Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FOUNDATION
Bu i l din g G r 0 u p
Housing 8r Development Board
Produced by
Build i ng Group
Hous i ng and Oeve I opment Board
HOB Hub 480
Lorong 6 Toa Payoh
Singapore 310480
Editor
Shum Chee Hoong
Authors
Ng Kim Chua
Wong Swee Kh i an
Mok Yew Cheong
Yee Wa i Ean
Ang Loy J i n, Lionel
1 Structural Design
Building Structural System
Structural Layout
Design Considerations
1
1
2
Codes of Practice 2
Loading 2
2 Reinforced Concrete
Robustness
Concrete Cover
3
4
Concealed Wiring 5
Slabs 6
Beams 10
Columns 11
Walls & Household Shelter 13
Water Retaining Structures 15
Multi-Storey Carpark 17
Joints in Structures 19
Precast Concrete
Design Principles 21
Connections 23
Waterproofing System 25
Semi-Precast Building System 27
Floor System 30
External Walls 31
Load Bearing Elements 33
Special Prefabricated Components 35
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Steel Structures
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5 Foundation
Site Investigations 41
Design Considerations 42
Other Design Considerations 43
Types of Foundation & Tests 44
Sub-Structures for Foundation 45
STRUCTURAL
Structural Layout
The structural layout must enable the structure to effectively perform the functions for which it is
built for. An acceptable proposed structural layout should be:
When planning for the layout of the structural framing system~ other factors to consider include
headroom requirements, the layout of the mechanical and electrical services and flexibility to
allow re-partitioning of the rooms.
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Design Considerations
The structural design and detailing conform with approved Codes of Practice, Building Control Act
and Regulations, Statutory and Local Authorities' requirements, and with good engineering practices.
The structural system meets structural requirements with sufficient safety and possess proper
response including stability, strength, acceptable human perception of motion, rigidity and ductility. At
the same time, the overall economy, aesthetic appeal and durability is considered.
The overall design is cost effective and meets minimum requirements in strength, quality, stability,
durability and serviceability.
Structural members are standardised and modularised to facilitate construction and prefabrication.
Structure Foundation I2
REINFORCED
Robustness
For robustness, structural members must be effectively tied in the longitudinal,
transverse and vertical directions.
All the ground floor columns and walls are to be tied in two directions by ground
beams or slab.
Full tension laps throughout are provided for reinforcement considered as part of the
ties .
For a two-column framing system, design to allow for the notional removal of one
column. Adequate reinforcement must be provided in the slabs to allow the development
of catenary action.
Concrete Cover
The concrete cover provided must be sufficient for the stipulated fire-rating as well as
to prevent spalling concrete.
The nominal cover to main reinforcement should comply with CP65 requirements but
not less than the values specified below.
Concealed wiring must be properly installed with sufficient cover"to protect it from damages.
Minimum slab thickness for slabs with concealed wiring is 150 mm thick for typical floor
slab and roof.
For semi-precast construction using precast planks, minimum thickness of concrete topping
is 80 mm in order to allow embedment of conduits for concealed wiring. Minimum concrete
cover must be provided to the conduits.
Where conduits are expected to cross over each other, minimum concrete cover must be
maintained by spacing out the crossing over points.
Column or wall
Switch point
Minimum width of columns and walls
or power point
for concealed wiring is 300 mm and 200
mm respectively.
s i Structure oundation
Structural Desi g n. Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Steei . Foundation
Slabs
Generally, slabs in a residential building are classified into three types,
namely ground floor, typical storey and roof.
The ground floor is the common area usually used for community
and social activities. Typical storeys are where the dwelling units are
located and are repeated with little or no variations in the layout
throughout the entire structure. The roof refers to the main roof
where the lift machine room and water tanks are located.
Ground floor slabs and beams are designed as non-integrated structures and are normally
cast separately in two operations.
Flat slabs may be adopted for ground floor slab design to improve constructability. Slab
must be adequately designed and strengthened accordingly at all floor openings for services.
Apron slab, apron drain, inspection chamber, grease interceptor and other sanitary system
are designed to be suspended .
Typical storey slabs are usually constructed using one-way spanning precast prestressed
planks with cast in-situ concrete topping.
Slab thickness at typical storeys for residential blocks is between 125 mm and 200 mm, in
steps of 25 mm .
