Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
DOI 10.1007/s10608-012-9455-6
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The Role of Positive Schemas in Child Psychopathology
and Resilience
L. Keyfitz M. N. Lumley K. H. Hennig
D. J. A. Dozois
Published online: 5 April 2012
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract Cognitive models of child psychopathology
rarely consider positive schemas in models of risk. This
study presents the new Positive Schema Questionnaire
(PSQ) for youth, evaluating relations of positive schema
themes to depression, anxiety, and resilience. Adolescent
boys (n = 84) and girls (n = 88), aged 914 (M = 11.44),
completed the PSQ, and measures of negative schemas,
depression, anxiety, and resilience. Exploratory factor
analyses of the PSQ supported a five-factor structure
including themes of: Self-Efficacy, Optimism, Trust, Suc-
cess, and Worthiness. Supporting its discriminant validity,
the PSQ predicted additional variance in depression, anx-
iety, and resilience, beyond that predicted by negative
schemas. Furthermore, the content specificity model as
envisioned for negative schemas, was found to apply to
positive schemas, with themes of Worthiness most pre-
dictive of depression and Self-Efficacy most predictive
of anxiety and resilience. Findings have implications for
incorporating positive schemas into cognitive models of
psychopathology.
Keywords Positive schemas
Cognitive vulnerability

Depression
Resilience
L. Keyfitz
M. N. Lumley (&)
K. H. Hennig
Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph,
ON N1G 2W1, Canada
e-mail: mlumley@uoguelph.ca
D. J. A. Dozois
Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario,
London, ON, Canada
Introduction
Decades of research have established negative cognitive
schemas as potent vulnerability factors for various negative
developmental outcomes, particularly vulnerability to
psychopathology (see Abela and Hankin 2008 and Dozois
and Beck 2008, for reviews). Yet, little research has
focused on how positive core beliefs such as I can trust
others or Things will turn out well for me relate to
psychopathology and emotional well being. This paucity of
research continues despite findings that support the relation
between positive cognition and psychopathology (e.g.,
Jaenicke et al. 1987; Prieto et al. 1992; Shirk et al. 1998).
These studies typically focus on positive states on a broad
level across all content domains, and may consequently
miss important information regarding the relations of spe-
cific schema themes to various forms of psychopathology
or to emotional well being. Although measures of positive
cognition have been developed (e.g., Positive Automatic
Thoughts Questionnaire, Ingram and Wisnicki 1988), the
field currently lacks a measure of specific core positive
schema themes. By developing a positive schema ques-
tionnaire for youth, the aim of the current study is to
contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of positive
schema themes in relation to depression, anxiety, and
resilience in early adolescence.
Current Cognitive Models of Child Psychopathology
Cognitive theories of psychopathology typically focus on
negative cognitive schemas as a central vulnerability factor
(e.g., Beck 1967). Schemas here are defined as mental
structures that guide the interpretation, categorization and
evaluation of ones experiences (James et al. 2007;
Schmidt et al. 1999) and may be referred to as filters, as
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they guide the way in which information is interpreted and
absorbed (Beck and Dozois 2011; Kendall and MacDonald
1993). Cognitive schemas are theorized to be comprised of
both structure and content (Beck 1967). Schema structure
refers to how information related to the self is organized in
the mind, and recent research suggests that the structure of
positive and negative schemas predicts youth depression
symptoms (Lumley et al. 2011). Consistent with the
Schema Theory literature (e.g., Young et al. 2003), the
current paper focuses on schema content (i.e., core beliefs
about self, such as, I am worthy of love) rather than tive experiences, one cannot assume an understanding of
structure.
Becks (1967, 1983) influential model of psychopa-
thology posits that maladaptive schemas develop in early
childhood and, when triggered by a negative life event,
result in the processing of information in a way consistent
with ones preexisting beliefs. Furthermore, Becks con-
tent-specificity hypothesis notes that the specific content of
ones schemas are important in determining various emo-
tional outcomes (Beck 1976; Beck and Dozois 2011; Beck
et al. 1979). Young (1999; Young et al. 2003) elaborated
on Becks theories by focusing on factors implicated in
schema development. He proposed that a childs early
experiences impact the development of core beliefs,
resulting in the development of early maladaptive schemas
(EMS). Young proposes 18 EMS, and suggests that the
specific EMS possessed by an individual plays an impor-
tant role in the diathesis to various forms of psychopa-
thology. These cognitive models of psychopathology have
been researched extensively and have garnered support
amongst youth (see Abela and Hankin 2008; Hankin and
Abela 2005; Lakdawalla et al. 2007, for reviews). The
current study is poised to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of cognitive risk by developing an under-
standing of the role of positive schemas in youth psycho-
pathology and well being.
