Statistics

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It has been suggested that Mathematical statistics be merged into this article.
(Discuss) Proposed since November 2016.
More probability density is found as one gets closer to the expected (mean) valu
e in a normal distribution. Statistics used in standardized testing assessment a
re shown. The scales include standard deviations, cumulative percentages, percen
tile equivalents, Z-scores, T-scores, standard nines, and percentages in standar
d nines.
Scatter plots are used in descriptive statistics to show the observed relationsh
ips between different variables.
Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, int
erpretation, presentation, and organization of data.[1][2] In applying statistic
s to, e.g., a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to b
egin with a statistical population or a statistical model process to be studied.
Populations can be diverse topics such as "all people living in a country" or "
every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with all aspects of data inclu
ding the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and exper
iments.[1]
Some popular definitions are:
Merriam-Webster dictionary defines statistics as "a branch of mathematics dealin
g with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of n
umerical data"[3]".
Statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley defines statistics as "Numerical statements
of facts in any department of inquiry placed in relation to each other[4]".
When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing s
pecific experiment designs and survey samples. Representative sampling assures t
hat inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the populati
on as a whole. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system
under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements us
ing the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values
of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experi
mental manipulation.
Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive statistics,
which summarizes data from a sample using indexes such as the mean or standard d
eviation, and inferential statistics, which draws conclusions from data that are
subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation).[5
] Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of
a distribution (sample or population): central tendency (or location) seeks to
characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while dispersion (or v
ariability) characterizes the extent to which members of the distribution depart
from its center and each other. Inferences on mathematical statistics are made
under the framework of probability theory, which deals with the analysis of rand
om phenomena.
A standard statistical procedure involves the test of the relationship between t
wo statistical data sets, or a data set and a synthetic data drawn from idealize
d model. A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the t
wo data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypoth
esis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null
hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the
null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from
a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: Type I errors (null
hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false positive") and Type II errors (n
ull hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations
is missed giving a "false negative").[6] Multiple problems have come to be asso
ciated with this framework: ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to s
pecifying an adequate null hypothesis.[citation needed]
Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error.
Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic (bias), but
other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect
units) can also be important. The presence of missing data and/or censoring may
result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to addres
s these problems.
Statistics can be said to have begun in ancient civilization, going back at leas
t to the 5th century BC, but it was not until the 18th century that it started t
o draw more heavily from calculus and probability theory. Statistics continues t
o be an area of active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze Bi
g data.
Contents [hide]
1 Scope
1.1 Mathematical statistics
2 Overview
3 Data collection
3.1 Sampling
3.2 Experimental and observational studies
4 Types of data
5 Terminology and theory of inferential statistics
5.1 Statistics, estimators and pivotal quantities
5.2 Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
5.3 Error
5.4 Interval estimation
5.5 Significance
5.6 Examples
6 Misuse
6.1 Misinterpretation: correlation
7 History of statistical science
8 Applications
8.1 Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics
8.2 Machine learning and data mining
8.3 Statistics in society
8.4 Statistical computing
8.5 Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts
9 Specialized disciplines
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links