Proceedings of the ASME 2016 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference

PVP2016
July 17-21, 2016, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

PVP2016-63983

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF PIPE VIBRATION GENERATED

BY ELONGATED ORIFICE

Wenjie Bai Quan Duan

School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
Xian Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China Xian Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
bwj0319@stu.xjtu.edu.cn quanduan@xjtu.edu.cn

Zaoxiao Zhang
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
Xian Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
zhangzx@xjtu.edu.cn

ABSTRACT variety of mechanism [1, 2]. To increase understanding of

Hydraulic tests for elongated orifice-induced wall pressure
fluctuations and vibration in pipeline have been carried out. The
regulating modes of test system consist of maintaining outlet
pressure to increase flow rate and maintaining flow rate to
decrease outlet pressure. Both regulating modes would increase
the possibility of cavitation within elongated orifice, which has
been confirmed by numerical simulation in present study.
Statistical characteristics of the fluctuating pressure and
structure vibration response have been studied. The standard
deviation analyses indicate that the amplitude of fluctuating
pressure is mainly determined by flow rate. The power spectral
density analyses show that the energy of the fluctuating
pressure behind elongated orifice is concentrated in lower
frequency range and it can be divided into two parts in this test:
the pressure pulsation excited by plunger pump and the random
fluctuating pressure produced by elongated orifices
disturbance. The power spectral density of pipe vibration
response shows that the lower frequency of pipe vibration
response can be ascribed to the fluctuating pressure behind
elongated orifice and the characteristic frequencies
corresponding to cavitation within elongated orifice are in the
higher frequency range.
INTRODUCTION
Pipes conveying fluid are often suffered from flow-induced
vibrations. Especially in nuclear power plants, such failures can
cause lost production and repairing them is very costly. Flow-
induced vibration is a complex problem because it contains a
stimulation and response is helpful to identify excitation source
and control excessive flow-induced vibration.
One of the main flow-induced vibration sources in the pipe
flow circuit is the singularities that disturb the flow, such as
pump, valve, orifice, etc. There are a number of studies devoted
to pump or valve induced vibration [1]. Orifice-induced
vibration, however, has drawn less attention. Different kinds of
orifice plates are widely used as an economic and highly
efficient device to control flow rate and reduce pressure. When
fluid flows though the orifice, it may be throttled and disturbed,
which generates various vibration excitation. Mao divided the
main mechanisms of orifice-induced pipe vibration into four
types: hydrodynamic cavitation, vortex shedding, acoustic
resonance and pressure fluctuations [3]. Then Mao et al.
conducted experiment [3, 4] to study the orifice-induced
pressure fluctuation and vibration and built the mathematical
model of pressure fluctuation [5]. Pressure dropping down
below the critical level around orifice would lead to vapor
formation. This effect is known as hydrodynamic cavitation.
This cavitation could produce instability in the flow, noise and
vibration, and potentially cause damage to the working surfaces
(cavitation erosion) [6]. In nuclear engineering practice, many
noise and vibration malfunctions found in piping systems can
be ascribed to orifice-induced cavitation [7, 8].
The information notice No.98-45 of United States Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) reported that in Diablo Canyon
and Surry nuclear power plant, the socket welds after the
letdown orifice in the chemical and volume control system