Unique Contribution of Positive Schemas
The dearth of research on the role of positive schemas in
vulnerability to child psychopathology may in part result
from the common perception that positive cognition is
simply the inverse of negative cognition (MacLeod and
Moore 2000). Yet, researchers have demonstrated that
positive and negative experiences represent two separate
continua at various levels of analysis including affective,
motivational, behavioural, and cognitive (Clark et al. 1994;
MacLeod and Byrne 1996; MacLeod et al. 1996). Theory
suggests that human behaviours might be considered in
terms of two systems: one that influences avoidance
behaviour, negative affect, and negative expectancies for
the future, and the other that influences approach behav-
iour, positive affect, and positive future expectancies
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Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
(MacLeod et al. 1996). For example, research indicates that
depression is often characterized by both the presence of
negative cognitions as well as the absence of positive
cognitions, whereas anxiety is more typically characterized
by the presence of negative cognitions alone (e.g. MacLeod
and Byrne 1996; MacLeod et al. 1993; MacLeod and
Salaminious 2001; Muris and Heiden 2006). Thus, for
anxious individuals, having negative future expectations
does not exclude having positive future expectations. By
acknowledging the distinction between positive and nega-
positive schemas through knowledge of negative schemas.
Thus, the importance of developing an understanding of the
role that positive schemas play in child psychopathology
becomes increasingly evident.
Given that the presence of positive cognitions cannot
likely be inferred from a lack of negative cognitions, it is
important to focus on elucidating particular positive sche-
mas that may play an important role in child psychopa-
thology. The goal of the current study is to evaluate how
specific positive schema themes relate to child psychopa-
thology and resilience. Schema themes of interest were
identified by surveying the developmental literature on
self-concept and positive psychology and by searching for
themes that resonated with the research team. The themes
selected include: Worthiness, a sense that one has value
and worth as a person (Mruk 2006); Self-efficacy, beliefs
in ones capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive
resources and courses of action needed to meet given sit-
uational demands (Wood and Bandura 1989, p. 408);
Optimism, ones belief that outcome expectancies will be
favorable, or good rather than bad (Scheier and Carver
1985); Success/Competence, the tendency to anticipate that
ones performance will typically be followed by success
(Wigfield and Eccles 2002); Trust, a feeling that one can
rely on others and accept vulnerability based upon posi-
tive expectations of the intentions or behaviours of
another (Rousseau et al. 1998, p. 395); and Social Con-
nectedness, a sense of closeness to others including family,
friends, and social groups, that enables a person to feel a
sense of belongingness (Lee and Robins 1995). This study
examines how each of these schema themes relates dif-
ferentially to depression, anxiety, and resilience. Further-
more, to test the premise that positive cognition is not
simply the inverse of negative cognition, the unique con-
tribution that positive schemas play in predicting various
developmental outcomes in early adolescence (beyond that
explained by negative schemas) was evaluated.
Positive Schema Questionnaire
No single measure currently exists to examine particular
themes of positive schemas in early adolescence. Indeed,
Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
the almost exclusive focus on negative rather than positive
cognitive schemas is reflected in previous attempts to
develop schema measures (e.g., Early Maladaptive Schema
Questionnaire; Cecero et al. 2004; Schema Questionnaire
for Children; Stallard and Rayner 2005; Young Schema
Questionnaire; Young 1994). Based on Youngs (1999;
Young et al. 2003) Schema Theory, there have been some
attempts to develop an inventory to evaluate childrens
negative schemas (e.g., SQC; Stallard and Rayner 2005).
Yet, the field is lacking a comparable measure of positive
schema content for youth. Given the importance of a
psychometrically sound tool for evaluating positive sche-
mas for further articulating models of risk and resilience, a
developmentally appropriate Positive Schema Question-
naire was constructed to evaluate positive core schemas in
youth.
Positive Schemas and Depression
There is some evidence that low levels of positive sche-
mas are implicated in childhood depression (e.g., Jaenicke
et al. 1987; Prieto et al. 1992; Shirk et al. 1998; Whitman
and Leitenberg 1990), but the majority of this research
evaluates positive schemas on a broad level in which
positive states are assessed across all situations and con-
tent domains (Dykman et al. 1989). Indeed, research
suggests that depression is negatively related to various
positive cognitive constructs across a wide variety of
domains. (e.g., Bandura et al. 1999; Cole 1991; Garber
et al. 1997; Marshall and Lang 1990; Muris 2002; Puskar
et al. 1990).
Lacking positive global self-schemas may play an even
more important role than negative schemas in the diathesis
for youth depression symptoms (e.g., McClain and
Abramson 1995; Whitman and Leitenberg 1990). Whitman
and Leitenberg, for example, found that children with
depression exhibited problems processing positive, but not
negative information. McClain and Abramson (1995) also
found that non-dysphoric, mildly dysphoric, and severely
dysphoric undergraduate students could be differentiated
only based on their levels of positive schemas and not
negative schemas. Further emphasizing the importance of
positive schemas in vulnerability to depression, Prieto et al.
