God
This article is about the concept of a supreme God in
the context of monotheism. For the general concept of a
being superior to humans that is worshiped as a god,
see Deity. For God in specic religions, see In specic
religions. For other uses, see God (disambiguation).
The circled dot, an ancient symbol for the metaphysical Absolute.
Early science, particularly geometry and astrology and astron-
omy, was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars, and
many believed that there was something intrinsically divine or
perfect that could be found in circles.[1][2]
God is usually thought of as an intangible spirit, and
thus has no physical or even visual form, many religions
use images to represent God in icons for art or for
worship. Here are examples of representations of God in
dierent monotheistic religions. Clockwise from upper
left: Christianity, Kaumaram, Shaktism, Vaishnavism
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Be-
ing and principal object of faith.[3] The concept of God as
described by most theologians includes the attributes of
1
omniscience (innite knowledge), omnipotence (unlim-
ited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), divine
simplicity, and as having an eternal and necessary ex-
istence. Many theologians also describe God as being
omnibenevolent (perfectly good) and all loving.
God is most often held to be incorporeal (immaterial),[3]
and to be without gender,[4][5] yet the concept of God ac-
tively creating the universe (as opposed to passively)[6]
has caused many religions to describe God using mascu-
line terminology, using such terms as Him or Father.
Furthermore, some religions (such as Judaism) attribute
only a purely grammatical gender to God.[7] Incorpor-
eity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions
of transcendence (being outside nature) and immanence
Although
(being in nature, in the world) of God, with positions
of synthesis such as the "immanent transcendence" of
Chinese theology.
God has been conceived as either personal or imper-
sonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the
universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the
sustainer, of the universe. In pantheism, God is the uni-
verse itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while
God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the con-
text of agnosticism. God has also been conceived as the
source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceiv-
able existent.[3] Many notable philosophers have devel-
oped arguments for and against the existence of God.[8]
There are many names for God, and dierent names are
attached to dierent cultural ideas about Gods identity
and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism,
possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this
deity was called Aten,[9] premised on being the one true
Supreme Being and creator of the universe.[10] In the
Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, "I Am that I
Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH (Hebrew: ,
which means: I am who I am"; He Who Exists)
are used as names of God, while Yahweh and Jehovah
are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of
YHWH. In the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God,
consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to re-
fer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, the lat-
ter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from
the Egyptian Aten.[11][12][13][14][15] In Islam, the name
Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of
titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often
considered a monistic concept of God.[16] In Chinese re-
ligion, God is conceived as the progenitor (rst ancestor)
of the universe, intrinsic to it and constantly ordaining it.
2 1 ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE
Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in
the Bah' Faith,[17] Waheguru in Sikhism,[18] and Ahura
Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[19]
The many dierent conceptions of God, and compet-
ing claims as to Gods characteristics, aims, and actions,
have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism,
pandeism,[20][21] or a perennial philosophy, which pos-
tulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of
which all religions express a partial understanding, and as
to which the devout in the various great world religions
are in fact worshipping that one God, but through dier-
ent, overlapping concepts or mental images of Him.[22]
1 Etymology and usage
The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to
the Israelite God Yahweh.
Main article: God (word)
The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (al-
ways, in this usage, capitalized[23] ) comes from the 6th-
century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word it-
self is derived from the Proto-Germanic * uan. The
reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * hu-t-m was
likely based on the root * hau()-, which meant ei-
ther to call or to invoke.[24] The Germanic words for
God were originally neuterapplying to both genders
but during the process of the Christianization of the
Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic pa-
ganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[25]
The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy
In the English language, the capitalized form of God con-
tinues to represent a distinction between monotheistic
God and gods in polytheism.[26][27] The English word
God and its counterparts in other languages are normally
used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of signi-
cant dierences between religions, the term remains an
English translation common to all. The same holds for
Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper
name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin possibly the
name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In
many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD
is in all capitals, it signies that the word represents the
tetragrammaton.[28]
Allh (Arabic: ) is the Arabic term with no plural
used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and
Jews meaning The God (with a capital G), while "ilh"
(Arabic: )is the term used for a deity or a god in
general.[29][30][31] God may also be given a proper name
in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize
the personal nature of God, with early references to his
name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu
and Hari.[32]
Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrian-
ism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazd-,
nominative Mazd, reects Proto-Iranian *Mazdh (fe-
male). It is generally taken to be the proper name of
the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medh, means
"intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and San-
skrit words reect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdh-, from
Proto-Indo-European mnsdeh1 , literally meaning plac-
ing (deh1 ) ones mind (*mn-s)", hence wise.[33]
Waheguru (Punjabi: vhigur) is a term most often
used in Sikhism to refer to God. It means Wonderful
Teacher in the Punjabi language. Vhi (a Middle Persian
borrowing) means wonderful and guru (Sanskrit: guru)
is a term denoting teacher. Waheguru is also described
2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism 3

