow at the ith
will indicate the section number' Fo' example' 0rr,, indicates
variables that have sarie value at all sections ofa
section of the th conduit. For
t"ftl'^^to constant Co
conduit, only one subscript will be used' For example'C-'r
(Eq. 3.22) fr the ith conuit. Although C, a-nd C, may have different values at
(o) with them to
iii.r"nt sections of a corrduit, only one subscript will be used
presentation and at the same time
indicaie the conduit number. This simplifies
have only one end-section
does not result in any ambiguity since each conduit
can
wil) indicate the un'
at a boundary, As discusied previously, the subscript P
known variables at the end of the tinre step'

Conduil

t
(b) opcning
(c ) Ctosng Figure 3,1 l . Series junction.
' Figure 3-10' Yalve at dowstream end.

l
 I
56 Applied Hydraulic Transients Method of Charactcristics S,?

If the difference in the velocity heads at sections (f, n + l) and (i + I, l) (Fig. n ,,,," ffr,,o,,, and rp*r., can be determined from Eqs. 3.44 through
3.1 1) and the head losses at thejunction are neglected, then L;;.
H'','*' = H'l*',' (3.43)
The positive and negative characteristic equations for sections (i, n + l) and Eranching Junction (Fig. 3. I 2)
(i+ l,l)are
Q4,o*, = Coi- Co,Hpr,n., (3.44) For the branching junction shown in Fig.3.l2, the following equations can be
written:
Qrr*r,, = Cr*, + Co
4H P*1, (3.45) l. Continuity equation
The continuity equation at the juuction is
Qrr,o., = Qpiq,t i Qp*z,t (3.5 r )
Q,r,n*r = Qp*t,t (3.46)
2. Characteristic equations
It follows from Eqs.3.43 through 3S6 that
cn"' Qr,,n*, = Cp i- CorH Pr,o*, (3.52)
Ho.
'trn+r- -c"- (3.47)
Cor* Cor*, O\*,t = Ca*r + Co *sH P*r,, (3.s3i
Now /p-*,
,t, Qpi,n*t, afid Qr*1,1 can be determined from Eqs. 3.43 through 8o,rr,, = C n r*, + Ca
*2H r 12,
(3.s4)
3.45.
However, if heads at sections (i, a +
the difference in the velocity and l) 3. Equation for total head
(, + I, I ) or the head osses at the junetion are not negfigible, then Eq. 3.43 is Hrr,r*, =flPr*r,, = HPirr,t (3.5s,3.56)
not valid. In such cases, the followinequation fsr the total head may be used
intead of Eq. 343: In Eqs,3.55 and 3.56, the head losses at the junction are negle*ted, and it is as-
sumed that the velocity heads in all cr:nduits are equal.
Hr,.o*r-
+#=ffP+r.r
+ (t + D*# (3.48) Sirnultaneous solttion of Eqs. 3.51 through 3.55 yields

' c!'*'- c:"*'

in whiuh Ic = coelcient o[ head losses,lrl, a1 the junction Ho'
''t'i,n+t' =c!'-
Cor* Cortr* Lor*,
(3.57)

' =k9b'"''
n,
LsA?,,
No* ff r.,., and Hp*z.t can be determined from Eqs. 3.55 and 3.56, and
Qr,n*1,Qp,t,t ond 0r*r,, from Eqs' 3'52 through 3.54.
Simultaneous solution of Eqs. 3.44 through 3.46, and 3.48 yields

Qrr,n*r=o'E* (3.4e)

in which
-lt)
o- Crt* Cr; I

llt l+rr\l
'= 2sFf ) f (3.50)

*+.* ) Flgurc 3.11 Banchingjunction.

,l
 .n
fl
ii
1l Method of Characteristics 59
58 Applied Hydraulic Transients 'l

differential equations as Af and Ax approach zero. ll the roundoff error

due to
representation of the irrational numbers by a finite number of significant digits
gror", ,, the solution progresses, the scheme is called unstable; if this error de'

Iayr, the scheme is stable. It has been proved that convefgence irnplies stability
and that stability implies convergence.e'2
Methods for determining the convergence or stability criteria for nonlinear
that the
equations are extremely difficult, if not impossible. Collatzr3 suggests
and stability may be studied by numerically solving the equations
"onu.rg.nr.
for a nrmber ol Ax/Ar ratios and then examining the results. The convergence
equa-
Qp and stability may, however, be studied analytically by linearizing the basic
small,it to assume that
Figure 3.1 3. Head-discharge curve for a centrifugal pump' tions. l[ the nonlinear terms are relatively is reasonable
the criteria applicable to the simplilied equations are also valid for the original
nonlinear equations.
ta and considering the linearized
Centrifugal PumP at UPstream End Using the procedure proposed by O'Brien et al.
perkins et ai.e showed that lor the finite-difference scheme ofSection
equati|ns,
The head-discharge curve for a centrilugal pump running at constant
speed is
equation 3.2 to be stable,
shown in Fig.3.l3. This curve can be approximated by
the

Hp=Ct- C*Qb (3.58) At -l (3.62)

A, -;
Solving this equation simultaneously with Eq' 3'19'
This condition implies that the characteristics through pointPin Fig.3.l
should
not fall outside the segment AB. For a neutral scheme,
uP=T
^_-t+@ (3.s e)
Atl (3.63)
Now ffp can be deterrnined from Eq' 3'58'
Axa
-=-
are ob-
The criteria for convergence indicate that the most acculate solutions
Francis Turbine at Downstream End ' tained if Eq. 3.63 is satisfied. Thus, the convergence and/or stability briterion

speed (i'e', for the nite-clifference equations (Eqs' 3.16 and 3'17) is given bythe expression
The head-discharge curve for a Francis turbine running at constant
connectedtoaiargesystem)andatconstantSateopeningcanbeapproximated At -l (3.64)
as
A, =;
Hp=cc+CrcQb (3.60) This is called Courant's stability condition'
equation
Solving this equation simultaneously with the positive characteristic
(Eq. 3.18) Yields 3.5 SELECTION OF TIME INCREMENT FOR A COMPLEX PIPING
-t+@ (3,61)
SYSTEM
Qp= time
2C,Crc For a complex system of two or more conduits, it is necessary that thesame
that boundary conditions at tlre junction
increment be used for all conduits so
f/p can be determined from Eq. 3'60'
Now may be used. This time increnent shouid be selected such that courant's stabil'
ity condition (Eq. 3.6a) is satisf ied.
3.4 STABILITY AND COT{VERGENCE CONDITIONS If the time inierval, Af, is such that the reach length for any conduit in the
convergent if system is not equal to dAf , then Ax must be greater than aAt to satisfy Courant's
The nite-difference scheme presented in Section 3.2 is termed stability criteria. ln other words, the characteristics through P pass through R
the exact solution of the difference equations approaches that of the original

I
60 Applied Hydraulic Transients
and ,S and not through the grid points and B (Fig. 3.14). The conditions at
every tinre step are, however, computed at the grid points only while conditions
at R and. must be known to determine conditions at P'
Streeter and Lai in their pioneer paper" and Streeter and Wylieto proposed an
interpolation procedure for computing conditions at R and S from the known
conditions at A, B, and C. However, later investigations have shown that this pro-
cedure slnooths the sharp transient peaks. To avoid this, Streeterl6 suggests
that the original differential equations for short conduits may be written in an
implicit form, whereas Kaplan et al.r? propose a procedure called zoaming in
which Ar for longer conduits may be integral multiples of A for shorter con'
duits ol the sYstem.
In the author's opinion, the implicit method combined with the characteristic
method should be used if a number of conduits in the system are very short ela-
tive to others; otherwise, simple adjustment of wave velocities to satisfy the fol-
lowing equation should give sufficiently accurate results.
(3.6s)
if which n must be an integer and is equal to the number of reaches into which
ith conduit is divided, and // = number of pipes in the system. As the wave
velocity is not precisely known, minor adjustments in its value ae acceptable.
Because of the limitations imposed on Ar by the Courant's stability condition,
a large amount of computer time is required for analyzing systems having very
slowly varying transients. For the analysis of such systems, Yow8 has reported
a technique thal allows larger time steps and at the sanre time satisfies the
Courant's condition. In this technique, the inetial term of the dynamic equa-
Figure 3.14. Notation for inierpotation.
Methurd of Characteristics 6l
tion is multiplied by an arbitrary factor a2. The resulting equation and the con-
tinuity equation are then converted into the characteristic form. Because of
multiplication by a2, a time step equal to cAr is permissible, in which Ar is the
tme step given by the Courant's condition. Different values of o may be used
for different conduits, and the value of o may be as large as 20. Yow's tech-
nique, however, is applicable only to those systems in whichthe inertial term is
small as compared to the lriction term such as gas flow in pipes,ts'2l flow .in
porous media,re and floods in rivers. The validity of tils technique is question-
able20 because the original governing equations are arbitrarily altered; thus, ex-
treme caution must be exercised while using this technique lor the analysis of
these systems"
3.6 COMBTNED IMPLICIT.CHARACTERISTIC METHOD
ln the last section, it was pointed out that sometimes it is advantageous to use
a combination of the implicit and characteristic methods while analyzing certain
piping systems. Details of this follow.
Let us consider a piping system in which the th reach of a conduit is to be
analyzed using the implicit method. In this method, the deivatives of the con-
tinuity and dynamic equations (Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2) are replaced by the centered-
inrplicit finite differences16 as follows (Fig. 3.15):
AH (Ilpi*t + Hi*t) - (Hpi + Hi)
_ (3.66)
Dx 2Ax
H (Hr,,, + Hp,) - (H,*, + H,)
_ (3.67)
t ZAt
i+l
Figute 3.15. Notation for implicil method.
)
 Method of Characteristics 63
62 APPlied Hydraulic Transients

aO (Qp,-, + Q*) - (Qr,+ Q, 3.7 ANALYSIS OF A PIPING SYSTEM

(3.68)
0x 2Ax
To compute transient-tate conditions in a piping system, the hortet conduit
AO (ep,-, + Qp)- (Qq + Q) in the systern is divided into a nuntber of reaches o that a desired cornPuta-
(3.6e)
tional time interval, Ar, is obtained. According to Evangelisti,2 a time interval
0t 2At of t to fi of the transit time, i.e., wave-travel time from one cnd of the ystsm
Q=0.5(2,"t+ 9t
(3.70) to the other, should give sufficiently acurate results. In the author' opinion,
however, this criterion should be used as a rough guide, and Ar should be in-
To simplify presentation, only one subscript is used in
this sectiontodesignate creased or decreased depending upon the rate at which transients are produced-
oieqt.3.66 to 3'?0 into Eqs' 3'1 and 3'2 and simpli- Having selected the value of At, the remaining conduits in the system are divided
the variables. Substitution
fication of the resulting equations yield into reaches having equal lerrgths by using the procedure outlined in Section 3.5.
lfnecessary, the wave velocities are adjusted to satisfy Eq. 3,65 or the procedure
Qt+ Qt*r'CtrVttt CuVp*t+ Cn= 0 (3'71)
outlined in Section 3.6 is used o that characteristics pas thfough the grid points.
-Qn+ Qr*r+ CIHP+ CBHp*t+ Cs - 0 (3'?2) The steady.state discharge and pressure head at all the sections are tlten com'
puted, and their values are printed. The time is now incremented,and the tran-
in whiclt sient conditions are cornputed at all the interior points from Eqs.3.23 and 3.18
and at the boundaries from lhe appropriate boundary conditions. Tlris process is
eAAt (3.73)
c,,=ai_ continued until transient conditions for the required time are computed.
The llowchart of Fig.3.16 shows the computational steps for determining
(3'74) the transient conditions in a series piping system' To illustrate this proce-
c12= c11(H*, - H)- (Qii 8,.r)*ffiO,+ Q,t)lQi+ Qi+l dure, transient conditions in the piping sytem shown in Fig.3.l7a weredeter'
mined. For this purpose, the computer program of Appendix B was developed
sAAx (3.7s) in FORTRAN IV language. Transient conditions were caused by closing the
Ll - valve according to the 7-l curve shown in Fig. 3'17b.
o2 Lt
(3.76) As the valve-closure time is rather large as compared to the wave.transit time
Cs = Q*t - Qi - Crr(Ht+ ffi*i) in the system, pipe No.2 was divided into two reaches, thusgingAt=0.25 s.
namely'Qp'.Qr^;'r' Pipe No. I was also divided into two reaches to satisfy Eq. 3.65, and the initial
Note that there are four unknowns in Eqs' 3'71 and 3'72'
of equations' there should be four steady-state conditions were computed. Time was incremented by Af, and the
il,^ndffpr*,.
-.-rionr.'Tir"r.For a unique solution these Egs.3.7l and 3-72,ate oonditions at the inteior sections were determined using Eqs' 3'23 and 3.18.
other two equations, in addition to
pr"riata by the end conditions of the reach' For example' if there is a conduit The boundary conditions for the reservoir (Eqs.3.2 and 3.25) were used to
end and a constant.head reservoir at the downstream end, then determine the conditions at the uPtream end, ard Eqs.3'43,3.44,3.46,ad
;;ih; r;.rm 3 .47 wee used to determine conditions at the junction of pipes No ' I and No, 2.
the negative characteristic equation (Eq' 3'19) and ^f/pr*, =f/*'
arethe other
are written' Seven points on the r-f curye were stored in the compuler, and the z values at
t*o e{uations. For any other end conditions, similar equations are deter- the intermediate times were parabolically interpolated. Equations 3.42 and 3.40
Thus, ilree arefour equations in fors unknowns, and their values
wer'e usedto determine the conditions at the valve.
mined by simultaneously solving these equations'
used for the additional Conditions at f = A, at all sections of the sytem were now known. These
Note that the conditions impised by ihe boundary are
conditions developed in section 3.3' Theef<re. were stored as conditions at the beginning of the next time step. This procedure
equations and not tlre boundary
conduit or ie conduit reach for which the implicil melhod is was repeated until transients for the desired duration were computed. The con'
wiile selecting the
simple' ditions were printed every second time step by specifying IPRINT = 2.
;;il; ;r;d, caie should be taken that its end conditions are

