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Bio 1
Lessons
A. The Scientific Method
B. Cell Theory
Discovery Science
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Thursday, 25 August 2016
- Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis
Scientific Method
Theory - set of hypotheses that have been thoroughly tested over time, and generally
accepted by the scientific community
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (Spontaneous Generation doesnt
occur)
4. Cells contain hereditary info that is passed from cell to cell during cell division
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells
- Cells are the smallest living things
- Life evolved
Manifestations of Life
1. Highly organized
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3. Strong internal control
5. Reproduces
6. Grows
What is DNA?
- Two polynucleotide stands wrap around each other to form a DNA double helix
Two strands are associated because particular bases always hydrogen to one
another?
- Prokaryotic Cells
Simple and small
Bacteria are prokaryotic cells
DNA in nucleoid
No membrane-bound organelles
1-10 microns in diameter
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Thursday, 25 August 2016
- Eukaryotic Cells
possess organelles separated by membranes
plants, animals, and fungi are eukaryotic
DNA in nucleus
With membrane-bound organelles
The Cell as The Basic Unit of Life
Structures and organelles of eukaryotic cells can be grouped into four (4) functional
groups:
2. All cells have a semi-fluid substance within the membrane called the cytosol
3. All cells contain chromosomes which have genes in the form of DNA
4. All cells have ribosomes, tiny organelles that make proteins using the instructions
contained in the genes
1. Plasma Membrane
Functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
The phospholipids and proteins on membranes create a unique physical
environment called the fluid mosaic model
2. Nucleus
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3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Many transport vesicles from the ER travel to the Golgi Apparatus for modification of
their contents
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- For stockpiling proteins or inorganic ions depositing metabolic byproducts storing
pigments and storing defensive
7. Peroxisome
- The site of cellular respiration generating ATP from the catabolism of sugar fats and
other fuels present in oxygen
- Has a smooth outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane, the crista
9. Chloroplast
- Inside is an inner membrane enclosing a fluid-filled space, the stroma, in which floats
membranous sacs, the thylakoids
10. Cytoskeleton
- Found on plant cells; protects the cell, maintain its shape, and prevents excessive/
uptake of water
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Tuesday, 30 August 2016
BIO 1
Exploring Life
(Structure, Function and Control)
4. How to move
Structural Adaptations
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- Physical laws impose constraints on animal size and shape
The laws of hydrodynamics constrain the shapes that are possible for aquatic
organisms that swim very fast
Fusiform Shape - fast swimmers and all have the same basic shape (sharks, tuna,
dolphins, penguins, etc.)
Connective Tissue
- Nervous Tissues sense stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
- Contains:
Neurons or nerve cells that transmit nerve impulses
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Tuesday, 30 August 2016
Glial Cells, or Glia, that helps nourish, insulate and replenish neutrons
Coordination and Control
- Plant Adaptations
Structural Adaptation
- Shallow roots
- No leaves
Functional Adaptation
- Photosynthesis in stems
- Flowers open at night when cooler
- Animal Adaptations
Structural Adaptation
Both genes and environment affect plant structure
Plastic Plants?