by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all claim that the one true god is worshiped in dierent reli-
descriptions. The most common usage of the word Wa- gions under dierent names. The view that all theists ac-
heguru is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other: tually worship the same god, whether they know it or not,
is especially emphasized in Hinduism[35] and Sikhism.[36]
In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God
Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh
as one God in three persons. The Trinity comprises The
Wonderful Lords Khalsa, Victory is to the Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically by Jesus), and
Wonderful Lord. The Holy Spirit.[37] Islam's most fundamental concept is
tawhid (meaning oneness or uniqueness). God is de-
Baha, the greatest name for God in the Baha'i faith, is scribed in the Quran as: Say: He is Allah, the One and
Arabic for All-Glorious. Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor
is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.[38][39]
Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity
and the divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In
2 General conceptions Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and
does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus,
Main article: Conceptions of God Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to vi-
sualize God.[40]
There is no clear consensus on the nature or even the Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while
existence of God.[34] The Abrahamic conceptions of God accepting the existence or possible existence of other
include the monotheistic denition of God in Judaism, deities.[41]
the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic con-
cept of God. The dharmic religions dier in their view
of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, 2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism
sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheis-
tic. Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, Main articles: Theism, Deism, and Pantheism
particularly akra and Brahma. However, other sentient
beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive
Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, ob-
role in ones personal path to salvation. Conceptions of
jectively, and independently of human thought; that God
God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition
created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent
give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.
and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting with
the universe through, for example, religious experience
and the prayers of humans.[42] Theism holds that God is
2.1 Oneness both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultane-
ously innite and in some way present in the aairs of the
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism world.[43] Not all theists subscribe to all of these propo-
Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may sitions, but each usually subscribes to some of them (see,
by way of comparison, family resemblance).[42] Catholic
theology holds that God is innitely simple and is not in-
voluntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God
is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this
belief raises questions about Gods responsibility for evil
and suering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God
a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence,
omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast,
asserts that, due to the nature of time, Gods omniscience
does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is
sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god
or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[44][45]
Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God ex-
ists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what
was necessary to create it.[43] In this view, God is not
anthropomorphic, and neither answers prayers nor pro-
duces miracles. Common in Deism is a belief that God
The Trinity is the belief that God is composed of The Father, The has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware
Son (embodied metaphysically in the physical realm by Jesus), of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively,
and The Holy Spirit. combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic
4 3 NON-THEISTIC VIEWS

and denition of God as phenomenological essence of

Life.[52]
God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (im-
material), a personal being, the source of all moral obli-
gation, and the greatest conceivable existent.[3] These
attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the
early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philoso-
phers, including Maimonides,[53] Augustine of Hippo,[53]
and Al-Ghazali,[8] respectively.

3 Non-theistic views
See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and
Evolutionary psychology of religion

Non-theist views about God also vary. Some non-theists

avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is sig-
nicant to many; other non-theists understand God as a
symbol of human values and aspirations. The nineteenth-
God blessing the seventh day", a watercolor painting depicting century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that
God, by William Blake (1757 1827) he refused to say There is no God, because the word
'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct
armation";[54] he said more specically that he disbe-
beliefs.[21][46][47] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to lieved in the Christian god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed
Deism why God would create a universe and then aban- an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what
don it,[48] and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this
the universe.[48][49] view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relat-
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe ing to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical
is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of
but is not identical to, the Universe.[50] It is also the view science should then be used to answer any empirical ques-
of the Liberal Catholic Church; Theosophy; some views tion about the natural world, and theology should be used
of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in pa- to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral
nentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism and value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical
Taoism, along with many varying denominations and in- footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto
dividuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mys- natural events makes science the sole player in the natural
ticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God world.[55]
which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particu- Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the
larly from their founder The Baal Shem Tovbut only as existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds
an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in that a universe with a god would be a completely dier-
the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona
ent kind of universe from one without, and it would be a
to God. scientic dierence.[56] Carl Sagan argued that the doc-
trine of a Creator of the Universe was dicult to prove or
disprove and that the only conceivable scientic discovery
2.3 Other concepts that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not neces-
sarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of the- innitely old.[57]
ism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state
fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable
One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Broth- to ask who or what created the universe, but if the an-
ers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on swer is God, then the question has merely been deected
the grounds that he allows children to suer.[51] to that of who created God. Both authors claim how-
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been ever, that it is possible to answer these questions purely
developed, such as process theology and open theism. within the realm of science, and without invoking any di-
The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry vine beings.[58] Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has
has however proposed a phenomenological approach proposed that questions of the existence of God are no
 5

dierent from questions of natural sciences. Following a

biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is
highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible,
it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]

3.1 Agnosticism and atheism

Agnosticism is the view that, the truth values of certain

claims especially metaphysical and religious claims such
as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist are
unknown and perhaps unknowable.[60][61][62]
Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in
the existence of deities, or a God.[63][64] In a narrower
sense, atheism is specically the position that there are
no deities.[65]