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 (CVCS) were repeatedly suffered from failure and leak [7]. The
licensee inspected the orifices and found that the letdown
orifices were severely pitted. According to the examination of
the damaged orifices, the licensees determined it was cavitation
erosion of the letdown orifices that led to vibration of the
letdown line and, thus, to fatigue failures of letdown line socket
welds.
Mao et al. conducted numerical and experimental studies
on the high-level vibration and noise of nuclear pipes with a
single orifice [8]. By field vibration measurement, visualization
test and numerical simulation, the cavitation around orifice was
confirmed as the cause of the pipes vibration and structure
failure. Then this issue was solved by replacing the single stage
orifice with two stage orifices to avoid cavitation.
In the above vibration malfunction events, cavitation as the
root cause was confirmed. However, the characteristic of pipe
vibration generated by cavitation around orifice, especially for
the elongated orifice, have not been well studied. This is not
conducive to identify the root cause of pipe vibration by field
investigation. In addition, due to the large pressure differences
between the upstream and downstream of elongated orifice, it is
difficult to conduct the visualization test. However, many
industrial departments which had taken advantage of cavitation
orifice to strengthen reaction processes have reproduced the
cavitation phenomenon within orifice accurately by appropriate
numerical method and model parameters.
Yuan et al. [9] applied numerical method with appropriate
nuclei concentration n0 and turbulent Navier-Stokes solutions to
reproduce complex cavitation phenomena in injection nozzle
reported by Roosen et.al [10]. Assuming the hydrodynamic
similarity for cavitation flows, Martynov et.al [11] developed a
algebraic model for the number density of cavitation bubbles
which contains parameters responsible only for the liquid
quality effect and will not be affected by the hydrodynamics of
the flow. They proposed that the parameters could be adjusted
once for a particular fluid and then applied for simulation of
cavitation flows of this fluid in other geometries. Their
numerical simulation results were obtained through commercial
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes VECTIS [11] and
PHOENICS [12], which were in agreement with experimental
data reported by Roosen et.al [10] and Winklhofer et.al [13].
Sun et.al [16] validated Schnerr-Sauer cavitation model via
Fluent by comparing simulation results with Winklhofers
experiment [13] and then they studied the effects of dynamic
parameters (including the injection pressure) and the nozzles
geometry parameters (including the circular bead of nozzles
inlet, the orifice coefficient, the ratio of nozzles length to
orifices diameter, and the roughness orifices inner wall) on the
flow and cavitation characteristics within nozzle.
In the present work, the cavitation phenomenon within
elongated orifice has been reproduced by numerical simulation.
The simulation results reveal the influence of two regulating
modes (including maintaining outlet pressure to increase flow
rate and maintaining flow rate to decrease outlet pressure) on
cavitation. Structure vibration response and statistical
characteristics of the fluctuating pressure for the pipe with
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elongated orifice have been studied experimentally. By
comparing the variation trend of power spectral density (PSD)
for fluctuating pressure and structure vibration response, some
characteristic frequencies are inferred to indicate the presence
of cavitation.
NUMERICAL STUDY OF CAVITATION WITHIN
ELONGATED ORIFICE
Firstly, cavitation phenomenon within the elongated orifice
which was used in the hydraulic tests has been studied with
commercial CFD codes FLUENT 14.0. The work fluid (water
at room temperature) is considered to be isothermal. Based
upon the previous researches [14, 15], there are commonly
three methods for the simulation of cavitation: interface
tracking, multi-phases flow models, and homogeneous
equilibrium models. In the present study, multi-phases flow
models have been regarded to be more suitable for the
significant variation of densities within the actual process of
phase transformation, and Schnerr-Sauer cavitation model has
been taken as the calculated model based upon the similar
researches [16, 17]. This two-phase model considers a mixture
comprising liquid fluid and vapor and the mixture is modeled
as incompressible. In addition, a no-slip condition between the
liquid and vapor phase is assumed. According to Schnerr and
Sauer [18, 19], the equation for the vapor volume fraction has
the general form:
(1)
Where is the vapor volume fraction, is the vapor
density, is the liquid density and is the mixture density,
is the velocity of gaseous phase. The net mass source term is
as follows:
(2)
Schnerr and Sauer use the following expression to connect the
