5 MACHINE AND PARTS

1. HYDRAULIC

Hydraulic machines are machinery

and tools that use liquid fluid power to do
simple work. Heavy equipment is a common
example. In this type of machine, hydraulic
fluid is transmitted throughout the machine
to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic
cylinders and becomes pressurised according
to the resistance present. The fluid is
controlled directly or automatically by control
valves and distributed through hoses and
tubes.

The popularity of hydraulic machinery

is due to the very large amount of power that
can be transferred through small tubes and
flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array of actuators that
can make use of this power.
 PARTS OF HYDRAULIC

Hydraulic pump

Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in

the system develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is
capable of maintaining flow against a load of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor
(by volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected
through gears, belts, or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.

Control valves

Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually
consist of a spool inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different
positions in the housing, and intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid
based on the spool's position. The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained
with springs; in this position the supply fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding
the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an actuator and provides a return
path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to the opposite direction
the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to
neutral (center) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one
valve for each hydraulic cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the
stack.
Reservoir

The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate

volume changes from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven
expansion and contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in
separation of air from the fluid and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses
in the system when peak power is used. Design engineers are always pressured to
reduce the size of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always
appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other
particulate from the oil, as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the
tank. Some designs include dynamic flow channels on the fluid's return path that
allow for a smaller reservoir.

Accumulators
 Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to
store energy by using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On
one side of the piston is a charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the
fluid. Bladders are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid.

Filters

Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are

continually produced by mechanical components and need to be removed along
with other contaminants.

Tubes, pipes and hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured

for hydraulics. The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with
standard diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in
lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are interconnected by
different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and pressures), welding
cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare connection and by cut-rings.
In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not
acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected.

Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available.
Generally these are used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded
connections, but usually by welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can
usually be inspected internally after welding. Black pipe is non-galvanized and
suitable for welding.

Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility.

Hoses are used when pipes or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility
for machine operation or maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel
layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber.
The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose
is carefully designed into the machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and
violating the hose's minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses
generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high
pressure hose is the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of
hoses is the shorter life of rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at
five to seven year intervals.
2. MILLING MACHINE

PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE

The table handwheel is used to move the table horizontally

back and forth in front of the column .
The knee is attached to the column face and may be moved
vertically on the column face either manually or automatically.
The spindle provides the drive for arbors, cutters, and
attachments used on a milling machine.
The base gives support and rigidity to the machine and also acts
as a reservoir dor the cutting fluids.
The column face is a precision-machined and scraped section
used to support and guide the knee when it is moved vertically.
 The elevating screw is controlled by hand or automatic feed. It
gives an upward or downward movement to the knee and the
cable.
The spindle speed dial is set by a crank that it turned to
regulate the spindle speed. On some milling machines the spindle
speed changes are made by means of two levers. When making
speed changers, always check to see wether the change can be
made when the machine is running or of it must be stopped.

3. DRILLING MACHINE

PARTS OF DRILLING MACHINE

Back gears, located within the front pulley, give additional speeds.
Stop before shifting gears. A variable speed drive gives a continous
range of speeds show on a dial his adjusted only while the drill is
operation.
Column is the post, to which the table is fastened, the tableholds
the work in place while it is being drill.
Spindle, All drilling mechanism has a spindle, which holds and
turns the drill . It is upright on most machine and is held by an arm,
 which is fastened to the column. To be the spindle from dropping, it
balanced by a spindle return spring which supports the quill a
housing around the rotating spindle moved up and down by the
feed handle. A few spindles may be counterbalanced try a weight,
which moves up and down inside the column, this weight is
fastened to the spindle with a chain called the counterweight
series.
One cone pulley is fastened to the spindle and another is
connected to the motor. The steps of the cone pulley give as a lot of
speeds as there as steps.
Base of the drill press is the support for the machine it is bolted to
the floor and has T-slots so to large work may be bolted to it for
drill.
Table can be adjusted along tile column for the correct heigh prior
to drilling. It can also be swiveled around the column to the
preferred operational positions. Most worktable might slots and
holes for rising vises and other work holding accessories. Various
tables are semi universal meaning that they can be swiveled about
the horizontal axis.
Head house spindle quill pulleys motor with feed mechanism. The
v-belt as of the motor drives a pulley in front part of head which in
trun drive the spindle. The spindle turns the drill.

4.
PARTS OF AIRCRAFT
 AIRCRAFT PART FUNCTION
Aileron: To roll left & right.

Aileron trim: To roll left & right a little.

Anti-Collision Warning Beacon: A red

light to warn other aircraft and help prevent
mid-air collisions.