3.2 Anthropomorphism

Main article: Anthropomorphism

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of

supernatural concepts found around the world, in gen-
eral, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people.
The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one
of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples St. Thomas Aquinas summed up ve main arguments as proofs
from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more for Gods existence.
like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[66]
Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate
through formalization that Boyers explanatory model clude empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Dif-
matches physics epistemology in positing not directly ferent views include that: God does not exist (strong
observable entities as intermediaries.[67] Anthropologist atheism); God almost certainly does not exist (de
Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human fea- facto atheism); no one knows whether God exists
tures onto non-human aspects of the world because it (agnosticism[70] );"God exists, but this cannot be proven
makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud or disproven (de facto theism); and that God exists and
also suggested that god concepts are projections of ones this can be proven (strong theism).[55]
father.[68]
Countless arguments have been proposed to prove the ex-
Likewise, mile Durkheim was one of the earliest to sug- istence of God.[71] Some of the most notable arguments
gest that gods represent an extension of human social life are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire
to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the Ontological Argument
psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans formulated both by St. Anselm and Ren Descartes.[72]
began living in larger groups, they may have created gods
St. Anselms approach was to dene God as, that than
as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, moral-
which nothing greater can be conceived. Famed pan-
ity can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or rep-
theist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this
utation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality
idea to its extreme: By God I understand a being abso-
using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano in-
lutely innite, i.e., a substance consisting of innite at-
dicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits,
tributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and in-
humans discovered an eective strategy for restraining
nite essence. For Spinoza, the whole of the natural uni-
selshness and building more cooperative groups.[69]
verse is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent,
Nature.[73] His proof for the existence of God was a vari-
ation of the Ontological argument.[74]
4 Existence Scientist Isaac Newton saw God as the masterful cre-
ator whose existence could not be denied in the face
Main article: Existence of God of the grandeur of all creation.[75] Nevertheless, he re-
Arguments about the existence of God typically in- jected polymath Leibniz' thesis that God would necessar-
6 4
Isaac Newton saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the
movement of astronomical objects.
ily make a perfect world which requires no intervention
from the creator. In Query 31 of the Opticks, Newton si-
multaneously made an argument from design and for the
necessity of intervention:
For while comets move in very eccentric
orbs in all manner of positions, blind fate
could never make all the planets move one
and the same way in orbs concentric, some in-
considerable irregularities excepted which may
have arisen from the mutual actions of comets
and planets on one another, and which will
be apt to increase, till this system wants a
reformation.[76]
St. Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-
evident in itself, but not to us. Therefore I say that this
proposition, God exists, of itself is self-evident, for the
predicate is the same as the subject.... Now because we
do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not
self-evident to us; but needs to be demonstrated by things
that are more known to us, though less known in their
naturenamely, by eects.[77]
St. Thomas believed that the existence of God can be
demonstrated. Briey in the Summa theologiae and more
extensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered
in great detail ve arguments for the existence of God,
widely known as the quinque viae (Five Ways). Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that
For the original text of the ve proofs, see quinque viae questions of the existence of God are no dierent from
EXISTENCE
1. Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though
cannot cause their own motion. Since there can be
no innite chain of causes of motion, there must be
a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this
is what everyone understands by God.
2. Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can
cause itself, and an innite chain of causation is im-
possible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.
3. Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our
experience includes things certainly existing but ap-
parently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnec-
essary, for then once there was nothing and there
would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled
to suppose something that exists necessarily, having
this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause
for other things to exist.
4. Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things
in the sense that some things are more hot, good,
etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and
noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then,
we call God (Note: Thomas does not ascribe actual
qualities to God Himself).
5. Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions
to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural
laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal
under the guidance of one who is aware. This we
call God (Note that even when we guide objects,
in Thomass view, the source of all our knowledge
comes from God as well).[78]
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian
A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not
a question that can be answered using the scientic
method.[79][80] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that
science and religion are not in conict and do not
overlap.[81]
Some ndings in the elds of cosmology, evolutionary
biology and neuroscience are interpreted by some athe-
ists (including Lawrence M. Krauss and Sam Harris) as
evidence that God is an imaginary entity only, with no
basis in reality.[82][83][84] These atheists claim that a sin-
gle, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the
universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of hu-
mans has been imagined, embellished and promulgated
in a trans-generational manner.[85] Richard Dawkins in-
terprets such ndings not only as a lack of evidence for
the material existence of such a God, but as extensive evi-
dence to the contrary.[55] However, his views are opposed
by some theologians and scientists including Alister Mc-
Grath, who argues that existence of God is compatible
with science.[86]
5.1 Names 7

Alister McGrath, a formerly atheistic scientist and theologian

who has been highly critical of Richard Dawkins' version of
atheism

questions of natural sciences. Following a biological

comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly prob-
able that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possi-
ble that we know some of his attributes.[59]

5 Specic attributes
Dierent religious traditions assign diering (though of-
ten similar) attributes and characteristics to God, includ-
ing expansive powers and abilities, psychological char-
acteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomen-
clature. The assignment of these attributes often dif-
fers according to the conceptions of God in the culture
from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in 99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini (script)
Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen
Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities
arising from their common roots. resulted in perpetual disagreements about how God is to
be conceived and understood.[87]

5.1 Names Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are
many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another
Main article: Names of God one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[88] A third
The word God is one of the most complex and dicult notable[89]name is El Elyon, which means The Most High
in the English language. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, God.
the Bible has been the principal source of the concep- God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith
tions of God. That the Bible includes many dierent by certain names or attributes, the most common be-
images, concepts, and ways of thinking about God has ing Al-Rahman, meaning Most Compassionate and Al-
8 5 SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTES

Rahim, meaning Most Merciful (See Names of God in 5.3 Relationship with creation
Islam).[90]
See also: Creator deity, Prayer, and Worship
Prayer plays a signicant role among many believ-

Supreme soul

The Brahma Kumaris use the term Supreme Soul to re-

fer to God. They see God as incorporeal and eternal, and And Elohim Created Adam by William Blake, c.1795
regard him as a point of living light like human souls, but
without a physical body, as he does not enter the cycle ers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is
of birth, death and rebirth. God is seen as the perfect to worship God.[96][97] He is viewed as a personal God
and constant embodiment of all virtues, powers and val- and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact
ues and that He is the unconditionally loving Father of all God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking
souls, irrespective of their religion, gender, or culture.[91]
forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless peo-
names of Krishna. ple with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[98]
Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there
are good reasons to suggest that a personal god is in-
tegral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to under-
stand it is an analogy. To say that God is like a person
is to arm the divine ability and willingness to relate to
5.2 Gender others. This does not imply that God is human, or located
at a specic point in the universe.[99]
Main article: Gender of God
Adherents of dierent religions generally disagree as to
how to best worship God and what is Gods plan for
The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an mankind, if there is one. There are dierent approaches
allegorical aspect of a deity who, in classical western phi- to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic
losophy, transcends bodily form.[92][93] Polytheistic reli- religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe
gions commonly attribute to each of the gods a gender, they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to
allowing each to interact with any of the others, and per- absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter
haps with humans, sexually. In most monotheistic reli- with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do
gions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexu- not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typ-
ally. Thus, in classical western philosophy the gender of ically believes that his religion is the right one, but does
this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example
statement of how humans and God address, and relate of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e.,
to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the the belief that ones religion is the fulllment of previ-
world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as ous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism,
opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[6] where everybody is seen as equally right; an example be-
Biblical sources usually refer to God using male words, ing universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually
except Genesis 1:26-27,[94][95] Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism,
15:8-10 (female); Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, mixing dierent elements from dierent religions. An
Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2 (a example of syncretism is the New Age movement.
mother); Deuteronomy 32:11-12 (a mother eagle); and Jews and Christians believe that humans are created in
Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 (a mother hen). the likeness of God, and are the center, crown and key
6.3 Judaism 9