- Leaves extend above the surface form oval pads that aid in flotation
- Developmental plasticity, the ability to alter itself in response to its environment
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Physiological (Functional) Adjustments
- Most plants are rarely exposed to severe drought and rely mainly on physiological
adaptations to cope with drought stress
- Plant produces a hormone that cause the stomata the pores in the leaves through
which most of the water is list to close
- Basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolution as organisms that draw
nutrients from below ground and above ground
Roots
- Prop Roots
- Storage Roots
- Strangling Aerial Roots
- Buttress Roots
- Pneumatophores
Stem
- Axillary bud
- Apical bud
- Apical dominance
Modified Stems
- Rhizomes
- Bulbs
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- Stolons
- Tubers
Leaves
Modified Leaves
- Tendrils
- Bracts
- Spines
- Reproductive Leaves
- Storage Leaves
Common Types of Plant Cells
- Parenchyma
Thin and flexible primary wall
Lack secondary wall
Least specialised
Perform the most metabolic function
Retain the ability to divide and differentiate
- Collenchyma
Thicker and uneven cell walls
Lack secondary walls
Provide flexible support without restraining growth
Grouped in strand and help support younger parts of plant shoot
- Sclerenchyma
Rigid because of thick secondary wall strengthened with lignin
Dead at functional maturity
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Tuesday, 30 August 2016
- Water-conducting Cells of the Xylem
Vessel elements are common to most angiosperms and a few gymnosperms
- Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem
Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, though they lack organelles
Sieve plates are the porous end walls that allow fluid to flow between cells along
the sieve tube
Each sieve-tube element has a companion cell whose nucleus and ribosomes
serve both cells
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Thursday, 1 September 2016
BIO 1
Reproduction1
- Reproduction is the property of life by which new individual organisms are produced
- Important to the survival of species
- 2 Types
Asexual: one parent
- No gametes involved
- No fertilisation
- Only mitotic cell division
- Genetically identical to parent (Clone)
- Relative speed by which offspring are produced: Faster
- All members can produce viable offspring
- Can proceed via:
Budding: Parent cell produces bud, it gets detached and develops into new
individual
- Hydra and Yeast
Fission: A single parent cell divides into two daughter cells (Binary Fission)
- Amoeba, paramecium, bacteria (prokaryotes)
Fragmentation/Regeneration: Organism with filamentous body, break into two
or more fragments. Each fragment grows into a new individual
- Spirogya
Sexual: joining of eggs and sperm
- 2 (or 1 if parent is a hermaphrodite)
Have sex organs which produce sex cells
Sex cells are called gametes and are produced in gonads
- Gametes involved
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- Genetically different to either parent (Variation)
- Relative speed by which offspring are produced: Slower
- Only one sex (female) can produce viable offspring
Sexual Reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm)
and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote
What is Sex?
Male
- Gamete - sperm
- Gonad - testes
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Thursday, 1 September 2016
- Many sperm cells
- Spermatogenesis
- Sperm cells are (n) haploid/monoploid
Female
- Gametes - egg
- Gonad - ovary
- few to many eggs
- Oogenesis
- Egg cells are (n) haploid/monoploid
Fertilisation depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same
species
Internal Fertilisation
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
Plant Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Fruits
- A fruit typically consists of a mature ovary but can also include other flower parts
- Fruits protect seeds and aid in their dispersal
- Mature fruits can be either fleshy or dry
- Various fruit adaptations help disperse seeds
- Seeds can be carried by wind, water, or animals
- Seeds:
Wings
Within berries
Barbs
Pollination
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
OVARY BECOMES THE FRUIT
OVULE BECOMES THE SEED
Seed Germination
-
- Radicle
embryonic root
the first to emerge
- Coleoptile
embryonic shoot
Development from Totipotent Cells
Cloning
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- Simply identical genetic copies
- Cloning is wide spread in nature
- Paramecium
- Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single bit of their DNA is
identical
- Clones can happen naturally - identical twins are just one of many examples
- The creation of an exact genetic replica of DNA
- DNA cloning yields multiple copies of a gene or other DNA segment
Artificial Cloning (Cloning Technology Timeline)
1952: Rovert Briggs and Thomas King of the Institute for Cancer Research, developed
the first major technique, Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)
1966: John Gurdon of Oxford University created an adult frog clone using a tadpole
somatic cell
1996: Ian Wilmut and colleagues of Roslin Institute in Scotland created the first clone of
an adult mammal using adult somatic cells and SCNT.
1997: Ian Wilmut and colleagues cloned two other sheep, Molly and Polly
1998: University of Hawaii announced the creation of 50 mice clones using adult somatic
cells
2000: PPL Therapeutics, Inc. cloned pigs from adult female pig body cells.
