LEC course

C1
Language Units:

Phonemes, morphemes, words, clauses, sentences, paragraph, words, phrases, text.

Morphology:

Variable - takes on several forms

= internal forms of the parts of speech: Invariable -article, preposition,

conjunction, interjection

Variable parts of speech: change their forms in order to convey grammatical information

a. Lexical morphology
b. Inflectional morphology (study of paradigmatic relations, word paradigm)

Paradigm= a word has to be variable to have paradigm

Words may assume in various contexts.

Call, caller, calling, calls

Syncretic form : - Lexical morphemes

Grammatical morphemes

Types of morphemes:

Free vs. bound (ex.s in calls)

Lexical (derivational) vs. Grammatical (inflectional)

We derive new words In order to deliver

from the same base. grammatical information.

Exercises:

1. likelihood 3 morphemes- lexical

2. faithfulness- 3 morph., lexical
3. subconsciousness -4 morph., lexical
4. shamelessly- 3 morph., lexical
5. rewrites- 3 morph., grammatical
6. writings 3 morph., Gramm.

the presence of s in writings proves that -ing is a lexical morpheme

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 the grammatical morpheme is always last and only appears once in a word (there can be
only one inflectional morpheme in a word, always in final position)

Lexical and grammatical morphemes can coexist

grammatical morphemes come last because they do not affect the meaning of the word

Syncretism vs. suppletion

Suppletion can be: a) Partial ex. go gone (the sound changes)

b) Total ex. go went

Types of inflection:

a. external: called, known

b. internal: foot- feet, met-meet
c. zero ( o ): cut- cut, sheep- sheep
d. suppletion: boy-girl
e. word order (case relation)

Abbreviations:

V base, can be a paradigm too ex. play

Vs 3rd person singular plays
Ved1 past played
Ved2 past participle played
Ving present participle playing

Oi indirect object
Od direct object
Op prepositional object
Cs subject complement
Co object complement

AdvC adverbial complementation

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 C2

Lexical classes:

Open vs. close

They are
indefinably
renewable.

Open: Closed:

a. verb a. article
b. adjective b. numerals
c. adverb c. pronoun
d. interjection d. conjunction
e. noun e. preposition

Grammatical categories: aspect, case, comparison, gender, mood, number, tense,

person, voice.

Synthetic/ analytical markers+

Disyllabic adjectives can follow both synthetic and analytical markers

ex. The Genitive withs and with of, one is the Norman genitive and the Saxon or
inflectional and prepositional.

The verb and the verb phrase

The verb phrase structure:

Head- carries the grammatical baggage

Auxiliaries: Complementation:

Tense, modality, aspect, voice Oi/Od/ Op, Co/Cs, AdvC (verb phrase VP
adjuncts of manner/space/ time)

there is a limit of 4 auxiliaries that can be used in a VP

ex. [he] may have been given the books given= Head

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Auxiliaries Od
there can be noun phrases inside a VP

a VP can be made up of other phrases or even higher units, like clauses.

in an auxiliary string the first one is called operator

The finite /non-finite distinction

A verb form which conveys information
cf. Sings, sang, singing, to sing
Simple (head only) / complex (more than just a head) VPs

H
Complex finite VPs

Type A ( modal/ periphrastic): Auxmod/per + V ex. can take

Type B ( perfective): Auxhave + Ved2 ex. has taken
Type C (progressive): Auxbe + Ving ex. is taking
Type D (passive ): Auxbe + Ved2 ex. was taken

cf.

1. may bite A
2. is biting C
3. may be biting A+C
4. may be bitten A+D
5. has been bitten B+D
6. have been biting B+C
7. has been being bitten B+C+D
8. would have been built A+B+D
9. doesnt come A
10. must have seen A+B
11. must have been seen A+B+D
12. will be writing A+C
13. could have been being built A+B+C+D

1. Vintrans ex. It has rained./ She cried./ John was snoring.

2. Ving+CS (Cs=subject copulate) ex. Mary is clever./ He became a cop./ They were in
love.
3. VMONOTRANS+ Od ex. The cat caught the mouse.
4. VDITRANS+O+O ex. Do me a favor./ I bought John a coat.

the direct and indirect objects can swap places.