.. In addition to any other floor loadings, a uniformly distributed superimposed dead load of
1.2 kN/m2 is to be included to allow for floor finishes. For partitions supported by slabs,
1.SkN/m2 is to be included .
Where a private balcony within a flat is provided with a drop from the adjacent room area,
of the flat shall be designed for concrete topping up of slab so as to flush with the floor finish
of adjacent room area.
Roof slabs are usually constructed using one- The design loads at the main roof slab should
way spanning precast prestressed planks with include the weight of the secondary roofing
cast in-situ concrete topping. system consisting of ferrocement slabs
supported by stumps.
For residential buildings, the minimum slab
thickness and beam layout at the main roof is Precast ferrocement roof slab panels are
usually similar to the typical storey. supported by stumps and placed above the
main roof of the residential blocks.
Soffit of the roof slab and beams are maintained
flat. Hence, the slabs will have varying thickness An air void is thus created between the main
and the beams will have varying depths. roof slab and this secondary roof to insulate the
main roof from hot weather.
The roof slabs are cast to fall so as to direct
rainwater to the desired discharge point. Floor The standard size roofing slab panels interlock
screed to form the fall is not allowed. with one another to form a roofing system that
fall at a gradient similar to the main roof.
Finish to the concrete surface is power floated .
Precast ferrocement slab panels are used for secondary roofing system
Slab Reenforcemenf
The reinforcement of floor slab panels consist mainly of
prefabricated we lded wire fabric, or more common ly know
as wire meshes, to save labour in steel work.
Steel bars are used only when shapes of Where floor slabs are subjected to water
reinforcement cannot be formed by mesh, or pressure,
for irregular-shaped slab panels whereby
- sufficient reinforcement is provided to
reinforcement involves extensive cutting of the
resist flotation
mesh as the tying of loose reinforcement bars
are very labour-intensive. - slabs are held down at the supports by
links or bars that are properly anchored to
Minimum reinforcement provided in either the beams
directions should not be less than
- 0.13% for high yield steel
Nominal top reinforcement in non-spanning
- 0.24% for mild steel direction of one-way slabs are placed
- minimum D7 at the gable end bay slabs
Where applicable, additional torsional
for shrinkage and crack control
reinforcement is placed at the non-continuous
corner of the slab. - minimum A7 at other slabs
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end bay slab.
Beams
Beams are normally designed as rectangular sections. Beam widths
and depths are of modular dimensions, in steps of 50 mm.
Column Sizes
Design Considerations
Column sizes are usually kept constant
throughout the building height unless reduction
All columns are to be founded and designed of column sizes offers architectural advantages.
as short columns.
Column size reduction is normally done for
All columns must be braced in two orthogonal internal columns only at every 4 or 5 storeys.
axes. This reduction is usually made such that at least
one face throughout the height of the column is
Maximum height of unbraced columns cannot flushed.
exceed two storeys or 6.4 m.
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bending and cutting one by one at the et:
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construction sites. This fabrication method is
unproductive, tedious and labour intensive
especially for the L-shaped and T-shaped
columns. l If
TYPICAL ELEVATION OF COLUMN
Prefabricated column link cages can be
produced from flat sheets of fabric mesh and DPEatrl": FROM "tOW
bent into a closed form. Using these link cages CLOSED UN I]
to replace individual links will greatly enhance I 900 I
construction productivity. SECTION a-a
Columns
Columns are preferably rectangular shaped, L-shaped
or T-shaped . Column dimens ions should be of
modular sizes, in steps of 50 mm. Columns widths
are usually 200 mm or 300 mm and are designed
to flush with the width of the beams .
Column Reinforcement
Maximum area of steel reinforcement in columns is 4.0% of the gross concrete section to
prevent congestion at the lapping area.
Column links of minimum 3 nos. of R10 or equivalent shall be provided at the column-
beam intersection areas at second storey. For multi-storey voids, the links shall be placed
up to the floor slab of the lowest dwelling unit.
The main reinforcement bars for columns at roof is terminated with a bend and with adequate
anchorage.
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Walls
Area of Reinforcement
Walls
Household Shel er
Walls are usually of constant thickness in modular dimensions,
in steps of SO mm. All load bearing walls are to be founded
and designed as short columns.
