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Abstract
Self Determination and ESL
A topic of studying in second language focused on self-determination and second language
achievement. This paper reviews recent research on the role of self-determination in second
language achievement from two views that have exist in the second language self-determination
to be reviewed here mostly come from journal articles published between 2011 and 2015.
Although the conflicting views observed, it is show that self-determination hinder achievement
of second language, though there are still many questions unresolved. Implications for future
research on self-determination and ESL are discussed. With the growing evidence accumulating
in the academia, self-determination and ESL is, no doubt, a fertile area of research.
For many decades, questions about the role of affective variables in second language
have become evident virtually for every aspect of language learning and instruction. Research in
second language achievement (see Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos and Verissimo, 2013) has
shown that affective variables are critical factors that contribute to learners differential success
in second language achievement. From the three affective variables mention above, self-
determination has been arguing to have one of the strongest correlations with achievement
(Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos and Verissimo,2013; Aydogan and Akbarov, 2015; Long, Ming
and Chen, 2013). This is further supported by testimonies from ESL learners who often
perceived self-determination and ESL achievement are important (Long, Ming and Chen, 2013;
Zhou, 2015). Empirical research had suggested that self-determination can have a big impact to
second language achievement (Al Othman and Shuqair, 2013; Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos
and Verissimo, ).
Earlier research has produced somewhat inconsistent findings which are confusing and
difficult to synthesize (Aksenova, 2015). However, recent advances in theory and measurement
in second language self-determination research have offered some interesting insights into this
complex phenomenon. This paper will review the literature related to second language self-
determination.
I will briefly discuss the general approaches in the self-determination studies, and then
focus more on the two views that have appeared in the current literature of self-determination
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Self Determination and ESL
and ESL research. In particular, Deci, Ryan and their colleagues have written extensively on self-
determination theory (Deci, 1980; Deci and Moller, 2005; Deci and Ryan, 1985,1991; Reeve,
Deci and Ryan, 2004; Reeve, Ryan, Deci and Jang, 2008; Ryan and Deci, 2000,2009), and also a
recent hypothesis proposed by Noraini and Kong (2011) will be reviewed. The paper will then
Computer searches of the data bases on Research Gate, Research in Teacher Education were
done for the year 2011 and 2015. The following descriptors were used: self-determination,
second language, achievement, gender differences and affective variables. The initial list of the
references has been included in this paper. The writer also found additional studies by soliciting
studies directly from prominent author in self-determination and ESL research, tracking citations
from the study to study and hard searching recent studies in the following journals:
and Translation Studies (IJELR), Journal of Education for Teaching, English Language Teaching,
Psychological Studies. However, the review presented here is by no means comprehensive since
the criteria set for the selection of studies have excluded some primary sources (e.g., dissertation)
and a majority of secondary sources (e.g., books, research reports and articles).
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Self Determination and ESL
Charms (1968), Rotter (1966), White (1959), and Harter (1978) had review that
motivation derives in part from the belief that individuals can exert control over their
environment (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 250). Self-Determination Theory have
written extensively by Deci, Ryan, and their colleagues. (Deci,1980; deci & Moller, 2005; Deci
& Ryan,1985,1991; Reeve, Deci & Ryan, 2004; Reeve, Ryan, Deci & Jang, 2008; Ryan & Deci,
2000,2009). This theory had differentiated swlf-determination from will. Will is the capacity of
the human organism to choose how to satisfy its needs (Deci,1980, p. 26). Self-determination
is process of utilizing ones will (Deci, 1980, p. 26). In other words self-determination requires
that people accept their strengths and limitations, be cognizant of forces acting on them, make
choices, and determine ways to satisfy needs (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251).
However, will and self-determination are related each other. In this case, learners who want to be
self-determining should decide how to act on their environment. Learners would not be content
if all of their needs were automatically satisfied without them having choices and deciding how
Self-determination theory have three psychological needs that are autonomy, competence
and relatedness. Deci and Ryan suggest that when people experience these three things, they
become self-determined and able to be intrinsically motivated to pursue the things that interest
them. Autonomy can be referring to being self-initiating and self-regulating of ones own actions.