(1992) found that young adults with depression possessed
fewer positive schemas than those who were not depressed,
but nonetheless identified more positive than negative
schemas overall. While some research does emphasize
the importance of positive schemas in vulnerability to
depression, evaluations have typically been conducted at a
global level. To gain a more comprehensive picture of the
role of positive schemas in depression, it is important to
look at specific schema content areas rather than broad
generalizations.
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Positive Schemas and Anxiety
Although the role of positive cognition in anxiety disorders
has also been neglected in favor of a focus on negative
cognitions, recent research indicates that an understanding
of positive schemas might make important contributions to
the conceptualization of anxiety disorders (Casey et al.
2004a, b; Muris 2002). A large body of evidence indicates
that negative systems are related to anxiety whereas posi-
tive systems are not (e.g., Clark and Watson 1991;
MacLeod and Byrne 1996; MacLeod et al. 1997). For
example, research comparing anxiety and depression often
indicates that depression is associated with both high
negative and low positive experience, whereas anxiety is
only associated with negative behavioural (e.g., Clark et al.
1994), affective (e.g., Clark and Watson 1991) and cog-
nitive systems (e.g., MacLeod and Byrne 1996; MacLeod
and Salaminiou 2001; MacLeod et al. 1997; Muris and
Heiden 2006). By contrast, Beck et al. (1985) propose that
vulnerability to anxiety is a result of both negative schemas
surrounding threat combined with a lack of positive sche-
mas with themes of control. Furthermore, Bandura (1988)
argues that ones self-efficacy regarding coping ability
plays a role in determining ones perception of danger.
Thus, vulnerability to anxiety may relate to both negative
cognitions surrounding danger and positive cognitions
surrounding self-efficacy.
Low levels of positive cognitions regarding control and
coping self-efficacy do appear to play a role in vulnera-
bility to anxiety disorders in youth (e.g., Bogels and Zig-
terman 2000; Matsuo and Arai 1998; Muris 2002; Yue
1996). Specifically, low self-efficacy has been implicated
in various childhood anxiety disorders including social
phobia, separation anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety
disorder (e.g., Bogels and Zigterman 2000; Matsuo and
Arai 1998; Muris 2002; Yue 1996). Examining the global
relationship between positive schemas and anxiety may
mask more complex relationships that exist at the specific
schema level. Thus, evaluating relations between specific
schemas and anxiety may be more illuminating with
regards to how positive schemas relate to anxiety.
Positive Schemas and Resilience
Research has investigated how the absence of positive
schemas impacts child development (e.g., Jaenicke et al.
1987; Prieto et al. 1992; Shirk et al. 1998); however, few
studies explicitly investigate links between specific posi-
tive schemas and resilience, or ones ability to adaptively
cope with adversity (Wagnild and Young 1993). What
research is available supports the idea that positive states
facilitate future resilience (e.g., Diener and Diener 1996;
Fredrickson 2004; Fredrickson and Joiner 2002). Research
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on positive cognition indicates that positive cognitions are
not only necessary for mental health and happiness, but
perhaps even to maintain a neutral emotional state (Caci-
oppo et al. 1999; Diener and Diener 1996). Research
consistently suggests that most individuals possess posi-
tively biased self-views (e.g., Greenwald 1980; Taylor and
Brown 1988), exaggerated beliefs regarding personal con-
trol (e.g., Fleming and Darley 1986; Miller and Ross 1975)
and unrealistic optimism (Langer and Roth 1975). In fact,
lacking these biases has been linked to negative mental
health (e.g., Abramson and Alloy 1981; Coyne and Gotlieb
1983; Golin et al. 1977, 1979; Ruehlman et al. 1985;
Watson and Clark 1984). By examining which particular
positive schema themes relate to child resilience, we will
gather knowledge that may help improve childrens ability
to cope with adversity.
Hypotheses
The objective of the current study was to gain an under-
standing of positive schemas with themes of worthiness,
self-efficacy, optimism, success, trust, and social connect-
edness as they relate to emotional well being in youth. To
facilitate this goal, a developmentally sensitive, psycho-
metrically sound measure of positive schemas was devel-
oped. We hypothesized that a global measure of positive
schemas (derived from Positive Schema Questionnaire;
PSQ) would be negatively associated with depression,
positively related to resilience, and that relations would
also exist between anxiety and specific rather than global
positive schemas. Positive schemas were also hypothesized
to predict unique variance in depression and resilience
scores, beyond that explained by negative schemas. Fur-
thermore, given the potentially unique role of each schema
theme of interest, we hypothesized that when the covari-
ance among the various schemas was accounted for, par-
ticular schema themes would predict unique variance in
depression, anxiety, and resilience.
Method
Participants
Participants were 172 adolescent boys (n = 84) and girls
(n = 88), aged 914 (M = 11.44, SD = 1.17), in grades
58. Participants were 77 % Caucasian (n = 130). The
remaining 23 % of the participants (n = 39) were from
ethnically diverse backgrounds including Asian, African
Canadian, Hispanic/Latino, First Nations, or Other eth-
nicity. Furthermore, 8.5 % of the sample experienced
clinically elevated depression symptoms, with scores
ranging from 0 to 41 (M = .805), and 16.4 % of the sample
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reported clinically elevated anxiety symptoms, with scores
ranging from 1 to 26 (M = 12.22). The participants were
recruited from four elementary schools from in south-
western Ontario.
