Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rapport
Forfatter(e)
Sveinung rjan Nesheim
Nils Ivar Bovim; Nathalie Labonnote
SINTEF Byggforsk
Byggematerialer og konstruksjoner
2013-12-04
Historikk
VERSJON DATO VERSJONSBESKRIVELSE
1.0 2013-12-04 Sendt til kunde
I. Sammendrag ................................................................................................................................. 5
V. Referanser..................................................................................................................................... 6
1 Innledning ..................................................................................................................................... 7
4 Litteratursk ............................................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Norske studier og prosjekt ........................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Nordiske og internasjonale studier og prosjekt ........................................................................... 11
4.3 Referanser brukt i forbindelse med utvikling av svensk hndbok ............................................... 11
7 Konklusjon .................................................................................................................................. 16
7.1 Revidering av forenklede beregningsmetoder ............................................................................ 16
7.2 Avvik mellom utfrelse og beregningsforutsetninger ................................................................. 16
7.3 Benchmarking .............................................................................................................................. 16
7.4 Data for tallfesting av skivevirkende kapasitet ............................................................................ 16
7.5 Utfordringer knyttet til store bygg............................................................................................... 17
B Litteratursk ............................................................................................................................... 38
B.1 Norske studier og prosjekt ........................................................................................................... 38
B.2 Nordiske og internasjonale studier og prosjekt ........................................................................... 40
B.3 Shear wall papers and publications 2001-2012 by Bo Kllsner (et al) ......................................... 45
III. Unntak
Massivtreskiver (CLT) flger delvis samme konstruktive prinsipp som den type avstivende skiver som er
behandlet i denne rapporten, men beregningene er ulike. Avstivende skiver av massivtre dekkes ikke av dette
prosjektet.
V. Referanser
For referanser se:
Vedlegg B.1 Norske studier og prosjekt
Vedlegg B.2 Nordiske og internasjonale studier og prosjekt
Vedlegg B.3 Shear wall papers and publications 2001-2012 by Bo Kllsner (et al)
3.1 Litt om arbeid med stabiliserende trebaserte, konstruksjoner gjort ved UMB fra 2003
3.1.1 Skivekonstruksjoner
Flere masteroppgaver inneholder tester av forskjellige typer forbindelsesmidler for innfesting av trebaserte
plater til bindingsverk. Det er vurdert forskjellige beregningsmetoder og dataprogram for beregning av
skivekonstruksjoner. I tillegg er det utfrt 2 fullskalaforsk med 50 m skive med Lett-Tak elementer, og
vurdert alternative beregningsmodeller og metoder for dimensjonering av slike konstruksjoner for statisk last
og for seismiske pkjenninger.
ystein Gardseth, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap,
Vurdering av spikerforbindelse i trebasert skivekonstruksjon, 2003.
Einar E. Leirgul, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap,
Vurdering av dataprogram for trebasert skivekonstruksjon, 2004.
Rolf Abelson, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap,
Modell for beregning av trebaserte skivekonstruksjoner, 2005.
James Nartey, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap,
Stabiliserende skivekonstruksjoner, 2005.
Eirik Magnus Furulund og Kristian Thorrud, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap,
Skivekonstruksjoner med Lett-tak-elementer, 2009.
1
Se Se appendix B.1, Siem, T. H. E. N. I. B. J. (2007)
PROSJEKTNR RAPPORTNR VERSJON 9 av 91
102000160 102000160 1.0
Martin C. Kleven and Roald Nors, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap, Finite
element based simulation of diaphragm action on light weight composite plywood to sheet metal roof
element, 2011.
Morten Solheim, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap, FEM-analyse av strre
skivekonstruksjoner med Lett-takelementer, 2012.
Preben Aanonsen, MSc-oppgave IMT, Universitetet for Milj- og biovitenskap, Innflytelse av stivhet til det
stabiliserende system utsatt for seismiske laster med hovedvekt p takskiver basert p Lett-Tak elementer,
2013.
2
Delrapport fra prosjekt 2 i FoU-programmet "Klima 2000". Detter er en sentral referanse som ble oppmerksomhet i
forbindelse med definering av rammene for dette prosjektet. Mange av forslagene til videre arbeid er fremdeles like
aktuelle.
3
Denne rapporten er sentral i forhold til videre arbeid. Rapporten samsvarer med forelesningsnotat om samme emnet
som er mottatt fra Bo Kllsner, og som er brukt som under utarbeiding av rapporten.
4
Denne ikke-motstridende komplementre metoden er en av de utvalgte metoder som er behandlet i rapporten
5
Sverige har laget en hndbok for utforming og dimensjonering av avstivende trebaserte plater p bindingsverk med
hensyn til horisontalavstivning. Denne er sentral i denne rapportens forslag til videre arbeid.
6
Tidligere vidt brukt i Sverige i konsulentbransjer og som supplerende undervisningsmateriall.
7
NS EN 1995-1-1: 2004 punkt 9.2.4.2
PROSJEKTNR RAPPORTNR VERSJON 11 av 91
102000160 102000160 1.0
med pninger, og tar ikke hensyn til bidragene fra samvirke mellom skiver over flere etasjer. Bidrag fra
skiver i andre orienteringer p samme etasje tas heller ikke med.
Samvirkebidrag fra flere etasjer, samt skivestivhetsbidrag fra flater med utsparringer blir stadig viktigere for
en del nye bygg med lite grunnareal og slankt hyde/bredde-forhold, og der bygget samtidig har en hy
prosentvis andel utsparringer og pninger (store vindu, atriumsdrer, etc). Konsekvensen ved ikke bedre
beregningsmetodene er at det frer til mer stl- og betongkonstruksjoner i hye trehus. Dette er til hinder for
en fullverdig utvikling av trekonstruksjoner i moderate hyhus.