Household Shelter
Use of cast in-situ water tank had been phased out and is not allowed.
The internal surface of the concrete tank is coated with cementitious waterproofing coating
approved by the relevant authorities and tiled after completion of the watertightness test.
Design
Maximum crack width for concrete face in contact with water and away from water is 0.1
mm and 0.2 mm respectively.
Minimum percentage of main and distribution steel are in accordance with CP 65 and CP
73, and shall not be less than 0.35% and 0.64% of the gross cross-sectional area of walls
and slabs for high yield steel and mild steel respectively.
Layout
At ground floor,
- Suction tanks may be supported by the floor slab whereas large water tanks used for
fire-fighting purposes are to be supported by ground beams.
- There must be sufficient headroom between the tank and the slab or beam soffit above
for access to the water tank.
At main roof level,
- Water tanks rest on the supporting beams that are directly supported by columns or
walls.
- Sufficient clear headroom underneath the supporting beam of water tank must be
provided to facilitate maintenance works.
- The tanks must be strategically located and spaced apart above the main roof in order
not to cause any installation problem.
- Other design considerations include
a Space available on the roof
a Volume of fire fighting water and domestic water required
Booster
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Example of Precast Water Tank layout on main roof level
Columns are located at end of carpark lot and peripheral parapet walls are at least 500 mm height
2800 mm
2800 mm
Movement Joints
There are two types of movement joints.
Expansion Joints
- These require an initial gap, normally 25 mm, between the adjoining parts of a structure to
accommodate the expansion or contraction of the structures.
- If the building length is too long, excessive stresses will be induced due to temperature
effect. For such cases, expansion joints need to be introduced.
- The joints should be suitably located so that they are inconspicuous, functionally and
aestheti call y accepta ble.
- The joints must be properly detailed and waterproofed to prevent water seepage.
Joint
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a) Joint for a long building b) Joint at junction between a high-rise c) Joint at major changes in plan
(Plan) and a low-rise building (Elevation) for a long building (Plan)
Joints in Structures
There are basically two types of joints in a structure, namely
movement joints and construction joints.
Construction Joints
Construction Joints
Construction joints are located where the T~~e of structure Panel Length
stresses are the least so as to minimise
the occurrence of cracks. (a) Unsuspended slab 5m to i0m
(b) Suspended apron slab i0m to i5m
Measures must be taken to achieve (c) Parapet wall i2mm at i5m interval
subsequent continuity at construction joints
so that there is no relative movement.
Control Joints
Where water-tightness is required! Type of Structural Element Location of Joints
suitable type of waterstops must be Wall & Column Top of floor slab
installed.
Footing Top of footing slab
Beam and Slab Middle third of span
Columns and walls that are next to driveways must be designed for vehicular impact load.
No water pipes shall be cast inside the reinforced concrete slab, beam, column and wall.
The reinforced concrete structure and piles shall not be used as lightning conductors or
earth electrodes.
Lightning conductors shall not be embedded in the reinforced concrete components of the
building structure.
All existing foundation and columns cannot be hacked for the purpose of constructing new
structures.
Design Princp es
This section outlines the design considerations required in order
to achieve an econom ical design and an efficient precast concrete
bui lding system .
The team of architects and engineers must work closely and design
the bu ilding with precast intent during the initial planning stage.
This will avoid the abortive works due to subsequent changes and
rework in order to transform it into a workable precast system.
Design Considerations
In precast concrete design, the following factors need to be considered:
Precast Connections
The jointing method to be adopted will depend on whether the precast components are structural
or non-structural.
The joints must be designed to withstand all possible stresses during the service life cycle of
the building.
Non-structural elements such as facade and gable end walls are not load bearing. As such,
small dowels or loop bars is usually sufficient for connection.
For external facade envelope, steel dowels and loop bars system with cast in-situ concrete
backing is the preferred vertical joint connection system. Such connection system does not
require highly skillfullabour and it offers an effective watertight jOint.
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Typical joint details for gable end walls with Typical loop bar joint details for staircase
cast in-situ concrete backing
Structural load bearing elements need to transmit the forces effectively to the supporting
structures or foundation.
- Strong connectors should be used in order to achieve an effective continuity in dowel bar
connection.
- The types of joint connections used may be mechanical connectors such as splice sleeves
for vertical load bearing key elements such as precast columns and load bearing walls.