Measures
Positive Schema Questionnaire (PSQ)
This 36-item, 6-point Likert-type self-report questionnaire
is a measure of positive core schema themes in youth.
Participants rated how much they agree with statements
such as I look at the bright side of things, and I believe
in myself. Schema domains assessed included: (a) wor-
thiness (b) self-efficacy (c) optimism (d) success (e) trust,
and (f) social connectedness.
Schema themes were selected by surveying develop-
mental literature and identifying constructs frequently
found to play a role in vulnerability to child psychopa-
thology and resilience. After surveying the literature,
schema definitions were generated for each identified
schema theme, and items for each domain were constructed
by a group of graduate and undergraduate researchers.
Clinical psychologists and graduate students selected items
that best represented the central features of each schema
and these items were administered to 172 youth aged 914.
A Factor Analysis was conducted to validate the factor
structure of the scale. Further information on scale devel-
opment and the results of the factor analysis are provided in
the results section of the paper. Following factor analysis,
the internal consistency for the scale was .93.
Schema Questionnaire for Children (SQC: Stallard
and Rayner 2005)
The SQC is a 15-item, 6-point Likert self-report measure of
childrens negative core schemas. Each item in the scale
represents a single Early Maladaptive Schema theme pro-
posed by Young (1990). The scale possesses adequate face
validity, as well as convergent validity for 12 of the 15
SQC items as compared to the Young Schema Question-
naire (Stallard and Rayner). The internal consistency esti-
mate for the SQC in the current sample was .73.
Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children-10 (MASC-
10; March 1997)
The MASC is a 10-item, 4-point Likert self-report measure
of childrens anxiety. This measure is a shortened version
of the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, and is
a unidimensional measure that combines the four anxiety
scales including Physical Symptoms, Social Anxiety, Harm
Avoidance, and Separation/Panic items. This measure
Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
exhibits good test-retest reliability (March et al. 1999). The
internal consistency estimate for the MASQ-10 in the
current sample was .74.
Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1981)
The CDI is a 27-item, 3-point Likert self-report question-
naire used to assess childrens behavioural, affective and
cognitive symptoms of depression. Children are shown
statements related to their moods and asked to endorse
sentences that best describe them (e.g. Im sad once in a
while; I am sad many times; I am sad all the time). This
measure has high internal-consistency and test-retest reli-
ability, as well as strong convergent and predictive validity
(Carey et al. 1987). The internal consistency estimate for
the CDI in the current sample was .85.
Resilience Scale (RS; Wagnild and Young 1993)
The RS is a widely-used 25-item, 7-point Likert ques-
tionnaire designed to measure beliefs about ones ability to
successfully cope with adversity. Respondents rate how
strongly they agree with statements related to resilience
(e.g., I can be on my own if I have to; I usually take posed subscales with Cronbach alphas ranging between .80
things in stride). The scale assesses two domains of
resilience including (1) personal competence, and (2)
acceptance of self and life. Higher scores on the scale
indicate higher levels of resilience. Psychometric support
has been found for the internal consistency, reliability, and
concurrent validity of the scale (Wagnild and Young 1993).
This measure evidenced strong internal consistency within
the current sample (.93).
Procedure
Students from participating elementary schools were pro-
vided with details about the study and encouraged to take
an information package and consent form home to their
parents for permission to participate. Of the 965 students
who were provided with information packages, 269 agreed
to participate in the study. Final sample size decreased to
172 due to absences, missing data, and lack of assent to
participate from the youth. Missing data were replaced by
mean values for the participant when less than 15 % of the
data were missing.
Data collection took place within an assigned area of
each of the four participating schools (e.g., gymnasium,
library, technology room). The rooms were set up with 25
Acer Aspire netbook computer stations each equipped with
a chair, netbook, mouse, and privacy shield. At the
beginning of each data collection period the students were
provided with verbal and written information about the
study, and were given an opportunity to consent. Following
101
instructions, the participants completed several self-report
questionnaires. The PSQ was completed first, followed by
the SQC, MASC-10, CDI, and lastly the RS. A minimum
of five research assistants were present at each data col-
lection, to provide instructions and answer individual
questions. The procedure took approximately 1 h to com-
plete. Following participation, the youth were thanked and
given a snack or toy for participating.
Results
Development of the Positive Schema Questionnaire
The first aim of the current study was to develop a positive
schema questionnaire for youth to be considered with
negative schema counterparts (e.g., Schema Questionnaire
for Children; Stallard and Rayner 2005) for research and
clinical purposes. The goal was to develop a measure with
sound psychometric properties and potential clinical utility.
Based on a review of the literature, a provisional pool of
thirty-six items were generated, six items per subscale.