to Gods creation, stewards for God, supreme over every- 6.3 Judaism
thing else God had made (Gen 1:26); for this reason, hu-
mans are in Christianity called the Children of God.[100] At least some Jews do not use any image for God, since
God is the unimageable Being who cannot be represented
in material forms.[102] In some samples of Jewish Art,
however, sometimes God, or at least His Intervention, is
6 Depiction indicated by a Hand Of God symbol, which represents
the bath Kol (literally daughter of a voice) or Voice of
[103]
God; this use of the Hand Of God is carried over to
God is dened as incorporeal,[3] and invisible from di- Christian Art.
rect sight, and thus cannot be portrayed in a literal visual
image.
The respective principles of religions may or may not per- 6.4 Christianity
mit them to use images (which are entirely symbolic) to
represent God in art or in worship . Early Christians believed that the words of the Gospel of
John 1:18: No man has seen God at any time and nu-
merous other statements were meant to apply not only to
God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.[104]
6.1 Zoroastrianism

Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents

Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e
Rustam, 3rd century CE)

During the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was

visually represented for worship. This practice ended
during the beginning of the Sassanid empire. Zoroas-
trian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the
Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, even-
tually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda
in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be sym- Use of the symbolic Hand of God in the Ascension from the
bolized by a dignied male gure, standing or on horse- Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850
back which is found in Sassanian investiture.[101]
However, later on the Hand of God symbol is found sev-
eral times in the only ancient synagogue with a large sur-
6.2 Islam viving decorative scheme, the Dura Europos Synagogue
of the mid-3rd century, and was probably adopted into
Early Christian art from Jewish art. It was common in
Further information: God in Islam Late Antique art in both East and West, and remained
the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of
Muslims believe that God (Allah) is beyond all compre- God the Father in the West until about the end of the
hension or equal and does not resemble any of His cre- Romanesque period. It also represents the bath Kol (lit-
ations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, are erally daughter of a voice) or voice of God,[103] just like
not expected to visualize God.[40] in Jewish Art.
10 6 DEPICTION

In situations, such as the Baptism of Christ, where a spe- visible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is
cic representation of God the Father was indicated, the impossible to portray one who is without body:
Hand of God was used, with increasing freedom from the invisible, uncircumscribed and without form.
Carolingian period until the end of the Romanesque. This
motif now, since the discovery of the 3rd century Dura Around 790 Charlemagne ordered a set of four books
Europos synagogue, seems to have been borrowed from that became known as the Libri Carolini (i.e. Charles
Jewish art, and is found in Christian art almost from its books) to refute what his court mistakenly understood to
beginnings. be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Coun-
The use of religious images in general continued to in- cil of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well
crease up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the
in 695, upon assuming the throne, Byzantine emperor key elements of the Catholic theological position on sa-
Justinian II put an image of Christ on the obverse side of cred images. To the Western Church, images were just
his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating
Byzantine coin types in the Islamic world.[105] However, the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake
the increase in religious imagery did not include depic- of the subject represented, not in themselves.
tions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecu-
second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not menical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern
specically condemn images of The Father, it suggested Church) rearmed the decisions of the Second Coun-
that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament cil of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals
shadows and gures.[106] of iconoclasm. Specically, its third canon required the
The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppres- image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a
[112]
sion and destruction of religious icons as the period of Gospel book:
Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started.
Emperor Leo III (717741), suppressed the use of icons We decree that the sacred image of our
by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of
due to a military loss which he attributed to the un- all people, must be venerated with the same
due veneration of icons.[107] The edict (which was issued honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels.
without consulting the Church) forbade the veneration of For as through the language of the words con-
religious images but did not apply to other forms of art, tained in this book all can reach salvation, so,
including the image of the emperor, or religious sym- due to the action which these images exercise
bols such as the cross.[108]
Theological arguments against by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can
icons then began to appear with iconoclasts arguing that derive prot from them.
icons could not represent both the divine and the human
natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no But images of God the Father were not directly addressed
public depictions of God the Father were even attempted in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was
and such depictions only began to appear two centuries enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Fa-
later. ther were not among them.[113] However, the general ac-
ceptance of icons and holy images began to create an at-
The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 eectively ended
mosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.
the rst period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the
honouring of icons and holy images in general. [109]
How- Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a
[104]
ever, this did not immediately translate into large scale human to symbolize God the Father in Western art.
depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illus-
of icons in the 8th century, such as Saint John of Damas- trate the presence of the Father, so through successive
cus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the
and those of Christ. Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th
century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the
In his treatise On the Divine Images John of Damascus
belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of
wrote: In former times, God who is without form or
His own (thus allowing Human to transcend the other an-
body, could never be depicted. But now when God is
imals).
seen in the esh conversing with men, I make an image
of the God whom I see.[110] The implication here is that It appears that when early artists designed to represent
insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a
man, visible and tangible, images and portrait icons can usage of the whole human gure. Typically only a
not be depicted. So what was true for the whole Trinity small part would be used as the image, usually the hand,
before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In
but not for the Word. John of Damascus wrote:[111] many images, the gure of the Son supplants the Fa-
ther, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is
If we attempt to make an image of the in- depicted.[114]
6.4 Christianity 11