I forhold til bruken av beregningsreglene viser erfaring at det str drlig til med kunnskap om trebaserte
skivekonstruksjoner hos rdgovende ingenirer: Ofte misforstr konsulenter en avstivende skive med en
fullstendig stiv skive. Dette gjelder bde effekt av deformasjoner i skivekonstruksjonen og hvilke krefter som
man m ta hensyn til nr skivekonstruksjonen skal dimensjoneres. Selv renommerte konsulentfirma gjr feil
ved tallfesting av krefter som kreves for holde trykkpkjente deler av hovedbrekonstruksjonen stabil.
Dette gjelder spesielt krefter fra initial utbying av bjelker, trykkpkjente staver og gurter i fagverk og
takstoler, skjevstilling av syler osv.
Dimensjonerende kapasitet for skiver er ofte relatert til ndvendig stivheten. tallfeste stivheten fremfor
horisontal skivekapasitet er mer interessant for hyere og strre hus. Slik metodene for statiske tilfeller er
utformet i dag, tallfestes ikke stivheten, men kun horisontal skivekapasitet. De dynamiske metodene
tallfester naturligvis dette, og en utvikling av beregningsmetoden i en revidert EC5 eller i et nasjonalt tillegg
br hente informasjon fra disse beregningsmetodene eller p annen mte tallfeste stivhet bedre.
Erfaringer fra beregningskontroll av konsulentfirma som utfrer underlagsberegninger med henhold til
seismikk viser store avvik ved estimering av stivheten av de trebaserte skivene med mekaniske forbindelser.
Dette resulterer i altfor hye krefter p de horisontale skivene. Ofte benyttes det en forutsetning om helt stive
skiver slik det er antydet i jordskjelvsstandarden, men dette gir fullstendig urealistiske store skjrstrmmer
nr omrder med vertikal nedfring (vindkryss, trappe- og heissjakter etc) av jordskjelvskreftene.
En vesentlig utfordring ved beregningsmetodene i EC5 er manglende samsvar med norsk praksis og
utfrelse: Det er srlig beregningsbetingelsene for randbjelker som avviker fra norsk praksis: For vertikale
skiver forutsettes randdragere (dvs trykk- og strekkflenser i skiven) vre kontinuerlige i EC5. Her avviker
dessverre ofte praksis med forutsetningene i EC5. For horisontale skiver (eks. tak, gulv) forutsetter EC5 at
alle plateskjter er understttet, enten av lasker eller kubbing p tvers av taksperrer. Dette gjres svrt
sjelden for sperretak og vil hindre bl.a. lufting av skrtak. Mer om dette i punkt 6.2.
8
Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A., SP Rapport 2008: 47, Horisontastabilisering av trregelstommar, Plastisk
dimensjonering av vggar med trbaserade skivor, SP Sveriges Tekniska Forskningsinstitut, 2009
7.3 Benchmarking
For verifisere ytelsen til beregningsmodeller som samsvarer med faktisk utfrelse m det der det ikke
foreligger relevante studier gjres FEM-baserte analyser for f en realistisk beregning av deformasjoner,
stivheter og kapasiteter. FEM-baserte analyser br ogs gjres for simulere effekten av vertikal linjelast p
vegger med ulik strrelse av pninger, samvirkeeffekt mellom skriver i samme etasje, samt samvirkeeffekter
mellom skiver over flere etasjer. Dette er effekter som de manuelle beregningsmetodene vi foreslr i
rapporten har kapasitet til tallfeste. Verdiene br imidlertid mles mot simuleringer eller
laboratorieprvinger i den grad slik data ikke finnes.
8.3 Finansiering
Videre arbeid forutsetter sknadsarbeid om midler. Sknad kan baseres p denne rapporten. Sknad om
finansiering kan blant annet stiles Nordisk rd.
Prosjektnummer: 10469
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Dato: 2001-08-07
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektnummer: 10224; NTG 2249
PROSJEKTNR RAPPORTNR VERSJON 21 av 91
102000160 102000160 1.0
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Tittel: NTG 2249 - Prving av sidestivhet for trevegg med Windex vindsperre
Prosjektleder: Mehus, Jacob; Lis, Kim Robert
Forfatter:
Oppdragsgiver: Heyerdahl Byggelit AS
Dato: 2001-01-22
Revisjonsdato:
Oppdragsgivers referanse: Heyerdahl, Trygve
Oppdragsgivers adresse: Boks 93 Grefsen, 0409 Oslo
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Nkkelord: Laboratorieunderskelse; Yttervegg; Sperresjikt; Tre; Styrke; Stivhet
Sammendrag: Norges byggforskningsinstitutt er gitt i oppdrag av Heyerdahl Byggelit
AS prototypeprve 12 mm Windex vindsperre trefiberplater.
Hensikten med prvingen har vrt bestemme platenes evne til
avstive bindingsverksvegger av tre i veggplanet. Prvingen er utfrt i
forbindelse med oppdragsgivers sknad om NBI Teknisk Godkjenning
for produktet.
Platene er prvet i NBIs laboratorium etter Nordtest metode NT
BUILD 362. Midlere bruddlast for prveserien er funnet vre lik 5,1
kN/m. P bakgrunn av dette foresls flgende grenseverdi for
skjrkraftkapasitet ved korttidsbelastning:
- Dimensjonerende skjrkraftkapasitet i veggplanet i
bruddgrensetilstanden = 4,4 kN/m.
Resultatet gjelder for angitt spikertype og spikeravstand. Angitt
kapasitet er kun gyldig for vegger i smhuskonstruksjoner og for
plateformat 1,2 m x 2,4 m.
Platene kan anbefales som vindavstivende kledning for vegger i
smhusboliger.
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Dato: 1999-09-17
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Oppdragsgiver: Isola AS
Dato: 1999-01-11
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Gsbak,Johan
Forfatter:
Dato: 1996-06-19
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Prestrud,Ole
Forfatter:
Dato: 1996-03-05
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Dato: 1991-02-01
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: KO
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Ramstad,Trond
Forfatter:
Dato: 1988-12-01
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Ramstad,Trond
Forfatter:
Dato: 1988-11-25
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Dato: 1988-05-16
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Lossius,Petter
Forfatter:
Dato: 1986-04-18
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: O
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Paulsen,Einar M.