Results indicated strong internal reliability of the six pro-
and .90. The provisional pool of items were submitted to a
principal axis factor analysis with varimax rotation. Factor
loadings were as expected, however the connectedness
scale cross-loaded, largely on the trust scale, regardless of
the number of factors extracted. The connectedness items
were subsequently dropped from further analyses. Items
were resubmitted retaining the top five highest loading
items. A final set of the four highest loading items were
retained, and a further item was replaced to improve simple
structure. Results of the final principal axis factor analysis
are reported in Table 1.
Extraction of a single factor reflecting a general positive
schema accounted for 45.4 % of the variance, yet clear and
reliable subscales were confirmed. Within the proposed
five-factor solution, a widely used cutoff of .40 was set as
the loading criteria (Costello and Osborne 2005). Items
were omitted it they did not load greater than .40 on their
respective factor or cross-loaded greater than .40 on addi-
tional factors (eigen values: 9.1, 2.0, 1.2, 1.1, .89, .71).
Alternative factor solutions were examined to determine
the best conceptual and empirical fit. Extracting four fac-
tors resulted in the success and worthiness subscales
loading on the same factor. Extracting six factors resulted
in a sixth factor on which none of the items loaded. Five
factors appeared as the most conceptually and empirically
sound solution, confirmed by the second smaller break in
the scree plot at five factors accounting for 71.1 % of the
variance, an additional 25.7 % variance over and above the
single general positive schema factor.
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Table 1 Principal factor analysis of the final positive schema questionnaire

Scale item Factor loadings M (SD)
1 2 3 4 5

Factor 1: self-efficacy (alpha = .85) 4.5 (.98)

12. I can deal well with difficult situations .71 .21 .11 .20 .13
18. I can adapt to new situations .66 .23 .20 .21 .21
24. I can respond well to challenges .64 .24 .21 .15 .26
36. I can deal with tough things .60 .24 .19 .24 .21
Factor 2: success (alpha = .88) 5.1 (.96)
35. If I try I will succeed .28 .70 .10 .26 .28
23. If I try hard I can usually do well .38 .70 .07 .10 .21
29. I do well when I try my best .18 .69 .04 .35 .14
11. I have the ability to be successful .35 .56 .11 .24 .39
Factor 3: trust (alpha = .82) 4.3 (1.07)
16. I trust other people .15 .24 .83 .09 .12
4. I feel I can depend on people to keep my secrets .07 -.02 .73 .01 .10
10. I feel comfortable depending on other people .19 -.07 .63 .15 .18
34. I feel comfortable telling people important things about myself .18 .22 .56 .25 .28
Factor 4: optimism (alpha = 83) 4.4 (1.00)
19. I usually see the positive side of things .15 .23 .09 .75 .30
13. I know how to find something good in every situation .39 .25 .06 .60 .10
31. When things are bad I can still think of something good .39 .16 .18 .55 .25
7. I believe things will turn out well .18 .26 .30 .51 .18
Factor 5: worthiness (alpha = 86) 4.8 (1.00)
27. I value many things about myself .31 .28 .22 .20 .74
33. I value myself .34 .21 .29 .22 .64
15. I think I have many good qualities .15 .37 .27 .31 .56
3. I believe in myself .18 .21 .28 .27 .46
N = 170, a = .93 for total scale score
Bolded loadings are those comprising the subscale following the factor analysis

To examine potential demographic effects, a series of
multivariate tests were examined. First, a 2 sex (m, f) 9 4
age (grades 58) ANOVA was conducted across all inde-
pendent variables (five positive schema subscales and the
negative schema scale). No significant interaction or main
effects were found. A similar 2 sex (m, f) 9 4 age (grades
58) ANOVA was conducted across the dependent mea-
sures (resilience, depression and anxiety symptoms). A
main effect for sex was found with girls reporting more
anxiety symptoms than boys, F (1, 162) = 8.10, p \ .01,
g2 = .05. Subsequent analyses controlled for sex.
Positive Schemas and Depression
The Relation Between Positive Schemas and Depression
To evaluate the hypothesis that positive schemas would be
related to depressive symptoms, Pearson correlations were
examined (see Table 2, right-most column). Consistent
with hypotheses, a strong negative correlation was found
between depression and global positive schemas, as well as
all positive schema themes (or subscales), including, self-
efficacy, success, trust, optimism, and worthiness.
