1.

K L Transform
1) The KL Transform is a reversible linear transform that exploits the statistical properties of
a vector representation.
2) The basis functions of the KL Transform are orthogonal eigen vectors of the covariance
matrix of a data set.
3) The KL Transform optimally de-correlates the input data.
4) The energy of input image is concentrated within first few KL Transform coefficients,
this is energy compaction property of KL Transform.

Algorithm find KL Transform :

Given Input Image F of N X N size.

(I) Find Covariance Matrix Cov(x)
i. Consider column vectors of input image matrix F, X =[ x1, x2, x3.xN ]
ii. Find the mean value of column vectors,

where N is No of Column Vectors

iii. Find the Covariance Matrix :

(II) Find the Eigen values of the covariance matrix

To find the value of k solve the equation |Cov(x) - kI| =0
(III) Find the Eigen vectors
To find the Eigen Vectors (Vk) solve the equation (Cov(x) - kI) Vk =0
(IV) Normalize the Eigen Vectors as

(V) Find KL Transform Matrix

Let A denotes the Transform Matrix
Rows of matrix A are eigen vectors of covariance matrix
The first row of matrix A is the eigen vector corresponding to the largest eigen values
and
The last row of matrix A is the eigen vector corresponding to the smallest eigen
values.
(VI) Find KL Transformation of input Image F
To find KL Transformed output Image, multiply every centralized image vector
[x-mx] of the original image with the transformation matrix.
The column vectors of output matrix are by Xk such that, Xk = A [xk-mx]

Drawbacks of KL Transform:
 1. The KL Transform is input dependant and the basis function need to be calculated
for each signal model on which it operates.
2. The KL Transform have NO specific mathematical structure that leads to fast
implementation.

Applications of KL Transform

1. Clustering Analysis : KL Transform is used in clustering analysis to determine a

new coordinate system for sample data where the largest variance of a projection of
the data lies on the first axis, the next largest variance on the second axis, and so on.
2. Image Compression : KL Transform excellent energy compaction and it used for
compression.

2. Wavelet Transform

The Wavelet Transform provides a time-frequency representation of the signal. The Wavelet
Transform uses multi-resolution technique by which different frequencies are analyzed with
different resolutions.

A wave is an oscillating function of time or space and is periodic. In contrast, wavelets are
localized waves. They have their energy concentrated in time or space and are suited to analysis
of transient signals. While Fourier Transform use waves to analyze signals, the Wavelet
Transform uses wavelets of finite energy.

(a) (b)
Figure: Demonstration of (a) a Wave and (b) a Wavelet

[ I ] Two Dimensional Forward Pyramid Decomposition

1. In wavelet Transform, an image signal is passed through an analysis filter bank followed
by decimation operation.
2. The analysis filter bank consists of a LPF and HPF
3. When the signal passes through these filters, it splits into two bands.
 4. The LPF which corresponds to an averaging operation extracts texture information of the
signal.
5. The HPF, which corresponds to differencing operation, extracts the detail information of
the signal.
6. The output of filter is decimated by two.
7. A Two dimensional Transform is accomplished by Row-wise filtering operation using
parallel bank of filters followed by Row-wise filtering operation using parallel bank of
filters. Each time the output of filter is decimated by two.
8. This operation splits input image into four bands of data, LL (low-low), HL (high-low),
LH (low-high) and HH (high-high).
9. The LL band can be decomposed once again in the same manner, thereby producing even
more sub bands. This can be done up to any level, thereby resulting in a pyramidal
decomposition.

[ II ] Two Dimensional Inverse Pyramid Reconstruction:

1. In inverse wavelet transform, the decomposed frequency band images LL, LH, HL and
HH are first interpolated by factor two and then further passed through a synthesis filter
bank.
2. The synthesis filter bank consists of a LPF and HPF
3. When the decomposed frequency band image signal is passed through these filters, the
output is merged into single band image.
4. The reconstructed image is exactly same as original input image.
 3. Digital Watermarking in Transform Domain.
Objective:
Digital watermarking is a method of hiding one data-set inside another data set. In the case of
images, which are 2-dimensional in nature, digital watermarking is used to hide one image inside
another image with or without visual secrecy. When the watermark is visible, the technique is
known as visible watermarking and when the watermarked image is invisible, the technique is
known as invisible watermarking. The main objective while carrying out invisible watermarking
involves:

1. The image obtained after watermarking must be as close to the host image as possible
2. The retrieved secret image must be as visually similar to the intended secret image as possible

As a general rule of thumb, the watermarked and retrieved images must be acceptable using the
subjective and objective criteria. A subjective criterion involves the visual check of the images
for distortions or irregularities whereas the objective criteria can be defined by correlation
coefficient (CC) or mean square error (MSE).