Forfatter:
Dato: 1984-12-04
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Sammendrag: Prving av INTERTHERM homogen PVC takfolie mekanisk festet til stltak
for
styrke mot vindlast i henhold til metode NBI 92/82.
Dimensjonerende kapasitet:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: GO
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Ramstad,Trond
Forfatter:
Dato: 1977-12-31
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: GO
Rapportnummer:
Prosjektleder: Ramstad,Trond
Forfatter:
Dato: 1976-11-03
Revisjonsdato:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
Prosjektart: GO
Rapportnummer:
Forfatter:
Dato: 1968-11-28
Revisjonsdato:
Oppdragsgivers referanse:
Oppdragsgivers adresse:
Byggverkets adresse:
Bygger:
Nkkelord: Laboratorieunderskelse; Industribygg; Tak; Taktekking; Metall; Styrke;
Stivhet
Sammendrag: Dette var et strre arbeid som strakte seg over ca. 9 mnd. Formlet var
underske hvorvidt korrugerte stlplater (Robertsonplater) egnet seg som
vindavstivende elementer, dvs. hvorvidt en takflate av slike plater kunne
oppta horisontalkrefter og overfre disse til gavlvegger, slik at det
konvensjonelle vindfagverket i en bygning kan slyfes. Det ble utfrt en
rekke forsk for bestemme platenes skjrstivhet og ogs utfrt en del
arbeid av teoretisk art. Flgende rapporter og avhandlinger ble oversendt:
Prving og beregning av korrugerte takplaters stivhet som
vindavstivende element. Spenninger og deformasjoner i en korrugert
plate belastet i sitt plan p tvers av korrugeringene.
Plan - byningsforsk med QDB-plater.
Kant - knekningsforsk med QDD, QDB-plater.
Skjrforsk med QDD og QDB-plater.
Strekkprving av skjtforbindelser for galvaniserte korrugerte
stlplater.
Kommentarer til: Beregnings- og dimensjoneringsgrunnlag for
skivekonstruksjoner med QDD og QDB-plater.
Forslag til beregnings- og dimensjoneringsgrunnlag for
skivekonstruksjoner
med QDD og QDB-plater.
Gradering: Lukket
Dokumenter:
[1] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A., Wu, L.: A simplified plastic model for design of partially anchored
wood-framed shear walls. CIB/W18 Meeting, Venice, Italy, August 22-24, 2001.
[2] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A., Wu, L.: A plastic design model for partially anchored wood-framed
shear walls with openings. CIB/W18 Meeting, Kyoto, Japan, September 16-19, 2002.
[3] Girhammar, U. A., Kllsner, B., Wu, L.: On test methods for determining racking strength and stiffness
of wood-framed shear walls. CIB/W18 Meeting, Kyoto, Japan, September 16-19, 2002.
[4] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: A plastic lower bound method for design of wood-framed shear walls. 8th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, Lahti, Finland, June 14-17, 2004.
[5] Girhammar, U. A., Bovim, N. O., Kllsner, B.: Characteristics of sheathing-to-timber joints in wood
shear walls. 8th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Lahti, Finland, June 14-17, 2004.
[6] Girhammar, U. A., Kllsner, B.: Tests on partially anchored wood-framed shear walls. 8th World
Conference on Timber Engineering, Lahti, Finland, June 14-17, 2004.
[7] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: Influence of framing joints on plastic capacity of partially anchored
wood-framed shear walls. CIB/W18 Meeting, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, August 31 September 3,
2004.
[8] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: Plastic design of partially anchored wood-framed wall diaphragms with
and without openings. CIB/W18 Meeting, Karlsruhe, Germany, August 29-31, 2005.
[9] Griffiths, B., Enjily, V., Blass, H., Kllsner, B.: A unified design method for the racking resistance of
timber framed walls for inclusion in Eurocode 5. CIB/W18 Meeting, Karlsruhe, Germany, August 29-
31, 2005.
[10] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: A plastic design method for incompletely anchored wood-framed
wall diaphragm. 9th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Portland, Oregon, USA, August 6-10,
2006.
[11] Girhammar, U. A., Kllsner, B.: Effect of transverse walls on capacity of wood-framed wall
diaphragms. CIB/W18 Meeting, Florence, Italy, August 2831, 2006.
[12] Girhammar, U. A., Kllsner, B.: Effect of transverse walls on capacity of wood-framed wall
diaphragms - Part 2. CIB/W18 Meeting, Bled, Slovenia, August 2831, 2007.
[13] Vessby, J., Olsson, A., Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: Modelling aspects of wooden shear walls with
nailed sheathing. (Paper in licentiate thesis by Vessby: Shear walls for multi-storey timber buildings)
Report no. 44, School of Technology and Design, Vxj University, 2008.
[14] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: A plastic design procedure for wood frame wall diaphragms. 10th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan, June 2-5, 2008.
[15] Girhammar, U. A., Kllsner, B.: Effect of transverse walls on capacity of wood-framed wall
diaphragms without tie-downs. 10th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan, June
2-5, 2008.
[16] Vessby, J., Kllsner, B., Olsson, A.: Influence of initial gap between timber members on stiffness and
capacity of shear walls. 10th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan, June 2-5,
2008.
[17] Kllsner, B., Girhammar, U. A.: Plastic design of wood frame wall diaphragms in low and medium
rise buildings. CIB/W18 Meeting, Saint Andrews, Canada, August 25-28, 2008.