vapor volume fraction with the number of bubbles per volume
of liquid:
(3)
where is the number of bubbles per unit volume of liquid
and is the bubble radius. Based on the the generalized
Rayleigh-Plesset equation [20], the bubble dynamics equation
is simplified to
(4)
Where is the vapor pressure and is the ambient cell
pressure. Combining equation (2), (3) and (4), the net mass
transfer rate ( ) and the radius of bubble ( ) can be obtained:
(5)
(6)
Before the adopted cavitation model is applied in elongated
orifice, it is necessary to make the validation by experimental
data. Sun et.al and Mohan et.al have validated Schnerr-Sauer
cavitation model with Winklhofers experiment results [13],
 and the details can be found in Ref. [16, 17]. According to
Mohan et.al [17], in order to account for the large pressure
gradients, the standard kturbulence model was employed.
The physical dimension of the elongated orifice has been
shown in Fig. 1. The ratio of elongated orifices diameter to
pipes diameter 0.11 and the ratio of elongated orifices length
to pipes diameter 68.1 can be calculated. As the geometry was
axis symmetric, a two-dimension model was considered for
simulation.
Fig. 1: Physical dimension of the elongated orifice.
Fig. 2: Grids for mesh sensitivity analysis.
The regulating modes of test system consist of maintaining
outlet pressure ( ) to increase flow rate (Q) and maintaining
flow rate to decrease outlet pressure. In this study, Q is set at
1.0 T/h (with Reynolds number 176920 in the orifice) and
is decreased from 2.8 MPa to 1.2 MPa to investigate the
influence of outlet pressure on cavitation characteristics. Then,
is set at 2.0 MPa and Q is increased from 0.5 T/h to 2.0
T/h (with Reynolds number from 88460 to 353840 in the
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orifice) to investigate the influence of mass rate on cavitation
characteristics.
In order to ensure the computed results are independent of
mesh size, a series of simulations are first carried out for
2.0 MPa and Q 1.0 T/h. The local enlarged views of orifice
inlet for three mesh configurations with different level of
refinement have been shown in Fig. 2: Xmin =Ymin = 0.015
mm for the coarse (M1); Xmin =Ymin = 0.01 mm for the
normal (M2); Xmin =Ymin = 0.005 mm for the fine grid (M3),
which are composed of 351016, 549919 and 980185
quadrilateral elements, respectively.
Fig. 3: Vapor volume fraction contours of cavitation zones for
sensitivity analysis.
Fig. 4: Distribution of the vapor volume fraction near the
wall for sensitivity analysis.
The contours of vapor volume fraction show the locations
and degree of cavitation along longitudinal direction (as shown
in Fig. 3). All the three grids give the same cavitation location.
But the cavitation range of M1 is a little larger than that of M2
and M3, while the max vapor volume fraction of M1 is lower
than that of M2 and M3. The average vapor volume fraction
can be calculated: 1.7584E-07 (M1), 1.6350E-07 (M2) and
1.5966E-07 (M3). Taking the average vapor volume fraction of
M3 as basic, the relative error between M1 and M3 is 10.1%,
while that between M2 and M3 is 2.4%. Fig. 4 presents the
 vapor volume fraction along the wall of cavitation area for
different mesh sizes. It can be seen that the distribution curve of
M2 is very close to that of M3. Taking the max vapor volume
fraction of M3 as basic, the relative error between M1 and M3
is 27.8%, while that between M2 and M3 is 1.6%. It can be
concluded that beyond M2, the effect of the mesh refinement is
negligible. Thus, M2 is chosen as the optimal grid in the
present simulation.
When Q is set at 1.0 T/h, the scatter plots of vapor volume
fraction show the locations and degree of cavitation along
longitudinal direction under different (as shown in Fig.
5). The vapor volume fraction contours of cavitation zones for
some critical points of have been shown in Fig. 6. It can
be found that when is 2.8 MPa, there is no cavitation
within elongated orifice. When is 2.0 MPa, cavitation
initiates at the inlet of orifice. As continuously drops to
1.2 MPa, the cavitation areas enlarge and the cavitation degree
increases simultaneously. It can be seen that when flow rate is
constant, decreasing outlet pressure can increase the possibility
of cavitation for the elongated orifice.
along longitudinal direction under different Q (as shown in Fig.
7). The vapor volume fraction contours of cavitation zones for
some critical points of Q have been shown in Fig. 8. It can be
found that when Q is 0.5 T/h, there is no cavitation within
letdown orifice. When Q is 1.0 T/h, cavitation initiates at the
inlet of orifice. When Q increases to 1.5 T/h, the cavitation
areas enlarge and the cavitation degree increases
simultaneously. As Q increases to 2.0 T/h, the cavitation areas
enlarge and the cavitation degree continuously increases. It can
be seen that when outlet pressure is constant, flow rate
increasing can increase the possibility of cavitation for
elongated orifice.