Different Methods:
The various methods used for digital image watermarking include:
1. Watermarking in spatial domain
2. Watermarking in frequency domain
a. Using FFT
b. Using DCT
c. Using hybrid of FFT and DCT
3. Watermarking in Wavelet domain using DWT coefficients
4. Hybrid-domain watermarking
5. Signal coding techniques like PCM, RLE etc.
6. LSB based bit-coded watermarking
7. Region of Interest Watermarking
8. Neural Network based watermarking

The algorithm will be shown for DWT based digital image watermarking because it provides the
best objective/subjective criteria based results and remain unaffected of different attacks in the
frequency or spatial domains.

Algorithm:

1. Read the images which act as the host image and the secret image.
2. The hierarchy will be to try to hide the secret image inside the host image and then retrieve the
secret image from the host.
3. First, convert the images into their DWT coefficients. The four DWT coefficients are
approximation, horizontal edge, vertical edge and diagonal edge and are obtained by LL, LH, HL
and HH respectively (where L stands for low-pass filtering and H stands for high-pass filtering
and LL stands for low-pass followed by low-pass and so on). They correspond to their respective
names and are shown below (clock-wise from top-left LL, LH, HH, HL):
4. Once each coefficient of each image is saved, one needs to replace every alternate pixel in the
HH or HL or LH component of hosts DWT by the LL component of the secret image.
5. It must be noted that the LL or the approximation component of the host must remain
untouched as it has the maximum energy component of the original host.
6. Once this process is done, the new HH/HL/LH must be recombined with the host LL by taking
IDWT to form the host image again.
7. This step gives us the final watermarked image. MSE or correlation coefficient of
watermarked image w.r.t. original host can give us an estimate of the quality of watermarking.
8. In order to retrieve the secret image, the DWT of the host needs to be taken first.
9. This must be followed by re-extraction of the alternate pixels of the secret images LL
component.
10. This retrieved LL component can be combined with other secret image components with
IDWT to obtain the retrieved secret image.
11. Again, MSE and correlation coefficient can be calculated in order to get an estimation of how
successful the retrieval is.

Application:
1. Visible logo watermarking for copyrights and important documents
2. Invisible watermarking for copyright protection and image hiding
 4. Content Based Image Retrieval

Objective:
The main objective of CBIR is to match the results of an image-centric search with the query
image. The results are typically obtained using robust matching and mining techniques. This
enables the user to match the image with several images in the database and retrieve similar
relevant information from it. It is specifically helpful when associated text of an image is
unavailable; direct image search can especially benefit the user.

Different Methods :
Different methods of CBIR include:
1. Correlation coefficient technique
2. Colour models:
1. RGB colour space based Euclidean distance
2. RGB colour space based Minkowskis distance
3. HSV colour space based Euclidean distance
4. HSV colour space based Minkowskis distance
5. YUV colour space based Euclidean distance
6. YUV colour space based Minkowskis distance
3. Feature Extraction based on wavelets and frequency domain components
Among the above stated methods, RGB colour space based Euclidean distance method is chosen
for its simplicity and accuracy in results

Algorithm:
1. Just like any other search technique, the first step is always to create a lengthy database. This
will enable the user to search from a wider range and types of images.
2. Once the database is formed, the query image is taken from the user as input.
3. The inputs R, G, and B planes are split and a mean distance is calculated with each image of
the database one after the other.
4. The Euclidean distance can be calculated by:
Dist = (a12 a22)0.5 where a1 and a2 are the data sets (in this case images)
5. Minimum distance indicated the maximum match between the query image and the image in
the database
6. Display best N results to complete the search.
Applications:
1. Image Mining
2. DNA search
3. RBC/WBC count and detection of deterioration
4. Tuberculosis detection in healthy cells
5. WBC mutation study
 5. Biometric Authentication

Objective:
The main objective of biometric authentication is to verify the credentials of a subject in question
by validating his or her peculiar facial features (face recognition), fingerprints (fingerprint
recognition), and signature (signature recognition). These traits that a person carries can
accurately verify a persons identity.