A.P.U. Exhaust: This is the exhaust pipe

for the A.P.U. (Auxiliary Power Unit). The
A.P.U. is an engine in the tail of the aircraft.
It is used only on the ground. It generates electrical power for the aircraft
and is used to start the jet engines.

Cockpit / Flight Deck: In this room, pilots aviate, communicate, and

navigate.

Elevator Trim: To pitch up & down a little.

Engine Cowling: The main cover or housing of the engine.

Engine Mounting: Used to fix the engine to the wing.

Flap: To increase lift during take-off and landing. Pilots extend the flaps to
increase the wing's area. This increases the lift.

Fuselage: The body or structure of the aircraft.

 Horizontal Stabiliser: Stabilises the
aircraft around the lateral axis.

Landing Gear: Pilots extend or retract the

landing gear (wheels) during take-off and
landing.

Leading Edge: Front section of the wing.

Main Elevator: To pitch up & down.

Main Rudder: To yaw (turn) left & right.

Nose Gear: The front wheels of the aircraft. Aircraft also have MAIN GEAR
(wheels under the aircraft's wings) and sometimes BODY GEAR (wheels
under the aircraft's body).

Propeller: Gives an aircraft thrust or power.

Pylons: Used to stabilise the air flow behind the wing. Without pylons, the
air is unstable. This makes drag, and reduces the aircraft's speed and
performance.

Radome: The aircraft's radar is inside the

radome or nose of the aircraft.

Rudder Trim: To yaw left & right a little.

Speed Brakes / Air Brakes: Used to slow

the plane in the air and while landing.

Spoilers: Used to destroy lift and keep the plane on the ground. This is
important while landing. Without spoilers, the plane bounces on the runway.
This can damage the landing gear. Some pilots prefer hard landings to help
prevent bounce.

Stabiliser Trim: To increase the angle of attack (A.O.A.). Basically, the angle
of attack is the angle the wing hits the air.

Trailing edge: Back section of the wing.

 Vertical Stabiliser: Stabilises the aircraft
around the vertical axis.

Vortex Generator: Used to create lift in

areas of the wing that have no or very little
lift, for example, next to the engine
mounting.

Winglet: Used to reduce the vortex at the

end of the wing. A vortex is unstable circular air. It makes drag, and reduces
the aircraft's speed and performance.

Wing Tip: The end or tip of the wing.

1. ENGINE

PARTS OF ENGINE

Air intake (inlet) , For subsonic aircraft, the inlet is a duct which is
required to ensure smooth airflow into the engine despite air approaching
the inlet from directions other than straight ahead. This occurs on the
ground from cross winds and in flight with aircraft pitch and yaw motions.
The duct length is minimised to reduce drag and weight. Air enters the
compressor at about half the speed of sound so at flight speeds lower than
 this the flow will accelerate along the inlet and at higher flight speeds it will
slow down. Thus the internal profile of the inlet has to accommodate both
accelerating and diffusing flow without undue losses. For supersonic
aircraft, the inlet has features such as cones and ramps to produce the
most efficient series of shockwaves which form when supersonic flow slows
down. The air slows down from the flight speed to subsonic velocity
through the shockwaves, then to about half the speed of sound at the
compressor through the subsonic part of the inlet. The particular system of
shockwaves is chosen, with regard to many constraints such as cost and
operational needs, to minimise losses which in turn maximises the
pressure recovery at the compressor.
Compressor or fan, The compressor is made up of stages. Each stage
consists of rotating blades and stationary stators or vanes. As the air
moves through the compressor, its pressure and temperature increase. The
power to drive the compressor comes from the turbine (see below).
Combustor or combustion chamber , Fuel is burned continuously after
initially being ignited during the engine start.
Turbine, The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a windmill,
extracting energy from the hot gases leaving the combustor. Some of this
energy is used to drive the compressor. Turboprop, turboshaft and turbofan
engines have additional turbine stages to drive a propeller, bypass fan or
helicopter rotor. In a free turbine the turbine driving the compressor rotates
independently of that which powers the propellor or helicopter rotor.
Cooling air, bled from the compressor, may be used to cool the turbine
blades, vanes and discs to allow higher turbine entry gas temperatures for
the same turbine material temperatures.
Exhaust or nozzle, Turbine exhaust gases pass through the propelling
nozzle to produce a high velocity jet. The nozzle is usually convergent with
a fixed flow area.

2. INSTRUMENT COCKPIT

Airspeed Indicator
 The Airspeed Indicator, or ASI, displays the aircrafts indicated air speed, or how fast it is
travelling through the air. The ASI in most aircraft displays the speed in Knots, but yours
may be different and show Miles Per Hour.

