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Basic Principles of

Ultrasonic Testing

Michael Berke
Krautrkamer Ultrasonic Systems
Agfa NDT GmbH, Hrth, Germany
1986 - 2002
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Examples of oscillation
ball on pendulum rotating
a spring earth

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Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed

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Oscillation

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Movement of the ball over time

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Frequency

one full
oscillation T Time

From the duration of one


oscillation T the frequency f
(number of oscillations per
second) is calculated:
1
f =
T

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The actual displacement a is
termed as:

a = A sin
a
Time
0 90 180 270 360
Phase

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Spectrum of sound

Frequency range
Hz Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earth quake

Audible
20 - 20.000 Speech, music
sound
Bat, Quartz
> 20.000 Ultrasound
crystal

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Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

low density medium density high density


weak bonding medium bonding strong bonding
forces forces forces
crystallographic
structure

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Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = Spring = elastic bonding


atom force

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star
t of
osc
T illa tion

distance travelled

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During one oscillation T the wave
T front propagates by the distance
:

Distance travelled

From this we derive:



c= c = f
T or Wave equation
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Sound propagation

Longitudinal wave Direction of propagation


Direction of
oscillation

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Sound propagation

Transverse wave Direction of propagation


Direction of oscillation

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Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse
waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-
modulus of the material.

Air 330 m/s


Water 1480 m/s
Steel, long 5920 m/s
Steel, trans 3250 m/s

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Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material


characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

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Behaviour at an interface

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface
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Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel
1,87

Incoming wave 1,0 Transmitted wave


0,87

Reflected wave

Perspex Steel

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Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Incoming wave Transmitted wave


1,0

0,13

-0,87
Reflected wave
Steel Perspex

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Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel Copper - Steel Steel - Air

Strong reflection No reflection Strong reflection


Double Single with inverted
transmission transmission phase
No transmission

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Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

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Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal


lattice

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Piezoelectric Effect

The effect inverses with polarity change

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Piezoelectric Effect

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the


frequency f

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Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals


resonant
frequency f0

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Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages
at the crystal surfaces.

Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
energy

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Ultrasonic Probes
socket Delay / protecting face
crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable

Straight beam probe TR-probe Angle beam probe

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RF signal (short)

100 ns

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RF signal (medium)

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Sound field

Crystal Focus Angle of divergence


Accoustical axis
6
D0

N
Near field Far field

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Ultrasonic Instrument

0 2 4 6 8 10

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Ultrasonic Instrument

- +
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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Ultrasonic Instrument

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uv
-

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

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Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

screen
IP horizontal
BE sweep

clock

pulser
probe

work piece

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Sound reflection at a flaw

Probe
Sound travel path
Flaw

Work piece

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Plate testing

IP

BE

delamination 0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

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Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion 0 2 4 6 8 10

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Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

1 T R 1

2 T R 2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Flaw

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Weld inspection
a = s sin = probe angle
s = sound path
a = surface distance
F a' = a - x a = reduced surface
s distance
d' = s cos d = virtual depth
d = actual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100 T = material thickness
d = 2T - d'
a
x a'
d
Lack of fusion
s T
Workpiece with welding

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Straight beam inspection techniques:
Direct contact, Direct contact,
Fixed delay
single element probe dual element probe

Through transmission Immersion testing

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Immersion testing

1 2
surface = water delay
sound entry

backwall flaw

IP 1 IP 2
IE IE

BE BE
F

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

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