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 5. VCPLX +Od+ Co ex. I painted the wall white. / They believed John innocent. (Co)

the cause and result:

I painted the wall, so it was white.

chain relationship between V1 +Od+Co

6. VTRANS +Od+AdvC ex. I put my head on his shoulders.

7. VINTRANS +AdvC ex. I leaned against the wall./ The box weights 10 kg.

Classification of verbs
it is the most important part of speech

Criteria of classification:

1. Lexical morphology
2. Form
3. Predication
4. Transitivity
5. Function
1. Lexical morphology:
a. Derivation:
Class preserving: misspell, cooperate, destruct
Class changing: empower, socialize, glorify,
verbalize.

denominal- the base in part of the noun class

deadjectival- the base is part of the adjective class

derivation allows us to create abstract words and is important for word economy

b. Composition: (to) speedwalk, (to) snowball, the joining of 2 free morphemes

c. Conversation: (to) father, (to) brake, (to) email, (to) empty

O morpheme: The morphology of English is simplified, so words have simplified

paradigms, this way a word doesnt need changes.

d. Back formation: donate>donation, negate, burgle, mutate, reminisce, dominate

2. Form
Morphological makeup
A. Simple: get, know, hold
B. Compound: lip-read, moonlight
C. Complex/ Phrasal verbs: [V + particle]
D. Verbal phrases: have breakfast, be in a hurry, make friends
the noun, noun phrase, prep.= have the value
3. Predication:

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 a) complete predication: intransitive verbs, reflexive verbs (they can make a
predicate on their own)
b) incomplete predication: auxiliaries, transitive verbs, verbs with obligatory
preposition or other obligatory elements (they cant form a predicate on their
own)
c) double predication: [V + cognate object]: live a happy life, walk a brisk walk
initial intransitive verbs
can be transitive with the cognate object similar formally or semantically
a semantic plus
they resemble in form and meaning
the link can only be semantic
4. Transitivity:
1) Intransitive: V
2) Transitive:
a. Monotransitive: V+Od
b. Ditransitive: V+Oi+Od
c. Complex transitive: V+ Od+ Co
5. Function:
lexical/main
auxiliaries: primary and modal
Semi-auxiliaries: to have to, to have got to, to be willing to, to be eager to
linking/copular
catenative: to seem to be gone
they need other verbs to complete

The Morphology of Lexical Verbs

Regular vs. Irregular

Regular: V, V-s, V-ing, V-ed (V-ed1=V-ed2)

Irregular: V, V-s, V-ing, V-ed1, V-ed2

Verb inflections in the old code:

1) V-s:
/iz/ after bases ending in +/- voice sibilants: catches
/z/ after bases ending in other voiced sounds: hugs
/s/ after bases ending in other voiceless sounds: comes
2) V-ed
/id/ after bases ending in alveolar stops: evaluated, planted
/d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds: earned, learned
/t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds: slept, stopped

Bases in true written code:

- Germination (V-ing, V-ed) : the find vowel in the base is short, stressed, spilt in a
simple vowel: beg/begging/ begged, admit, permit, refer, control, prefer, run/running,
sit/sitting, begin/beginning

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 - Treatment of y: worry- worries, worried/ die-dying/ lie-lying
- Detection of find silent e (V-ing, V-ed): behave, shave, agree-agreeing-agreed, dye,
to tiptoe
- Addition of e: catch- catches, fish, clash, box

C4
Seven classes, according to three criteria

V-ed1- V-ed2 identity

Suffixation (learnt, taken)

Vowel identity in the main forms (put/put/put)

Class 1 (burn): learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil, build, have, lend, make, send, spend
Class 2 (bring): deal, cheep, feel, buy, sleep, sell, teach
Class 3 (cut): hit, cost, cast, let, split, shut
Class 4 (meet): feed, hold, cling, stick, find, get, fight
Class 5 (mow): mow-mowed- mown- mowed, saw, sew, son, show, hew
Class 6 (know): break, choose, speak, stud, bear, swear, bite, hide, forget, grown,
thrown, shake, take, give, dream, fall
Class 7 (swim): begin, sing, sink, shrink, go, run, spring, stink

The verb categories

Tense, aspect, voice, mood, number, person

Time vs. Tense?

Tense: grammaticalized or lexicalized?

=it has become basically grammaticalized but its particular lexicalized

tense: 2 category of the verb or a category of the sentence?

Tense as a category of the verb

tense: a deictic category

absolute vs. relative (they are related/dependent on an absolute tense)

ex. When walking in the park, I often meet her.

When walking in the park, I often met her.

They do not provide temporary information directly

Present tense (V-Vs)

A. Unrestricted use (PT [present tense]= Pa+Pr+F)

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 Generic: Gold is more valuable than silver./ John speaks Chinese.
Cognitive truth: Two and two is four. / Water boils at 100 0C.
Sentential statements: The best defense is the attack./ Crime doesnt pay.
Habitual activities: Walk to work every morning./ John takes riding lessons twice a
week.
B. Instantaneous present (Pt=St)
Performative sentences: You are under arrest./ I absolve you of all your sins.
Old communication:
- Simultaneous narration: Now he opens the door
- Commentaries: Smith shoots and its in!
- Demonstrations: I now push this button and
- Exclamation: Here comes the winner!
C. Non-specific temporal reference:
Historical present (Pt=Pa): Dickens draws his characters from real life./ I
hear you got married./ Plane crashed (newspaper headlines)
Future time reference (Pt=F): He leaves for Paris tomorrow morning.