Unique Contribution of Positive Schemas for Predicting
Depression
A hierarchical linear regression analysis was computed to
determine whether positive schemas explain additional
significant variance in depression, beyond that explained
by negative schemas. The predictor variables were entered
in subsequent steps: sex, negative schema total, and posi-
tive schema total. Results indicated that negative schemas
predicted an additional 25 % of variance in depressive
symptoms, after controlling for sex (see Table 2, Model 1:
Total Score Level). Consistent with hypotheses, positive
schemas accounted for an additional and significant 28 %
of variance beyond that accounted for by negative schemas

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Table 2 Hierarchical
Variables Model 1: total score level Model 2: subscale level r
regression analyses predicting
depression, anxiety, and DR2 F change b1 DR2 F change b2
resilience
Depression
Step 1
Sex .00 .02 -.04 .00 .02 -.02 .01
Step 2
Negative schemas .25 54.97*** .36*** .25 54.97 .35*** .49***
Step 3
Positive schemas (total) .28 97.72*** -.55*** .29 20.17 -.64***
Self-efficacy -.04 -.47***
Trust -.13* -.44***
Success -.09 -.53***
Optimism -.12 -.50***
Worthiness .30** -.62***
Anxiety
Step 1
Sex .04 6.10* -.21** .04 6.10 -.19* .19*
Step 2
Negative schemas .05 9.41** .19* .05 9.41 .20* .21**
Step 3
Positive schemas (total) .02 3.81* -.15* .06 2.24 -.20**
Self-efficacy -.22* -.24**
Trust .16 .01
Success .01 -.19*
Optimism -.08 -.19*
Worthiness -.01 -.19*
Resilience
Step 1
Sex .00 .10 .01 .00 .10 -.01 -.02
Step 2
Negative schemas .00 .57 .12* .00 .57 .11 -.06
Step 3
Positive schemas (total) .46 140.81*** .70*** .50 32.41 .68**
Self-efficacy .41*** .66***
Trust .06 .40***
Success .09 .53***
Optimism .13 .56***
* p B .05; ** p \ .01; Worthiness .16 .57***
*** p \ .001

alone. The total model accounted for 53 % of variance in
depression scores.
Hierarchical linear regression analyses were also con-
ducted at the subscale level to evaluate whether specific
schema themes would emerge as unique predictors of
depressive symptoms among adolescents (see Table 2,
Model 2: Subscale Level). The data were entered in three
steps: sex, negative schema total and, in the third step, self-
efficacy, success, trust, optimism, and worthiness. The
positive schemas subscales entered at the third step of the
regression accounted for an additional 28 % of variance. At
the subscale level, worthiness emerged as a strong and
unique predictor of depression symptoms. The theme of
trust was marginally significant.
Positive Schemas and Anxiety
The Relation Between Positive Schemas and Anxiety
To evaluate relations between positive schemas and anxi-
ety, Pearson correlation analyses were again conducted
(see Table 2, right-most column). Contrary to hypotheses,

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low negative correlations were found between global
positive schemas and anxiety. Similar relations were found
between anxiety and the subscales, self-efficacy, success,
optimism, and worthiness. No significant relation was
found between anxiety and trust.
Unique Contribution of Positive Schemas for Predicting
Anxiety
To determine whether positive schemas explain additional
significant variance in anxiety, beyond negative schemas, a
hierarchical linear regression was conducted (see Table 2,
Model 1: Total Score Level). In the first block, sex
accounted for 4 % of variance in anxiety. Negative sche-
mas accounted for an increased 5 % of variance in anxiety.
The contribution of positive schemas approached signifi-
cance (p = .05). The total model accounted for 11 % of
variance in anxiety scores.
The Contribution of Individual Schema Themes
for Predicting Anxiety
Another hierarchical linear regression analysis was com-
puted to evaluate whether any particular schema theme
would account for significant variance in anxiety (see
Table 2, Model 2: Subscale Level). Again, the data were
entered in three steps, with the schema themes entered
separately in the third step. The third block of the regres-
sion accounted for an increased 6 % of variance in anxiety,
and the schema theme of Self-Efficacy was found to act as
a significant unique predictor of anxiety scores over neg-
ative schemas.1
Positive Schemas and Resilience
The Relation Between Positive Schemas and Resilience
To evaluate relations between child reported resilience
and positive schemas, Pearson correlation analyses were
conducted (see Table 2, Model 1: Total Score Level).
Consistent with hypotheses, as global positive schemas
increased so too did child-reported resilience. Furthermore,
significant positive correlations were found between resil-
ience and each positive schema theme, including self-
1
Positive schemas and resilience are related constructs. To support
positive schemas as theoretically distinct from resilience, hierarchical
linear regression analyses were conducted controlling for resilience
while regressing (1) depression and (2) anxiety symptoms on positive
schemas. In these analyses, predictor variables were entered in 3
steps: sex, resilience, and positive schemas. In the third step, analyses
confirmed that positive schemas predict unique variance in depres-
sion [DR2 = .32, F(1, 166) = .904, p \ .01] and anxiety [DR2 = .02,
F(1, 166) = .049, p \ .01] beyond resilience, suggesting distinct
constructs.
123
Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
efficacy, success, trust, optimism, and worthiness. The total
model accounted for 46 % of variance in resilience scores.
Unique Contribution of Positive Schemas for Predicting
Resilience
A hierarchical linear regression analysis was computed to
determine whether positive schemas explain additional
significant variance in resilience, beyond that explained
by negative schemas. Neither sex nor negative schemas
accounted for significant variance in resilience scores. In
the third step of the regression, positive schemas accounted
for an increased 46 % of variance in resilience (see
Table 2).