Learners should be more having self-initiating and self-regulating toward second language to get
an achievement in ESL. Learners of SL should need to feel in control their own behavior. Deci
and Ryan had suggested that the need for autonomy refers to the need to feel a sense of control,
to understanding of SL learners how to attain various external and internal outcomes and being
efficacious in performing the necessary actions. SL learners should seek to control the outcome
and experience mastery. SL learners should need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different
skills. Individuals need to feel competent and act capably in their interactions with others, with
tasks and activities, and within larger context ((Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). While
relatedness refers to need to belong to a group, and is sometimes called a need for
belongingness( (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). In this context, SL learners should to
achievement in English subject as second language. Thus self-determination can probably the
This paper will review finding mostly from the situation specific approach which have
accumulated rather satisfactory result self-determination and ESL achievement research. These
consequence. The term second language will be use similarly through this paper.
self- regulation and intrinsic motivation, have a significant impact on ESL achievement.
Research has explored the relation of self-determination and intrinsic motivation (Ryan, 1993).
ESL with high self-determination will result high ESL achievement. A variety of pedagogical
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Self Determination and ESL
used by a teacher a very important factors influencing self-determination on achievement in
second language (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh, 2013). Teaching material that teacher used in the
class also develop self-determination of second language learners (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh,
teaching material to attract and develop their self-determination towards second language.
Learners tend to increase their intrinsic motivation to learn English as second language.
According to Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh (2013, p.161), narrative, as one of the most popular
types of literary texts, display some characteristics which maintain perfect harmony with learner-
oriented approaches. Ahmadian and Pashangzadeh(2013, p.161) also suggested that reading
short stories provides EFL students with more empowerment which may lead to more pleasure
and enjoyment. Student will more encourage cooperative activities with their peers when
teacher used short stories and it will enhance opportunities for student to develop a good
relationship with their peers. From this research, its proven that self-determination will related to
ESL achievement.
Long, Ming and Chen (2013) in his study found that teacher play an important role in
communicative learning which can stimulate student to learn effectively. The result of their study
shown that most student have clear about study motivation. Long, Ming and Chen (2013, p.141)
had stated students can realize the importance of learning English. From the study student have
self-determination toward ESL achievement because they want to get a good grade in
examination. They also will get praise by teacher and their parents. Beside that student also
wants to avoid parent or teacher punishment if they do not achieve a good result in English. And
they also think ESL very important to them to go abroad and to find a good job in future. Long,
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Self Determination and ESL
Ming and Chen (2013, p.141) stated that teachers should take any possible measures to arouse
students curiosity and develop their interest in English Learning. Long, Ming and Chen (2013)
concluded teacher and students play important role to develop self-determination towards ESL
achievement.
Courtney, Marinis and Graham (2015) suggested that individual differences play
important role at the very earliest stages of language learning. Learners have positive views
toward second language. affective factors are likely to be mediated by learners first language
abilities and prior learning experience, and not only related to course content and the
predominance of female teaching staff in language classrooms (Courtney, Marinis and Graham,
2015, p.15). In this study show boys poorer SL achievement compared to girls.
McCoy, Wolf & Godfrey, 2014) suggested that caregivers value toward education play an
important role for student in intrinsic motivation versus extrinsic motivation. Caregiver also play
an important for student achievement in learning. Study revealed that caregivers average
reported values of education were relatively high (M=0.77); however standard deviation of these
scores (0.28) indicated variability in individual caregivers responses. Froom this study, shown as
caregiver play a role for student achievement in their learning especially second language. Its
regulate self-determination on student to come to school and learning. Present study show school
Pavalache-Ilie & Tirdia (2014) suggested that school performance is significant with
parental involvement and of intrinsic motivation. Parental involvement in school will influence
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Self Determination and ESL
academic success of students and also they have motivation to learn. From the study, its shown
that the student have self-determination to learn and it will result in ESL achievement.
Zhang & Xiao (2014) suggested that language learning motivation and learning strategies
are related to student EFL proficiency levels. motivation as a construct is always connected with
learners intrinsic motivation for learning a particular language (Zhang & Xiao, 2014, p. 29).
Intrinsic motivation become an important factor for student achievement. Zhang and Xiao, 2014
also suggested that motivation and learning strategies will effect EFL proficiency. High
proficiency group had high intrinsic motivation. The finding of this study shown that intrinsic
motivation and anxiety were correlated with EFL proficiency. Intrinsic motivation was related to
EFL proficiency are reasonable because learners who very high interest to learn the language are
very boost to know many aspects about the language and it will result a high proficiency levels.
Means that learners who have high self-determination will result high ESL achievement.