General properties
Fastener
Lateral design capasity of fastener: Ff_Rd 1440 N Taken from BKS 520.238
Loads on wall piece
50kN
75kN
Alternativ vertical load vector Fv_vect 100kN
150kN
200kN
10.417
15.625
Equivalent uniformly dristributed Fv_vect kN
vertical load acting on the wall: q i_vect 20.833
Lwall
31.25 m
41.667
1.1 Eurocode 5 [4] Method A
1.1.1 Scope
- wall diaphragms are built with a tie-down at their end (the vertical member at the end is directly
connected to the construction below)
- the spacing of fasteners is constant along the perimeter of every sheet
- the width of each sheet is at least h/4
1.1.2 Assumptions
- wall panels containing a door or window are not considered to contribute to the racking load-carrying
capacity.
b
- Shear buckling of the sheet may be disregarded if net 100 where bnet = clear distance between
t
studs, t = thickness of the sheet.
1.1.3 Calculation of design racking strength
- For a wall made up of several wall panels, Fv , Rd Fi , v , Rd
Ff , Rd bi ci
- Fi , v , Rd where:
s
o F f , Rd = lateral design capacity of an individual fastener
o bi = wall panel width
o s = fastener spacing
h
1 for bi 2
o ci where h = height of the wall
b
i for bi h
b0 2
- For fasteners along the edges of an individual sheet, F f , Rd should be increased by a factor of 1.2.
- Wall panels with same type/dimension sheets and fasteners on both sides: Fv , Rd = sum of the individual
sides
- Wall panels with different types of sheets on both sides: Fv , Rd = 75 % of the weaker side (if fastener with
similar slip moduli), else no more than 50%.
1.1.4 Miscellaneous
Fi ,v , Ed h
- External forces on the wall panels in tension or compression: Fi , c , Ed Fi ,t , Ed
bi
Example of calculation:
Constant: ci 1 if b i b 0 1
bi
otherwise
b0
Ff_Rd b i ci
Racking strength Eurocode 5 method A: fi_v_Rd_EC5A 17.28 kN
spmtr
Check:
b net
Checks_b "Shearbuckling can be disregarded" if 100 "Shearbuckling can be disregarded"
t
"Shearbuckling must be regarded" otherwise
1.2.4 Miscellaneous
Fi ,v , Ed h
External forces on the wall panels in tension or compression: Fi , c , Ed Fi ,t , Ed
bi
Example of calculation:
9.7 d 1000 kg
Basic fastener spacing: s0 75.66 mm
3
k m
bi bi
Dimension factor for the panel: k d if 1 0.5
h h
0.4
bi bi
if 1 b i 4.8m
h h
0.4 bi
4.8m
if 1 b i 4.8m
h h
2.026
0.083 m q
2
0.4 2.454
q m
i_vect i_vect 2.4m
k i_q_vect 1 0.0008 2.823
bi
Uniformly distributed
load factor for wall: kN kN
3.392
3.731
1
Fastener spacing factor: k s 0.586
spmtr
0.86 0.57
s0
Sheating material factor: k n 1.5 (Both sheathings have the same capasity)
20.337
Ff_Rd b i 24.625
Racking strength Eurocode 5 fi_v_Rd_EC5B_vect k d k i_q_vect k s k n 28.338 kN
s0
method B: 34.041
37.443
61.012
73.876
fv_Rd_EC5B_vect 3 fi_v_Rd_EC5B_vect 85.015 kN
102.122
112.33
1.3 PD 6693-1-1 [5] (UK)
This Non Contradictory Complementary Information (NCCI) [5] gives a simplified method of analysis for wall
diaphragms of platform framed timber buildings consisting of timber framing connected on one or both faces to a
wood-based sheathing. The method applies to wall diaphragms that are connected to the underlying timber
construction or foundations either by bottom rail connections or by a combination of bottom rail connections and
tiedowns.
1.3.1 Scope
- timber frame: timber studs, not exceeding 610 mm centre to centre
- timber frame: minimum thickness of 38 mm, minimum depth of 72 mm, and minimum strength class of
C16
- connection between horizontal rails and studs: minimum two ring-shanked nails of diameter = 3.1 mm,
having a penetration into the stud = 45 mm, or equivalent
- diameter of the fasteners connecting sheathing to timber framing = 0.09 x stud thickness
- when two sheathing sheet are connected to the same stud, fastener edge distance for both stud and
sheathing sheet = 3 x fastener diameter
- fastener fixing the sheathing to the framing: should be equally spaced around the perimeter of each
sheathing sheet at a maximum distance of 150 mm
- Fasteners within the perimeter of a sheet should be spaced at no more than twice the perimeter
fastener spacing
- No mpre than 2 sheathing sheets of a length = 600 mm should be used consecutively along the length
of wall diaphragm
- Ki , w f p ,d ,t 8 1 K comb L H in order to limit deflection, where H = height of the sheathed area of the
wall diaphragm [m]
1.3.2 Assumptions
bnet
- Shear buckling of the sheet may be disregarded if 100 where bnet = clear distance between
t
studs, t = thickness of the sheet.
- wall panels containing a door or window are considered to contribute to the racking load-carrying
capacity if vertical dimension of the opening is less than 0.65 x wall diaphragm height, and if the height
of the underside of the opening is greater than 0.25 x wall diaphragm height
- Small openings within a length of wall diaphragm are allowed without reducing racking resistance if all
conditions are met:
o opening = 300 mm in both length and height where the opening is framed
o opening = 150 mm in both length and height, or = 200 mm in diameter where opening is
unframed
o edge distance from the opening to any edge of a sheathing sheet = maximum dimension of the
opening
o only one such opening is allowed in a sheathing sheet, and spacing between such openings =
1200 mm.
1.3.3 Calculation of design racking strength
- For a wall made up of several wall panels, Fv , Rd Fi , v, Rd
- Fi , v , Rd K opening K i , w f p , d ,t L where:
o L = length of the wall diaphragm [m]
o f p , d ,t f p , d ,1 K comb f p , d ,2 = summation of the design shear capacities per unit length of the
perimeter sheathing fasteners [kN/m] where:
f p , d ,2 f p , d ,1 where f p , d ,1 = design shear capacity per unit length of perimeter
sheathing fasteners of the first or only sheathing layer, f p , d ,2 = design shear
capacity per unit length of perimeter sheathing fasteners of the second sheathing
layer.
