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CONTENTS Chapter 6 - PIER 146

.Preface. Design Consideration-Pier Components-


LoadingPile Layout and Stability-
Chapter-1STANDARD JKR PRACTICES IN Design of Pier Base and Stem-Detailing
BRIDGE DESIGN
Chapter 7 - ABUTMENT 168
Organisation Objective-Function-
Scope of Work. Standard Design Types of Abutment-Modes of Failure-
Practices-Design ProcedureBridge Scouring Protection and Drainage-
Furnishings-Standard Prestressed Design LoadingsCantilever Type
Beams Retaining Wall Abutment Counterfort
Retaining wall-Joints in Retaining Wall
Chapter 2 - HYDROLOGY 20, Abutments-Abutment For The widening
of Bridge.
Factors Affecting Florid Runoff
Flood History Rational Method-Unit Chapter 8 - FOUNDATION 322
Hydrograph Method-Regional Flood
Frequency Method-Determination of Part I: Design of Bridge Foundations
the Flood Water Level and velocity- .323
Computation of Back Water Curve- Shallow Foundations-Piled
Presentation of Sketch Proposal . Foundations-Lateral Load Capacity
of.Piles Analysis of Global Pile Group-
Chapter 3 - BRIDGE LOADING 65 Unc6rtainities of the Analytical Methods
Good Design Practice _
Loads Acting On A Bridge
Superstructure-Procedure For Part II: Design of Piled Foundation
Determination Of Loads 332
Classification-Common Types of Piles
Chapter 4 - DECK SLAB 104 Used in JKR Projects-Selection of Pile
Type-Design of Single Pile-Factor of
Pigeaud's Method-Westergaards Safety-Pile Bearing on Rock-pile
Method-Application Bearing capacity-Negative skin Friction-
Design of pile Group
Chapter 5 - BEARING, DOWEL BARS,
EXPANSION JOINTS 114 Chapter 9 - DESIGN CODES AND TRAFFIC
LOADING FOR HIGHWAY
Bearing: Functions-Types- BRIDGES 364
Elastomeric BearingsProperties of Current and Future Design Standards-
Elastomer-Basic Assumptions Limit state Design-Standard Highway
in Design ' Dowel Bar: Design of HA And HB Loadings-Secondary
Dowel Bar Expansion Joint: Highway Loading
Functional Requirements-
ClassificationSelection of Joint Type- Appendices: Philosophy of Limit State
Design Consideration-Design Load DesignDefinitions of Some Bridge
Anchorage System. Installation- Terms-A.storical Development of BS
Provision for DrainageMaintenance 5400-Terms of Reference for the Design
And Supervision of Bridges.

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Chapter 10 - WORKED EXAMPLE OF Ir. Nasaruddin b.Meor Abu Bakar


JAMBATAN DI ATAS SG. Ir. Rohani bt. Abd. Razak
ALOR PASIR KELANTAN Ir. Mohd. Murshid b. Omar
Ir. Dang Anom bt. Md. Zin
Data: Proforma, location plan, Ir. Wan Abdul Aziz b.Hj. Ariffin
cross section of river at Ir. Baharanuddin b. Che Zain
bridge site, general layout Ir. Sabariah bt. Bachik
i - vi Ir. Ng See King J
Hydrological Calculation Ir. Mohd. Hakim b. Mohd. Amin
Calc.Sheet 1 - 10 Ir. Dzulkifli'b. Abdullah
Loadings on Bridge Ir. Abdul Halim b. Marzuki
Superstructure 11 - 20 Ir. Abu Bakar b. Mohd. Said
Design of Rubber bearing and Ir. Ku Mohd.Sani b.Ku Mohamad .
Dowel Bar 21 - 32 Ir. Shamlan b. Hashim
Design of Deck Slab 33 - 38 Ir. Lim Char Ching
Pier 39 - 60 Ir. Md. Razali b. Hj. Yusak
Abutment 61 - 92 Ir. Othman b. Ibrahim
EXAMPLE OF WORKING Ir. Ahmeed Tarmizi b. Ramli
DRAWINGS Ir. Mohd. Hisham b.Mohd. Yassin
APPENDIX 1-8 Ir. Zainuddin b. Jasmani
METRIC CONVERSATION Ir. Shamsuddin b. Sabri.
TABLE Ir. Mustaffa Kamal b. Abu Bakar
Ir. Mohd. Zamri b. Shaari
SEKALUNG BUNGA Ir. Sohaimi b. Mohd. Yassin
Ir. Abd. Latif b. Mokhtar
'Setinggi*-tinggi terima kasih dan penghargaan Ir. Tengku Hishamuddin b.Tengku Abdullah.
hendaklah dirakamkan'bagi mereka yang telah
banyak menyumbang dan berusaha untuk men- Penyediaan Pelan-pelan
jayakan penerbitan Buku Panduan Rekabentuk
Jambatan ini: Puan Salmah bt. Wahab
Encik Kamaruzamau b. Osman.
Sebelum 1984 Encik Abdul Aziz b. Sabda
Encik A. Kamal b. A. Rahim
Ir. Omar bin Ibzafrim. Encik Arshad Marzuni
Ir. Kassim Junid Encik Abd. Hadi b. Mohd. Sharif
Ir. Hon Too Fang Encik Johari b. Yahya
Ir. Dzulkifli b. Abdullah Encik Mohd. Nor b. Zainuddin
Ir.-Mariyam bt. Ismail Encik Ghazali b. Jantan
Ir. Will'iam Tan Chee Keong Puan Siti Hafsah bt.Kusni
Ir. Ng See King Puan Hayati bt. Mohd. Nayan
Ir. Abu Hanifah b. Abdullah Puan Ooi Kooi Kee
Ir. Lim Cheng Hock Encik Zainal Akmar b. Yaacob
Ir. Lee Chee Hai Puan Salasiah bt. Othman
Ir. Yap Huat Hoe Puan Yeo Seok Kin
Ir. Yu Hain Teck Encik Zailan b. Jumani
Encik Teoh Jit Liang
Selepas 1984 Encik Omar b. Munam