You will see that the instrument has a number of different colours in a band around the
speed numbers. These are important and tell you important information about safety of the
aircraft.

The green band indicates normal safe operating speeds for flight. The start of this band is
known as Vs1, or the stalling speed with flaps up.

The white band indicates a safe speed to deploy wing flaps. Never do this when your speed
is greater than the white band as it may damage your flaps. The start of this band is known
as Vs0, or the stalling speed with flaps and landing gear deployed.

The yellow band indicates that you are travelling faster than the aircraft is designed for.
This is known as the caution range, and ends with a red bar. Anything beyond this red bar
is beyond the aircrafts maximum safe speed and should be avoided.

Artificial Horizon
 The Artificial Horizon, or Attitude Indicator, is a useful cockpit instrument
if you ever find yourself in conditions that preclude you from full visual
flying, such as when caught in cloud or when doing instrument flying. It
gives you an instant, truthful indication as to whether your aircraft is
turning, climbing or descending, and should be trusted over all other
senses if you are disorientated or lost.

The instrument shows a basic view of your aircraft and wings, and the
horizon. If the aircraft is turning, the wings will tilt in relation to the
horizon. If the aircraft is descending, the aircraft will move below the
horizon, and if climbing it will be above the horizon.

The markings around the edge of the attitude indicator show the angle
of bank as an additional reference when turning the aircraft in non-visual
conditions.

Altimeter
 One of the simplest instruments to understand, the Altimeter displays
your aircrafts current altitude.

The large hand indicates hundreds of feet, whilst the small hand
indicates thousands of feet.

Also on this instrument is your pressure setting, which should be

adjusted as directed by air traffic control to the current QNH or QFE in
the area you are operating. If you alter this, you will notice your altitude
change in line with that pressure setting, and it is of vital importance to
do this in order to maintain safe separation from other aircraft.

It is wise to include the altimeter in a regular scan of your instruments

to get a picture of whether your aircraft is climbing or descending, or
has already climbed or descended from your cleared or intended
altitude. It is common for many trainee pilots to find that they have
drifted, but you will be required to stay within defined altitude limits
when taking your test, so its good to keep an eye on this!

Turn Coordinator
 This unassuming instrument is really quite useful for refining your flying,
and also understanding what the aircraft is doing in poor visibility or
instrument flying conditions.

The turn coordinator, as the name suggests, shows the level of bank of
your wings by tilting the small plane left or right. What appears like
straight and level flight to your eyes may actually be a turn when you
reference this instrument, even in good visibility.

The markings on the edge of the indicator show the rate of turn, with
the first mark indicating straight-and-level, and the second mark Rate 1.
You can use this to time a turn if you want to make a new heading
(useful if you need to make a 180 degree U-turn) simply bank the
aircraft until the wings on the turn coordinator line up with the Rate 1
mark. Then time the number of seconds you have been turning. It takes
30 seconds to turn 90 degrees, 1 minute to turn 180 degrees, or 2
minutes to do a full 360 degree turn.

Also shown on the turn coordinator is a balance ball in a small white

box. This shows whether the aircraft is travelling efficiently and in
balance, or whether it is slipping or skidding in a turn. You should aim to
keep the ball in the centre, especially during turns, by pressing the
rudder pedal in the direction the ball has moved. As well as making your
turns more efficient, it will also make the flight more comfortable for you
and your passengers!

Direction Indicator
The Direction Indicator shows the entire compass range in one view,
spinning as you turn to show your current heading. It doesnt suffer from
external forces like the magnetic compass, and does not speed up or
slow down as it turns. It clearly marks headings in 30 degree intervals,
with N, S, E and W also marked.

You will notice a small knob underneath this instrument. The Direction
Indicator is prone to getting out of sync quite easily, as it is influenced
by forces of movement and vibration. Therefore you must correctly align
this instrument regularly by referencing the magnetic compass. Do this
before taking off, and regularly during flight when the wings are level
and your speed is steady.
 Vertical Speed Indicator

Also known as the climb indicator, the VSI is useful in conjunction with
your Altimeter to determine if your aircraft is currently climbing or
descending. The needle will display how many feet per minute in climb
or descent, and can therefore also be used when in controlled descent,
and when trimming the aircraft for straight and level flight.

Naturally it is very useful when in instrument flying conditions to ensure

the aircraft is not risking collision with ground objects, or climbing into a
stall. Reference it as part of your regular scans to ensure the aircraft is
flying as you want it to.