By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had

started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts,
which as a less public form could often be more adven-
turous in their iconography, and in stained glass church
windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usu-
ally shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of
the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly
appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal
font in Lige of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118
(a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the
amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a
half-length gure, then a full-length, usually enthroned,
as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.[115] In the 14th
century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the
Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century,
the Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a consider-
able number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and
elegant full-length gure walking in the Garden of Eden,
which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and
dress. The Gates of Paradise of the Florence Baptistry
by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-
length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours
of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father Usage of two Hands of God"(relatively unusual) and the Holy
in half-length human form, which were now becoming Spirit as a dove in Baptism of Christ, by Verrocchio, 1472
standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the
same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece
by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to
use the old depiction of Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes.
In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depict-
ing all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical
gures with the usual appearance of Christ.
In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by
Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443)
The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used
by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign,
yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and
a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justied
by, the near-physical, but still gurative, description of
the Ancient of Days.[116]
. ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white
as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing, with
throne was like the ery ame, and his wheels as burning a triangular halo representing the Trinity, Girolamo dai Libri c.
re. (Daniel 7:9) 1555
In the Annunciation by Benvenuto di Giovanni in 1470,
God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that a papal crown, specially in Northern Renaissance paint-
resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later ing. In these depictions The Father may hold a globe or
part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of book (to symbolize Gods knowledge and as a reference
the Father and the Holy Spirit as hands and dove contin- to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and
ued, e.g. in Verrocchios Baptism of Christ in 1472.[117] above Christ on the Cross in the Throne of Mercy iconog-
In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, raphy. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover
God may be depicted in two ways, either with empha- above. Various people from dierent classes of society,
sis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture.
The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art In a Trinitarian Piet, God the Father is often symbolized
depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, sup-
long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with porting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as
a triangular halo (as a reference to the Trinity), or with oating in heaven with angels who carry the instruments
of the Passion.[118]
12 6 DEPICTION

Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were

attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by
the Jansenist and Baianist movements as well as more or-
thodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic
imagery, this had the eect both of reducing Church sup-
port for the less central depictions, and strengthening it
for the core ones. In the Western Church, the pressure to
restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly inuen-
tial decrees of the nal session of the Council of Trent in
1563. The Council of Trent decrees conrmed the tradi-
tional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the
person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to
the person, not the image.[119]
Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontrover-
sial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions
of the Trinity were condemned. In 1745 Pope Benedict
XIV explicitly supported the Throne of Mercy depiction,
referring to the Ancient of Days, but in 1786 it was still
necessary for Pope Pius VI to issue a papal bull condemn-
ing the decision of an Italian church council to remove all
images of the Trinity from churches.[120]

The Ancient of Days (1794) Watercolor etching by William

Blake

The famous The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, c.1512

God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there
in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, most famously was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th
The Creation of Adam (whose image of near touching century. In 1632 most members of the Star Chamber
hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a
court in England (except the Archbishop of York) con-
reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness demned the use of the images of the Trinity in church
of God (Gen 1:26)).God the Father is depicted as a pow-
windows, and some considered them illegal.[123] Later in
erful gure, oating in the clouds in Titians Assumption the 17th century Sir Thomas Browne wrote that he con-
of the Virgin in the Frari of Venice, long admired as a
sidered the representation of God the Father using an
masterpiece of High Renaissance art.[121] The Church of old man a dangerous act that might lead to Egyptian
the Ges in Rome includes a number of 16th century de-
symbolism.[124] In 1847, Charles Winston was still crit-
pictions of God the Father. In some of these paintings ical of such images as a "Romish trend" (a term used to
the Trinity is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided
Giovanni Battista Fiammeri also depicted God the Father in England.[125]
as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.[122]
In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council
In both the Last Judgment and the Coronation of the Vir-
specically included a ban on a number of symbolic de-
gin paintings by Rubens he depicted God the Father us-
pictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then
ing the image that by then had become widely accepted,
also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed
a bearded patriarchal gure above the fray. In the 17th
on the forbidden list,[126][127] mostly aecting Western-
century, the two Spanish artists Velzquez (whose father-
style depictions which had been gaining ground in Or-
in-law Francisco Pacheco was in charge of the approval
thodox icons. The Council also declared that the per-
of new images for the Inquisition) and Murillo both de-
son of the Trinity who was the Ancient of Days was
picted God the Father using a patriarchal gure with a
Christ, as Logos, not God the Father. However some
white beard in a purple robe. icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as
While representations of God the Father were growing Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox countries.
8.1 In specic religions 13