Past tense (V-ed1: external, internal, zero)

primary temporal reference= Past time

it is used to represent an act as done, or as regularly or habitually done in time wholly past
at the present moment, although it may have been performed only a few seconds before; if
this is employed, the time of the act must be started accurately or indicated very clearly by the
context, so that the idea of indefiniteness or generality is entirely excluded.

The past tense combines two features of measuring:

a. The event/state must have taken place in the past with a gap between the completion
and the present moment;
b. The speaker or writer must have in mind a definite time at which the event/state took
place.

Past tense: (V-ed1)

1. Past perfect reading:

a. signaled sequentiality: I turned off the lights before I left.
b. unsignaled sequentiality: I stamped the letter and I mailed it.
2. Present time reference:
a. Syntactic constraints? :
i. Backshifting: He said his name was John.
ii. Subjunctive: I wish you behaved./ If you come
b. attitudinal past:
i. Did you want to talk to me? more polite
ii. I wondered if you could help me.

C5
Future

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Auxiliary verb construction:

Shall/Will+ V neutral, colorless future

Will- x (in conjunction with 1st, 2nd, 3rd persons

subjucte?-the foretelling future

Be going to+ V (futurity- intent)

future of present intention: They are going to get married./ I am going to get my
drivers license.
future of present cause: Its going to rain./ Shes going to have a baby.

Present tense

- as a synthetic constraint, in conditional and temporal sentences.

- it requires the presence in the same context of a future time adverbial
- it is associated with the idea of immutability of the events in reference to : What time
is the football match?/ When is the meeting?

Present progressive

- imminent arrangement, plan or program

- it requires the presence of a future time adverbial

Present Present Progressive

- more objective, impersonal - arrangement, program
Programming:

I start work tomorrow. I am starting work tomorrow.

I leave for Paris next week. I am leaving for Paris next week.

Auxiliary verb construction + progressive

- Indicates that a future even will be in progress at a certain future moment explicitly
stated in the context.
- the use of this pattern precludes the interpretation of volition, insistence, associated
with the use of will (shall); the going to + verb.
- Open endedness + future comment (development) : Ill be seeing John tonight.
- higher degree of
- Be about to + V.
- be about to+ ingressive: She is about to speak.
- be to= arrangement/ comment: They are to marry soon.

The future in the past

auxiliary verb construction:

o be going to + verb

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 o past progressive
o be about to/ be to + verb

Time

Tense of the V (=finite VP) Tense of the sentence (=VP time

adverbial)

Time relations:
Time relations: Simultaneity
ST (speech time)
E PP Sequentiality
RT (reference time)
E = PP
ET (event time)
E PP

primitive tenses

ST= the time at which the sentence is written-spoken

RT= the time axis (past/present/future) indicated by the sentence (V. tense and/or time
adverbial)

ET= moment in the time axis at which the event/state occurs.

tense of the sentence- different patterning of ST, RT, ET to denote relations of seq.
and/or sim
a sentence to be temporarily specific must include a RT if the RT? is not there.

e.g.

1. John went to see the play last week. ATR (RTST; ET=RT)
2. They are having lunch. ATR (RT=ST; ET=RT)
3. They have already had lunch. ATR (RT=ST; ETRT)
4. They had already had lunch when I got home. ATR (RTST; ETRT)
5. I will be meeting them at the station tomorrow. ATR (RTST; ET=RT)
6. I knew we would meet again soon. ATR (RTST; ETRT)
7. I will have written the letter by the time you come back. ATR (RTST; ETRT)
8. Has he started work yet? ATR (RT=ST; ETRT)
9. They are eating a large cake. ATR (RT=ST; ET=RT)
10. I have never seen her before. ATR (RT=ST; ETRT)
11. The guests left when I got home. ATR (RTST; ET=RT)
12. The guests had left by the time I got home. ATR (RTST; ETRT)
13. Please call me as soon as you get there. ATR (RTST; ET=RT)
14. By the time we stop, we will have driven 200 miles. ATR (RTST; ETRT)
15. I have been living in this house for 20 years now. ATR (RT=ST; ETRT)

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 16. The guests will have left by the time I got home. ATR (RTST; ETRT)

C6
Aspect

Aspect and Aktionsart

aspect= a grammatical category which stands for the different way of writing the
internal temporal constituency of a situation
aspect= a matter of the speakers viewpoint or perspective on the situation such as
whether the situation is viewed as completed, beginning, ongoing, ending or repeating.
Aktionsart= inherent aspectual properties of verbs organized as sets of binary
oppositions
aktionsart= an indication of the intrinsec temporal qualities of a situation, covering
such possibilities as stative vs. dynamic; punctual vs. durative; continuous vs. iterative

phrase/ stage meaning forms

imminence anteriority with respect to be about to
the event proper be to
ingressive proximity to the event to be about to
be in the point of
inceptive beginning of the event inchantive verbs: start,
begin, take up
progressive iterative development (progression) keep on, go on, VP type C
repetition of events
terminal completion/ final stage of end, finish, stop, cease, quit,
events VP type B

E.g.