I
 Iti

64 Applied HYdraulic Transients Method of Characteristics 65

britial stao.l, ttor.

Htdroslic Oiole lino

Colrrt a, lnC Rcscryoir

tl,l Emtotrlt

Ptpc lo. I Pip.

^1o.2

L'5Om L. 45Om
D = O.75m D = O.6m
o = llOOmTs o . 9OOm/s
f = O.OlOm f = O.Ol?m

(ol Piping !yrlorn

t.o

lao
I

Co6ptr llp o Qp
I
lr
o."
ai l'tr.tr [at a.4

o.?
a

(b) Volve Elolure curvo

Figure 3.17. eries piping system.

3.8 CASE STUDY

Figure 3.18 shows the schematic layout of the conduits of the Jordan River
R.edevelopment2z'23 located in British Columbia, Canada, and owned by the
Figur !-l 6. Flowchrt for e serles piging syetem. British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. It is a peaking power plant.

d
 Method of Characteristics 67
66 APPlied HYdraulic Transients
The upstream conduit consists ol a tunnel having a 5285-m-long, main)y D-shaped
io, section;82-mJong, 3.96-m-diameter, and 451-m-tong,3.2-nr-diameter sections:
!\i and a i4o0-nrJong penstock reducing in diameter from 3.2 to 21 n. There is

only one Francis turbine rated at 154 MW and 265-5-m rated head. To reduce

the nraximum transient-state pressures, a Pressure-re8ulating valve (PRV) is pro'
t vided. The rating curve lor the PRV, at rated head (I/r) of 265.5 m as detef'

r

J mined from the Prototype tests, is shown in Fig. 3.19'

4
To determine the transient conditions caued by opening or closing of PRV, a
I

(9
computer program wa developed by using the boundary condition for the PRV
I
z
tr
derived in this section.* Analysis of transients caused by various turbine opera'
J
3
(9
tions is discussed in Chapter 5. Points on the PRV rating curve (Fig.3.l9) were
.Q :tJ stored in tfit computer at 20 percent intervals of the valve stroke, and the dis-
i tr.c^ ri
\
.h
d
UE
G.E
E clrarge at the intermediate valve oPenings was detef mined by linear interpolation'
TP LJa = Assuming that the valve characteristics obtained under steady-state operation
n:
OD

tr!
O

B

are valid during the tansient tate, the PRV discharge under net head f/n is given
by the equation
^t ^E o
- ol .t
\
Z Qu=Q,{* (3.11)
.E q
i lJ E
8 3 zo 0,= PRV discharge undsr a net head of ffr, and Q, = discharge
under
.9 tt, Oo
in which
t/
l/e
o
o
.t fEE
Ft
=
rated net head Hr, both at valve opening r. Note that both H,.andfl,
ol
are total
con-
heads, i.e., Hn = Hp + QllQgA2), in which ,4 = cross-sectional area tl're
h- !
,t
3 duit just upstream of the PRV.
/o
lr't
o .t.
To develop the boundary condition for the PRV, Eqs' 3'18 and 3'17 ue
-, simultaneously solved' Noting thal Qp = Q., and elirninating ff, ironr
.l'trto.4s these
tg fc!lJ
N$ Ei aoo
/\ ; equations,
8. Es
s
ll --
iE
,o IT
cuDS
=bo - -Cra+rET+ 4c&n
uP- (3.78)
i/ E 19 IL 2c"
L(J
i. su
)
E
9LJ in which
lq"q*

o
E
u1
utt
u) n -,- Ql l
V) urs -'
il H H&
!(J
2gHrAx
D
l
.E
o
cJ
,ru - _0i (3.7e)
o o() dF,
o 6o-
L)F
gL
0
c Er
^ _Q?CP
o
(J
o
C) 'r',-Z
Now I/p may be determined flrom Eq. 3 '18'
*Boundry conditions for the simultaneous operation of the PRV and wicket Eates ale de-
veloped in Section 10.7.

l
 Ii
'l
I

68 Applied HYdraulic Transients ,l't Method of Characteristics 69

70 gau8e-type pressure'cell, which delivered linear output

within 0.6 percent over
its enti.re ranBe. The naturar frequency of trre cel was greater
,7 than l00o Hz, and
. it was calibrated against the deadweight gauge. A multiturn potentiometer
me-chanically connected to the pRv-stroke mechanism
b
.t PRV opening, and a Westinghouse leading-edge flowmeter2s
was used to measure the
was ,r.io *"rrr*
/ the transient-state flows.
The computed and measured tansient-state pressures and flows
q. ae shown in
Fig- 3.20. In the prototype test, the pRv was frst opened from
,'1 0 to 20 percent
s


Mode I
,"/
lkrotutypc
I
e
20
q


-
,,L
!
,/ \ '-
b \t ,L
.T / q- 24
q
I Tima (scc)

Gol opeaing (o/6 )

Figure 3.1 9. Discharge characteristics of pressure-regulating valve,

In the cornputer analysis, the upstream contuit was represented by I I pipes

while the conduit downstream of the PRV was neglected because ol its short
E /ott
length. Lined and unlined segments of the tunnel were combined into two lined
\
and unlined reaches, and the D-shaped tunnel wrs replaced by a circular conduit t 340 b\

,\ t
having the same cross-sectional area. The waterhammer wave velocity2a was e

computed by taking the modulus of rigidity of the rock as 5.24 CPa, and assum-
ing the penstock to be anchored at the lower end and free lor longitudinal ex- t ,30
i

6
\
pansion at the upper end. The friction factor for various conduits were com"
puted such that they included the friction and minor losses, such as expansion,
contraction, and bend losses. Thus, although the minor losses are concentrated
at various locations in tlre actual system, thesc are assumed to be distributed
along the conduit length. In the author's opinion, this approximation should not
introduce large errors in the analysis. The head losses computed using these
values of friction factors and those measured on the prototype are in close
agreement -

A number of transient-state tests were conducted on the prototype. Steady-

state pressures were measured by a Budenberg deadweight gauge having a certi- Timc (sac)
lied accuracy of 0.35 m. Transient-state pressures were measured with a strain- Figure 3.20. Comparison of computed and measued results.

,l
 Method of Characteristics 7l
7O APPlied Hydraulic Transients

ataveryslowrateandwaskeptatthisopeninguntilsteadyflowwasestablished
pnV was then closed from 20 percent to 0 (Fi8' i+l
in tn. prtr"rm conduit' fne Coodul
the tet. In the computer
J.z1. irr" wicker Bates were kept closed throughout
but was held percent
at I
.i"rr, fr.*ever, rf,e pRV was not completely closed
gates'
oprning,o simulate the leakage through the wicket
-'E, presufes
.in Fig. 3.20" the oomputed and measured transient
be seen fronr
agree closely up to an Ilapsea time ol
about 18 s; afterward' there is good Figure 3.21, Vlve at seriesjunction.
the measured results
...*.", et*een the shapes of the pressure curves butthan that indicated by
show that fhe pressure *'ut* t" dissipated more rapidly tion, and the equation for flow through the valve. Solve these equations
theresultsofthemathematicalmodel.lnaddition,themeasuredperiodofthe may be simultaneousty to obtain an expression fot Qrr,nrr-)
than the computed period' These differences
or.rtrl.-Lt"rfhtions is less for computing the transient'state 3.5. Provethatif thevalveinFie.3.2l isreplacedbyanorificeandtheconduits
formula
r.io ,ring the steady_state friction in
as discussed i and i + I hve the same diameter, wall thickness, and wall material, then
friction losses and the reduction ofwave velocity at low pressures
Section 2.6. The computed and neasured
discharge agree closely' QP,n*t= QPi+t,t=-6 +1/[T @ ali
in which C= QZI(C,LHo) and Aff, is the orifice head loss for Qo.
3.9 SUMMARY 3.6. Is the equation for Qp^nr, given in Problem 3.5 valid for the reverse flow?
If not, derive a similar quation for the reverse flow.
In this chapter, the details of the method of characteristics were presented, and
3.7. Develop the boundary conditions for the pressure-regulating valve and the
anumberofsimpleboundaryconditionsweredeveloped.Stability.andcon.
and a proce.
scheme were discussed, Fancis turbine shown in Fig. 3.18. The transient conditions are caused
,',e',". .,,itions for the finite.ilrerence
a complex system' For by opening or closing the valve. Assume that the turbine speed and the
rr? *., outlined for the selection of tinre interval for wicket-gate opening remain constant during the transient-state conditions.
illustrationpufPoses'acomputationa|procedureforanalyzingtransientcondi.
was
The chapter 3.8. Prepare a flowchart for programming the boundary conditions developed in
tions caused byclosing a valve in a series system was Preented.
results for the transient Problem 3.7.
concluded by comparing the computtd and measured
by th closure of a ressure-reg,ulating valve in a hydroelectric 3.9. A procedure called zooming is presented in Ref. l7 in which the time step
.naition,
generating
"aus.a
station. for the tong pipei may be an integral multiple of that for short pipes' How-
ever, the procedure requires extrapolation at the junction of pipes having
different time steps. Invetigate the effect of extrapolation on the pressure
PROBLEMS peaks for the piping system shown in Fig. 3.17a. Assume that pipe No' 2 is
90.mJong instead of 450 m as shown in the figure. (I/inr; Solve the system
-3.1.Povethattheequationsofthecharacteristiccurvesttedx|dt=V!diIt.he using the zooming procedure and then using the sarne Af for the whole sys-
is not neglcted and
i.r* V(dvldx) of the dynamic equation (Eq' 2'10) equation. tem as deternined by the Courant's condition.)
there is an adrlitional term 7(0ff/0x) in the continuity
pump running at rated
3.2. Develop the boundary conditions for a centrifugal
in the suction line'
speed, iaking into consideration trnsients R"EFERENCES
shown in Fig' 3'l7a' Run
3.3, Write a computer Program fo the pipingsystem l. Ralston, A. and Wilf, H. S, (eds.), Mothemotical Methods for Digital Comptters, lohn
plot graph between the com-
the program foruariJus values of Ar and a
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Yok, 1960.
puted Pressure at the vatve and Ar' 2. Errangelisti, G., "Waterhamne Analysis by the Method of Characteistics," L'Energia
or closingvalve located at
3.4. Develop the boundary conditions for an opening
-.'theunctionoftwoconduits(Fig.3.21).(Hint:Thefollowingfourequa.
Elettica, Nos. 10-1 2, 1969, pp. 67 3-692, 759-7 70, 8 39-85 8.
3. Webster, A. G., Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, Dover Publica-
equation for section-i' n + l; tions, Inc., New York, 1950.
tions are available: the positive chaacteristic
characteristlc equation for section i + l l; the continuity
equa- 4. Stokg, 5.l.,Wat llave, lntescience, New Yok, 1965.
the negative '

l
 x
'r,2 APplied HYdraulic Transients Method of Charactenstics 73

5.Abbott,M.B',AnlntroductiotltotheMethodofCharacteristics,AmcricanElsevie, ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