Ff , Rd 1.15 s
f p,d where F f , Rd = design lateral capacity of an individual
s
fastener [kN], s = sheathing perimeter fastener spacing.
H
2
2M d , stb , n H
o K i , w min 1, 1 = modification factor taking into account wall
L f p , d ,t L L
2
length, vertical load, and holding-down arrangements, where:
K i , w 0,1
M d , stb , n M d , stb M d , dst ,top where M d , stb design stabilizing moment [kN.m], about
the leeward end of the wall diaphragm from design permanent wall, M d , dst ,top = design
destabilizing moment [kN.m], about the top of the wall diaphragm from design wind
load
A
o K opening 1 1.9 = modification factor, taking into account the effect of framed openings,
HL
2
where: A = aggregate area of window openings in wall diaphragm [m ]. If vertical dimension < 0.5
x horizontal dimension Lopen, then A 0.5 Lopen . If wall diaphragm is only full height
2
1.3.4 Miscellaneous
- The contribution of plasterboards to racking resistance is investigated
Example of calculation:
spmtr
Ff_Rd 1.15
Fastener lateral design capasity: fp_d
m 18 1 kN
spmtr m
kN
Summation of design shear capasity: fp_d_t fp_d_1 k comb fp_d_2 31.5
m
kN
fp_d_t_table 2.19 Taken from table 9, PD 6693-1
m
2
k i_w_0 min1 1 h 2 Md_stb_n N m h 0.882
Modification wall factor:
L 2 L
0 fp_d_t L0 0
2
k i_w_A min1 1 h 2 Md_stb_n N m h 1
L 2 L
A fp_d_t LA A
Aopening
Ratio between area of openings p 0.48
and wall: LA h
VERSION DATE
v 1.0 2013-11-04
AUTHOR(S)
Nathalie Labonnote
ABSTRACT
This technical note reviews some of the available methods for evaluating the racking
resistance of shear walls and/or shear panels. The study is mainly based on literature
gathered from North America, Scandinavia, and central Europe. The different test
methods are described using similar terminology in order to facilitate comparison.
Criticism on some precise points of existing methods is reported, along with possible
directions for further work. To that end, a list of active research groups / individuals in
this field is provided for potential further cooperation.
PREPARED BY SIGNATURE
Nathalie Labonnote
APPROVED BY SIGNATURE
Sveinung rjan Nesheim
1 of 34
Document history
VERSION DATE VERSION DESCRIPTION
1.0 2013-11-04 Original version
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Keywords........................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Basic test method .......................................................................................................................... 6
7 Criticism towards existing methods and need for further work ..................................................... 29
7.1 Criticism on boundary conditions ................................................................................................ 29
7.2 Criticism on loading protocols ..................................................................................................... 31
7.3 The specific case of Scandinavian houses .................................................................................... 31
7.4 Suggestions for further work ....................................................................................................... 31
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 32
APPENDICES
none
1.1 Definitions
Shear wall: structural subassembly that acts as a cantilever/diaphragm to transfer horizontal building loads
to the foundation [1]
Racking: when applied to shear walls, refers to the tendency for a wall frame to distort from rectangular to
rhomboid under the action of an in-plane force applied parallel to the wall length [1]
Racking strength: Capacity of a panel to resist a horizontal load in the plane of the panel [2]
Racking stiffness: Calculated stiffness of a panel when it is loaded to approximately 40 % of its racking
strength [2]
Static ductility: ratio between the ultimate deformation and the deformation at the end of elastic behaviour
evaluated in quasi-static cyclic tests [3]
1.2 Keywords
Methods reported here are aiming at evaluating the racking resistance of walls or panels. Loading can be
either dynamic or static, and panels can be composed of different materials, among them timber. The
methods can differ depending on the cause of loading (either wind loading or seismic loading). Methods also
differ whether the panel itself, or the connection alone, or the complete assembly: panel + connection are
evaluated with respect to racking. Methods and studies can therefore be sorted out by use of the following
areas and their corresponding keywords.
AREA: Loading
- dynamic / static
- wind loading / seismic loading
- additional vertical loading or not
AREA: Analysis
- linear / non linear
- analytical / numerical / experimental
- subject of the analysis: panel, connection, assembly: panel + connection
- output: strength, stiffness, failure type
The seismic base shear force Fb for each horizontal direction in which the building is analysed is determined
as:
=Fb S d (T1 ) m
where: Sd (T1 ) = ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1 , T1 = fundamental period of vibration of the
building for lateral motion in the direction considered, m = total mass of the building, = correction factor
which accounts for the fact that in buildings with at least three storeys, the effective modal mass of the
fundamental mode is smaller than the total building mass.
The seismic action effects are determined by applying horizontal forces Fi to all storeys, so that:
si mi
Fi = Fb
sjmj
Basic principles for design of earthquake-resistant timber buildings usually follow one of the concepts:
- dissipative structural behavior: the capability of parts of the structure (dissipative zones) to resist
earthquake actions out of their elastic range is taken into account.
- low-dissipative structural behavior: the action effects are calculated on the basis of an elastic
global analysis without taking into account non-linear material behavior.
diaphragm is only full height sheathing sheets, or contains only small openings, then
K opening = 1 .
4.1 EN 594 [2] Racking strength and stiffness of timber frame wall panels
4.1.1 Principle
The test method measures the resistance to racking load of panels which can deform both vertically and
horizontally in the plane of the panel.
During the strength test, a racking load F is applied, with or without 5 kN vertical loads Fv . The racking load
F is increased until Fmax is reached, that is either when the panel collapses, or when the panel obtains a
deformation of 100 mm, whichever occurs first.
F4 F2
The racking stiffness of the panel is determined as: R = where F2 = the racking load of 0.2 Fmax,
v4 v2 N / mm
F4 = racking load of 0.4 Fmax, v2 and v4 = corresponding deformations.