John was reading a book.

John was knocking on the door.
I read a book last night.
John was knocking on the door.

Perfective vs. Imperfective situations (perfectum/imperfectum)

Types of aspect:

1. Perfect
2. Progressive
3. Habitual
4. Prospective

Habitual:

Past only: used to

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e.g.

John used to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day.

John would smoke a pack of cigarettes a day.

Prospective:

Perfect is said to be retroactive: it establishes a relationship between an event/ state at the

time and an event which has taken place at an earlier time. Similarly, the PROSPECTIVE
connects present and future.

Typical expressions of prospective meaning:

Be about to
Be on the point of

Indicative meaning: both describe the subjects present state relative to the future event.

Be going to:

= no implication of imminent futurity; unlike expressions of futurity it has no straight forward

time reference

e.g.

Bill will throw himself off the cliffs.

Bill is going to throw himself off the cliffs.

Progressive:

= 15/16th century; [be+ prep. + N]

1. Primary function: to describe situations seem as developing processes whose in

2. Individual phases are essentially distinct from one another.
3. Secondary function:
a. temporariness
b. incomplete events
c. habitual situation holding for a relatively limited period of time
d. emotional connotations
e. iterative meaning (+ punctual verb)
f. idiosyncratic use

Perfect:

While aspect is concerned with the different ways of representing the internal temporal
constituency of a situation, the perfect is rather different since it says nothing directly about
the situation itself, but rather relates some present state/ effect to some previous
situation/case.

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 previous case present effect

I have lost my pen. I lost my pen three minutes ago.

John has broken his leg. John broke his leg yesterday.

e.g.

She has been an invalid all her life. She still is

She was an invalid all her life. She is dead.

Princeton has been visited by Einstein. Einstein visited Princeton.

Types of perfect:

1. Perfect of result: the present state referred to as the result of some past event.
a. John has arrived.
b. I have fixed the TV.
c. Shes had a shower.
d. Bill has gone to America.
2. Experiential perfect: indicates that a given situation has held at least once during
some time in the past leading up to the present.
a. Bill has been to America.
b. Have you heard her sing?
3. Perfect of persistent situation: refers to a situation which has started in the past but
continues into the present
a. They have been married for years.
b. She has been waiting here for hours.
c. I have studied English for years.
d. I have been studying English for ten years.
4. Perfect of recent past: used when the present relevance of the past situation referred
to is a simply one of temporal closeness (just, recently, already)
a. I have just met John.
b. She has already had a baby.

C7
AKTIONSART

e.g.

Ever since we bought the car, weve been traveling abroad every day.

Ever since weve owned the car, weve been traveling abroad every day.

The Vender-Kenny aspectual classification

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Verbs with internal temporal constituency:

Activity VP (run, walk, drive a car)

Accomplishments VP (grow up, paint a picture, make a speech, buy, draw a circle,
run a mile)

Verbs with no internal temporal constituency:

Achievements VP (recognize, reach, lose, find, die)

State VP (own, have, posses, believe, wish, know, trust)

Comries classification of aktionsart:

Punctual Durative
VS.
Kick, jump, knock, arrive, Read, write, walk, sleep,
reach, sit down cook, point, drive, run

Stative Dynamic
VS.
Know, believe, like, Pay, run, walk, rest
understand, own, belong
=situations characterized by
=situations characterized by effort/ internal structure
Telic
lack of effort/ made up of Atelic
Vs.
Die, climb, buy, draw a
circle, eat an apple

(Process=inbuilt terminal
point)

e.g.

John is singing. Atelic

John is making a chair. Telic

They climbed the mountain. Telic

They reached the summit. atelic

Voice
types of voice in English
voice as a verb/ sentence category

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 voice constraints
actional vs. statal passives
quasi-passives

Voice

= grammatical category which makes it possible to view a situation in two ways, without
change in the facts reported:

e.g.

John beat Jack. Jack was beaten by John.

Focus on the actor focus on the patient

In English there are two types of voice: an active voice which is unmarked and a passive
voice, which has morphosyntactic realization.

! A verb or a sentence category?

The passive transformation involves:

the use of particular complex finite VP (type D)

the change of word order (O becomes S position)
the addition of an optimal constituent (an agentive prepositional phrase)

The passive auxiliary: BE (formal)

The closest substitute: GET (less formal, preferred in imperatives and agentless
constructions)

= used in contexts where the subject is not regarded as a purely possessive participant, on
the contrary, some measures of responsibility, intention or involvement to the subject.

e.g.

Get lost!
Dont get run over!
Our flat is getting painted.
Im getting vaccinated tomorrow.
John got mugged last night.
They almost got themselves killed in a car accident.

as a rule, transitive verbs can occur in both active and passive constructions.

EXEPTIONS:

Passive constraints:

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 verb-related
agent-related
object-related
semantic
style

Verb-related constraints:

= transitive verbs in certain uses cannot be passivized:

This color becomes you.