7 Theological approaches Science and God

Monad (philosophy)
Theologians and philosophers have attributed to God
such characteristics as omniscience, omnipotence, Absolute (philosophy)
omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity,
and eternal and necessary existence. God has been
described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of 8.1 In specic religions
all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being
existent.[3] These attributes were all claimed to varying God in Buddhism
degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim God in Caodaism
scholars, including Maimonides,[53] St Augustine,[53] and
Al-Ghazali.[128] God in Christianity
Many philosophers developed arguments for the exis- God in Gnosticism
tence of God,[8] while attempting to comprehend the
precise implications of Gods attributes. Reconciling God in Hinduism
some of those attributes generated important philosoph-
God in Islam
ical problems and debates. For example, Gods omni-
science may seem to imply that God knows how free God in Jainism
agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their
ostensible free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge God in Judaism
does not imply predestination, and if God does not know God in Sikhism
it, God may not be omniscient.[129]
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous ques- God in the Bah' Faith
tions regarding the arguments for Gods existence raised
by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume
and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument 9 References
from morality was valid. The theist response has been
either to contend, as does Alvin Plantinga, that faith is [1] Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers: A History of Mans
"properly basic", or to take, as does Richard Swinburne, Changing Vision of the Universe (1959)
the evidentialist position.[130] Some theists agree that only [2] Proclus, The Six Books of Proclus, the Platonic Successor,
some of the arguments for Gods existence are com- on the Theology of Plato Tr. Thomas Taylor (1816) Vol.
pelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, 2, Ch. 2, Of Plato
but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the
arguments for Gods existence were as solid as the laws of [3] Swinburne, R.G. God in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Ox-
logic, a position summed up by Pascal as the heart has ford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press,
1995.
reasons of which reason does not know.[131] A recent
theory using concepts from physics and neurophysiology [4] David Bordwell, 2002, Catechism of the Catholic
proposes that God can be conceptualized within the the- Church,Continuum International Publishing ISBN 978-0-
ory of integrative level.[132] 86012-324-8 page 84
Many religious believers allow for the existence of other, [5] Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText. Archived
less powerful spiritual beings such as angels, saints, jinn, from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 30 Decem-
demons, and devas.[133][134][135][136][137] ber 2016.

[6] Lang, David; Kreeft, Peter (2002). Why Matter Matters:

Philosophical and Scriptural Reections on the Sacraments.
8 See also Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?: Our Sunday Visitor.
ISBN 978-1931709347.
God (male deity)
[7] G-d has no body, no genitalia, therefore the very idea that
God the Father G-d is male or female is patently absurd. Although in the
Talmudic part of the Torah and especially in Kabalah G-d
God the Father in Western art is referred to under the name 'Sh'chinah' - which is femi-
nine, this is only to accentuate the fact that all the creation
God the Son and nature are actually in the receiving end in reference
to the creator and as no part of the creation can perceive
God the Holy Spirit
the creator outside of nature, it is adequate to refer to the
Logos divine presence in feminine form. We refer to G-d using
masculine terms simply for conveniences sake, because
Logos (Christianity) Hebrew has no neutral gender; G-d is no more male than
14
a table is. Judaism 101. The fact that we always refer
to God as 'He' is also not meant to imply that the concept
of sex or gender applies to God. Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan,
The Aryeh Kaplan Reader, Mesorah Publications (1983),
p. 144
[8] Platinga, Alvin. God, Arguments for the Existence of,
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
[9] Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies,
Stanford University Press 2005, p.59
[10] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.2, 1980,
p.96
[11] Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays.
[12] Gunther Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will.
American Philosophical Society, DIANE, 2002. 284
pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN 0-87169-926-5
[13] Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt
in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997.
288 pages. ISBN 0-674-58739-1
[14] N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism
of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
[15] William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II.
Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36,
No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050
[16] Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity - Page 136,
Michael P. Levine - 2002
[17] A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God
: ... - Page x, Bahullh, Joyce Watanabe - 2006
[18] Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism - Page ix, Kartar Singh
Duggal - 1988
[19] The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Com-
plete Your Education, and Roam condently with the cul-
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364
[20] Raphael Lataster (2013). There was no Jesus, there is no
God: A Scholarly Examination of the Scientic, Historical,
and Philosophical Evidence & Arguments for Monotheism.
p. 165. ISBN 1492234419. This one god could be of
the deistic or pantheistic sort. Deism might be superior
in explaining why God has seemingly left us to our own
devices and pantheism could be the more logical option
as it ts well with the ontological arguments 'maximally-
great entity' and doesn't rely on unproven concepts about
'nothing' (as in 'creation out of nothing'). A mixture of
the two, pandeism, could be the most likely God-concept
of all.
[21] Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A Theory of
Everything. p. 48. ISBN 0473201143. Pandeism: This is
the belief that God created the universe, is now one with
it, and so, is no longer a separate conscious entity. This is
a combination of pantheism (God is identical to the uni-
verse) and deism (God created the universe and then with-
drew Himself).
9 REFERENCES
[22] Christianity and Other Religions, by John Hick and Brian
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[23] "'God' in Merriam-Webster (online)". Merriam-Webster,
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[24] The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the
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"*ghodho-m or "*ghodto-m. The former does not ap-
pear to admit of explanation; but the latter would repre-
sent the neut. pple. of a root gheu-". There are two
Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal
aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. hu) the
other 'to pour, to oer sacrice' (Skr hu, Gr. i;,
OE geotn Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267
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[26] Websters New World Dictionary; God n. ME < OE,
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call out to, invoke > Sans havat, (he) calls upon; 1. any
of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immor-
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people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity:
typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that
is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deied or exces-
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eternal, innite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme
Being; the Almighty
[27] Dictionary.com; God /gd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme
Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the
Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular
attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a
male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly aairs.
4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some
particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian
Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth,
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age of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deied person
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upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part
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[30] Islam and Christianity, Encyclopedia of Christianity
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[31] L. Gardet. Allah. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[32] Hastings 2003, p. 540
[33] Boyce 1983, p. 685.
[34] Froese, Paul; Christopher Bader (FallWinter 2004).
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[35] See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism
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[37] What Is the Trinity?". Archived from the original on
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[38] Quran 112:14
[39] D. Gimaret. Allah, Tawhid. Encyclopaedia Britannica
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[40] Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...Can
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[44] Philosophy of Religion.info Glossary Theism, Athe-
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[46] Sean F. Johnston (2009). The History of Science: A Be-
ginners Guide. p. 90. ISBN 1-85168-681-9. In its most
abstract form, deism may not attempt to describe the char-
acteristics of such a non-interventionist creator, or even
that the universe is identical with God (a variant known
as pandeism).
[47] Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful History: A
Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156. ISBN 0875868762. Pan-
deism combines the concepts of Deism and Pantheism
with a god who creates the universe and then becomes it.
[48] Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only Reality. p. 79.
ISBN 1608445909. Pandeism is another belief that states
that God is identical to the universe, but God no longer
exists in a way where He can be contacted; therefore, this
theory can only be proven to exist by reason. Pandeism
views the entire universe as being from God and now the
universe is the entirety of God, but the universe at some
point in time will fold back into one single being which is
God Himself that created all. Pandeism raises the ques-
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don it? As this relates to pantheism, it raises the question
of how did the universe come about what is its aim and
purpose?
[49] Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. p. 121.
ISBN 1438979681. As with Panentheism, Pantheism is
15
derived from the Greek: 'pan'= all and 'theos = God, it lit-
erally means God is All and All is God. Pantheist pur-
ports that everything is part of an all-inclusive, indwelling,
intangible God; or that the Universe, or nature, and God
are the same. Further review helps to accentuate the idea
that natural law, existence, and the Universe which is the
sum total of all that is, was, and shall be, is represented in
the theological principle of an abstract 'god' rather than an
individual, creative Divine Being or Beings of any kind.
This is the key element which distinguishes them from
Panentheists and Pandeists. As such, although many re-
ligions may claim to hold Pantheistic elements, they are
more commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in nature.
[50] John Culp (2013). Panentheism, Stanford Encyclopedia
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[51] The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Brothers Karamazov
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(2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA (Gale). p. 92.
ISBN 0-02-865780-2. In the most general use of the term,
agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there
is a God or not. (page 56 in 1967 edition)
[61] Rowe, William L. (1998). Agnosticism. In Edward
Craig. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. In the popular sense,
an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbe-
lieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In
the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that hu-
man reason is incapable of providing sucient rational
grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the
belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds
that our beliefs are rational only if they are suciently
supported by human reason, the person who accepts the
16
philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that nei-
ther the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does
not exist is rational.
[62] agnostic, agnosticism. OED Online, 3rd ed. Oxford
University Press. September 2012. agnostic. : A.
n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or
can be known of immaterial things, especially of the exis-
tence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who
is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of
view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or
conviction; an equivocator. : B. adj[ective]. :# Of or re-
lating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond
and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far
as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief.
:# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by
a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or
ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal. agnos-
ticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard
to the existence of anything beyond and behind material
phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.
[63] Nielsen 2013: Instead of saying that an atheist is some-
one who believes that it is false or probably false that there
is a God, a more adequate characterization of atheism
consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist
is to be someone who rejects belief in God for the follow-
ing reasons ... : for an anthropomorphic God, the atheist
rejects belief in God because it is false or probably false
that there is a God; for a nonanthropomorphic God ... be-
cause the concept of such a God is either meaningless, un-
intelligible, contradictory, incomprehensible, or incoher-
ent; for the God portrayed by some modern or contempo-
rary theologians or philosophers ... because the concept
of God in question is such that it merely masks an atheis-
tic substancee.g., God is just another name for love,
or ... a symbolic term for moral ideals.
[64] Edwards 2005: On our denition, an 'atheist' is a person
who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not
his reason for the rejection is the claim that 'God exists
expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an
attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other
than that it is a false proposition. It is common among
contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncom-
mon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground
that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is re-
jected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or
capricious, and there are many other considerations which
in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good
grounds for rejecting an assertion.
[65] Rowe 1998: As commonly understood, atheism is the
position that arms the nonexistence of God. So an athe-
ist is someone who disbelieves in God, whereas a theist is
someone who believes in God. Another meaning of 'athe-
ism' is simply nonbelief in the existence of God, rather
than positive belief in the nonexistence of God. ... an
atheist, in the broader sense of the term, is someone who
disbelieves in every form of deity, not just the God of tra-
ditional Western theology.
[66] Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained,. New York:
Basic Books. pp. 142243. ISBN 0-465-00696-5.
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[123] Charles Winston, 1847 An Inquiry Into the Dierence of
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80337-6
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yan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC.
p. 476. ISBN 0-7661-3673-6. The encyclopedia
will contain articles on all the religions of the world
and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at
containing articles on every religious belief or cus-
tom, and on every ethical movement, every philo-
sophical idea, every moral practice.

[128] Plantinga, Alvin. God, Arguments for the Existence of,

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000. 11 External links
[129] Wierenga, Edward R. Divine foreknowledge in Audi,
Robert. The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy. Concept of God in Christianity
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Concept of God in Islam
[130] Beaty, Michael (1991). God Among the Philosophers.
The Christian Century. Retrieved 2007-02-20. God Christian perspective

[131] Pascal, Blaise. Penses, 1669. Hindu Concept of God

[132] Nikoletseas, Michael M. (2014). Deus Absconditus - The Jewish Literacy

Hidden God. ISBN 978-1495336225
Mystical view of God
[133] Tuesday, December 8, 2009 (December 8, 2009). More
Americans Believe in Angels than Global Warming.
Outsidethebeltway.com. Retrieved 2012-12-04.

[134] Van, David (2008-09-18). Guardian Angels Are Here,

Say Most Americans. TIME. Retrieved 2012-12-04.