Fig. 7: Scatter plots of vapor volume fraction along longitudinal

direction for different ( 2.0 MPa).
It can be concluded that both regulating modes can
increase the possibility of cavitation and the cavitation areas are
located at the inlet of elongated orifice.

Fig. 5: Scatter plots of vapor volume fraction along longitudinal

direction for different (Q 1.0 T/h).

Fig. 6: Vapor volume fraction contours of cavitation zones for Fig. 8: Vapor volume fraction contours of cavitation zones for
different (Q 1.0 T/h). different ( 2.0 MPa).
When is set at 2.0 MPa, the scatter plots of vapor
volume fraction show the locations and degree of cavitation

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 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF FLUCTUATING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PRESSURE AND STRUCTURE VIBRATION The fluctuating pressure is a random signal. Its standard
RESPONSE FOR PIPE WITH ELONGATED ORIFICE deviation (SD) indicates the extent of the possible values
The test system of elongated orifice has been designed deviating from the average values, i.e., the amplitude of
and constructed at State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow fluctuating pressure.
and Power Engineering (MPFL) in Xian Jiaotong University, For finite length discrete random signal, the SD can be
which is shown in Fig. 9. The physical dimension of the test calculated according to the following formula:
elongated orifice has been shown in Fig. 1.
Since the ratio of elongated orifices diameter to pipes (7)
diameter 0.11 is very small, it can be expect that the pressure The seven dynamic pressure transducers are numbered
differences between the upstream and downstream of elongated with P1-P7. When Q is set at 1.0 T/h and is decreased
orifice is relatively large. Thus, a plunger pump with three from 2.8 MPa to 1.2 MPa, the SD of fluctuating pressure for
plunger pistons is used in the test loop. The flow rate passing P1-P7 has been shown in Fig. 10. It can be found that there is
through elongated orifice is adjusted by valve-2 and valve-3. no obvious variation trend with the decrease of for all
The outlet pressure of elongated orifice is adjusted by coarse transducers. The largest amplitude of fluctuating pressure
adjustment valve and microadjustment valve. appears at P4 and P5. When Q is constant, with the decrease of
Seven dynamic pressure transducers, which can , the SD of fluctuating pressures vary no more than 0.001
distinguish millisecond fluctuations, are mounted after the MPa except P4 and P5. Even P4 and P5 vary no more than
elongated orifice to measure the pressure fluctuations caused by 0.005 MPa.
the orifice. According to the previous researches of wall
pressure fluctuation generated by orifice, the fluctuating
pressures at the same cross-section but at different
circumferential position after the orifice plate are similar [3].
Thus, the seven dynamic pressure transducers are mounted
longitudinally along the pipe. Since the external diameter of
test pipe is not big enough, the dynamic pressure transducer
must be connected to the pressure-measuring point with a thin
conduit. The first dynamic pressure transducer is installed at the
location which is 3mm away from the edge of elongated
orifices outlet. The rest transducers are installed at the intervals
of 10mm in longitudinal direction and 90in circumferential
direction.
Besides pressure transducers, Vibration accelerometers are
Fig. 10: SD of fluctuating pressure for P1-P7 under different
mounted at the back and front of orifice to measure the
(Q 1.0 T/h).
structural vibration. After being amplified, the signals are
collected and analyzed.
The hydraulic test and measurements have been made at
room temperature. The two regulating modes of test system are
the same as mentioned in numerical study.

Water
supply
tank

Valve-1 Valve-2

Plunger
pump
Valve-3 Flow meter
Coarse Fig. 11: SD of fluctuating pressure for P1-P7 under different
adjustment Microadjustment
valve valve
( 2.0 MPa).
Flow direction
Anchor
Elongated-hole When is set at 2.0 MPa and Q is increased from 0.5
orifice
support Accelerometer-2 Accelerometer-1 Anchor support T/h to 2.0 T/h, the SD of fluctuating pressure for P1-P7 has
been shown in Fig. 11. It can be found that there is an obvious
Dynamic pressure transducers(1-7) increasing trend with the increase of Q except few data points
(P2 and P4, when is 2.0 MPa). When is constant,
Fig. 9: Sketch of hydraulic test loop