However, when the finding show that anxiety was correlated to EFL proficiency, its become
complicated. Previous study shows that scholar and teacher think higher level of anxiety will
result a poor performance. But in this study the result show that high proficiency group have
high level of anxiety. This is occurred because the high level of anxiety about language learning
and achievement is also an indication of student interest and aspiration to perform well on this
Theodotou (2014) had examine that rewards can increase intrinsic motivation of student
to learn. When teachers give a reward to a student, it will increase their self-determination to
learn. As a result it will increase ESL achievement. researchers agree that intrinsic motivation
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Self Determination and ESL
promotes students willingness to learn ( Theodotou, 2014, p. 18). But reward also can give
negative impact on students academic performance. Deci et al. (2001) suggest that educators
should be extremely cautious when using rewards in the classrooms. Theodotou (2014)
suggested rewards can create student willingness to learn especially for early years education.
Al Othman & Shuqair (2013) had suggested that motivation will influence the level of
dynamic and personal engagement in second language. It will create a positive attitude toward
second language. They also suggest teacher should more creative to use a variety of strategies of
learning to increase intrinsic motivation of learner to learn second language. Learner who very
interested in these activities will increase their self-determination toward ESL. learning itself
becomes its motivator and can lead to a strong desire for continuous learning (Al Othman &
Shuqair,2013, p. 128).
Lemos & Verissimo (2013) examine that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation are related and not opposing. IM are related to a good achievement while EM have
negative relationship with students achievement by the end of elementary school. Finding shows
that IM and EM are independent means that student motivation depend to IM and EM. Im and
EM also have different relationship toward school performance. IM more enhance performance
compared to EM.
Self-determination as a cause
on their research that extramural and extracurricular activity positively activity positively
influences different active teaching methods and raises motivation to continue learning by
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Self Determination and ESL
boosting self-esteem and showing practical value of limited knowledge already by student.
Learners will be self-determination teaching activities are different and it will motivate them to
continue learning and it will result a high achievement in ESL. Aksenova, Shepetovsky,
Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015) also conclude that are three aspects of personal
development which influencing the level of motivation and selecting information resources.
Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015) stated the first is peculiar
chracteristis which related to the process of study itself like foreign language skills, natural
abilities cognitive, critical thinking, content, educational competences and learning Strategies.
The second one is a set of such characteristic which connected with social and student
accept critic, self-analysis, level and type motivation toward ESL. The last one is set of students
personal characteristics like needs and interest will affect the educational process. Aksenova,
motivation in education process, teacher used an authentic material, learning should related to
learners future profession, different activities, learning based on IT and involved student in
scientific activity will increase their motivation and develop more independent. Literature had
Valerio (2012) examine that to increase student motivation in classroom its a teacher
role. Teacher should know how to create a supportive learning environment to produce a
successful learner in the classroom. Teacher should enhance student choice and goal setting to
make them ha a learning experience which can increase their intrinsic motivations. Teacher
should more passion and have enthusiasm for learning because it will develop student self-
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Self Determination and ESL
determination toward ESL. motivation plays a crucial role in a teachers pedagogy
(Valerio,2012, p.34).
Though Zhou (2015) suggested that self-determination adequate the relationship between
personality traits and academic performance. Zhou (2015, p. 389) stated the precise interactions
between personality traits and student motivation that can be predict academic achievement,
indicating that the academic achievements of students with lower levels of self-determination are
more dependent on personality traits than those of their highly motivated and self-determined
counterparts.
Though Aydogan and Akbarov(2015) suggested that University student have high self-
determination towards ESL achievement compared to high school or primary school. In their
finding show that University student realize that ESL very important for future career while
secondary or primary schoole does not realize the important of ESL. Thats why self-
determination of student in higher level increase compared lower level. From their research no
gender differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. From age factors its show positive
correlated with intrinsic motivation and negatively correlated with extrinsic motivation. They
found that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations very important to ESL achievement.