2004: South Korean scientists achieved the first successful human somatic cell nuclear
transfer
- born on 1996
- lived until the age of 6
- first cloned mammal
- several hundred other Dollies were created
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Animals can be cloned by several methods
- Embryo Splitting
bisecting the multicellular embryo at an early stage of development to generate
twins
The (two) embryos from the splitting are in the same stage of development, exactly
the same age as the undivided embryo would have been and genetically completely
identical
- Nuclear Transfer
Transfer of the whole nucleus (which contains all the genes) from a donor cell into
an unfertilised egg cell whose nucleus has previously been removed
This technique basically offers the possibility of replicating an adult individual and
their complete genetic make-up
- Most clones die early in gestation, and only a few survive to birth or beyond
- Cloned animals have common abnormalities regardless of the type of donor cell or the
species used
- These abnormalities correlate with aberrant gene expression, which most likely results
from faulty genomic reprogramming
- The efficiency of cloning depends on the state of differentiation of the donor cell
Benefits of Human Cloning
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Leukemia
- Cancer
- Cystic Fibrosis
- Spinal Cord Injury
- Testing for Genetic Disease
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
Human Reproduction
Male Reproductive System
Epididymis
- storage of sperm
Vas Deferens
- During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through the muscular vas deferens and the
ejaculatory duct, and then exit the penis through the urethra
Accessory Glands
Semen
Spermatogenesis
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Primary spermatocytes
- Secondary spermatocytes
- Rounds spermatids
Oogenesis
- Begins before birth - diploid cells start meiosis and stop
- Each month about one primary oocyte resumes meiosis
- A secondary oocyte arrested at metaphase if meiosis II is ovulated
- Meiosis of the ovum is completed after fertilisation
Difference between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
Spermatogenesis
Growth of a follicle
Ovulation
After ovulation, ovarian follicle becomes corpus luteum
If egg is fertilised,
2 Table 27.6
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Menstruation does not occur
- Embryo releases hormones that maintain the uterine lining
If egg is not fertilised,
- brings about the haploid nuclei of sperm and egg together, forming a diploid
The Acrosomal Reaction
Implantation
- Stage after fetilization in humans where a blastocyst develops from a fertilised zygote
- Egg moves along oviduct to uterus
- 6th day after fertilisation blastocyst attaches to uterine wall or endometrium
Embryo releases human gonadotropin (hCG), which prevents menstruation
Gastrulation
Cells migrate
Ectoderm
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Mesoderm: forms muscle and bones
Amnion
Yolk sac
- no yolk in humans
- source of important cells
first germ cells
first blood cells
Allantois
- Close association of
Embryonic ____________?
Mothers blood vessels
- Gas, nutrient and waste exchange
Apoptosis?
Mammary glands
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
Corals
- Mass spawning
Sharks
- still a question
- theories to reproduce like cats
Crocodiles
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- males display, females choose
Monkey (macacks)
- the louder the female makes noise, the more likely the male ejaculates
- mostly have sex hourly
Sexual Currency?
Humans
- Brain evolved
-
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
- Genetic predisposition
Treating Infertility
- The women is treated with a drug that causes the production of many eggs
- Mature eggs are removed and put in a dish with the mans sperm for fertilisation
- After 3 to 5 days, healthy embryos are implanted in the womans uterus (embryo
transfer, 8 cell stage)
Artificial Insemination
- A procedure used to treat infertility that involves directly inserting semen to fetilize
a womans egg
Sperm/egg/embryo cryopreservation
- A procedure to preserve sperm cells, egg cells or embryos
- Cooling to sub-zero temperatures, typically in liquid nitrogen (-196oC)
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- women or men who will undergo treatments that may destroy their future fertility
(such as cancer)
Contraception
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Implantation-suppressing methods
Morning-after pill
- interferes with the implantation of the fertilised egg into the uterine wall
- blocks the action of progesterone, which leads to the non-synthesis of the
proteins necessary to begin and maintain pregnancy
- Chlamydial infections
- Gonorrhea
- Syphilis
- Genital herpes
- Genital Warts
- AIDS & HIV infection
- Trichomoniasis
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Candidiasis
How to avoid STDs
Safer sex such as using condoms is the most reliable way to reduce risk of acquiring