Ten A.M. suit me.
They have a nice house.
This lecture all holds 200 students.
John lacks confidence.
He represents his father.

Prepositional verbs:

They look after the child well. The child is well looked after.

They arrived at the expected result. The expected result was arrived at.

Agent-related constraints:

the agent phrase is optional

the passive is the normal construction when the agent is difficult to specify/ unknown,
when the agent is too obvious, or when the speaker prefers to leave the agent
unspecified.

E.g.

- Many people were killed during the war.

- We were caught in a traffic jam.
- He was born is 1980.
- John was accused of murder.

Agentless passives are especially characteristic of the official documents, textbooks,

scientific articles, instructions, rules etc.

E.g. Smoking in here is strictly prohibited.

Object-related constraints:

= passivization is impossible if the object is expressed by/ includes a reference, reciprocal or

possessive pronoun.

- John hurt himself.

- John and Jack hurt each other.
- She shook her head.

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Semantic constraints:

= passive trends to be associated with the informational function of the language:

= it is felt as more objective, impersonal and therefore preferred in scientific discourse.

Actional Vs. Statal Passive:

The window was broken.

The house was sold.

AuxBE + V-ed2 VCOP + Cs (adjectival)

test: active counterpart use of another VCOP / use of a pure adjective

modifications by adverbials

Cause Effect

Dynamic vs. Static descriptions

Quasi passive constructions:

= structures that are passive in meaning rather than form

Constructions including active verbs with passive value:

- The books sold quickly.

- The potatoes dont peel easily.
- The medicine tasted bitter.
- This bed sleeps true people.

Gerund forms with passive meaning:

His car wants washing.

Constructions with factitive/ causative verbs:

I had my flat painted.

Constructions with prepositions which can introduce quasi-agents:

- We are interested in literature.

- He is fascinated with her.
- I am worried about Janes health.

C8
MOOD

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= grammatical category which stands for the linguistic means of suppletion used to refer to a
situation as factual or non-factual, real or un-real, assertive or non-assertive

= in English mood- related distinctions rest upon the FINITE- NON-FINITE opposition:

INDICATIVE INFINITIVE
VS.
SUBJONCTIVE GEROUND

IMPERATIVE PARTICIPLE

Finite verb-forms:

- have person and number distinctions

- will necessarily pertain to the past/present/ future time sphere
- Are context dependent, due to the high number of syncretic forms.

The Indicative:

= is used to refer to real, factual, satiations or assertions

= has a full range of temporal references.

The Subjunctive:

- occurs in contexts involving non- factuality (the indicative)

- Can also be formed in main clauses and in simple sentences.

Types of subjunctive:

1. Mandative subjunctive (V)

- occurs in subordinate clauses introduced by THAT, after a relatively small
class of verbs (verbo dicendi) or after expressions of recommendation,
resolution, surprise
- it is used in formal style
e.g. The Parliament voted that the present law be changed. / There was a
suggestion that John be fired.
2. Formulaic subjunctive:
- occurs in certain stereotyped, conventional, or traditional phrases built on
patterns of little productivity in the language:
- e.g. Come what may, Heaven forbid, long live friendship, so be it, suffice it
to say, far be it from me, be as it may, god bless you
3. The were subjunctive:
- used to express factual remoteness in conjunction with conditional
constructions introduced by : IF /UNLESS/ SUPPOSE/ SUPPOSING
/IMAGINE
- it also occurs in clauses functioning as complement to the verb WISH or after
constructions with: IT IS TIME/ WOULD RATHER/ HAD BETTER

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 - e.g. If this were true, we would have to change our plans./ I wish we met more
often./ Id rather they left now.

Time reference of subjunctive

= defective time reference: past and present

E.g. We wish we had met you before that. / Id rather they left now.

Subjunctive equivalent:

1. Should infinitive: It is told that he should resign./ There was a suggestion that John
should be fired./
2. putative should in IF clauses, exclamation or rhetorical questions: If they
should arrive sooner, tell them to wait./ How should I know?/ That you should dare
contradict me!
3. Would- infinitive: it stands as a more colloquial variant of the subjunctive after WISH
: I wish you would behave. I wish you behaved./ I wish you would see me.
Would have seen me.
4. May + infinitive: it is an alternative to formulate the subjunctive: Long live our
friendship./ May our friendship live long.
- in such clauses it can express wish, purpose, comparison: May you never
set foot in this house again!/ It looks as it may rain.
- it can also recur in conjunction with verbs or expressions denoting feeling
or after impersonal constructions with introductory IT: Im afraid I might
get lost./ I hope you may recover soon.
5. Might+ Infinitive
- it is a more tentative variant of May+ Infinitive
6. Infinitive constructions:
- There was a suggestion to fire John.
- Well hold hands not to get lost.

C9
IMPERATIVE

= etymologically it performs a directive function, but the illocutionary force of the imperative
goes beyond requests and commands- warnings, invitations, prohibition, wishes, suggestions
and imprecations.