4.1.3 Requirements
4.1.3.1 General requirements
- The apparatus shall be capable of continuously recording the racking load F and the vertical load
FV with an accuracy of 3 % of the load applied, or 0.3 % Fmax for loads less than 0.1 Fmax.
- The panel displacements shall be measured to the nearest 0.1 mm.
- The base of the rig shall not distort during the test
- Standard environnement: (20 2) C, (60 5) % relative humidity
4.1.3.2 Load requirements
- Application of vertical load shall allow for racking deflections up to 100 mm
- The rate of loading should ensure that 90 % of the racking loaf Fmax is reached within (300
120) s.
4.2 ASTM E564-06 [1] Shear resistance of framed walls for buildings
4.2.1 Principle
This practice describes methods for evaluating the shear capacity of a typical section of a framed wall,
supported on a rigid foundation and having load applied in the plane of the wall along the edge opposite the
rigid support and in a direction parallel to it. The objective is to provide a determination of the shear stiffness
and strength of any structural light-frame wall configuration to be used as a shear-wall on a rigid support.
The shear strength and stiffness of a wall assembly and its connections are determined by forcing a racking
deformation. This is accomplished by anchoring the bottom edge of the wall assembly and applying a force
to the top edge oriented perpendicular to the wall height dimension and parallel to the wall length dimension.
Wall distortion is restricted to the plane of the unstressed wall. The forces required to rack the wall and the
corresponding displacements at each load interval are measured.
Substituting:
a 2 + b2 =
c2
gives:
2c + 2 2b =0
Finally:
=
( 2c + ) 2
2b
4.2.5.3 Estimation of global shear stiffness G'
When shear stiffness is estimated as a global value, it includes rotation and/or translation of the wall, so that:
P a
G =
3 b
This expression involves linearity, and is therefore not relevant since most of the wall racking tests,
especially those where nailed connections control stiffness and strength are almost totally non-linear. Values
for P and 3 shall then be selected at a reference load or deflection within acceptable performance level.
4.2.5.4 Estimation of internal shear stiffness
Gint
This is the actual shear stiffness of the wall assembly due only to the wall shear displacement:
P a
=
Gint
int b
where int = internal shear displacement, determined so that:
a
int = 3 1 ( 2 4 )
b
int =
( 2c + 2 )
2b
4.3 ASTM E72-10 [7] Racking load Evaluation of Sheathing Materials on a Standard
Wood Frame
4.3.1 Principle
This test method measures the resistance of panels, having a standard wood frame, and sheathed with sheet
materials such as structural insulating board, plywood, gypsum board, transite, and so forth, to a racking load
such as would be imposed by winds blowing on a wall oriented at 90 to the panel. Since a standard frame is
employed, the relative performance of the sheathing is the test objective.
4.3.2 Scope
- The test specimen should be 2.4 by 2.4 m
- The framing shall be constructed as shown in Figure 5. Frames should be newly constructed for
each test.
- The method of applying the sheathing shall be exactly as specified by the manufacturer.
Fasteners shall be driven through the sheathing into only the outside stud of each corner post, as
shown in Figure 5.
- The panel shall be attached to a timber or steel plate that is in turn attached rigidely to the base of
the loading frame in such a manner that when the panel is racked, the sheathing will not bear on
the loading frame.
- A hold-down shall be provided as shown in Figure 5 to overcome the tendency of one end of the
panel to rise as the racking load is applied.
- Lateral guides shall be provided so that the specimen will deflect in a plane.
4.3.3 Requirements
- Load shall be applied to the specimen through a 89 by 89 mm timber firmly bolted to the upper
plates of the panel. Loading shall be a compressive force against the end of the timber attached
to the upper plate.
- Load shall be applied continuously for each of the increment loads specified in section 4.3.4 and
data shall be recorded for at least each 900 N of loading.
- The readings of measurement shall be recorded to the nearest 0.25 mm.
4.3.4 Test method
Load the specimen in three stages to 3.5, 7.0 and 10.5 kN total load at a uniform rate.
-
After the load of 3.5 kN is placed on the specimen, remove all of the load and any residual
-
deflection (set) in the panel noted.
- Then load the specimen to 7.0 kN.
- Again remove the load and note any additional set.
- Increase the loading to 10.5 kN, remove the load again, and note the set.
- Load it again until failure or until the total deflection of the panel becomes 100 mm.
- Obtain load-deflection data during the loading cycle and, if desired, during the unloading cycle
as well.
The experimental protocol is displayed in Figure 6.
4.3.5 Calculations
4.3.5.1 Direct measurements
Four displacement measurements are used to evaluate shear deformation, as shown in Figure 6:
- slip at the base, lower right corner: 1
- Uplift of the stud at the loaded end, lower left corner: 2
- top plate horizontal displacement, upper right corner: 3
4.3.5.2 Estimation of horizontal deflection of the panel h
h = 3 ( 1 + 2 )
4.4 ISO 6891 1983 [8]: Timber structures Joints made with mechanical fasteners
General principles for the determination of strength and deformation
characteristics
4.4.1 Principle
This International Standard lays down general principles for the determination of the strength and
deformation (slip) characteristics of joints made with mechanical fasteners.
4.4.2 Scope
- Form and dimensions of the test specimen are given in separate international standards.
4.4.3 Requirements
- Test joints shall be of realistic form and dimensions such that the necessary information about
the strength and deformation of joints in service can be obtained
- The testing machine shall be able to apply and record load with an accuracy of 1% of the
estimates of Fest or better.
- The equipment to measure joint slip under load with an accuracy of 1% or better, or for slips of
less than 2 mm with an accuracy of 0.02 mm
- Below 0.7 Fest , a constant rate of slip of 0.2 Fest / min ( 25%) shall be used
4.4.5 Calculations
The joint settlement S is calculated as:
4
S =
04 ( 04 01 )
3
The elastic slip e is calculated as:
2
=
e ( 14 + 24 11 21 )
3
The slip modulus kS is calculated as:
0.4 Fest
kS =
4
( 04 01 )
3
5.1 ISO 16670 2003 [9]: Timber structures Joints made with mechanical fasteners
Quasi-static reversed-cyclic test method
5.1.1 Principle
The objective of this International Standard is to provide a cyclic test procedure as a basis for the
development of characteristics of joints for use in seismic design.