The Contribution of Individual Schema Themes
for Predicting Resilience
To evaluate the relative strength of each schema theme in
predicting resilience, a hierarchical linear regression anal-
ysis was conducted. Positive schemas accounted for an
increased 50 % of variance in resilience. The schema
theme of self-efficacy emerged as the strongest predictor of
resilience in this multivariate context, accounting for 8 %
of unique variance in resilience.
Discussion
The present study is the first to evaluate the relation of
specific positive schema themes to psychopathology and
resilience in youth. The results of the first empirical
examination of the new PSQ provide convincing evi-
dence of its promise as a psychometrically sound tool for
evaluating positive schemas in youth. The factor analysis
supported 5 of the apriori schema categories including:
self-efficacy, success, worthiness, optimism, and trust.
These factors possess good face validity and correlate
significantly with negative cognitive schemas and mea-
sures of youth emotional functioning including depression,
anxiety, and resilience, and in the directions supported by
previous research. Furthermore, individual schema themes
displayed strong predictive validity and differentiated
between symptom profiles. Once these results are extended
to a clinical sample, the positive schema profile derived
from the PSQ may have important use in clinical settings
both for assessment of youth vulnerability and strength,
and for setting and evaluating intervention targets in cog-
nitive behaviour therapy.
Consistent with hypotheses, positive schemas contribute
significantly to the prediction of depression, anxiety, and
resilience, explaining variance in these constructs beyond
that explained by negative schemas. These findings support
Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
the theory that positive schemas exist on a separate con-
tinuum from negative schemas (e.g., MacLeod and Moore
2000), and underscore the importance of considering low
levels of positive schemas as an important diathesis to
psychopathology. Furthermore, the finding that specific
positive schema themes evidence unique associations with
each outcome provides support for content specificity
models (Beck 1976) within the positive schema domain.
Positive Schemas and Depression
Consistent with hypotheses and past research (e.g.,
Jaenicke et al. 1987; Prieto et al. 1992; Shirk et al. 1998;
Whitman and Leitenberg 1990), global positive schemas,
as well as particular schema themes of worthiness,
optimism, trust, self-efficacy, and success, were signifi-
cantly negatively related to depression scores in youth. A
particular strength of the current study is the multivariate
approach in which positive and negative schemas were
jointly considered in models of risk. Further analyses
were conducted to examine whether positive schemas
contribute to the cognitive vulnerability to depression,
beyond negative schemas. Importantly, positive schemas
were associated with more variance in depression scores
than negative schemas, specifically explaining an addi-
tional 28 % of the variance in our model. This finding is
consistent with past research which highlights the
important role of global positive schemas (e.g., Whitman
and Leitenberg) and positive cognitive constructs in
depression in youth (e.g., Bandura et al. 1999; Cole
1991; Muris 2002; Puskar et al. 1990), and further sug-
gests that lacking sufficiently positive global self-sche-
mas may at times serve as a stronger predictor for
depression in youth than the characteristic negative
cognitive bias.
Consistent with research implicating low self-worth as a
vulnerability factor to depression (e.g., Cole et al. 1999,
2009; Garber and Hilsman 1992; Garber et al. 1997;
Lumley and Harkness 2007), the schema theme of wor-
thiness was found most strongly associated with depression
symptoms in our sample. Interestingly, this result is con-
gruent with Becks content specificity hypothesis, which
theorizes that low self-views are characteristic of depres-
sion (Clark et al. 1989, 1990). Positive schemas, although
theorized to lie on a separate continuum from negative
schemas, may create depression vulnerability through
similar mechanisms. For example, low positive schemas
may impact interpretations of positive events, with a lens
that does not enable positive experiences to positively
influence views of the self, the world, or the future. These
results highlight the importance of more fully incorporating
positive schemas into cognitive models of depression to
illuminate mechanisms of risk.
105
Positive Schemas and Anxiety
In an evaluation of relations between positive schemas and
anxiety, contrary to hypotheses, global positive schemas
were significantly associated with anxiety. Interestingly,
when examining relations between specific schema themes
and anxiety, a negative relationship was found between
self-efficacy, worthiness, success, and optimism and anxi-
ety symptoms. Consistent with hypotheses, specificity
emerged in a multivariate model with only self-efficacy
found to account for significant variance in anxiety beyond
other positive and negative schemas. This finding is con-
sistent with research suggesting that cognitions related to
coping self-efficacy, control, and self-mastery may be most
salient for understanding anxiety symptoms (e.g., Bogels
and Zigterman 2000; Matsuo and Arai 1998; Muris 2002;
Yue 1996).
Taken together, these results suggest that cognitive
theories of anxiety would benefit from incorporating
positive schemas into models of risk. Theory suggests that
positive cognitions may help to differentiate anxiety from
depression (e.g., Tripartite model; Clark and Watson
1991). Although these data suggest that global positive
schema themes are more strongly related to depression than
anxiety, for youth, it may be the specific positive schema
themes that differentially predict the disorders, with
schema themes of worthiness linked to depression and
themes of self-efficacy linked to anxiety.