New York, 1966'
Ftuid Flow, Academic Press, New
o. ir.r, *.,'ih",rotcal Theory of Compressibte Symposium, Waterhammer in Pumped Storage Projects, Chicago, Nov. 1965, published by
York, I958. Amer. Soc. ot Mech. Engrs.
Z. Gray, C. A. M., "The Analysis of the Dissipation of Energy in Waterhammet"'Ptoc' Evangelisti, G., "On the Numericl Solution of the Equations ofPropagation by the Method
AmBr. Soc. Citit Engrs., vol. 119, 1953, pp' lL76-1194' of Chaacteistics," Meccanica, vol. l, No. 1 12, 1966, pp. 29-36.
E.Couront,R.,MethodsofMathematcalPhysics,lnterscience'NewYok'1962 Clontractor, D. N., "The Reflection of Watehammer Pressure Waves from Minor Losses,"
g. pertcjns,'F. E., Tedrow, A. c., Eagleson, P. S., and lppen, A. T.,Hydro'Power Plant Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs.,vol.87, Series D, June 1965.
Transients, Part tt, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Hydrodynamics
Lab' Report No' 71' Miyashiro, H., "Waterhammer Analysis of Pump System," Bull. Japan Soc. of Mech. Engrs.,
Masschussetts lnstitute of Technology, Sept' 1964' vol. 10, No. 42,1967, pp.952-958.
t0. treete, V. L. and Wylie, E. 8., Hydraulic Transents, McCraw-Hill Book Co'' New Combes, G. and Zaoui, J., "Analyse des ereurs introduites par I'utilisation pratique de la
York,1967. methode des caracteristiques dans le calcul des coups de belier," La Houille Blanche,vol.
..The Numeical solution of Hyperbolic Partial Differential Equations by 22, No. 2, 1967, pp. 195-2A2.
-- Lister, M.,
11.
it"ll.,oaof Chaacteristics," chapter inRef l, pp 165-1?9'r: Fox, J. A., "The Use of the Digital Computer in the Solution of WatehammerPoblems,"
12,Fox,P.'..TheSolutionofHyperbolicPartialDifferentialEquations.byDifference Proc. Institution of Civil Engrs., Papcr 7020, vol. 3 9, Jan. I 968, pp. 177-l3l .
Methods," chaPter in Ref, l ' Brown, F. T., "A Quasi Method of Characterislics with Application to Fluid Lines with
ed.' Springer'
13. Collatz, L., The Numetical Treatment of Differential Equations, Thd Frequency Dependent Wall Shear and Heat Tansfe," Ame. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., Paper
Berlin, I 960. No. 68-WA/Aut.-7, Dec. 1968.
Solution of
l4. O'Brien, G. C., Ilyman, M. A., and Kaptan' S"'A Study of the Numerical Fox, J. A. and Henson, D, A., "The Predicon of the Magnitudes of Pessure Transients
partial Differential Equations," Jour. Marh. ond Physics,No.29, 1951, pp.223-251 Geneated by a Train Entering a Single Tunnel," Ptoc., Ltstitution of Civil Engrs., Paper
15. Streeter, v. L. and Lai, c., "waterhammer Analysis Including Fluid Friction,",Iou. 7365, vol.49, May 1971,pp.53-69.
Hyd. Die., Amer. Soc. ofCiv- Engrs., Mav, 1962, pp'19-Il2' Steeter, V. L., "Unsteady Flow Calculations by Numarjcal Methods," Ame. Soc. of Mech.
..Watehamme Analysis," Iour. Hyd. Div., Amer. Soc. of Civ. Ensrs.,
16. Sireeter, V. L., Engrs., Paper No. 71-WA-FE-I3, Nov, 1971, 9 pp.
Nov. 1969, PP. 1959-1971' . Sheer, T. J., "Computer Analysis of lVaterhammer in Powe Station Cooling Water Sys-
Modelling
1?. Kaplan, M., elonogoff, G., and Wentwoitt, R. C., "Economic Methods for tems," Proc, First International Conference on Pressure urges, published by British Hy-
Hydraulic Transient simulation," Proc. First [,ltefnational conference on
hesute dromechanics Research Assoc,, Sept. 1 97 2, pp. D l -1 -D I -1 6.
urSes,Canterbufy,England,publishedbyBritishHydromechanicReseachAssoc., Martin, C. S., "Method of Characteristics Applied to Calculation of Surge Tank Oscilta-
Sept. 1972, pP. A4-33-44-38. tions," .&oc. First lnterfiatonal Conference on hessure .9urge,r, pubiished by British
Ig. yow, W., .iumerical Error on Natual Gas TransientCalculations," Trans. Amer- Soc' Hydromechanics Reseach Assoc., Sept. 1972, pp. El-l-Et-l2.
of Mech. Engrs., vol- 94' Seies D, no' 2, 197 2, pp ' 422-428 ' Proceedings, First Intertwtionol Conference on hessure urges, Canterbury England, Sept.
lg.wylie,E'8...TansientAquiferFlowsbyCharacteristicsMethod,',Iour.Hyd.Div., 1972, published by British Hydromechanics Reseach Assoc., England.
Ainer. Soc. ofCivil Engrs.,vol. 102, Mach 1976, pp' 293*305' Lai, C., "Some Computational Aspects of One nd Two Dimensional Unsteady Flow Simu-
20.Rachford,H.H.andTodd,D.,..AFast,HighlyAccurateMeansofModelingTransient lation by the il{ethod ofCharacteristics," Internat. Syntposium on Unsteody Flow in Open
Flow in Gas Pipeline systems by Variational Methods," Jour. Soc. of Petroleum Engn., Charinels, Ncwcastle-upon-Tyne, England, published by Bitish Hydromechanics Research
Aprill974,pp.tos-lzs.(SeealsoDiscussionbyStoner,M.A',andAuthors'Reply, Assoc., April 1976.
pp.175-178.) Wylie, E. B. and Streeter, V. L., "One-Dimensional Soil Transients by Characteristics,"
21. Wylie, E, 8., Steeter, V. L., and Stoner, M' A., "Unsteady-State Natural Ga Transient Proc., 2nd lnternational Conference on Numerical Methods in Geonzechonics, Virginia
1974' pp-
Clcuations in Complex Pipe Systems,"Jour. Soc. oPetroleum Engrs., Feb. Polytechnic Institute, Virginia, June 1976.
35-43.
22. Portfors,E.A.andchaudhry,M.H.,"AnalysisandPrototypeveilicationofHydraulic
Transients in Jordan Rive Powe Plant," Rel I 7, pp' Ea'57'Ea-72'
23. Chaudhry, M. H. and Portfors, E. A., 'A Mathematical Model for Analyzing Hydraulic
Transients in a Hydroelectic Power Plant," Aoc. First Canadifun Hydraulic Conference,
published by the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, May 1973' pp' 298-114'
24. iamakian, J., lqaterhammer Anolyss, Dover Publications, Inc', New Yok, 1963'
25'Fische,s.c.,..'rneWestinghouseLeadingEdgeUltrasonicFlowMeasuementSys.
tem," presented at the spring meeting, Amer. Soc' of Mech' En8s', Boston, May 1973'

)
 Transients Caused by Centrifugal Pumps 75
CHAPTER 4
negative pres$ures caused by these operations. FollowinB a power failure, the
pump speed reduces since tl.re pump inertia is usually small compared to that of
the liquid in the discharge line. Because the flow and the pumping head at the
TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY punlp are reduced, negative pressure waves propagate downstream in the dis-
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS charge line, and positive pressure waves propagate upstream in the suction line'
Flow in the discharge line reduces rapidly to zero and then reverses through
the pump even though the latter may still be rotating in the normal direction. In
this condition (i.e., when there is reverse flow through the pump while it is rotat-
ing in the normal direction), the pump is said to be operating in the zone of en'
ergt dissipation. Because of the reverse flow, the pump slows down rapidly,
stops momentarily, and then reverses, i,e., the purnp is now operating as a tur'
bine. The pump speed increases in the reverse direction until it reaches the run-
away speed. With the increase in the reverse speed, the reverse flow through the
purnp is reduced due to choking effect, and positive and negative presule wave
4.I INTRODUCTION are produced in the discharge and suction lines, respectively"
in pumping installations' To tf the pipeline profile is such that the transient-state hydraulic grade line falls
The starting or stopping of pumps causes transients
of characteristics presented in chapter 3 below the pipeline at any point, vacuum presure may occur, and the water col'
analyze these transients, the method
unrn in the pipeline nray seplrate at that point. Excessive Preure will be pro'
,ilUr used. Since the pumping head anrl flow depend upon thein pump
-t-ruir*nrrtrt" the
speed'
analysis' duced when the two columns later rejoin. During the design stages, the possibility
speed change, |,or-, to be taken into consideration
special"boundary conditions for the pump end of
a pipeline of water-column separation should be investigated, and, if necessary, remedial
foi tfri, prrporu,
measures should be taken. This will be discussed in detail in.Chapter 9.
have to be develoPed.
Inthischapter'theanalysisoftralientcausedbyvariouspurnp-oPeratonls
p.n,.a. A procedure fr storing the pump characteristics in a digital computer 4.3 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF A PUMP
and a typical
is outlined, boundary conditions for a pump end are developed, As discussed in Chapter 3, the relationship between the discharge, Q, and the
presented, and
criteria for designing pipelines are then
froulem is solved. Desigr pressure head, //, at the boundary must be known in order to develop the bound'
ihe chapter concludes by a presentation of a case
study'
ary conditions. The discharge of a centrifugal pump depends upon the rotational
speed, tr, and the pumping head, ff; and the transient-state speed changes depend
4.2 TRANSIENT CONDITIONS CAUSED BY VARIOUS
PUMP
upon torque, I, and the combined moment of inertia of the pump, motor, and
OPERATION liquid entrained in the pump impeller. Thus, four variables-namely, 8,H,N,
and l-have to be specified fo the mathematical representation of a pump. The
DuringaPumpstarl.up'thedischargevalveisusuallykeptclosedtoreducethe curves showing the relationships between these variables are called the pump
purnp speed reaches the rated speed,
electrical load on the pump motof ; and as the characteistics. Various authors.have presented these curves in different graphi'
the valve is gradually opened. Usually, in a normal pump-stopping procedure'
cal forms suitable for graphicall-a or computers-8 anatysis. Of all the methods
is first closed slowly, and then the power supply to the pump
the discharge*vatve proposed for storing pump characteristics in a digital computer, the method used
these operations may be
,nto, i, ,riitrhrd off. Transients caused by both of by Marchal et al.6 appears to be the most suitable and is used herein.
by using the boundary conditions developed in Cirapter 3
since the
in piping svstem' Although pump-characteristics data in the pumping zone are usually available,
"nriyr. conitant during the transients the
;;;;;.t ,..uJn, almost not or stopped as previously outlined' then little data, except that presented in Refs, 4 and 8, ae available foreither the zone
However, if the pumps are started
of enerry ssipation or the zone of turbine operation. If the complete character-
analysis'
proc.drr.s outlined n this chapter should be used for the transient istics data are not available, then the characteristics of a pump having a6out
pump operations (e'g" sudden power failure)
Transients caused by emergency
the same specific speed rnay be used as an approxitnation.
to withstand positive and
are usually severe, ,nU if,. pp"lie'stroutd Le designed

14

I
 fr rsie:rts Ci,:sed by Centrifugal Purnps '1,,,
16 Applied Hydraulic Transients
Zones of pump operation.
Data for prototype pump characteristics are obtained fronr model test results
by using homologous relationships.e Two pumps (or turbines) are considered
honrologous if they are geornetrically sinrilar and the streamflow pattern through Zone of Operation Rangc of e
them is also silnilar. For homologous pumPs, the lollowing ratios are valid
Pump + 0'< d < 90'
H) Energy dissipation + 90"<0<180'
= Constant 180"<d<270"
N7 I Turbne
Turbine eoergy
and I (4.1) dissipation 270"<o<360"