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Typical joint details for wall Typical splice sleeve connection for precast columns
Waterproofing System
Waterproofing the joints of the external precast facade envelope is very important so as to
exclude any possible water ingress and seepage.
The jOints of precast component is designed with the combination of jOint profile and
sealing with sealant material at the outer face in order to exclude the water from reaching
the inner face.
For vertical joints, providing additional wet bedding or concrete backing at inner face of
vertical jOints will enhance the water tightness of the jOints.
PRECAST COLUMN
CLADDING PRECAST GABLE END WALL/
- CAST IN-SITU BEAM PRECAST BEAM
PRECAST GABLE
END WALL
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Isometric view of typical waterproofing details at joints Typical waterproofing details at horizontal joints
Waterproofing System
It is imperative that the adjacent precast external wall panels are well
connected to each other and the waterproofing work is done we ll to
ensure that all the joints are watertight.
Water tightness tests can be carried out on site to assess the level of
workmanship achieved on site. The watertightness of the building
structures is highly dependent on the waterproofing system adopted.
Spray tests for all the vertical joints of the gable end walls can be done by placing the
water jets at the joint of the gable-end wall below roof level. By doing so, the downwards
flows of water from a single spay at a joint will expose more joints at the lower floors to the
water tests.
PRECAST CABLE
CAST IN-SITU COLuMN OR STUMP END WALL ...-1--- - 1-
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PRECAST GABLE PRE CAsr GABLE CAST IN - SITU
END WALL END WALL COLUMN OR STUMP
This is especially advantageous for those components that are highly repetitive but difficult to
construct using cast in-situ method as a good off-form finish may not be achieved consistently.
These components are usually standardised and used repetitively. Examples of such components
are refuse chutes, staircases, services ducts, water tanks and partition walls.
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above the centralised refuse chamber is designed to carry
the entire load of the refuse chute from all floors.
Precast Refuse Chute
Loop or dowel bars are used to connect the component to
the supporting elements.
Precast Staircase
Precast Staircase
27 1Structure I Foundation
Str ctural Design , Reinforced Concrete . Precast Concrete . Stee . F
Floor System
In the building design, the precast floor system consists of
precast concrete floor beams and composite floor slabs.
Precast Facade
The precast facade is designed to be Cast-in Window Frame
suspended by the floor beam and by the
columns or stump at the two sides. In precast facades with wi ndows, the
design must enable the aluminium window
Precast facade design shall be of simple frames to be precast together in one
profile and of consistent cross section with operation.
maximum repetitions.
Exposed aggregates or pebbles finish to the The necessary linking concrete elements
external face of the facade is not allowed as it must be provided all round to hold the
may pose production and maintenance aluminium window frame in place
problems.
Precast facade with tile finish is not preferred Sufficient rigidity and stiffness for handling
because of potential maintenance problems. and installation must be provided .
Where it is aesthetically necessary to maintain
the design theme of the precinct, homogeneous
modular clinker tiles with dovetail shape key For ease of production, concrete cill is
back pattern shall be used and precast together preferred over aluminium Gill.
with the facade.
PrecastAngular Facade Facade with window opening Facade with cast-in window frame
31 1Structure 8. Foundation
Structural Design . Reinforced Concrete. Precast Concrete . Stee . Foundation
External Walls
The external building envelop comprises of precast facade,
plain wa ll s, gable-end walls and parapet walls.
Precast Parapet
Design guidelines for precast facade are also
applicable to precast parapet walls.
Precast Wall
These are precast structural walls that transfer
the building loads to the foundation. It is also
designed as a lateral load resisting element to
improve structural strength of the building.
Household Shelter
Generally, it is difficult to maintain a good off-
form finish using the conventional method of
construction for the household shelters.
Metal roofing sheets should not be used for buildings that are more than 4 storeys high.
lip-channelS or other open steel sections are preferred as purlins or support so that the
roofing sheet and cladding can be bolted onto them directly.
Steel Structures
Steel Structures
Steel struct ures that are common ly constructed in HDB projects
include sports complexes, markets, food centres, commercial
complexes and precinct pavilions.