STDs
Viruses
- Exists in a gray area between the living and the nonliving
- Must replicate within a host cell
- not cells
- very small infectious particles consisting
- Viral Genome
double or single stranded DNA, or
double or single stranded RNA
Depending on its type of nucleic acid, a virus is called a DNA virus or RNA virus
Capsid
- protein shell that encloses the viral genome
- built from protein sub
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
Genetics
Many inherited disorders in humans are controlled by a single gene
- Recessive Inheritance
Two recessive alleles are needed to show disease
Heterozygous parents are carriers of the disease-causing allele
Probability of inheritance increases with inbreeding, mating between close relatives
- Dominant Inheritance
One dominant allele is needed to show disease
Dominant lethal alleles are usually eliminated from the population
Variations on Mendels Laws
Incomplete Dominance
Codominance
- Universal donor since the cells do not have either carbohydrate A or carbohydrate B
so that antibodies in the other blood types will not cause a reaction with these cells
Bombay Phenotype
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- H substance is the precursor molecule for the A and B antiens to which one or two
terminal sugars are added
- hh genotype
- Behaves as type O, but genetically type B
A single gene may affect many phenotypic characters
Pleiotropy
Polygenic Inheritance
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
- X-linked genes are passed from mother to son and mother to daughter
- X-linked genes are passed from father to daughter
- Y-linked genes are passed from father to son
Males express X-linked disorders such as the following when recessive alleles are
present in one copy
- Hemophilia
Inherited condition where blood is slow to clot or does not clot at all
Only expressed when individual has no copies of the normal allele
Royal Hemophilia - Sex-linked
- Colorblindness
Due to X-linked recessive allele b, while the X-linked dominant allele B leads
Several X-linked genes
Person with normal vision can see more than 150 colors
One with red-green color blindness can see fewer than 25
Red/Green color blindness is by far the most common form
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Like the Y chromosome, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can be used to trace maternal
ancestry (because mitochondria are characteristically inherited from the egg)
Chromosomal Aberrations
Alterations of chromosome structure
- Deletion
- Duplication
- Inversion
Turner Syndrome
- Barrel Chest
- Webbed Neck
Down Syndrome
- Trisomy 21
Patau Syndrome
- Trisomy 13
Edwards Syndrome
- 3 copies of Chromosome 18 (Trisomy 18)
Cri Du Chat Syndrome
- Deletion in chromosome 5
Williams Syndrome
- Deletion of chromosome 8
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Wolf Syndrome
- Deletion in chromosome 4
Digeorge Syndrome
- Deletion in chromosome
Sex-related Traits
- Sex-controlled genes
- Genome Imprinting
Prader-Willi Syndrome (extreme obesity)
- More severe if it comes from the mother
Angelman-syndrome (neurologic defect)
- Happy Puppet Syndrome
Diabetes more severe if it comes from the father
Fragile X
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- base pairs, A-T, C-G
Genes
- The genome also encodes rRNA and tRNA which are involved in protein synthesis
Annotation
The sequence is like a topographical map, the annotation would include cities, towns,
schools, libraries
And, how do scientists use this info for scientific study to benefit us?
However, one human gene can make many different proteins while a mouse gene can
only make a few
DNA Replication
- The two DNA strands separate
- Each strand is used as a pattern to produce a complementary strand, using specific
base pairing
- Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand
DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
- DNA replication occurs in the 5 3 direction
Replication is continuous in 5 3 direction
Replication is discontinuous in 3 5 direction, forming shorter segments
- Proteins involved in DNA replication
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to a growing chain
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
DNA ligase joins small fragments into a continuous chain
The Flow of Genetic Information From DNA to RNA to Proteins
The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for
phenotypic traits
Translation occurs in the cytoplasm for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Transcription rewrites the DNA code into RNA language, using the same nucleotide
language
Overview of transcription
- 2 DNA strands separate
- One strand is used as a pattern to produce an RNA chain, specific base pairing
For A in DNA, U in RNA
- RNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction
Stages of transcription
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Genes are Important
By selecting different pieces of a gene, your body can make many kinds of proteins.