4
8D"=
corr,rnt
)
I
Since a becomes zero while analyzing transients for all four zones ofoperation,
in which D = diameter of impeller. Since D is constant for a particular unit, it l/a2 becomes infinite. To avoid this, the paranleter hl(az + u2) instead of hlaz
may be included in the constants of 8q.4.1, i.e.,
may be used.r
The signs of o and a depend upon the zones of operation. In addition to the
4N'I
= conrtrntl need to define a different characteristic curve for each z-one of operation, a/u be.
comes infinite for u =0. To avoid this,a new variable 0 may be deflned as
and I (4.2)
0 = tan-r I (4 s)
I

{=
o)Con.trrt I
and then the characteristic curve rnay be plotted between 0 and ft/(a2 + u2).
By definition, 0 is a.lways finite, and its value varies between 0" and 360" for the
Equation 4.2 may be nondinrensionaliied by using the quantities [or the rated
four zones of operation (see Table 4.1).
condition as reference values. lrt us define the lollowing dimensionless variables :
Similar to the pressure-head curve, the torque characteristic curve may. be
O plotted between l@" + u2) and 0.
u=
eo Using the data presented by Thomas,s characteristic curves for pumps having
specific speed*{' of 25,1 147, and 261 SI units (1276,7600, and 13,500 gpm
H
11 =-HR units, respectively) are presented in Fig. 4.1 and in Appendix E,
(4.3)
N 4.4 BOTJNDARY CONDITIONS FOR PUMP FAILURE
.a= -^
Iy'R As discussed in Chapter 3, the characteristic equation (equations r/the boundary
has pipes on both the upstream and downstream sides) and the conditions im-

+Marchal el al. suggest that sgn (Dtfrill@T be used to increase accuracy for smalle I

In this equation, I= torque and
the vaiue of the vari-
may be written as
values of this parameter (sgn designates sign of fr). However, hl(a2 + p2 is used herein
i
because it simplifies the derivation of the boundary conditions for the pump end (see Sec-
I

ables for the rated conditions. On tion 4.4). i

no **Specficspeed=il.,@lax'ln. InSIunits,y'r'isin rpm,QRisinm3/s,andf/pisin

.r
m; in gpm units, lr' is in rpm, O is in gpm, and I/ is in ft. For a double-suction pump,
On is dded by 2 while computing the specific speed.
(4.4) fSome authors erroneously use a specific speed of 35 SI units for this pump, As the pump
had a double suction, rated discharge should be divided by two to compute the specific
speed (see Closue of Ref. 8, p. A-1"24 and A-127).

[r"- -\

n.\ -- '-7:u
,l-:::
",/

)
 78 ApPlied HYdraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal Pumps 79
i. H k
posed by the boundary are solved simultaneously to determine the boundary
:
\ 61
conditions. For a pump end, the pump characteristics define the conditions im-
posed by the boundary, and a differential equation defines the variation of the
./'\ pump speed with time following power failure. Thus, we have to simultaneously
\ rrr
solve these equations to develop the boundary conditions for the pumpend.
o \ !-xr= To facilitate understanding of the deivation, let us first consider a simple sys-
l: l
i tem having only one pump and a very hort suction line. We will develop the
'l"i boundary conditions for more complex cases in the next section.
f,'25
\\
" Equations of Conditions Imposed by Pump
t20 l@ z.\ 2ro
As we outlined in Section 4.3, pump chaacteristics may be mathmatically rep-
6 q6-l dcrrrr
' f;.in resented by curves between 0 and hl(az + u2) and between 0 and 0/(42 + u2), in
which 0 = tan-t (a/u). To use these curves in a mathematical model, discrete
points on these curves at equal intervals of 0, between the range 0 =0 and 0 =
lo) PrcssurG
360o, are stored in the computer. Each segment of these curves between the
points stored in the computer may be approximated by straight lines (Fig. 4.2).
,i
'trJ
If a sufficient number of points (e.g., 73) are stored, then the error introduced
i :t, lit by approximating the curves by segmental straight lines is negligible.
.'i .. 1 *---:',:':-'

'i |- '! ::"4 \- For any value of a and u (except when both a and u are simultaneously zero),
the value of 0 = tan-t (alu) may be detemined by using IBM function ATAN2'
n ki,':J J-i"-*ul
."--ts '\/1 However, this function computes the value of 0 between 0 and n and between 0
. t,-=-t>

t'
,/ lt
i )r' 'rn'=

"li

0. ron-'f;

(il Torqu,
tri
\
g- lon-l 5
v
Figure 4.1. Oaacteistics of pumps o[ vrrious specific speeds,
Figure 4.2. Approxmation of pump characteristic curves by segmented straight lines'

)
 :.T

80 Applied Hydraulic Transients

Transients Caused by Centnfugal Pumps 8l

and *r, whereas our range of interest is between 0 and 2tt. This limitation can fL
be circumvented by adding 2n to the computed value of 0 if 0 < 0; e.g., if d
-
given by this function is -30", then the value ofd to be used for determining the
point on the pump characteristic cuile is 360 - 30 = 330".
Lt us assume that the calculation has progressed to the ith time step; that the
variables a, u, h, and at the beginning of this tme step are known; and that we
want to compute the values of these variables at the end of the time step. Let us
denote tlrese unknown variables by ap, up,hr, and, p. To determine the value
of these variables, we have to first of all determine the equaon of the segment
of pump characteristics corresponding to ap and u. However, since the values
of these variables are initially unknown, we may use, as a first estimate, thei
values determined by extrapolation from the known values for the previous time
steps, i.e. ,

Qe=0i+Aai-tl
(4.6) (i, t)
Ue = Ui + Our-, J

in which & and u" are the estimated va.lues at the end of ith time step, a and
u refer to known values at the beginning of the ith time step, and Aa-, and
Au-, are the variation of these variables during the (, - l)th time step. Since
the pump speed and the purnp scharge vary gradually, the preceding linear
extrapolation should yield sufficiently accurate estimates if the size of the com-
Figure 4.3. Notation of boundary conditions for pump.

putational time step, Ar, is small. Now, the grid points on either side of d = tan-r
(q"lo") are searched, and the ordinates hl@7 + u2) and l@' + u2) for these grid in which l/"u" = height of the liquid surface in the suction eservoir above datum,
points are determined from the stored values. From these, the constants* for f/p = pumping head at the end of the time step, and AHp,= head loss in the dis-
the equation of the segmental straight line are determined. Now, assuming that charge valve. Note that the velocity head in the discharge pipe, which is usually
the points corresponding ta ap,up,hp, and pp lie on these straight lines, then small, is not taken into consideration in Eq. 4.9. The valve head loss is given by
the equation:
hP dp
.- ;=ot1.dztan-' -, (4.7)
Ai' + U'p -Up 6Hpu= Cu Qb,, = C, Qp,rlQp,rl (4.r0)
_;:;Fr =lttAa tan-t. _ &p
(4.8)
a'p + u, up in which C, = coefficient of head losses in the valve. Note that in this equation,
Q'r,,riswritten utQp.r lQr,.,,lto account for the reverse flow.
in which a t and o2, and a3 and d4 are constants for the straight lines represent- Equations 4.7 to 4.10 represent the conditions imposed by the boundary.
ing the head and torque characteristics, respectively.
Referring to Fig. 4.3, the following equation can be written for e total head
at the pump: Differential Equation of Rotating Masses
Hri,r=H"r"tHp' 6He, (4.e)
The accelerating torque for a rotational system is equal to the product of the
ngular acceleration and the polar moment of inertia of the system. Since there
*lf y=o, +z is the equation ofa straight line passing through the points (.r,y) and is no external torque acting on the pump followingpower failure, the deceleat-
(xz, y), then I = (y tx2 - y2x r)l(x2 - x ) and. o2 = ( y z * y t)lkz ^ x ).

I
82 Applied Hydraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal Pumps 83

ing torque is the pump torque. Hence,

Continuity Equation
^ d<
T=-WR- Since there is no storage between the suction reservoir and section (i, 1)
dt
Qr,r= Qr U'1'7)
in which Qp = flow through the pump at the end of the time step.
r=-trR2+
60 dt ry (4.11)
Solution of Governing Equations
in which [/R 2 = conrbined polar moment
of inertia of the pump, motor, shaft,
and liquid entrained in the pump impeller, and c^ andl/are rotational speed of To develop the boundary condition, we have to solve Eqs.4.7 through 4.10'
the pump, in rad/s and in rpm, respectively. On the basis of Eq. 4.3, Eq. a.l I 4.14, 4.16, and 4.17 simultaneously. By eliminatin1 Hr,r, AHpu, e.nd Qpr,,
may be written as: from Eqs. 4.9,4.10,4.16, and 4.17 and by using Qp and //R as reference values,
the resulting equation may be written as
2rNn da
' = -lltR2 60TR dt
B (4.12) Qnup = Cn + Castsc + Co$php - CoC,Qzpuplupl (4.18)

Now we have fou equations-i.e., Eqs. 4.7, 4.8,4.14, and 4.1S-in four un-
In this equation, I =60 THpQpl(2rNpnn) in which 7=specific weight of knowns-cp, up, hp, Fp. To simplify the solution, we will first eliminate ftp and
liquid, and rlr = pump efficiency at rated conditions. By using an average value
Bp from these equations as discussed in the following.
of p during the time step, this equation nray be written in a finite-difference By substituting for hp from Eq. 4-7 into Eq. 4.18 and for pp from 8q.4.8 into
form as: Eq.4.l4 and simplilying, we obtain
ap-e=_ 60TR +Fp 9
(4.r 3) F1= CoHpal@$ + r7 + CoHnaz(a2p + u) tan-t - g*u,
Lt 2tl1)R2Nr- 2 Up

which may be simplified to - CoC,nvplupl+ Cn + Crflru" = 0 (4.1e)

ap-Cu|=s+CdA (4.14) oo
Fz = ap - Cuar(ai + u7) - C5aa(al, + u) tan- - o- ca=o
in which p

-15 TRA| (4.20)

^ _-
'u ,wn (4. r s)* Equations 4.19 and 4.?0 are nonlinear equations in two unknowns' op and up.
These equations can be solved by using the Newton-Raphson method in which a
solution of the equations is f,irst guessed, which is then relined to a required de'
Characteristic Equation for Discharge Pipe gree of accuracy by successive iterations.
fet cf;) and uf) be the initially estimated values of solution, which may be
As the suction line is short, it may be neglected in the analysis. Therefore, we taken equal to c. and u, as determined from Eq.4.6.t Then, abetterestimate
need only the characteristic equation for the discharge line, i.e., for section (i, I ), of the solution of Eqs. 4.19 and 4.20 is
Qr,r= Cn + CoHp,., (4.16) af;)=ap)+aao (4.21)*{,

*ln u$)=rf)+aup (4.22)**

English units, the right-hand sides, of Eqs. 4.1 I and 4.12 have to be divided by the ac-
celcration of gravity. g. In SI units, hrR2 is in kg m2 and I is in Nm; in the English units,
l/R2 is in lb-ft2, and ?" is in lb-ft. ^i!t/ in both SI and English unitsis in rpm. In English *Superscript (l) indictes estimated values and superscript (2) indicates valtes after first
units, ths right-hand side of Eq. 4.15 has to be multipled by g. iteation.
t*These eruations ntay be deduced front the gcncral derivation presented on p' 91.