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Self Determination and ESL
Summary. _ The finding discussed in this section have argue that self-determination is the
cause of ESL achievement. Studies using the information processing system have shed more
light on this multifaceted phenomenon. Its also show that self-determination have connected to
ESL achievement. Consistent results are observed in language such as French (Courtney,
Graham, Tonkyn and Marinis, 2015). Intrinsic motivation, however, is seen as a more general
Self-determination as a consequence
Though second language literature acknowledge that self-determination can hinder ESL
achievement, Noraini & Leng (2011) have recently argue that self-determination might be the
Students , Noraini & Leng (2011) proposed that weak significant and negative relationship
between self-determination and their academic achievement (p. 94). Noraini & Leng (2011)
examined that weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination towards
their academic achievement. This finding contrast with a few studies which has positive
relationship (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh, 2013; Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura &
Pichugova, 2015; Aydogan & Akbarov, 2015; McCoy, wolf & Godfrey, 2014; Pavalache-Ilie &
Tirdia, 2015;Valerio, 2012; Lemos & Verissimo, 2013). Negative relationship between self-
determination and second language achievement because of several factors such as single family
where as their parents are divorce and they do not meet basic psychology that are autonomy,
competence and relatedness, parenting style where children are force to attend a tuition class.
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Self Determination and ESL
When student are force to do something that they do not tend to it will decrease their self-
Empirical evidence in support of this hypothesis has shown that gender differences also
2015). Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015) suggested that multiple intelligence is vary not the
individual level but for gender. In their study show that male rate their intelligence higher than
female. Means that their self-determination toward ESL are higher compared to female. From
their study they got a negative result while previous study normally show female MI is slightly
higher compared to male. While on their present study male is slightly higher compared to
female. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015, p.258) stated this finding also raises doubts about the
justifications that men rate themselves higher and are rated higher on the more masculine
intelligence domain such bodily/kinesthetic. But negative result also valuable and also make a
positive contribution to development of theory. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015) also argue that
gender differences in their self-estimate. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015, p.260) suggested that
we may take a more critical view of the theory of multiple intelligence. The theory takes a
necessary and useful step in zooming in one set of abilities related to language. Very few
research in second language self-determination examine this effect. Normally its come out with
positive result in gender differences toward ESL achievement. But in this study has come out
Summary. Based on their rigorous studies, Noraini and her colleagues have argue that self-
determination have negative relationship towards ESL achievement because of several factors
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Self Determination and ESL
that affect student achievement. Zare-ee and his colleagues also argue that gender differences
also related to self-determination and ESL achievement. Where by in his study they found male
student high self-determination toward ESL compare female, while in previous study its show
female has high self-determination compared to male. From this two studies claim seems to
confound with the hypotheses that propagated by Noraini and her colleagues and Zare-e and his
Conclusion
The paper begins with acknowledging the question about the role of affective variables in
motivation, have become evident virtually for every aspect of language learning and instruction.
Though self-determination has long been studied and well understood in other subject areas,
considerable amount of research has been conducted in the role of self-determination and ESL
achievement. However, the question remains unresolved: Does self-determination cause the ESL
attempted to present two different views propagated by researchers in second language self-
determination studies. The first view is about increase in self-determination will increase in ESL
achievement among student. However, this view had remained unchallenged until recently.
and Academic Achievement among Chinese Primary School Students , Noraini & Leng (2011)
proposed that weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination and their
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Self Determination and ESL
academic achievement (p. 94). Noraini & Leng (2011) examined that weak significant and
Zare-e and his colleagues (2015) suggested that multiple intelligence is vary not the individual
level but for gender. In their study show that male rate their intelligence higher than female.
Means that their self-determination toward ESL are higher compared to female. From their study
they got a negative result while previous study normally show female MI is slightly higher
compared to male.
Finding supporting both views are accumulating rapidly. Notwithstanding the views
express above, the literature in the self-determination and ESL achievement has suggested that
self-determination have a debilitating impact on ESL achievement. With the growing evidence in
All of the studies reviewed above were done within Gulf State, Balkan, England, USA
and China language learning setting. Very few, to the writers knowledge, deal with the South
East Asian second language learners, in particular those in the ASEAN region especially
Malaysia. Thus, study across culture is greatly needed because what are considered self-
determination in one culture might not be in another culture. Research, therefore, should be
Since research has consistently shown that lower self-determination will result lower
academic achievement (Noraini & Leng, 2011), and gender differences also effect self-
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Self Determination and ESL
determination ( Zare-ee, Zuraidah & Knowles, 2015), future research should also take into
In addition, more studies are needed to examine the etymology of self-determination and
ESL achievement. Studies comparing self-determination on first and second language should be
replicated with larger and more diverse samples. Is self-determination more pronounced in the
ESL, and thus adversely affects ESL achievement? Research in the self-determination and ESL
differences in ESL research because for along time many ESL researchers have generally
downplayed the role of ESL aptitude in ESL learning. Since self-determination and ESL
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Self Determination and ESL
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Self Determination and ESL
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