Design Requirements
- Open steel sections is preferred, wherever Minimum Gauge Thickness
possible, to facilitate direct connection of for Steel Members
cladding, roofing sheet and other
architectural panels onto this steel section. Location Minimum Gauge
Thickness (mm)
-If steel hollow sections are used , the drilling
of openings for fixing the cladding or metal Purlins 3
roofing sheets to the purlins is not allowed
as it may lead to undetected internal Structural members for
structures less than 4 4
corrosion .
storeys high
- Where required, steel connecting plates Structural members for
or cleat angles are to be used for welding structures 4 storeys or 6
to secure the cladding, roofing sheet and higher
other metal panels.
.. Welding is preferred for connection of truss .. The secondary truss should also be weld-
members. At the apex, the sections should jointed. After hoisting into position, they are
be directly butt welded together without bolt-jointed to the main truss at height. Slot
additional plate placed in between. holes are provided at these bolt joints to
facilitate construction tolerance.
The main truss should preferably be welded
together before they are hoisted into position Splicing points of long truss are preferably
during erection. staggered and located at points of low axial
stress.
Only bolting and welding can be used for steel connections. Steel
sections must be protected to prevent corrosion or deterioration.
Stanchion Base
Hold Down Bolts
COLUMN -
Galvanisation
Galvanised steel shall be used for key structural elements. It is also required for structural
elements that are exposed to weather or at locations that are difficult to access for
maintenance. Example of such steel elements are steel purlins, including angle cleats, sag
rods and plates for fixing purlins.
Hold down bolts, anchor bolts, nuts and washers for buildings that are 4 storeys or higher
should be hot-dipped galvanised or electroplated.
Site Investigations
Extent and Depth of Site Investigations
Design Considerations
Adequate Factors of Safety
In general, a factor of safety of at least 2.5 should be adopted for all foundation designs
unless the specific site conditions justify the adoption of a lower value.
The adoption of a lower factor of safety should be justified by sufficient loading tests.
The factor of safety to be chosen should take the following into consideration:
- nature of the soil
- variability over the site
- reliability of the method by which the ultimate bearing capacity has been determined
A higher factor of safety should be used when there is less certainty of the ultimate bearing
capacity.
For the design of driven and jacked-in piles, the factor of safety to be adopted should also
take into consideration the stresses arising during handling and installation.
Settlement of Foundations
Allowance should be made for the additional weight of the pile cap in the design of the
foundation.
Piled foundations should not be designed or constructed to carry the loads by frictional
resistance only.
Where piled foundations are subjected to a latera\\oading (e.g . during excavation with piles
within cut slope, etc) , it is necessary to check that the moments and deflections induced by
the horizontal force are within acceptable limits.
The effects of negative skin friction need to be considered for soils undergoing consolidation
caused by dewatering or the placement of fills, etc.
Where piles are expected to experience negative skin friction, such piles should be designed
to carry lower loads.
Pile Foundation
Pile Groups
For the design of pile groups, the minimum spacing of piles to limit heave and lateral
displacement of the soil which will affect the piles need to be considered .
Due to pile group interaction and group action effects the following also need to be considered
in pile group design :
- the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile group
- the settlement of the pile group
- the additional load per pile resulting from negative skin friction in the pile group
- the distribution of vertical loads in each pile due to eccentric loading in the pile group
Footing
The soil bearing capacity for design of footing at different depth below ground
level is based on the soil borelog result of corresponding depth.
The foundation for light structures such as linkways using footings should be
designed independently from the main structure so as to prevent cracks due to
differential settlement.
The most common types of footings used in the HOB projects are:
Pilecap
Where piled foundations are used in the design, reinforced concrete pilecaps are
used to transmit and spread the column or wall loads onto the supporting pile group.
Generally, design of the pilecaps is based on pile capacity.
Minimum embedment of the piles in the pilecap is 100 mm for reinforced concrete
piles and 150 mm for steel piles and bored piles.
Minimum distance between the edge of piles and edge of pilecap shall be 250 mm
to take into account of pile eccentricity of 100 mm without enlargement of pilecap.
All the piles within a pilecap should preferably be of the same type and grade. If this
cannot be achieved, a maximum of 2 grades difference in the piles is allowed within a
pilecap. Otherwise, a check must be carried out on the smaller piles to ensure that
they are not overstressed.
Raft foundation
Raft foundation is designed to spread several column or walls load to the soil in the
form of a mat.