,l
 "iransint. Calseo i:l Centrifugal Pumps S
84 Applied Hydraulic Transients

in which
aF, dF,
F.'dup -F,
dup
6ap = (4.23)
aR aFz _ a\ aFz
Dar up lup dap Coptt. 4. oDA \ ltu EC. ,t.e

F." AF, AF"

'-F, '}ap '
^ dap
op= -ll-arz --l' - (4.24)
Soor tid tciu. q .t
-
A,,, W a"" a,.
In Eqs. 4 23 and 4.24, functions F1 and .F2 and their derivatives with respect to
ap and up are evaluateo at <rl) and ult). Differentiation of Eqs. 4.19 and4.2O
yields the following expressions for these derivatives: Fq o<. al t., cilpet, . tr. 3!. IIf-
.- \r- bar ' tt
Cp\ fi -r* tM Et'. 1.te, 4e iff."i'L.r'
Y
dep
= r,rJla1ap + aTup I )srqr la-r
\ *)
(4.2s)
Oat.ria. 6x, oad 6t, froa
aF, co'*\2ar
I ur - o2ap * 2a2up lan-t s)- Eor, 1.2t @d a.2a

au;
=
Dpl
o*
. . d.+-a(t
- 2coc,Shlupl (4.26)

dFz /
= |- Cd(Zasee + a4up + 2aaap lan-l (4.27)
dor fi)
aF" dp
___: = cu(-zrru, t acap 2aup lan-r (4.28)
Dup up )
If l6cpl and lurl are less than a specified tolerance (e.g.,0.001), then of;) and
uf;) are solutions oJ Eqs.4.l9 and 4.20. Otherwise,af) and uf;) are asiumed
equal to of;) and ul'z), and the above procedure is repeated until a solution is ob-
tained. Having determined op and up, it is verified whether the segment of the
pump characteristic used in the computations corresponds to ap and up. If it
Dara?Dlaa i lo, t oDd c<,
does not, then c, and u, are assumed equal to a and u, and the abovementioned
procedure is repeated.
However, if the correct segment was used, then tp and pp are determined from
Eqs. 4.7 and 4.8; Hp ad Qp from Eq. 43; and Hp,,, and Qpr,, from Eqs. 4.9
and 4.17. The values of c and u are initialized for the next time step (i.e.,a =cp
and 0 = r), and e solution progresses to the next time step. To avoid an un- Figure 4.4. Flowchrt for boundary condiiions for pump.
limited number of iterations in the case of divergence of solution, a counter may
be used so that the computations are stopped if the number of iterations exceeds
a specified value (e.g., 30). The flowchart of Fig.4.4, illustrates this procedure.

I
86 Applied HYdraulic Transients
Transients Caused by Centrifugal Pumps 8j
4.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES
bFt 9J -
= CoHn(oru, - ozp + 2azup,rn-' nrQn - 2CoCuQTnlupl
In Section 4.4, boundary conditions were developed for a system having only dur
one pump ard a hort suction line. Because of the short length, the propagation
of the waterhamnter waves in the suction line was negleCted. In this section, we
will develop boundary conditions for complex systems olten found in practice. Expression lor Fr,d\ fiap, F2ldap, and dF2lbupare given by Eqs. O ,rO|O=r' ,
Boundary conditions for systems not covered herein may be developed by fol- 4.27, and 4.28, respectively.
lowing a similar procedure. 2. Long suction line (Fig. 4.5). If the suction line is not short compared to
we will briefly describe the system configuration, and then preent the govern- the discharge line, then waterhammer in the former has to be considered in the
ing equations and tl.re expressions lor F , F2, AFt lap, AFl ldup, 0F2llap, and analysis. Therefore, we have to include the characteristic equation for the suc-
dF2lavp. using these expresions' the solutions may be determined as outlined tion line, Referring to Fig. 4.5,
in Section 4.4.
Hp--Hp*r,r- Hr,,n*, (4.33)
Parallel Pumps Qrr,rr, = Cp' CoiH p,n rt (4_34)

Systems having parallel pumps to which power fails simultaneously may be ana- Qrr*r,, = Cn * Co*rH rrr,, (4.3 5)
'each pump and the discharge
Iyzed as follows: If the length of pipe between
Qrr,nrr=Qpi*t,t=npQp (4.36)
manifld is long, then each pump may be handled as outlined in Section 4.4, and
the parallel piping system may be analyzed using the boundary conditions pre' In addition, Eqs. 4.7, 4.8, and 4.14 are valid for this case.
sented in Chapter 3 (note that the discharge manifold will be considered as a By multiplying Eq. +3j by.C,jrr, Eq. 4.35.by C,, substitung for er,n*r,
junction of two or more pipes). However, if the pipe between each pump and and Qp*t,t from 8q.4.36, and adding the resulting equations, we obtain
the discharge manifold is short, then this pipe may be neglected in the analysis,
and the combined discharge of all pumps rnay be considered as the flow at the npQp(Co+ Co,r) = CrCol CpCo,*, * CoCo*rHp (4.37)
upstream side of the discharge manifoid. Boundary conditions for the latter case
By using Qp and.I.R as reference values, F;q.4.37 may be written as
are developed in this section.
The oontinuity equation for this case is: nr(Co+ Coi*r)Qnu, - CnCr- CpCr,,
,_ _
,rr - (4.38)
Qe,,r= nPQ' (4.2e)

in which np = number of parallel punrPs.

Depending upon the tength of the suction line, boundaryconditions forparallel
pumps may be divided into the following two cases:

l.
Short sucton line. If the suction line is short, then the waterhammerwave
in this line may be neglected. On the basis of Eq. 4.29, Eq' 4.18 becomes
n pQnup = Cn * CoH *' + CoH ph p - CoCrQlp uplupl (4.30)

Equations 4.7,4.8, and 4.14 are valid for this case as well. Proceedingsimilarly Dischorge linc
as in Section 4.4, the following expressions are obtained: Pump
Pipc i
ap
F1 = Coqpa(afi + u2r) + CoHpa2(a$ + up) tan-r - npQnr 'i+t. t
up Suclion linc i,n+l '
- CoCrQ2puplupl + Cn * Cogsu" = O (4.3t)
Figure 4.5. Pump witft long suction tine.

)
dB Applied Hydraulic Transients
Transients Caused by Centrifugal Lumps Bg

Elimination of ftp from Eqs.4.7 and 4.38 yields tion line. However, if the pipe length between the pumps is short, then this pipe
nray be neglected in the analysis, and the combined boundary csnditions for
Ap
Fr=a1(u$+ u!)+ a'(al+ u!)tan-r
Up
-ctup+cr=0 (4.39) both the pumping units may be developed as discussed in the following.
Referring to Fig.4.6, the following equaons may be written for the system:
in which l. Pumping head
nc(Co* Cr,'r)Q*
^ - (4.4O) Hpirt,t = Hpn+r + Hp
+ Hp^ - LHpu (4.44'
"- -V.rH* 2. Continuity equations
_ cncot cPcr*,
^'r- -A,cn:H; (4.41) Qrr,n.r= npQ?o (4.45)

Qr6= Qr^ (4.46)

By di[ferentiating 8q.4.39 with respect to p and up, we obtain
Qp*r,r= npQpm (4.47)
roror * 2a2uy run-' !! + oroe (4.42)
#r= 3. Positive characteristic equation for suction line

I - Qrr.n*r= Cp - CorI{Pr,n*, (448)

= rorup t2a.ptrni' a2c.p - c7 (4.43)
#, Negative characteristic equation for discharge line
Equations 4.2A,4.27, and 4.28 define the expressions for F2, 0Fz/04p, and
Qrr*r,, = Cn + Co*H pr,1 (4J,e)
dF2ldvp.
5. Equation for head loss in the valve
Series Pumps (Fie. a.6)
AH Po = CuQe,r,rl grr*r, (4.s0)
rl
If the pipe length
between the two pumping-sets is long, then each pumping'set Equations for the punrp characteristics
may be analyzed indidually assuming the downstream pumps have a long suc-
do
hr^ = o, + fp^) + a2^(al* + u!_) tan-I (4.51)
lns lon, o n c ous hydrou hb ^(ub^ ;
gradt linc
hpu = a1o(azpu + a|o') + azu|p2ru + rfro) tan-r 9L (4.52'.)

j
+ e^ = at^kuil + 'p,o) + ar^(^ + ol-) tan-' % (4.53)
-
no, lguop
yolvc 16= ato{alo + oze)+ aa6(alu+ u}r tan-r p @s4)
Soclioa linc , tlpb
i+ t)
7. Equation for the rotating masses (i.e., equaons sinilar to Eq. 4.14)
ll
o-
!
L i,n+t ) i+lrl qp^- Co*p^=am*Co*F^ (4.s5)
qpb- C6bpb= q I Cctt (4.s)
Figure 4.5. Nottion for series pnmpe.

)
90 Applied HYdraulic Transients
Transients Caused by Centrifugal pumps 9l
In the preceding equations, subscripts b, m, and u refer to the booster and main
pump and to the valve, respectively; rp = number of pumping-sets connected in Ft=apo- Cuuforu(er+ ub^)+ooo(pu+ u'p*)t"n-' %I
parallel; and C, = coefficient ofhead loss in the valve. up^ )
To solve these equations, let us first reduce the numberof unknowns from 13 - at - CoFa (4.61)
to three as follows:
Now we have three nonlinear equations (Eqs.4.59-4.61) in three unknowns,
Elimination ol Ho,.o,r, Qp,n,t, Hr,*r,r, Qr*t,t, Qeo,and'fp, lrom Eqs' 4'44 o,p^, t)p^, and au. To solve these equations by the Newton-Raphson method,
to 4.50 yields we have to obtain a solution of the following equations:
npQp^ - Cn Cp - npQ, I ap,uo'- * aF, r aF. \(') -F')
HP^ + ='ff -- + c'npQr^1Qp-l (4'57)
(**
"o d',-'^ fio'* #,u*'1 = @'62)

ffp'
ff u*^- #6uPm + # u.',)t') -P{')
Using f/prr, and Qa^ as reference values, F,q.4.57 may be written as
= (4'63)
npQn^ npQn-
hrn,H*^+hpHna= uP^+ -Z:uP^
V; +#u*,)t')=-p{')
+ npc,Qzp^vp^lur^l (4.58)
ffo*^r # 6up- @.64)

:-
-ai+ r
?
"oi
In these equations, the functions Ft, Fr, and F3, and their derivatives, are eval-
uated for the estimated values of and qE, and a better estimate of
By substituting expressions for hp^ and hpo from Eqs. 4.51 and 4.52 into Eq. the solution is determined from the"1I,,,L'I,
iJfio*iffg equations:
4.58 and simplifying the resulting equation, we obtain
)= "L* + 6aPm (4.6s)

F1 = a1^Hp,n@b^ + u'p,J + a2^Hp^(azp^ + u'p^)t*-'

, m. 1"-
,gI= ,9I + 6upm (4.66)
uP^
*pa (4.67)
"t')= "Fl4
+ a + u'o-) + a2ul,eu(azpu * u?-)t"n-' 1" As before, the superscript in the parentheses refers to the number of the itera-
oHpo(u$o uP^ tion. The expressions for the derivatives obtained by differentiating Eqs. 4.59
n'2*^ n*
through 4.6 1 are
- npcuezp^up-lup^l P"ai+ I ur^ - ur^ * *vl+ I =o
-ai "rr,O.rr, = zar,nHR^,.p,, u 2or^Ho^ap- tan-r r az*HRo,t)p^
* Z
(4.68)
Note that in Eq. 4.59, we have replaced upt by upm since both are equal as

lhe number of main and booster pumping-sets are equal'

By eliminatinEf.e* from Eqs.4,53 and4.55 and,pu from Eqs.4.54and4.56, = 2or,,H*^up,n * Zat*Hp^up^ tan-t az^HR^r.p^
we obtain
# *
* * 2azupoop^ lun-' !!L -
Fz= apm - cu^br^@?^ r u'r^) + oo^(oi^ +ultm,)tan-tcol
'-
op^)
I
2aruprop^ atuHpuapo

- qm - C"^* (4.60) -2npc,e1p^lu,*l-* @.6s)

+

)
92 Applied Hydraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal Pumps 93

o. lniliol sleod! slole

2alrHpnapo lZazoHnor.po tan-l o'oHnou'^ (4.70) Hydroulic Arode lnc
#= ff* I
aF"
'=0 (4.7 t)
aaPb

jF' =I - zc6-a3*,apm - 2co^ao^sr,,

. -r
Qo
'm 6lese rro ir
\apm ' -nt '| Uo
,m
- Co^Aa^t)P- (4.72)