The development of an online or offline biometric authentication system must focus on two most
important aspects viz. accuracy and speed of processing. While accuracy directly affects the
veracity of validation, the speed at which the recognition takes place determines the real-time
capability and response of the system.
The accuracy is often decided by the algorithms used. It is observed that the algorithms that are
more complex and generalized give the best results; however also involve a lot of processing
time. Hence a trade-off needs to be struck between the ease and swiftness of processing with the
accuracy in recognition or simply put hit rate.

Different Methods:
Techniques that have been traditionally used involve tracing specific traits or features in the
digital footprints of a person (which are face, fingerprint, signature etc.). These features can be
extracted using various techniques which operate in spatial domain, frequency domain, wavelet
domain etc.

The following are the methods that are used to recognize features and recognize them:
1. Template matching and correlation principle
2. Principal Component Analysis
3. Kernel Principal Component Analysis
4. Discrete Wavelet Transform
5. Gabor filters
6. Neural Networks
7. Fuzzy logic
8. Genetic Algorithms
9. Feature (minutiae) extraction using directional filters (especially used for fingerprints)
10. Fanbeam/Radon Projections (especially for signature recognition)

Algorithm:
The algorithm explained here will be template matching for face recognition as it consumes the
least times and has moderately high hit rates.
1. Creating the database
a. Store k images of N persons (k > 3 i.e. 3 face images for each person statistically gives good
results) in a folder.
b. All of the k x N images must be of the same size (preferably with each dimension less than 150
pixels as it reduces the processing time to a great extent).
c. Store the database files in order and make a list of the database files locations and names in an
excel sheet. This is done so that the database editing can be later by any user irrespective of
whether he knows the program code or not.

2. Querying the image

a. Ask for a query image whose identity is to be recognized and validated.
b. The first step must always be to resize the query image into the size of the images in the
database.
c. Preprocess the image using basic filters to remove any noise.

3. Face Recognition
a. Compare the query image with the other images using correlation principle.
b. Calculate the correlation coefficient between the query image and each of the images in the
database.
c. Index the correlation coefficient for each combination.
d. Ascertain the minimum value of correlation coefficient.
e. The image indexed with the minimum correlation coefficient is the correct match for the query
image.
f. Verify the identity of the query image with the correlated image in the data base or return the
result Person cannot be found in the database message.

Application:
1. Biometric authentication of faces and fingerprints are specifically used for user authentication
for confidential or restricted access activities.
2. Signature recognition is used for automatic cheque clearing system and person authentication
for security applications
 6. Object Detection using correlation Principle

Objective:
The objective is to detect objects of interest in a given background using the principle of
template matching using correlation coefficient. The object detection is however limited by
lighting conditions, background selection etc. The main concept involved is to match the shape
of the object in the any given image with a shape in the database using correlation coefficient.

The calculation of correlation coefficient method involves calculating the similarity of the image
with another image as well as the image itself. This is evident from the covariance term in the
denominator. This is the reason why correlation coefficient method suffers from false detections
if the template image has repetitive features. In this case, it gives higher values for correlation
coefficient despite no resemblance between the two images. For example, in 1-D, correlation
coefficient between [1 2 3 4] and [7 7 8 8] is 0.89 whereas between [7 7 8 8] and [7 5 6 8] is 0.2.

Different Methods:

The various types of object detection using correlation principle are based on the domain in
which correlation takes place and the type of image.
1. Correlation coefficient in spatial domain for grayscale image and colored image
2. Correlation coefficient in spatial domain after thresholding
3. Correlation coefficient of principal components with the input image
However, we select the first method for its ease.

Algorithm:
1. Input the image in which the object has to be found out.
2. Run the database image over the input image using the principle of correlation and calculate
the correlation coefficient at each position of the mask.
3. Set a threshold for the coefficient of correlation to a certain statistically determined high value.
4. If the value of correlation coefficient is not above that particularly high threshold, then the
feature in question is not present in the image.
5. If the correlation coefficient is above the threshold at any position of the template over the
image, then the feature is present in the input image and can be marked.

Application:
1. Object detection for security systems.
2. Object detection for face detection using neural based correlation coefficient
3. Suspicious object detection