= it displays certain features of syntactic structure, i.e. the subject is optimal, the
circumstances with LET, the non-occurrence in conjunction with modals.

Subjectless imperatives:

- occur in most types of directive clauses

- no tense, aspect or voice distinctions, rare exceptions in: Have done with it!/ Up and
be doing!/ Be seated!/ Be prepared!/ Be gone!/ Get lost.

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Subject + Imperative

- there are imperatives which retain their subject and which cannot combine with
politeness markers such as please: You, be quiet!/ Speak up, you!/ Somebody
answer the phone./ Everybody clap your hands./ John and Mary stand over here.

Constructions with LET (No second person subjects)

- Let me have a look./ Lets give you a hand./ If anyone disagrees, let them speak now./
Lets go.

Negative imperatives:

- Do Dont
- assertive elements non-assertive elements
- e.g. Open the door. Dont open the door./ Somebody open the door. Dont
anyone open the door
- elliptical commands: Shall I open a window? yes, do./ No, dont.

Non-finite verb forms

= infinitive, gerund, participle

=forms in the V paradigm which do not fit in the general description of the category of the
Mood.

The infinitive

Distribution:

1. Short/plain/ bare:
+ modals, perception verbs, causative make
+ modal idioms (would rather/ sooner/ had better)
+ catenative verbs (let, help)
+ why questions
2. Long/ to
+ auxiliaries (ought to, have to, be to, used to)
+ perception verbs in the passive
+ Causative make in passive
+ linking verbs (seem, appear, change, happen)

Grammatical features:

- aspect and voice distinctions:

o To be writing, to have seen, to be seen
- temporal contrast, present vs. past: to say vs. to have said

Infinitival constructions:

- Accusative+ Infinitive: Id like him to come earlier.

- Nominative+ Infinitive: He was supposed to meet us here.

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 - For-To Infinitive: Its time for you to go.
- Absolute infinitival constructions: He left home, never to return.

The Gerund

Distribution:

- Aspectual verbs: start, stop, finish, begin, cease, take up, give up, quit, go on, keep
on
- verbs of feeling: like, enjoy, hate, avoid
- verbs like :need, want, require, deserve in quasi- passive constructions
- impersonal constructions with introductory IT
- words/ expressions like busy, near, feel like
- verb features: V-ing displays tense, aspect and voice contrast, the ability to take on O d:
seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen.
- noun features: ability to take modifiers, at sentence level, it performs functions that are
typical of NPs, Cs, C

Grammatical features (verbal norm)

- Hunting wild animals is cruel./The hunting of wild should be forbidden by law.

- He was suspected of driving recklessly./ He was charged with reckless driving.

Constructions with the Genitive:

- Genitive+ Gerund: She resented his taking all the credit./ Nobody noticed he coming
late.
- Accusative + Gerund: She resented him taking all the credit./ Excuse me yawning.

The Participle (V-ing, V-ed)

Distribution:

-V-ing is usually formed in complex VP type C

-V-ed2 is usually formed in complex VPs types B and D

Grammatical features (Verbal adjectives)

- Flying planes can be dangerous.

- Our business is growing.
- Our business is growing plants.

Verb status: The ability to take an Od and adverbial modifiers (V-ing); the ability to take an
agentive phrase (V-ed2); relative time reference

- No one saw him leaving the building.

- He left laughing silently.

C10

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Adjective status: when in adjectival compounds: Good-looking, heart-breaking, for-fetched,
frost-bitten

e.g. John is insulting.

+object AuxBE+ V-ing +intensifier ( another V link); V link +Cs (participial adj.)

- on the process?
- on the state?

Constructions with the participle:

Present participle constructions

1. Accusative + Present Part.: I saw him coming./ I listened to John talking to his
friend.
2. Nominative+ Present part.: She was seen leaving the house at dawn.
3. Absolute present part. constructions: Weather permitting, we shall go on a trip.
4. Prepositional absolute present part constructions: The children were playing with their
mother watching them.

Past participle construction:

1. Accusative + past participle: He had his license suspended./ He heard his name called.
2. Absolute past part constr.: Our work done, we all went home./ The play finished, the
audience burst into applause.
- regret, forget, remember:
o I regret to say that the proposal was rejected.
o I regret saying that the proposal was rejected.
o I forgot to lock the door./ I didnt lock the door.
o I forgot locking the door./ I locked the door, but I forgot it.

The infinitive particularizes and the gerund generalizes!

Auxiliary verbs

Primary verbs/auxiliaries

Modal auxiliaries

Primary auxiliaries:

Auxiliaries

= helpers
= wituret? lexical meaning
= with grammatical function
= with lexical function (have)
= to be, to have, to do

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 H

Auxiliaries Complementation

Tense, modality, aspect, voice Oi/Od/Op; Co/Cs; AdvC (VP adjunct of

manner/time/space)

Type A, B, C, D

To be
- 8 paradigm forms (paradigm suppletive)
- linking verb
- auxiliary (aspectual, voice) types B, C
- regular forms: be, being
- partially suppletive: been
- 5 suppletive forms (totally): am, are, is, was, were

To have

- lexical verb (stative; dynamic meaning)

- auxiliary (aspectual) type B
- stative sense: to posses
- Have you got any money?/ No, I havent got any.