-2C6^a1^0p^ - 2C6^ua^ttp- tan-t * ,u^oo^or-

#= Z
(4.73) L
[_c 45O m = 550m
D= o.75m D = 0.75m
aF3 (4.74) o= 9OO m./sec. o = llOOm/sec.
=0 le o.ot f " 0.012
Doo
rm
Qo = O.5 mSlsec.
AF,
|- 2C6oatoo.po - 2C6uacoapotan-l - cuuooour^ (4.7s)
A= ff
Pump Dolo
= -2c6uotoup* - zc6uaauup^ t$-' yL * Cubao bora @.7 6)
# QF . 0.25 m3lsec.
H - 6Om
If l6op-1, l0o"ol,and 16u-1,
obtained by simultaneously solving Eqs' 4.62 N = llOO rpm
through i,, ur""i.tt than a"specied tolerance (e.g",0.001), then a$) , u$) , WRz = 16.85 kg- m per pump
afld a!'?I are solutions of Eqs. 4.59 through 4,61: otherwise, dlo , uf) , and dl?
are ass;med equal to rFI, and aBl, and the above procedure is repeated "' "';;";;'#::,::ndirions = o84
"F\^,
until a solution is obtaind. Then, it is verified whether the segrnent of pump
characteristics used in the computations corresponded to ap and up. If it does
not, then d.s,, es6, and uem are assumed equal to md uf) , respec' transient-state'conditions are caused by simultaneous failure of power to both
"9I, "9],
otherwise, the values of the remaining pump.
tively, and the above procedure is repeated I
variables are obtained from Eqs. 4.44 thLrough 4.56, and the solution pfogresses A computer program (Appendix C) was developed using the boundary condi-
to the next time step. tions derived in section 4.5 lor Paallel Pumps and the flowchart shown in Fig.
To avoid an unlimited number of iterations in the case of divergence of itera- 4.4. The method of chaacteristics discussed in Chapter 3 and the boundary
tions, a counte should be used so that ihe comPutations are slopped if the num- conditions for the reservoir and series junction were used to analyze the transient
ber of iterations exceeds a specified value (e.g., 30). conditions in the discharge line. The waterhammer wave velocity for various sec-
tions of the discharge line was determined using the equations presented in sec-
tion 2.6. The pump-characteristics data for N" = 25 SI units (1276 gpm units) ,^,q
4.6 EXAMPLE
shown in Fig. 4.1 were used in the analysis. At rated discharge and rated pump \
To illustrate the use of the above procedure, the pipingsystem shown in Fig.4.7 speed, the pressure head at the upstream end ofthe discharge line wouldbeequal
is analyzed. lnitially, both pumps are operating at rated condition, and the to the rated head. starting with this flow and pressure head at the upstream

"ll ir\;.

)
 94 Applied Hydraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal pumps 95
end, the steady*tate conditions in the discharge line The pressure rise during a start-up nray be reduced
were determined. Then, by having a slow start-up.
the power was assumed to fail, and the resulting transient conditionswere This can be done by increasing the wRl lf
com- th" purp motor, by reducing voltage,
puted. As the inertia of the liquid between the pump or by having a part-wind.ing start. The ov"rar'econon;t-;id;;.*irg
and the discharge manifold lnu.r*i-
was small, the discharge of both pumps was rumped mum presure to reduce the pipe-wall thickness
together and cJnsideed as by these ,nutt osri'Ould be in-
the flow at the upstregn end of the system. vestigated prior to their selection.
Computed esults are presented in Appendix C.

4.7 PUMP START-UP 4.8 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PIPELINES

In sonre piping systems, there is no contro! valve downstrearn once the layout and dimensions of a piping system
of the pump; there- have been selected, the maxi_
fore start'up procedures outlined in section 4.2 cannot be used. pump mum and minimum pressures for various opeiating
start-up conditions can be ieterrnined
in such installations may produce very high pressures, especiary by using the procedures outrined in sections 4.4,4.s,and4.7.In
if the notor is sign, all components of the
thesafestde-
of. the induction type and is started ,.rorr ih" Iine (i.e, rystem would be designed
wthut reducing the for the possibre-maximum
voltage). and minimum pressures with a liberal factor
oisafe,v. sr.r, , .rig, ,uoura,
The transients caused by a pump tart-up rnay be however, be uneconomical. Therefore, a factor
anaryzed by serecting a tart. of safety is chosen epenaing
up time, 4'
and by assuming that the pump speed incieases upon the risks and the probability of occurrence
lin"arry fion zero of a particur.,
tion during the life of the p-roject, i.e., the higher
to the rated speed in time e.
Trre motor manuiacturer can suppry the time taken the probability"p;;;tid;;;;;:
of occurrence,
by the motor to reach the rated speed. The time specified the higher is the factor of safety.
by the motormanu-
facturer should be decreased by abour 30 percenrr upon the frequency of occurrence, various operating
io ;f;;i. .Based conditions maybe
since the pump speed is known (it is aisumed to "utJn fromzeotorly',
increase
classified as normar, emergency, or catasrrophc.
A discussion of the operating
in
time 7"r), the data forthetorquecharacteristicsandmonlentofinetia, conditions included in each of these categories and
ruRz,of the recommended faclos of
the pump-moror are not required for the analysis. saletyl2 follows.
The pumping hea and the
pump discharge may be computed as outlined
in the following.
Estimate the nondimensionar pump discharge,
uu, at the .n or the tirne step
by extrapolation fron the known varues of ,lr Normal
itr previous tiniu,irpr,' rro,
the pump characteristics, determine lr" foi the known
value of a and for the esti-
nated value of the pump discharge, u* Then,I/p,,., Allthose operations that are likely to occur several
= hrn,i\ llri.t Urr ruU- pumping sytem are termed ngrmat. Appurtenances
times during the life of the
script (1, l) refers to the rst section on e dischiige line just
downsteam of
or devices (elg., surge tanks,
surge uppressors, and ar valves) provided
Now, using this value Hp,,,, compute the discharge at section in the system to reduce severe tran-
l|l."?1*p. .of
(1, I) from the negative characteristic sients are assumed to be properry designed
.quu'iion (Eq. 3.19), and to function as designed during
these operations.
Qp,,,= Cn * CaHe,,, (4.77) The fotlowing are considered to be normal operating
conditions:
and then determine un = Qr,,,l(npQn) in which np
= number of parallel pump,
I' Automatic or manuar.starting or tripping of pumps
throughout the entire
lf lup - uel { e, in which e is a specified tolerance (e.g., 0.00r), proceed range of pumping head. If there is ,r.thun
one pump on the line, all are
to the
next me step. otherwise, assume u" equal to the tripped simultaneously; however, onry one
mn of U,;;;;p;tr uu, may be ,t"rt. a time.
ofup and the estimated value, u"' auiinj tne previous
iteration, and repeat the
2. If a check valve is present near the pump; it closes inrt*tty
"t
procedure.
upon flow
reversal.
If the discharge line is uder a static head prior to the pump start-up, then ere 3' A surge tank does not drain and thus admit air into
the pipene, and it does
will be no flow into the discharge rine until ihe pumping not overflow unless an overflow spiilway is provided.
head exceeds this static
head' This condition can be incruded in the above analysis by assuming that
4. If there is an air chamber, it is assumerto hur. u minimum air vorume
during
Op,,, = 0.0 until 11p,,, exceeds e static head. a porvr failure.

,l
9 .r.pplied Hydrarriic "f ransients : l
As a result ol any of the above operations, the water column does not separate
at any point in the pipeline. However, if the water-column separation does
occur, then appurtenances such as air chambers, surge tanks, etc. should be pro.
vided to avoid l. But, if it is impractical or too costly, then special deyices will
be providedto minirnize the transient prcsstres when the columns subsequently
rejoin.
A factor of safety af three* based on the ultimate bursting strength of the
member and a suitable factor of safety against collapse are recornmended for the
transient pressures caused by norrnal operations.
Emergency
The enrergency operating conditions in pumping systems are those in which one
of the pressure-control devices malfunctions during power failure. These condi-
tions include:
I . One of the surge suppressors, surge tanks, or relief valves is inoperative.
2. Closure ol one of the check valves provided lor shutting off return flow
through the pumps is delayed and occurs at the time of maximum reverse flow.
3. Air-inlet valves,i[present in the system,are inoperative.
Since the probability ofoccurrence of these conditions is rather small, a factor
o[ safety ol two based on the ultimate bursting or collapsing strength is
suggested.
Catastrophic
Catastrophic conditions are those in which the protective equipment malfunc-
tions in the most unfavorable manner, such as loss of all ir in the air chamber,
very rapid abnormal opening or closing of a valve or a gate, and pump-shaft
failure. Because the probability of occurrence of any of these conditions is
extremely remote, a factor of salety of slightly more than one, based on the
ultimate bursting or collapsing strength, may be used.
4.9 VERIFICATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The transient-state prototype test data obtained on the Wind Gap Pumping Plant
by the Mechanical Design Unit of the Department of Water Resources, State of
California, Sacramento, was used to verify a mathematical model based on the
*A factor ofsafety of four is ecommended in Ref. 12,
Tiansients Caused by Centrifugal pumps g"l
boundary conditions developed in sections 4.4 and 4.5. In this section, plant
data are first presented; the tests, instrumentation, and mathematical model are
then briefly described. This is followed by a comparison of the computed and
measured results.
Plant Data
The wind cap Pumping Plant has five pumping units: rhree small units (Nos.
l-3) and two large units (Nos. 4, 5). since tesl data lor the large units only were
used for verication purposes, we will only list the parameters of these units ad
of their discharge line. The large units (Nos.4,5) are rnanifolded together into a
3.81-mdiameter pipe. Each unit has a combined. pump-rnolor luRl of gg,366
kg rn', and is rated 17.84 m3/s at a total head of 159.7 m when operating
at 360 rpm. The specific speed ol the pump is 33.8 (sr units). The pipeline is
628 m Iong and varies in thickness from I I to 27 mm. There is a discharge valve
on the downstream side of each pumping unit. This valve closes in iz tz,
following power faiture to the unit. The minimum and maximum total purnping
heads are 159.06 and I60.03 m, respectively, and the fiction loss in the pipeline
corresponding to a flow of bolh units is 1.8 m. To prevent backflow from the
downstream canat, a siphon is provided near the downstream end of the pipeline,
with the siphon having an air valve at its top. This valve opens as ,oon s po*",
fails to the pump-motors.
Tests and lnstrumentation
Single- and multiple-unit testswere conducted on both the small and large units.
Runaway tests were conducted by subjecting the units to simulated power
failure, with the discharge-valve closure delayed until after the units had reached
the steady-state runaway speed.
The strain-gauge-type pressure transducers were used to measure the transient-
state pressures on the upstream and downstream sides oftle discharge valve. A
valve position transducer (displacement) and an rpm (analog) transducer were
installed on all units tested to record the dscharge-valve closure ancl the unit
speed.
Mathematical Model
A computer program was developed based on the boundary conditions for the
pump end derived in sections 4.4 and 4.5 and on the flowchart of Fig. 4.4. The
closure of the discharge valve foilowing power failure may be included in the
)
 98 Applied Hydraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal pumps gg

analysis, if desired. The pumping stations may have several parallel pumps, and
the pumps may have long or short suction lines. To compute the transient con-
ditions in the pipeline, the. method of characteristics of chapter 3 and the bound-
ary conditions for the downsteam and upstream reservoirs and for the series
junction, derived in Section 3.3, were used in the program.

Comparison of Computed and Measurrd Results -

t
o9
The compited and measued results were eompared for the tests simulating
!
simultaneous power failure on Unit Nos. 4 and 5 with and without closure of the
discharge valve. Results for the case when the discharge valve remained open are
presented in Fig.4.8a, and results for the case when the valve was closed are
shown in Fig. 4.8b. As can be seen from the figure, the agreement between the t
I

tro

o
,a
o.t (b) Dischorge volve closed groduolly
E
o in 22 seconds

5 o. . Figure 4.8. {Continued)

: t
a
computed and measured recults is satisfactory.
d 0., However, the computed min!
mum presufB is lower than the measured
ninimum pressure. This difference
most probably due to the operation of the is
siphon valve, which wa not simulated
in the mathematical model.

4.IO CASE STUDY

The hydraulic transient studies,l3 c1ied
out by the HydroelectricDesign Di_
lloriri sion of British corumbia Hydro and power
llE IFTEI POUE' ALUiE -3EC Autiority fo the water suppry con-
sultant* during the preriminary design
of the rnakeup and cooring-water supply
system for the Hat creek project
(o) of the Authority, are presented in this section.
Dischorge volve remoined open
*andwell
Figure 4.8. Wind Gap Pumping Ptant. Comparison of computed and megued results. and Company Limited (Sandwell),
Vancouve, Bitish Columbia,
Canda.