(This process is called alternative splicing)
- Medicine
- Pharmacogenomics
- Biotechnology
- Bioinformatics
- Proteomics
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
BIO 1
Other Terms
- Genetically engineered
- Transgenic
- Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology
DNA from two different species are combined to create a new species
- Goat & Spider
Goats that produce spider silk protein in their milk could enable researchers to
collect large quantities of silk
Selective Breeding
- slow
- precise
- modification of genes that naturally occur in the organism
GM
- very fast
- precise
- can introduce genes into an organism that would not occur naturally
Benefits
- Society
Increased food security for growing population and growth challenges
GM Plants
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
- Resistance to herbicides
- Resistance to pests
Bt corn produces an insect toxin, derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine
- Products of DNA technology
- Therapeutic hormones
- Diagnosis and treatment of diseases
- Vaccines
Stimulate an immune response by injecting
GM Animals
- Improved qualities
- Production of proteins or therapeutics
Benefits of Genetic Engineering and Modifying
Genetically modified organisms raise concerns about human and environmental health
1. Safety
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Potential human health implications
Potential environmental impact
Creation of biological weapons
2. Access and Intellectual Property
3. Ethics
Playing God
Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
4. Labeling
FDA Role: Expects the bio-tech companies to test their own products
GMO: Why
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Tuesday, 6 September 2016
Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases
Gene Therapy
- aims to treat a disease by supplying a functional allele but do not replace the defective
one
SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) was the first disease treated by gene
therapy
- Vectors are used for delivery of genes into specific types of cells, for example bone
marrow
- Gene therapy raises ethical questions, such as whether human germ-line cells should
be treated to correct the defect in future generations
Pharmaceutical Products
Transgenic animals are made by introducing genes from one species into the genome of
another animal
Environmental Cleanup
Biofuels make use of crops such as corn, soybeans, and cassava to replace fossil fuel
Most public concern about possible hazards centers on GMO used as food
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Tuesday, 25 October 2016
BIO 1
Concept of Species
- Lake Victorias cichlids diversified 100,000 years ago.
- Groups isolated by diet or female mate choice may have lost the ability to interbreed
A species can be defined as a group of organisms whose members can breed and
produce fertile offspring, but who do not produce fertile offsprings with members of other
groups.
- Females of each species prefer brightly colored males with the right color
- The more brightly colored the male, the fewer parasites he has.
- 200 species of cichlids have disappeared from Lake Victoria over the last 30 years
Some were eaten by the Nile perch, an introduced predator
- In the polluted waters of Lake Victoria, it is more difficult for females to choose brightly
colored males of the right species.
- As a result, the gene pools of separate species are mixing, as two species fuse back
into one
Speciation
- While the changes after any speciation event may be subtle, the cumulative change
over millions of speciation episodes must account for macroevolution, the scale
of changes seen in the fossil record.
Mechanisms of Macroevolution
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Tuesday, 25 October 2016
- Continental drift is the slow, continuous movement of Earths crustal plates on the hot
- The supercontinent Pangaea, which formed 250 years
- breakup of Pangaea led to the modern arrangement of continents
- India collision with Eurasia 55 million years ago formed Himalayas
The origin of species is the source of biological diversity
Speciation occurs when a populations genetic divergence from its ancestral population
results in reproductive isolation
many species reproduce entirely asexually and are assigned to species based
mainly on structural and
It can be applied to asexual organisms, fossils, and in cases when we dont know about
possible interbreeding
The ecological species concept defines a species by its ecological role or niche
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Tuesday, 25 October 2016
Reproductive Barriers serve to isolate a species gene pool and prevent interbreeding
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Thursday, 3 November 2016
BIO 1
Evolution
- Change in the genetic pool of the population
- NOT about the origin of life
- Explains the origin of life
- NOT about turning monkey into men
- Man evolves along with the monkeys not from them
Alfred Russell Wallace
Charles Darwin
Most people of his day believed that each species had been created by a separate
divine act.
Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive
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Thursday, 3 November 2016
Darwins Inferences
- Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals
- The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations
If some heritable traits are advantageous, these will accumulate in the population, and
this will increase the frequency if individuals with adaptations
Population
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