Br. English= auxiliary vs. Am. English = lexical verb

Dynamic sense (=to receive, to take, to experience) + causative

Have in quasi-passive: Did you have a good time?/ She didnt have her photographs taken.

To do

- lexical verb(full paradigm)

- periphrastic auxiliary (objective paradigm: no non-finite verb forms- only past and
present)

Distribution:

- In sentences negated by Not in the present/ past indicative and in negative imperative:
He didnt want to go./ Dont go!
- In questions involving subject-operator inversion, when the verb is in the simple
present/ past indicative: Does she know that?/ What did they say?
- Exceptions: positive WH- questions beginning with the subject: What happened?/
Who said that?
- In tag questions or in reduced questions where the operator is not accompanied by the
main verb (the lexical verb): He doesnt mind, does he?
- As a fro?-form with anaphoric function: Who said that? I did!

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 - In empiric and in persuasive constructions: You do look lovely today./ You did give me
a fright.
- In sentences with reversed word order due to negative and semi-negative adverbials in
typical positions: Little did we know about his plans./ Seldom did they see such
malice.

C11
Modal Auxiliaries

Modality:

= Modal auxiliaries form a closed-class of term in the English verb system. They
make a semantic contribution to the sentence through the meaning and function
which are generally grouped under the heading: MODALITY.
= Modality relates to the language users attitude or judgment as to the possibility/
probability/ likelihood that the event described in the sentence is true. Over the
fact that it exists in all languages, is commonly classified as a language universal.
= Modality is the grammaticalization of speakers (subjective) attitudes and
opinions.

Types of modality (Palmer):

1. epistemic: concerned with matters of knowledge, being or opinion, other than

fact
2. Diuretic?: at concerned with the necessity or possibility of acts performed by
modality responsible agents.

Quirk:

1. intrinsic: permission, obligation, volition associated with the idea of human control
over the events
2. extrinsic: possibility, necessity, prealiction? involving human judgment of whats
unlikely to happen
- modalizers in English: auxiliaries, adverbials
- the criteria along which modals are signed out from other classes of auxiliaries are
based on syntactic, morphological and semantic features.
- modal auxiliaries typically combine with short infinitives (except from: USED and
OUGHT ): He may come over.
- modal aux ca only recur as operators (complex finite VPs , type A): He may come
later.
- modal aux have defective of paradigm: V, V-s, V-ing, V-ed1, V-ed2
- Modals will only enter a paradigmatic relation with one another, but not in
syntagmatic combination: Students who can, may submit their papers before the
deadline.
- They may combine with semi-aux. or other aux.: We may have to sell the house.
- modal aux can be mode negative by simply adding the negative particle: He cannot
do it./ They may not come.

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 - Scope of negation:
o immediate negation: They may not come.
o eventual negation: They may not come.
- modal aux have abnormal time reference:
o see-saw
o can- could
o I saw her yesterday
o I could drive a car when I was 15.
- there is a lack of semantic restriction between subject and the modal aux: The man
hopes to be there at 5. / the bus ought to be there at 5.

Communicative function of modal auxiliaries

Ability ( expressing ability/ lack of ability, capability, capacity)

Possibility:

1. Permission: Can, could: Can you hear me?/ Can they swim?
=no future time reference
=could=potentiality
2. Ability: be able to, be capable of, manage to
=potentiality=performance
Actual realization

e.g.

John could fix a car long before he became a mechanic.

John was able to fix the car.
The line was busy, so I wasnt able to call her.
The lecture hall can sit 200 students.

Possibility:

- Assertive contexts: The road can be blocked.(theoretic possibility)/ The road may be
blocked. (actual possibility)
- Interrogative and negative contexts: Can the road be blocked?/ The road can be
blocked.
- May not is found in parallel constructions with may and in constructions where
the idea of possibility is combined with two of uncertainty.
e.g.
He may or may not be telling the truth.
Relax, things may not be so bad.
She may not have recognized him.(eventual negation: It may be the case that)
She cant have recognized him. (Immediate negation: It is impossible that)

Probability vs, Lack of probability

Could and might= more tentative variants of possibility

Can and may

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There could be something wrong with the light switch, but of course I might be wrong.

You could/ might have been more careful. (Criticism)

You could/ might have told me before. (Complaint)

Permission (asking for/ giving/ denying permission)

E.g.

May I/ Can I use your phone?