)
i0v AppliedHydraulicTransit,.rts

WaterSupply System

As presently planned, the water-supply system (see Fig.4.9) for pumping water
ss
r, lrr
from the Thompson River to the plant reservoir would be comprised of an 800- :{ sJ
l{
mm-diameter buried pipeline, approximalely 23 km long; a pumping station
with five pumping units at the river intake; two booster stations, each with lour Jtorrrsa po/d
pumping units and a free-surface suction tank; and a reservoir near the power
plant. Each booster statin would have the free.surlace tank on the suction side.
E
The average and maximum discharges would be 0.725 and 1.60 m'/s, respec- o
tively, and the maximum total static lilt from the river intake to the plant feeJ, euttpery
reservoir would be 1083 m. The river intake would be located on the right bank o
r
of the Thompson River, 2.4km northeast of Ashcroft, British Columbia.
Both booster stations have three-stage pumps, each rated at 0.4 m3/s, 70 0

m, and 3580 rpm. The specific speed of each pump is 39.2 (SI units),and the

moment of inertia o[ punrp, motor, shaft, and entrained water in the impeller
is equal to 62 kg m2. If required, total inertia for each unit can be increased to U
420 kg m2 without exceeding the limits set by the pump start-up time. The A
o
pump manufacturer supplied the pump characteristics for the normal zone of leetJ ilo;uro) x
pump operation only. Since no data were available for the other zones and since
these characteristics agreed closely with those of Fig.4.l forl(" = 25 (SI units), o
the characteristics of Fig.4.l were used lor all zones of operation. s ar,
tJ A
E o
F
lJ
Analysis q E o
.
o
) L
Computer Program oN uollDtg ,eltoog d) x E
I

A computer program for analyzing the transient conditions in a pipeline caused @ tl

TJ o.
by power failure and/or valve operation was developed. The boundary condi- z
F
tions and solution procedures preseirted in Chapters 3,4,and l0 were used to F
foeqt
(o
Io d
E
solve the characteristic form of the dynamic and continuity equations. To avoid o
errors introduced by interpolations, wave velocities were adjusted slightly, if t-
necessary, so that the characteristics passed through the grid points. Because
) xo
o
there is a free-surface tank on the suction side ofeach booster station, transients U

in the discharge lne were analyzed neglecting the effects of transients in the
suction line. llH tuDtldetf
o\
The program was verified by comparing the computed results with those mea- o
sured on a prototype (see Section 4.9) or those obtained by using other avail-
!o
able, simpler, problem-oriented computer programs. TL
o uotot, Elsoog l.J
l
luol aurdulnd
Selecrion of Control Deices ,lolul teitA uosduoil i-'r

The procedure outlined on p. 102 was used to select appropriate waterhammer

control devices:
e[ el sl el sl sl al nl "l
s3u13n - NOtIvA3-13
 102 Applied Hydraulic Transients
Transients Caused by
Centrifugal pumps I 03
1. column separation. The system was analyzed for the case of simultaneous
railu.re was less than 5 percent
power failure to dl pumps, assuming there were no conlol devices. lilater- I ifl,:lffi ]l',"r|jTrX'y1r or trre rated head.
column separalion occured.in the pipeline between Booster stations Nos. I and pu n p d
ro,ow i n g ;ffi:l'",X,'X,iT::1"#
2, and in the pipeline downstream of Booster station No. 2. The provision of
spe e

remained open and when the ffi,jU, ffi i ffi,i,,{j.;m

additional inertia at the pumps and one-way surge tanks prevenied column ing maximum permissibre timrts
discharge *", .r*ed was less than
,.1"-
spe;ne;';;';;;'orrp nranufarurer:the-folrow-
separation. The data for these devices are listed subsequently. .,t.t speed for less than io , rr 'i"r..n, r30 per.
2' Maximum pressure. It was assumed during the initial design of the pipeline ;::,H. or rated speed ror ronger
that with appropriare contol deces, the maximum pressure ii** ,t the pump
end could be limited to l0 ercent of the rated head. with check valves located
downstream of the pumps, the pressure rise following power filure exceeded l0 Emergency Conditlons
percent. However, it could be reduced to less than 5 percent by slowly closing
As an emergency condition, the
following power fairure. Br.ous...of -irrl-rri* were assumed to remain open
the pump-discharge valves. discharge valves
lhan normal inertia, the maxi-
at the pump in all caes re-maned
ress than it.-ii"oayoto,.
Results I:rr:':""re
The rnaximum and minimum hydraulic grade lines following power failure are
shown on Fig.4.9 for the system containing suitable control equipment. Discussion

The above resurrs were obllineo

Column Separation using assurned friction factors
pump characteristics. In and assumed
addition, uoir, tnr"topograpfuc
The following conlol devices *ould successfully prevent column separation data for the discharge varves infonation and the
in were or1*". As the design operating
conditions for each purnping
lhe various segments of the pipeline: rtrtion""11r..,r"1,
tni. iiii.r.n, from the specified rated con-
l. Pipeline from Booster station No. I to z. Two alternarives are available:
(A) Increase lhe |ilx2 of each pump motor to il5 kg *r, and provide a 4-m-
ditions for rhe pump, the witer
loweed to obtain the-correct
; ;.-;;iior_ .rr.ruoi, ii.Jl".Ir.,,r,.,ru,
downstream head for the
Artificial rowering of the suction given pump speed.
diameter one-way surge tank at the top of Eleprrant Ridge wirtr tire
steady-srate
computed pressures in the
,.il'ri"" have a negrigibre effect .on the
wate level in tank ar 81. 627 (r0 m above the ground surface); an<r (B) Increase discharg, tin": Hi
the ll 2 of each pump motor to 390 kg m,. itn these contiols, the mi.inrum pump characteristics showed
tr,"irn"ti., ;xlr"JT;,1'Jl;::i,::ilfli'r.rfi:i
pressures in tlrc pipeline remain above atmospheric pressure. discharse,rt;;;;' *f ,,,no"ll,
2. Pipelne Downsffewn of Boaster station No.2. lncrease the I/R2 of each H.jfi # Ljo;rhe change the computed
topography*",il;.j[l'[lir,,1',T.jil';i:f
pump molor to 370 kg ,r; provide a 4-m-diameter olle-way
surge tank at
station ll+175 with steady-srate water level in the tank atEl.lisz(l*O m above possibry resurting in situations l,[il[],;t,m;;**:jii
,,irrr* r"li*i ,.prrrtio, courd
friction losses could also affeci occur. A differ-
ground level);and provide a 4"m-diameter one-way surge tank at station the maximum-
r 7+4g0 .,In,ru,,
with steady*tate water level in the tank at El. I345 (25 m above ground level). ;LTrr::r.tnt "nJ'
with these measures, the mininrum pr.,essures along the pipeline were above With the available Orl:]|r1 maximum pressues at the pump
below 5 percent of the ratedf,".. could be kept
atmospheric pressures. Ho*"r,lJr.ur*., the pressure
be higher due to significant vaiationr rise may
the pressure rise could be decreaseJ
n ti, rt, for the system. If necessary,
Muximum Pressures time' which wourd resurt.in an
t, l'*rr*r, the dis6fgs_valve ctosing
incre"se'i";;;;*" period for *hich
runs in the everse direction. th. pump
The pressure rise following power failure could be reduced by slowly
crosing the Although;;';;
pump-discharge valves. lvith the ctosing times of about 100 s, the pressure
rise
w*hin rhe rimits,p.cied by the
pumps ror an extended ,;;;;.fl:I ::J::#:;ilr.,TIfi
*,,:1 T", pi.ii.irl; il ffi;ililril",,,,
*Pressurc ise Maximum
= tansjenl stele pessure - Steady_state pressure. Therefore, it was recommended thai, ,riiiiJr,]r'orra
were avairabre and a sensi.

I
 104 Applied .-lyi , aulic f ransients
Transients Caused by Centrifugal pumps
tivity analysis ofthe effects ofchanges in the variables affecting lOs
pressure rise was
made, the maximum pressure rise at the punrp end should be taken equal to l0 acteistic of Appendix E, investigate
the effect of increasing the varue
percent of tfe rated head, and the elevation of the maximum hydraulic on the maximum and minimum of r4R2
grade !r"rrrr"..--
line shown in Fig.4.9 should be adjusted proportionately.
with the specified control measures, the minimum hydraulic grade line was "yiffi !!::::Til.:iir.jl".-,*;ifi:ilii*;i#Hil,T:'::J::i":,::
always above the pipeline. At Elephant Ridge and at the summits downstream than O.7aVolS, in which :*r;;;;.
of Booster station 2, the minimum hydraulic grade line was less than 5 m above state now,oJtf, and g =,.."h,;;;;;l n;;J:,"city, vo = steady-
the pipeline. During the final design, however, when better data should be avail- 4'3' Develop the boundary conditons
for a system having n paralrer pumps,
able, this should be investigated in detail; if necessary, the safety margin could which power fails to n pumps and in
z, pumps keep operating.
be increased. 4.4. Draw a flowchart for the boundary
Air valves should be provided at high points along the pipeline. These would condition derived in problem 4.3,
develop a computer program. and
be helpful during filling and draining of the line and would prevent collapse of a 4.5. To educe maximu
long length of the pipeline should a break occur in the pipeline at a lower eleva- ratingvarve,,,.;;iil j.;','.'J,L j:x:,Hil,ilXf
tion. ln addition, valves could be provided along the line to isolate and drain opens as the power fails and is ;flJj.;_,rr:.;H:l:i;
closed slowly later. n"*.p
segments of the line for inspection, repair, etc. Transients caused by the opera- conditions for such a system; ilr. or]rror.,
write a .orrui". program and investigate
tion of these valves, if provided, would bc studied during the final design. effect of various rates the
vo v!
of opening
ur,sng ano closure of the pressure_regulating
The one-way surge tanks should have two pipes for water outflow. This valve. "n "io,
should considerably reduce the possibiiity oIa tank becoming inoperative due to 4'6' A check valve is provided in a
the failure of a check valve to open. discharge line to prevent revese
Two alternatives are available to prevent column separation in the pipeline
through the pumps. when power
rrliri""irr""",,;: "J:::i-:._r^tT..: ,flows
between Booster stations Nos. I and 2. The alternative with increased inerfia
rinedecereater, J,l ,rr. check varve ;f; T:[r"i.i:f:il."lt,lT:::i:
having negligible bearing friction
iosses crosesrs according
only is better from an operational point of view because the one-way surge ffiri:X to the
tank is not as foolproof and in addition requires constant maintenance.
The inertia of the pump motors could be increased by adding flywheels or
,# t!,tsino"W.*#)'.(* d0\2
by a custom design o[ the electric motors. In order to provide operational
flexibility and ease in exchanging spare parts., etc., it was decided that all units at i) .E)'.=,
both the booster stations should be identical and that each would haye a llRz in which 0 = angle between the.center
of gravity of disk and vertical;/
equal to 400 kg m2. moment of inertia of the disk; ltl, =
= weighi iiuL in water;i = distace
from pivot to weight-center of gravity
k = flow coefficient for stationary disk l=rn"rn pipeline velocity;
4.II "iirL,
in mving water (function of 6);
SUMMARY & = flow coefficient for moving
disk in still water (function of );
B, C, C, and F are constants. Expiession and
In this chapter, a procedure lor storing the pump characteristics in a digital f", tt rr. constants are
computer was presented, an iterative procedure for analyzing transients in piping
systems caused by various pump operations was outlined, and boundary con-
ditions for a number of cases usually found in practicewere developed.criteria
for the design of pipelines were presented, and the chapter was concluded by a
'=(#)"'
presentation ofa case study. c = t (41!'\'"
PROBLEMS ,=?* _J2
4.I. write a general-purpose computer program to determine the transient-state
pressures in 4 discharge line caused by power failue. using the pump char- ,=0,' _J2

I
106 Applied Hydraulic Transients Transients Caused by Centrifugal pumps I 07

in which A = aea of disk; R = distance from pivot to cente of disk; P = y;:;:;;:'i;;:ir:r:*"0 storase Proiects, sponsored rrv Amer.
soc. or Mech. Engrs.,
distace from pivot to the point of concentration of J rsdA;t = distance
E' B'' Hvdroutic rransients, McGraw-Hirr
from pilot to point of concentration of moment of inertia of disk area;and ' i:ffli';r;, i t1Y;l:' Book co., New
r = moment arm measu;ed from disk pivot. 8' Thomas, c" pump characteristics
"Determination of for a computerized Transient
Develop the boundary conditions fo the check valve, assuming that r( Analysis"' proc. First rnernaionar co;k:r;;c;;)n presvtre,surges,
and K are given in a tabula form . Hydromechanic organized by British
*"ru,rl:n Assoc. al ConerUury, Ergland,
4.7. Write a computer program for the check va-lve, and run it for the following
, r.,#ill;l L., Ftuid Sept. 1972, pp.A3-21_A3-32.
Mechonics,rh"d ;;t;iJ;,;b.,* Hiris."r
Ii.".v".r, pp.
data: ,l = 0.235 lb-ft*ecz ;B = 0.548; C = A357;F = 0.1l;G = 0.07;lVsi = r0' Miyashiro, H" 'yatehammer Anarysis for pumps Insrarted in
10.74 lb-ft;0 = l6.lo + c;initial steady+tate 0 and a are 60.1" and 44", series,,,,?el
6,pp. r23_
respectively. K and K are sted in the following: 11. Joseph, I. and Hamill, F.,..Slat-Up pressures
pump
in Short Discharge Unes,,,./our.,
Hyd. Div., A mer. Soc. o civ it E nsri.,Ll.
SS, irii t97 Z, pp. I I I 7_l
akka l2' Parmakian, J., "'lflaterhamme. oign ci,.",';i*r., power Div., Amer.
I 2s.