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 with the increase of Q, the greatest SD of fluctuating pressures
increase by about 0.04MPa.
By comparing the variation trend of SD for the two
regulating modes, it can be concluded that the amplitude of
fluctuating pressure is mainly determined by flow rate.
Each pressure time-history signal acquired by the pressure
transducers has been transformed to PSD. Fig. 12 illustrates the
pressure PSD curves in the time when Q is 0.5 T/h and is
2.0 MPa. On the whole, the energy of the fluctuating pressure is
concentrated in the lower frequency range and especially lower
than 400 Hz. This result fits in with the previous researches [3,
4] and the statement that the turbulence water flow always
contains lower frequency energy in nature [21].
It's worth noting that the higher amplitude almost appear at
the lower frequency band (0-60.5 Hz). Since the running speed
of the plunger pump r=330 rpm and the number of plunger
pistons n=3, the pulsation frequency excited by plunger pump
can be calculated by the following equation:
= (8)
where i is the frequency number.
When i = 1, the pulsation frequency excited by plunger
pump is 16.5 Hz.
By inspecting the frequency peaks, it can be found that the
frequencies 16.5 Hz (1X), 33 Hz (2X) and 50 Hz (3X) appear.
Apart from those, some other frequencies which are close to 5.5
Hz, 11 Hz, 22 Hz, 50 Hz and 60.5 Hz appear. It seems that
these frequencies are produced by single plunger piston. From
the above, it can be concluded that the fluctuating pressure
behind the elongated orifice can be divided into two parts: the
pressure pulsation excited by plunger pump and the random
fluctuating pressure produced by elongated orifices
disturbance. Although a small tank is mounted at the discharge,
but it is not enough to eliminate the pulsation excited by
plunger pump.
Fig. 12: Fluctuating pressure PSD curves for Q 0.5 T/h and
2.0 MPa.
The pipe vibration response has been measured by
accelerometers. When Q is set at 1.0 T/h and is decreased
from 2.8 MPa to 1.2 MPa, the PSD curves for the
accelerometer mounted before the elongated orifice have been
shown in Fig. 13.
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Overall, the spectrum characteristics in the three are
roughly the same. However, the situation is different in some
higher frequency range. It can be found that in 1.261-2 KHz
and 6.127-10 KHz, the PSD curve for 1.2 MPa has peaks
which are obviously higher than that for 2.0 MPa and
2.8 MPa. Besides that, the PSD curve of 2.0 MPa
has a single peak at about 3 KHz. In addition, some
characteristic frequencies (such as 16.5 Hz, 22 Hz, 33Hz)
corresponding to plunger pump can be found in the lower
frequency range. On the basis of the time and spectrum
dominant results of fluctuating pressure, the amplitude of
fluctuating pressure is mainly determined by flow rate and the
energy of fluctuating pressure is concentrated in the lower
frequency range. The similarity of PSD curves for vibration
response especially in the lower frequency range validates the
above conclusion from the response point of view. According to
the simulation results, When Q is 1.0 T/h and drops to 2.0
MPa, cavitation occurs at the inlet of elongated orifice. It can
be inferred that the peaks at about 3 KHz, 1.261-2 KHz and
6.127-10 KHz indicate the presence of cavitation within
elongated orifice.
Fig. 13: PSD curves for the accelerometer mounted before the
elongated orifice under different (Q 1.0 T/h)
When is set at 2.0 MPa and Q is increased from 0.5
T/h to 2.0 T/h, the PSD curves for the accelerometer mounted
before the elongated orifice have been shown in Fig. 14.
It can be found that the PSD curves for Q 0.5 and Q 1.0 are
roughly the same in the lower frequency range (0-200 Hz).
Compared with that of Q 0.5, the PSD curve of Q 1.0 has larger
amplitude in 200 Hz-5 KHz and obvious peaks in 5-10 KHz.
The PSD curves for Q 1.5 and Q 2.0 are almost parallel in the
whole frequency band. But the higher the flow rate is, the larger
the amplitude is. The variation trend of PSD curves for Q 1.5
and Q 2.0 are different from that of Q 0.5 and Q 1.0 in 0-200
Hz and 2-10 KHz. It has been mentioned above, the amplitude
of fluctuating pressure is mainly determined by flow rate and
the energy of the fluctuating pressure is concentrated in the
lower frequency range. According to the simulation results,
When is 2.0 MPa and Q is increased to 1.0 T/h, cavitation
occurs at the inlet of elongated orifice. Furthermore, as Q
increasing continually, the cavitation areas enlarge and the
cavitation degree continuously increases. Meanwhile, the
 characteristic frequencies corresponding to cavitation within
elongated orifice are in the higher frequency range. These
conclusions account for the increase of amplitude for the whole
frequency band as the increasing of flow rate.
Fig. 14: PSD curves for the accelerometer mounted before the
elongated orifice under different Q ( 2.0 MPa)
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The results of numerical investigation have shown that
the cavitation areas enlarge and the cavitation degree increases
simultaneously as flow rate increasing and outlet pressure
decreasing. It is mean that both regulating modes can increase
the possibility of cavitation for the elongated orifice.
Meanwhile, the cavitation areas are located at the inlet of the
elongated orifice in present study.
(2) The fluctuating pressure behind the elongated orifice
can be divided into two parts in this test: the pressure pulsation
excited by plunger pump and the random fluctuating pressure
produced by elongated orifices disturbance.
Its amplitude is mainly determined by flow rate and energy
is concentrated in the lower frequency range.
(3) The pipe vibration response in lower frequency can be
ascribed to the fluctuating pressure behind the elongated
orifice. The characteristic frequencies corresponding to
cavitation within elongated orifice are in the higher frequency
range. Further identification of characteristic frequencies
corresponding to cavitation within elongated orifice is limited
to the work frequency width of accelerometer. The sensor with
wider work frequency is planned to be adopted in the future
research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the State Key
Laboratory of Multiphase flow and Power Engineering (MPFL)
for their affording test loop. The research is supported by the
National Basic Research Program of China (No.
2015CB057602).
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