Advantages of double circulation

- High pressure is needed to pump blood around body quickly (necessary as

mammals have a high body temp. and hence a high rate of metabolism)-
because when blood is passed through the lungs, its pressure is reduced
(if it were to pass immediately to the rest of the body its low pressure will
make circulation very slow)
- Lower pressure is needed in lung capillaries to allow maximum time for
gas exchange
Antigen
- A large foreign molecule that stimulates an immune response
- Large, complex molecules and are located on the outer surface of cells
- Self-antigens- each cell in your body has proteins on its surface
membrane, antibodies would not usually be made against these types of
antigens.
Antibody
- Proteins made by plasma cells in response to an infection
- Each plasma cell makes one type of antibody
- Each antibody will bind to one
type of antigen
- Antigen and antibody have a
complementary shape- antigen-
antibody complex
- Antibodies have functions:
o Agglutination- antibodies
clump pathogens together.
Macrophages can then
destroy pathogen by
phagocytosis
o Neutralisation- antibodies
can bind to the antigens on
the pathogens membrane
and prevent it from
attaching to and entering host cells. Antibodies encourage
macrophages to phagocytose the pathogen
- Structure:
o At least one Y-shaped molecule, made of 4 polypeptide chains
(quaternary structure) - 2 long (heavy) and two short (light).