(degrees) Engrs., Aprit t957,pp. l2l6-t_t2l_8. soc. of civit

- Chaudhry,M.H.,Cass,D-.E.,andSeil,W.W.,.,HatCreekproject:HydraulicTransient
13.
0 0. 0.0 Anatysis of Make-up Cooling warer supplv
svstem,,, Report ur.-i6-ii,".****
4 0.16 0.23 Britis[l btumbia u)i" o'ni io*er Authority,
8 0.28 0.40 ?:::^,?,'r:;;:{., vun.ouo, canada,
l1 0.40 0.49 l4' stephenson, D., piperine. De.sigy
Amsterdam, The Nelhcrlands, 1976, for ,ater Engineers. Ersevier scientic pubrishng co.,
16 0.49 0.55 p. 5g.
20 0.56 0.58
l5' Parmley,L'J'"'TheBehaviourorc""tlarvesduringcrosure,,,Researchreport,Gren-
field and Kennedy Ltd., Kihnarnoct, enefonO, -Oii.
24 o.62 0.54 fSeS-
ao o.67 0.49
32 o.71 0.44
36 4.77 0.38 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
40 0.84 0.27
44 0.95 0.09 schnyder, o', 'comparison
Between calculated and rest Results
Pumping plant," Ias. Amer. S^oc. on rvaterhamme in
1f \ecn
Linton, P', "pessure surges on- starti.s
rirri 59, Nov. 1937, pp.695_700.
Use the pipeline and pump data given in L,x.4.l (Section 4.6), except that "",.
r"rpr *"iih'Empty Delivery pipes,,, British Hydro-
mechanic, Research Assoc., TN402,
the diameter of the pipelines is 9 in. ISSO.
Rich, C. R., Hydraulic Transients,McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Ncw yok, 195 l.
Parmakin, J., ..pressure Srr,es
Large pump Installations,,, Trans.
11 Amer. Soc. <tf Mech.
REFERENCES _Ensrs., vot.25, Aug. 1953, pp. 995_l06.
Parmakian, J., "Pressure Surse Control
at Tracy pumping plznt,,, proc. Amer_
Soc. of Civil
l. Knapp, R. T., "Complete Characteistics of Centrifual Pumps and Thei Use in Predic- _Engrs., vol. 79, Seperate No. 361, Dec. 1953.
tion of Transienl Behaviour," Trans. Amer. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., vol. 59, 1937,pp.
wanson' w'
M', "complete ch.a1lterti.-ir"r" Diagrams
fo Turbo Machinerv,,,rrans.
Soc. of Mech. Ensrs.,vol.75, t953, pp.
683-689. f S_e .
2. Kittredge, J. P., "Hydraulic Transients in Centrifugal Pump Systems," Trons. Amer.
t?'":illtrq.'',
^.Amer.
centrifiryat and Axiat Ft";;;;;',;d
Edition, rohn rvley & sons, New
Soc. of Mech. Engrs., vol. 78, 1956, pp. 1307-1322.
Iaeger,C., Engineering Fluid Mechanics,Blackie
3. Pmakian, l.,l,laterhomnter Anolysis, Dover Publications, 1963, pp.78-81. and Sons, London, 1959.
4. Donsky, 8., "Complcte Pump Characteristics and the Effect of Specific Speeds on ,T:;:, "lilarerhammer caused by p"
prj,- i;;r;-p)wer, London July
Hydraulic Transienls," Jour. Basic Engineering, Tans. Amer. Soc. of Mech. Engrs.,
", 1e59, pp. 259_
Miyashiro, H., .'lMaterhammer A^nalysis
Dec. 1961, pp.685-699. of pumps in parallel Operation,,,gu
Engrs.,vot.S, No. 19, 1962, pp. ll. Japon Soc. of
5. Streeter, V. L., "\ilaterhammer Analysis of Pipelines," Jour. Hydraulics Di., Proc. --!rr!:
Miyashiro, H', "water Ivel oscilrationr
ng_ti'.^"-'-
Amer. Soc. of Cit'. Engrs.,July 1964, pp. l5l-171. in srrg.'runk lvhen starting pump
a in a pumped
6. Marchal, M., Flesch, G., and Su1er, P., "The Calculation of Waterhammer Problems by p,o". "
tnr",noron;i;;I
ir,;T;rl;:rstation," for Hydraulic Reseirch, London,
Means of the Digital Computer," paper presented al International Symposium on

I
 Tansients Caused by Centrifugal pumps l05
tivity analysis olthe effects ofchanges in the variables affecting pressure rise was
made, the maximum pressure rise at the pump end should be taken equal to l0 acteistic of Appendix E, investigate
the effect of increasing the value
percent of the rated head, and the elevation o[ the maximum hydraulic on the maximum and minimum of IrR2
grade !.".rrr"r.--
line shown in Fig.4.9 should be adjusted proportionately. -'r:iffi
with ttr specified control measures, the minimum hydraulic grade line was !!:fl:?H,:iirr:[i*;ffi fii:iiffi
always above the pipeline. At Elephant Ridge and at the summits downstream than O.7aVolg,
in which a:*";"r;";; ;il1Hil.H,::J::,t",,::
o[ Booster station 2, the minimum hydraulic grade line was less than 5 m above state flow ,"-ro.itf and
, ,"""r"rrtio., ir"-; ;rtJ;,J.","
s=
, citv vo = steady-
the pipeline . During the final design, however, when better data shourd be avail- 4'3' Develop the boundary conditions
for a system having n paralrer pumps, in
able, this should be investigated in detail; if necessary, the safety margin could which power fails to n pumps and
,o pu*p, keep operating.
be increased. 4'4' Draw a flowchart for the boundary
condition deived in poblem 4.3,
Air valves should be provided ar high points along the pipeline. These would develop a computer program. and
be helpful during filling and draining of the line and would prevent collapse of a 4.5. To educe maximu;
long length of the pipeline should a break occur in the pipeline at a lower eleva- raringvarve,,,...liliJ;','J#;i:*,::il,n:ff
tion. ln addition, valves could be provided along the line to isolate and drain
segments of the line for inspection, repair, etc. Transients caused by the opera-
opens is the power fails and is "?,#J"rJ:?H:;i[
closed slowly larer. D"r.l;;-tL
ir]rror*
conditions for such a system; write
a .orpui", program and investigate
tion ol these valves, if provided, wouid be studied during the final design. varous rates ot opening and the
The one-way surge tanks should have two pipes lor water outflow. This ;:f:: "t ctolure of the pressure_regutating
should considerably reduce the possibility of a tank becoming inoperative due to 4.6. A check valve is provided in
the failure of a check valve to open.
a discharge line to prevent revese flows
through the pumps' when power
r"irr ii*rr pump, water in the discharge
Two alternatives are available to prevent column separation in the pipeline line deceleates' and the check valve
between Booster stations Nos. I and 2, The alternative with increased inertia
.ro*""e check vatve havingno dash_
having negligible bearing friction Iosses
closesrs according to the
only is better from an operational poinl of view because the one-way surge ffirilX
tank is not as foolproofand in addition requires constant maintenance.
The inertia ol the pump motors could be increased by adding flywheels or
by a custom design of the electric motors. In order to provide operational
,# t,"isino.W.*#),.(*
#), .(#), =,
flexibility and ease in exchanging spare partq, etc., it was decided that all units at
both the booster stations should be identical and that each would have a wRz in which 0 = angre between the.center
of gravity of disk and vertical;/
equal to 400 kg m2. moment of inetia of the disk; Itz, =
= weighi of isL in water; F = distace
from pivot to weight-center of grvity
&7 = flow coefficient for stationary
oiirt, i = velocity:
4.1I SUMMARY disk in mving ^"rnpipeline
water (function of d);
k = flow coefficient for moving
disk in still wate (function of 0);
B, C, G, and F constants. Expiession and
In this chapter, a procedure lor storing the pump characteristics in a digital are
f"; th.; constants are
computer was presented, an iterative procedure for analyzing transients in piping
systems caused by various pump operations was outlined, and boundary con-
ditions for a number of cases usually found in practice were developed. criteria
,=(#)"'
for the design of pipelines were presented, and the chapter was concluded by a
presentation of a case study. c=t (41:')"'
PROBLEMS r=(nn-r
4.1. lvrite a general-purpose computer pogram to determine the transient-state
pressures in 4 discharge line caused by power filure. Using the pump char_ c=(rp-r

)
i I A.pp, -d l{ydraulic 'l rasicnto :a

Kinno, H. and Kennedy, J" F., "'\ilaterhammer chats for centrifugal pump systems,"proc.
Amer. Soc. oJ Civil Engrs",vol. 91, HY3, May 1965, pp.247-270. CHAPTER 5
Duc, J', "Negative Pressure Phenomena in Pump pipelines," proc. International symp.
h'aterhammer in Pumped storoge Proects, Amer. soc. of Mech. Engrs., 1965, pp.
154-1s7.
Miyashiro, H., "\ilaterhammer Analysis of Pump system," Bulf. Japan soc. of
vol. 10, 1967, pp.952-958.
Me ch. Engrs.,
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS IN
Kinno, H., "waterhammer control in centrifugar pump systems," proc. Amer. soc. ol ciit
Ensrs., vol. 9S, HY3, I 968, pp. 6 I 9-639.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Brown, R. J', "wate-column separation at Two Pumpingplants," lour. Basic Engineering,
Amer. Soc- of Mech. tngrs.,Dec. 1968, pp. 521-S31.

5.T INTRODUCTION
In chapter 3, boundary conditions lor a Fancis turbine connected to a large sys-
tern were derived. In this chapter, a mathematical model is developed for ana-
lyzing hydraulic transients caused by various turbine operations, such as start-up,
load acceptance, or load rejection.
The schematic representation of a typical hydroelectric power plant is first
presented. Details of the mathematical sinrulation of the conduit system,
turbogenerator, and governor are then outlined. various turbine opeiations
that produce hydraulic transients in the water passages of a power plant are
discussed. Prototype test results used to verily the mathernatical model are
then presented, followed by a discussion o[ the gover,ing stability of hydro-
turbines, and the selection of Benerator luR2 and optimum governor settings.
The chapter concludes with the case study of the governing stability studies
carried out for a 500-MW hydroelectric generating station.

5.2 SCHEMATIC OF A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Figure 5.1 shows the schematic diagram of a typical hydropower plant. As
shown in the figure, the upstream conduits convey water frm the upstream
source, such as a reservoir, Iake, or canal, to the turbine. outflow from the
turbine is carried downstream through the downstream conduit system. An
electrical generator is mechanically coupled to the turbine, and the electrical
output of the generator is carred by the transmission lines to the load centers.
A governor is provided to correct any changes in the system frequency by
opening or closing the wicket gates of the turbine.

109

,l