Can I help you? (offer)
Can you hold this? (request)
I may leave now. (Ill allow you to)
I can leave now. (You are allowed to)
He could use his fathers car whenever he wanted. (= habitual permission; past time
reference.)
On the day he turned 18 he was allowed to drive his fathers car. (=single occasion;
past time reference)
When we were children, we were not allowed to stay up after 10, nor could we go out
after dark. (= in some contexts free variation)

Prediction:

= the most common way to express prediction is by means of will in all the persons the
formal substitute of predictive will is shall in the first person. (We shall meet him at the
airport.)

Predictions refer to a past moment or can be made from a past time perspective.
present prediction is comparatively rare:
o There is someone at the door. Thatll be John.
o This will be your luggage.
o This is Ann and that would be her husband.
Will in timeless statements of predictability: Oil will flow on water./ Boys will be
boys./ Accidents will happen.
Habitual prediction will in conditioned sentences type zero: If you press this button
the light will go on.
Predictive will, would in descriptions of present habits or characteristic behavior:
They will/would sit in the front of TV for hours.

Necessity (deoretic?/epistemic)

You must stay in bed if you want to recover soon.

To be healthy, a plant must receive a good supply of both sunshine and moisture.
(deoritic? necessity.)

Epistemic necessity: involves a judgment/ usually the speakers, as to what can be expected
to be the case, the speaker makes an assumption on the basis of some prior knowledge or
experience: Theres someone at the door. It must be John.
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 interrogative and negative contexts: Can the book be Johns?/ It cannot be Johns.
Alternative expressions of epistemic necessity: The play should/ ought to be over by
now./ If you can drive a truck, driving a car shouldnt be hard.

Scale of certainty:

There is a book on the desk.

It is Johns.
It must be Johns.
It should be Johns.
It may be Johns.
It could be Johns.
It might be Johns.

Obligation: (expressing obligation/ lack of obligation/prohibition, going/asking for

instructions, giving orders)

I must go now. (obligation by internal reasons, authority exercised by the speaker)

I have (got) to go. (obligation is external)
negative contexts: They must not go. (negative obligation)/ Must we go? No, you
neednt. (lack of obligation)
She shouldnt have quit her job.(= the speakers authority+ idea of non-fulfillment of
the obligation)

Obligation and language register (specific[technical discourse, instructional texts]

should=must)

The user should carefully read this instruction manual before operating this unit.

Legal/ quasi-legal discourse, written in 3rd person subject: shall= must

The Committee shall consist of the Head of Department and three members of the
Academic staff elected annually.

Orders:

With 2nd and 3rd person subjects: You shall do exactly as I say./ you shall be punished if
you disobey.
with 1st person subject, to consult the wishes of the addressee: Lets dance, shall we?/
What shall we do tonight? go for a movie?
You should come and visit more often. (the speaker expresses what he/she thinks to be
appropriate for the situation referred to [sometimes with a counter factual meaning])
You children should help me tidy up this place.( possibility can/could used in a quasi-
implicative manner to suggest a course of action to the addressee.

Volition: (expressing intention, willingness/ unwillingness, insistence)

Intention: (weak volition): Ill buy you lunch./ We shall act in your best interest.

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 Willingness/ unwillingness: Will you do me a favor?/ They wont listen to my
explanations.
Insistence: (strong volition): If you will go out without your overcoat, what do you
expect?/ Your father shall hear about this threat.

Hypothesis: (past tense models can be used to denote hypothesis in both main an sub-
classes)

e.g. Conditional clauses: (real condition/ unreal condition/ negative condition) The
typical markers of hypothetical meaning are should and would, with a 1 st person
subject that can express hypothetical meaning in the main clause: We should go to their
party if they invite us.

Past tense models can be used to express the hypothetical version of modalities such as:
ability, possibility etc.

e.g.

Would you like to join us?

Id hate to upset you.
Let me know if you should hear from them.( putative should, subjunctive
construction)

Marginal modal auxiliaries

Dare, need, ought to, used to

Dare and need:

= main verbs and more restrictively, modal auxiliaries

= as main verbs they combine with long infinitives, have V-s, V-ing, V-ed forms
and can occur in almost any context.
= as modal auxiliaries, they take short infinitives, have defective paradigm and tend
to occur in non-assertive contexts (negative and interrogative): He darent come!/
Dare he come?/ he neednt come./ need he come?

Modal dare: abnormal time reference, V can be used written both present and past time
references: They wondered if she dare speak. (Also V-ed)/ Formulaic dare: I dare say.

Modal need: no tense contrast, past time reference is achieved by need + perfect infinitive
constructions: She need not have said that. (Contrafactual implication)

Ought to:

= normally takes a long infinitive, occasionally, it may combine with a short infinitive in
non-assertive contexts: They ought not do that kind of thing,/ Ought we have done it?

Used to:

= less of a modal auxiliary, as an auxiliary of tense and aspect

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= it fits into the class of marginal modals from a formal point of view, it can occur both
as operator and with Do support, this explains the two spelling variations: use to/
used to: He used to smoke./ He used not to smoke (operator in negative context)

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