5.1.2 Scope
- joints are subjected to lateral loads (not applicable for joints subjected to withdrawal forces)
-
5.1.3 Requirements
- Joint geometry, loading configuration and fabrication details shall be representative of the
intended use
- The testing machine shall be able to apply and continuously record load and joint displacement
with an accuracy of 1% of the estimates of Fmax and u or better.
- During the reversed cyclic test, rate of slip shall be between 0.1 mm/s and 10 mm/s
5.1.4 Test method
- Apply monotonic test according to Section 4.4
- Determine the mean value of the ultimate displacement u according to Figure 8
- Then apply the cyclic displacement amplitude given in Figure 9
5.1.5 Calculations
In most cases, the joint stiffness K may be calculated as:
0.3Fmax
K=
0.4 F 0.1F
max max
5.2 ASTM E2126 11 [10]: Standard Test Methods for Cyclic (Reversed) Load Test for
Shear Resistance of Vertical Elements of the Lateral Force Resisting Systems for
Buildings
5.2.1 Principle
These test methods cover the evaluation of the shear stiffness, shear strength, and ductility of the vertical
elements of lateral force resisting systems, including applicable shear connections and hold-down
connections, under quasi-static cyclic (reversed) load conditions. These test methods are intended to measure
the performance of vertical elements of the lateral force resisting system subjected to earthquake loads. Since
these loads are cyclic, the loading process simulates the actions and their effects on the specimens.
The elastic shear stiffness, shear strength and ductility of specimens are determined by subjecting a specimen
to full reversal cyclic racking shear loads. This is accomplished by anchoring the bottom edge of the
specimen to a test base simulating intended end-use applications and applying a force parallel to the top of
the specimen. As the specimen is racked to specified displacement increments, the racking (shear) load and
displacements are continuously measured.
5.2.2 Scope
- These test methods are intended for specimens constructed from wood or metal framing braced
with solid sheathing or other methods or structural insulated panels.
- The typical specimen consists of a frame, bracing elements, such as panel sheathing, diagonal
bracing, etc., and fastenings.
- The panel is prefabricated assembly consisting of an insulating core of 38 mm minimum
sandwiched between two facings. The assembly is constructed by attaching panels together and
to top and bottom plates or tracks.
5.2.3 Requirements
5.2.3.1 Specimen requirements
- Sheathing panels that are a component of a specimen shall be positioned such that they do not
bear on the test frame during testing
- The bracing is attached on one side of the frame unless the purpose of the test requires bracing
on both sides.
5.2.5 Calculations
5.2.5.1 Measurements
The following measurements should be recorded:
5.2.5.2 Calculations
The shear strength peak is given by:
Ppeak
peak =
L
where Ppeak = maximum load resisted by the specimen, L = length of the specimen.
The secant shear modulus G' shall be calculated at 0.4 Ppeak and at Ppeak , and:
PH
G =
L
where P = applied load measured at the top edge of the specimen, = displacement at the top edge of the
specimen, H = height of specimen, L = length of the specimen.
NB: The displacement includes both the shear deflection of the sheathing material and its deflection, and
the contribution of the shear and hold-down connection systems.
5.3 CLT Handbook [11]: Chapter 4 Seismic performance of cross-laminated timber
buildings
5.3.1 Principle
The test method used for CLT panels or CLT walls is similar to the ASTM test method [10].
5.3.2 Scope
- The test method was applied to different types of CLT panels / CLT walls
5.3.3 Requirements
- Lateral guides with rollers were used to ensure a steady and consistent unidirectional movement
of the wall
- Steel I-beams with stiffeners shall be used as a foundation to which the specimen are bolted
- Another steel I-beam shall be bolted to the top of specimens, in order to be used as a spreader bar
for the lateral load
- Vertical load shall be applied whenever needed, either with a single hydraulic actuator located in
the middle of short walls, or with two hydraulic actuators located at third points of long walls.
- Vertical loads of either 10 kN/m (which approximately correspond to a wall being at the bottom
of a two-storey structure), or vertical loads of 40 kN/m (which approximately correspond to a
wall being at the bottom of a four-storey structure.
- Monotonic loading shall use a displacement rate of either 0.2 mm/s or 0.4 mm/s.
5.3.5 Calculations
5.3.5.1 Measurements
The following measurements should be performed:
- displacement at top and bottom of the wall
- uplift at both ends
- deformation of the wall along the wall diagonals
5.3.5.2 Calculations
Calculations are similar to the ones from ASTM 2126-11 [10], and are described in Section 5.2.5.2.
6 Literature review
A brief overview of past and on-going research is given. Additional, but not exhaustive literature is then
presented for some selected topics.
6.1 Past and on-going research
USA: Substantial research has been performed by the Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake
Engineering (CUREE), which was established in 1988. Information is collected via the website
www.curee.org, and publications related to the specific "Caltech Woodframe Project" may be bought and
downloaded from http://www.curee.org/zc/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=3&sort=20a&page=1.
Also the Engineered Wood Association (APA): www.apawood.org, has contributed with numerous
publications [12-19] to the research onto shear walls.
Canada: FPInnovation-Forintek [20] has undertaken a multi-disciplinary research project on determining the
structural properties of typical CLT construction. One of the important parts of the project is to quantify the
seismic resistance of structures with CLT panels, including the development of the force modification factors
U-K: Research is currently being carried out at Edinburgh Napier University into the development of a series
of racking solutions which are optimized in terms of performance, installation and cost. Contact: Kenneth
Leitch: k.leitch@napier.co.uk
Sweden: Pr. Bo Kllsner has led research on shear wall at the Linnaeus Univeristy in Vxj [21-31]. He is
now retired, but still active. Contact: bo.kallsner@lnu.se. In addition, the PhD thesis from one of his
students, Johan Vessby [32], is of particular interest with regards to the analysis of shear walls for multi-
storey timber buildings.
The SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden is also part of this research project, and among other papers,
a report [33] has been published in 2008.
Slovenia: Investigations on in-plane loaded wooden wall elements are part of a comprehensive research
program performed in recent years at University of Ljubljana to enable better understanding of response of
wooden buildings exposed to earthquake action [34-38]. Contact: bruno.dujic@cbd.si
Germany: Recently, Division of Timber Construction of MPA University of Stuttgart [39] joined the
Slovenian research program. Contact: simon.aicher@mpa.uni-stuttgart.de
Italy: The most comprehensive study to quantify the seismic behaviour of low and mid-rise CLT
construction was the part of the SOFIE project in Italy: http://www.progettosofie.it/. This project was
undertaken by the Trees and Timber Institute of the National Research Council of Italy (CNR-IVALSA) in
collaboration with National Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention in Japan (NIED), Shizuoka
University, and the Building Research Institute (BRI) in Japan.
In addition, international research groups have tackled the issue. For example, in Europe: COST E29
"Innovative timber & composite elements for buildings", with publications available at:
www.enmadera.info/cost/E29/, and more internationally: CIB-W18, with publications available at http://cib-
w18.com/.
Reviews by individuals have also been carried on shear walls in general. In 1987, Griffiths wrote his PhD
thesis on the racking resistance of timber frame walls [40]. Van de Lindt [41] presented in 2004 a extensive
summary of wood shear wall testing, wood shear wall modelling, and wood shear wall reliability analysis
studies over the previous two decades. Also of interest is Hoekstra's MSc thesis [42], which examines the
modelling of racking stiffness of timber-frame shear-walls, under the global topic of multi-storey timber-
frame building. A complete literature review from the same author [43] is also available in addition to the
MSc thesis.
6.2 Selected topics
6.2.1 Failure modes
In 1998, Dinehart and Shenton [44] conducted static and dynamic tests on wood frame shear walls to
determine the wall resistance to lateral loading. They characterized static damage as pulling away of the
sheathing from the frame, extraction of the sheathing nails, and splitting of the bottom part at the uplift
corner. On the other hand, they observed that dynamic damage was generally confined to pull out and
fatiguing of the sheathing nails, which eventually break off.
Study # 2
- Evaluate the previously formulated suggestions for analysis and/or test methods adapted to
Scandinavian buildings
- Decide on one or several definitive test protocols
- Perform tests for different types of panels and/or connections following recommendations
- Collect results under a database
Study # 3
- Investigate the racking performance of SIP (Structurally Insulated Panel)
Table 3: Example of filling database with studies according to domain areas and keywords
Boundary
Source Date Tested specimen Loading Analysis
conditions
Dinehart and 1998 Plywood sheathing Nail Static (ASTM E564) Ultimate loads
Shenton [44] OSB sheathing No vertical load Dynamic Stiffness
Ductility
Failure types
1. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard Practice for Static Load Test for Shear
Resistance of Framed Walls for Buildings. 2006.
2. European Committee for Standardization, Timber Structures - Test methods - Racking strength and
stiffness of timber frame wall panels. 2011.
3. European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance -
Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings. 2004.
4. Toratti, T., Seismic Desing of Timber Structures. 2001, VTT/Building and Transport: Espoo.
5. European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode No.5 - Design of timber structures - Part 1: General
rules and rules for buildings. 2005: Brussels.
6. The British Standards Institution, UK Non-Contradictory Complementary Information to Eurocode 5:
Design of timber structures - Part 1: General - Common rules and rules for buildings. 2012, BSI
Standards Limited 2012.
7. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard Test Methods of Conducting Strength
Tests of Panels for Building Construction, in Racking Load - Evaluation of Sheathing Materials on a
Standard Wood Frame. 2010.
8. International Organization for Standardization, Timber structures - Joints made with mechanical fasteners
- General principles for the determination of strength and deformation characteristics. 1983:
Geneva.
9. International Organization for Standardization, Timber structures - Joints made with mechanical fasteners
- quasi static reversed cyclic test method. 2003: Geneva.
10. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard Test Methods for Cyclic (Reversed) Load
Test for Shear Resistance of Vertical Elements of the Lateral Force Resisting Systems for Buildings.
2011.
11. Gagnon, S. and C. Pirvu, eds. CLT Handbook. 2011, FPInnovations: Vancouver.
12. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, Diaphragms and Shear Walls - Design / Construction Guide.
2007: Tacoma.
13. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, Effect of Overdriven Fasteners on Shear Capacity. 2011:
Tacoma.
14. Rose, J.D., Preliminary Testing of Wood Structural Panel Shear Walls Under Cyclic (Reversed) Loading.
1998, APA - The Engineered Wood Association, : Tacoma.
15. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, "Slant Nailing". 2006: Tacoma.
16. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, Wood Structural Panel Shear Wall Deflection Formula. 2007:
Tacoma.
17. Tissell, P.E., Wood Structural Panel Shear Walls. 1993, APA - The Engineered Wood Association, :
Tacoma.
18. Rose, J.D. and E. Keith, Wood Structural Panel Shear Walls with Gypsum Wallboard and Window / Door
Openings. 1996, APA - The Engineered Wood Association, : Tacoma.
19. Yeh, B. and E. Keith, Using wood structural panels for shear and wind uplift applications, in World
Conference on Timber Engineering. 2010: Riva Del Garda, Italy.
20. Popovski, M., J. Schneider, and M. Schweinsteiger, Lateral load resistance of cross-laminated wood
panels, in World Conference on Timber Engineering. 2010: Riva Del Garda, Italy.
21. Vessby, J., E. Serrano, and A. Olsson, Coupled and uncoupled nonlinear elastic finite element models for
monotonically loaded sheathing-to-framing joints in timber based shear walls. Engineering
Structures, 2010. 32(11): p. 3433-3442.