Positive Schemas and Resilience
Consistent with hypotheses, global positive schemas and
particular schema themes were also positively associated
with child-reported resilience. This finding is consistent
with theory that positive self-views may serve a protective
role, potentially contributing to an increased sense of well
being and competence. Intriguingly, negative schemas did
not account for significant variance in resilience, whereas
positive schemas did (accounting for approximately 50 %
of the variance in each of our resilience models). Impor-
tantly, having low levels of negative schemas may not be
sufficient for positive emotional functioning. In fact, these
data suggest that positive (versus negative) schemas may
be most instrumental in promoting resilience in the face of
life stress.
Self-efficacy emerged as the schema theme most strongly
associated with resilience. It is not surprising that the belief
in ones ability to control outcomes may increase ability to
cope with life stress. Consistently, self-perceptions of effi-
cacy have been theorized to influence the way one responds
to adversity by impacting the way a person copes, appraises
the situation, and later, how he/she reacts emotionally
(Bandura 1982). Thus, those with higher self-efficacy are
123
106
more likely to use effort to react to the demands of the situ-
ation and as a result may not experience as much distress.
There are several limitations to the current study that
provide important implications for future research. First,
the predictor and outcome variables were measured at one
time point, negating the possibility of evaluating the
theoretically implied causal relations. As such, careful lon-
gitudinal research will be required to establish the unfolding
of these important relations in youth between schemas and
symptoms.
Sample size was not sufficiently large to adequately
evaluate gender, ethnicity, and age differences. Sex anal-
yses revealed higher anxiety rates for girls than boys, and
sex accounted for significant variance in anxiety scores,
indicating that girls may be more vulnerable to anxiety
than boys. While it is suspected that significant ethnicity,
sex and age differences exist in the development and pre-
sentation of positive schema themes, the current study did
not have sufficient power to evaluate fine-grained questions
of risk and resilience, an important area for future
investigation.
Thirdly, while the CDI, MASC, and RS possess adequate
reliability and validity, these measures are self-report and
may be impacted by youth difficulties reporting internal
states or by mood or social desirability biases. Although
research highlights the limitations of self-report measures of
psychopathology (e.g., Segal 1988), other research suggests
that children may be the best reporters of their internalizing
symptoms (Edelbrock et al. 1986; Saylor et al. 1984) and
thus, childrens perceptions are valued as the key aspect of
this inquiry. Furthermore, self-report bias cannot easily
account for our findings that particular schema themes arose
as more central to particular outcomes.
Finally, this study used a volunteer community sample
in which most participants experienced depression or
anxiety symptoms below the clinical ranges, possibly
limiting generalizability to clinical populations. Still, the
current study provides very important information regard-
ing factors that play a role in the early stages of childhood
depression and anxiety, as sub-clinical levels of depression
and anxiety are strong predictors of future clinical symp-
tomatology (e.g., Harrington et al. 1990).
The initial validation of the PSQ indicates that it may be a
useful research tool for evaluating how positive schemas of
self-efficacy, worthiness, optimism, success, and trust are
differentially related to various forms of psychopathology
and resilience. This study provides convincing evidence that
positive schemas predict significant variance in depression,
anxiety, and resilience in youth, beyond negative schemas.
Furthermore, findings provide evidence that the content
specificity model may also apply to positive schemas, with
the theme of worthiness most predictive of depression and
the theme of self-efficacy most predictive of anxiety and
123
Cogn Ther Res (2013) 37:97108
resilience. Findings that positive schemas predict additional
variance in childhood outcomes emphasize the importance
of incorporating positive schemas into cognitive models of
psychopathology. The finding that positive schemas appear
to be a stronger associate of depression symptoms than
negative schemas indicates that positive schemas may play
an even more important role than negative schemas in the
early detection of what, for many youth, develops into
chronic mood psychopathology.
If replicated in a clinical sample, the positive schema
findings here may have implications for intervention with
youth. These results emphasize the importance of a thera-
peutic focus not only on identifying and targeting negative
cognitions but, perhaps even more importantly, on the
development of positive cognitions. While decreasing
negative schemas through therapy may play an important
role in decreasing aversive symptoms, the current results
suggests that developing positive schemas may be neces-
sary to produce long-term mental health and resilient
coping strategies in the face of future stressors.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Ontario
Mental Health Foundation New Investigator Fellowship (second
author). We are very grateful to the Wellington Catholic District
School Board for their support of our research and to the youth and
parents who participated in this project. We are also grateful to all the
members of the Resilient Youth Research Group for their research
efforts in the schools and in particular to Rachel Tomlinson and
Bethany Lerman for their extraordinary organizational skills and
valuable contributions to many aspects of this project. We also wish
to thank Wray Hutton for his guidance on appropriate computer
infrastructure and his computer-programming expertise.
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