[135] Poll: Nearly 8 in 10 Americans believe in angels. CBS

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[136] Salmon, Jacqueline L. Most Americans Believe in Higher

Power, Poll Finds. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved
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[137] Qur'an 15:27

10 Further reading
Pickover, Cli, The Paradox of God and the Science
of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martins Press, 2001.
ISBN 1-4039-6457-2

Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A Scien-

tist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free Press, 2006.
ISBN 0-7432-8639-1

Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Vintage, 1996.

ISBN 0-679-74368-5

Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000-

Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Bal-
lantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-02456-2
 19

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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nevog, Gerda Arendt, Ninjaghostdog, FoxBot, Mannumboy, Tgv8925, TobeBot, Vejlefjord, Mtsorida, DixonDBot, Yunshui, Compvis,
Albatross117, Fama Clamosa, MacArthur1945, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Leondumontfollower, BeneharoMencey, Weavehole, Robdog360,
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kisses, EllisMurrell, Wikignome0530, Sonic12228, Aschwole, Brandmeister, Airman173, Wikiposter0123, FelixG1995, Chuispaston-
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, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Legend II, Wbm1058, Kevvy9, BG19bot, Keivan.f, Vagobot, Furkhaocean,
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GUMS, Werddemer, MagicatthemovieS, Sh1tRomney, Bardoligneo, Latina Amator, Man of Steel 85, Afrobreak, AH999, Ms Sarah Welch,
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12.2 Images
File:Alister_McGrath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Alister_McGrath.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.0 Contributors: Alister McGrath Original artist: Matthias Asgeirsson from Iceland
File:Allah3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Allah3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allah.svg Original artist: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Allah.svg
File:Allah_Names_in_Chinese_Arabic_Script.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Allah_Names_in_
Chinese_Arabic_Script.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81:Allah_
Names_in_Chinese_Arabic_Script.jpg Original artist: Original author is Osamaeid
File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Andrea_del_Verrocchio%2C_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Andrea del Verrocchio
File:Blake_God_Blessing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Blake_God_Blessing.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Dickinson Gallery, London and New York Original artist: William Blake
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Das_Bild_der_Hchsten_Seele_als_Lichtpunkt_TR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Das_
Bild_der_H%C3%B6chsten_Seele_als_Lichtpunkt_TR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tamasin Ramsay: Custodians of Purity.
An Ethnography of the Brahma Kumaris. Monash Universtiy, Melbourne, 2009. https://http/www.academia.edu/1113749/Custodians_
of_Purity_An_Ethnography_of_the_Brahma_Kumaris Original artist: Tamasin Ramsey
File:Draig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Draig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on
Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg Original artist: Liftarn
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:EndlessKnot03d.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/EndlessKnot03d.png License: Public domain
Contributors: en:Image:EndlessKnot03d.png , Created by en:User:Rickjpelleg in Paint Shop Pro 7 for the Endless Knot articles (to replace
the simpler drawing EndlessKnot.png) Original artist: en:User:Rickjpelleg, rst uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:13, 28 October 2005
File:Enluminure_Drogon_c.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Enluminure_Drogon_c.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Sacramentaire de Drogon, Metz. BNF lat 9428 page 71v. Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
12.2 Images 23

File:Europe_a_Prophecy,_copy_D,_object_1_(Bentley_1,_Erdman_i,_Keynes_i)_British_Museum.jpg Source: https:

//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Europe_a_Prophecy%2C_copy_D%2C_object_1_%28Bentley_1%2C_Erdman_
i%2C_Keynes_i%29_British_Museum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: William Blake Archive Original artist: William Blake
File:God_Article_Spoken_2008.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/God_Article_Spoken_2008.ogg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Vanished
user 01 at English Wikipedia
File:God_the_Father_with_His_Right_Hand_Raised_in_Blessing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
1b/God_the_Father_with_His_Right_Hand_Raised_in_Blessing.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Girolamo
dai Libri
File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/
GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/art/portrait.html Orig-
inal artist: This a copy of a painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller(1689). This copy was painted by Barrington Bramley.
File:Lalita_sm.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Lalita_sm.JPG License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Popular religious art print (c. 1920-1930) without copyright notice, purchased by uploader in antique lot of assorted early deity prints,
and electronically scanned and color-enhanced to counteract extreme wash-out/fading. Original artist: Print appears signed in lower right
corner, but name illegible.
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Lord_Muruga_Batu_Caves.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Lord_Muruga_Batu_Caves.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original caption: self-made) Original artist: Mspraveen (talk) / Mspraveen at
en.wikipedia
File:Louvre_042010_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Louvre_042010_01.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neithsabes
File:Michelangelo,_Creation_of_Adam_06.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Michelangelo%
2C_Creation_of_Adam_06.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/m/
michelan/3sistina/1genesis/6adam/06_3ce6e.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/html/m/michelan/3sistina/1genesis/6adam/06_3ce6e.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
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width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Michelangelo
File:Monad.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Monad.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Origi-
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File:Naqsh_i_Rustam._Investiture_d'Ardashir_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Naqsh_i_
Rustam._Investiture_d%27Ardashir_1.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Artaban V. Vers 230. Original artist: Photo Ginolerhino
2002
File:P_religion_world.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/P_religion_world.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/
Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work

Converted to SVG from the following vector PostScript source code:

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File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/carlo-crivelli-saint-thomas-aquinas Original artist: Carlo Crivelli (circa
1435circa 1495)
File:The_Creation_of_Adam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/The_Creation_of_Adam.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Michelangelo Buonarroti
File:Vishnu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Vishnu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh, Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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24 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
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SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
File:William_Blake_008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/William_Blake_008.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DI-
RECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: William Blake

12.3 Content license

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