Ir. Tham Kum Weng

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Jurutaip
3. To plan and implement projects of
Puan Normah bt. Md. Noor major bridges for federal roads.
Puan Ruhani bt. Hamat 4. To give technical advice to the JKR
Puan Sally Wong States/Projects/ Road brcmcK in the
structural design of bridges, bridge
Kakitangan-kakitangan Lain Yang Turut Sama construction activities and on the
Menjayakan Penyediaan Buku Panduan ini. transportation of heavy vehicles on
JKR bridges.
Puan Rodiah bt.'Mat Saman 5. To plan and implement research
Encik Abd.Hazim b. Ibrahim program to improve the design
Encik Mohd. Aziz b. Shamsuddin construction and maintenance bridge
Encik Onn b. Sulaiman in JKR.
Encik Tajuddin b. Hamzah 6. To participate in training activities by
Cik Endon bt.Mansor giving lectures and talks in courses
Encik Rosli b. Talib organised by the JKR Training
Encik Mat Yusof b. Hashim Centre and other units/sections.
Puan Jaswir Kaur
Puan Shaharah bt. M. Shariff 1.3 Scope of Work .
Encik Ishaik b. Indon
Puan Hawa bt. Mohd. Said The design works in the Bridge Section
Encik Md. Shamri b. Hj. Amin. involve the preparation of design
calculations, presentation ahd checking of
CHAPTER 1 working drawings, preparation of
specification and bill of quantities. The
STANDARD JKR PRACTICES IN time taken to fully complete a project will
BRIDGE DESIGN depend on the availability of the necessary
imformation, plans, etc. forwarded to this
1. INTRODUCTION section. The procedure in carrying out A.
design project is shown in the flow chart of
1.l Organisation Objective the Bridge . Design Section (Appendix I).

To plan and improve the development of 2. Standard Design Practices:


the infrastructure and public services in the
transportation system such as bridges, fly 2.1 Types of Bridges
overs & culverts for roads so that they will
be safe, of high quality and economical so The types of bridges designed by the
as to fulfill the country's social and Section are road bridges over high
economic development. ways, railway line, river and some
times pedestrian bridges. All bridges
1.2 Function designed are of reinforced and pre
1. To plan and design new structures or stressed concrete based on the length of
suggest remedial works for existing the standard beams available in the
structures of river,bridges/flyovers/ Section. See (Appendix II) Attempts are
foot bridges/culverts for federal, state now underway to.design continuous box
and regional scheme roads. girder bridges.
2. To co-ordinate the design activities
of bridge projects for federal roads
designed by the Consulting
Engineers.

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2.2 Design Codes 3. Design Procedure:

The design of concrete bridges in the 3.1 Proforma


section has been based on British
Standards such as the BS 153 Part 3A With reference to the flow chart in the
(loading), CP '114 (reinforced concrete) implementation of the bridge designs,
and CP 115 (prestressed concrete). the proforma is very important to the
In addition, technical memoranda pub designer to decide the arrangement of
lished by the British Department of the bridge for the preparation of a
Transport are also used. These sketch proposal .When there is a request
memoranda. are essential reference to design a bridge from other sections,
material because firstly, they lay down the proforma form will be sent to the
principles of design for bridges based particular section to fill in their
on their distinct features as compared to requirements e.g. location, t9pe of road,
other structures and secondly, they keep services and longitudinal cross section
abreast of current design of the river at a distance of 100 ft.
recommendation based on research. upstream and 100 ft. downstream if it is
over a river. Roads are classified by their
The code of practice on Limit State JKR standard types (Appendix IV)
Design (CP 110) is not applicable to
design of bridges because it is not The selection of the type of parapet for a
compatible to the loading requirements bridge is of fundamental importance to
of BS 153 Part 3A. A new bridge its appearance.It is a practice in the
design code incorporating the Limit
State Design and various technical section, to have either a solid concrete
memoranda embodied in BS 5400 has parapet or a steel railing (Appendix VI).
been available since 1978. However, Each can have visual merits depending
controversial parts of the code are still on the general configuration of the
under review in Britain and not yet bridge structure. In the case of a bridge
implemented in full. over a highway, it would be appropriate
to have.a steel railing so that the bridge
A list of design codes related to the deck will appear slender. For remote
design of bridges as practised by this areas, since maintenance is difficult, the
section is shown in Appendix III. 11 It use of concrete parapet is preferable.
is a practice in the section that all road
bridges are designed to HA loading and 4.2 Services
checked for 45 units of HB loading
guided along the centre line of the The service that are usually required by
carriageway. The procedure of the client.to be placed on the bridge
computing the designed live loads and structure are watermains, telephone and
dead loads is dealt with in the chapter electrical ducts. Brackets for the water
on loading. For a skew angle of less main are provided in the form of 'J' or 'L'
than 200, the beams can be used and if shape as in Appendix VI. The telephone
the skew angle is greater than 200, the and electrical ducts are usually placed in
beams should be analysed using the the concrete kerb and if there are more
GRIDP/STRU analysis computer ducts, they are hung by the side of the
programme that is available in the beam.
computer section.

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5. Standard Prestressed Beams PETUNJUK:

As mentioned earlier the arrangements of PPK - Penolong Pengarah Kanan


the bridge are based on the available
standard pretressed beams as shown in K - Kerani
Appendix II. These comprise of post-
tensioned I beams and pre-tensioned JKK - Jurutera Kerja Kanan
inverted T beams. The choice between
these two types of prestressed beams PB - Perekabentuk
depends on the span and locality of the
project. Pre-tensioned beams have the Py - Penyemak
advantage of being cast in the factory
under good quality control. But they can KP - Ketua Pelukis
only be in short length probably not more
than 20 m because of the difficulty in PL - Pelukis
transporting them to the work site.
OK - Operator Kamera
Post-tensioned I-beams can span greater
lengths and are best used when the bridge JT - Jurutaip
site is not easily accessible or remote.
Casting and prestressing on site will solve Pel.Pej. - Pelayan Pejabat
the problem of transportation of the
finished beams. P/TP - Pengarah/Timbalan Pengarah

6. References J/PP - Juruteknik/Pelukis Pelan

Apart from the design codes mentioned


earlier, the following are popular references
used in the section:

1. Concrete Bridge Design - R.E. Rowe.


2. Introduction to Structural Design
(Concrete Bridges - Derrick Beckett.
3. C & CA/CIREA
Recommendation on the use of inverted T-
Beams and pseudo-box construction -
Wilson & Manton.
4. The Analysis''of Right Bridge Decks
subject to Abnormal Loading - Morrice &
Little.
5. Design of Prestressed Concrete Structure -
T.Y. Lin.
6. Standard Bridge Beams for spans from
7m-to 36m - Sommerville. 7. Foundation
& Pile Design - Tomlinson.

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APPENDIX 1 A

A. CARTA ALIRAN KERJA REKABENTUK PERMULAAN


STRUKTUR JAMBATAN

MULA

PPK Terima permohonan, buat keputusan untuk direkabentuk oleh


Unit Jambatan

K Buka fail, kandungkan surat

JKK Kaji dan lantik perekabentuk dan penyemak

PB Kumpul maklumat struktur melintasi sungai

Tidak Ya

PB Minta bridge proforma Buat perkiraan haiderologi

PY Semak Perkiraan haiderologi

PB Rangka Pelan Cadangan

PY Semak Pelan Cadangan

PPK Luluskan Pelan Cadangan?

Ya
Tidak

KP Lantik Pelukis

PL Lukis Pelan Cadangan

KP Semak dan tandatangan pelan cadangan

PB Semak dan tandatangan pelan cadangan

* Bersambung dimuka surat sebelah

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APPENDIX 1 A

CARTA ALIRAN KERJA REKABENTUK PERMULAAN


STRUKTUR JAMBATAN

* Sambungan dimuka surat sebelah

PPK Luluskan Pelan Cadangan?

Tidak
Ya

OK Buat salinan pelan cadangan

PB Tulis surat

JT Taip Surat

PB Semak dan tandatangan ringkas

PPK Tandatangan surat

K Semak dan failkan surat / lukisan

Pel. Pej. Hantar surat / lukisan

TAMAT Proses kerja rekabentuk terperinci struktur baru

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APPENDIX 1 B

B. CARTA ALIRAN KERJA REKABENTUK TERPERINCI BARU UNIT JAMBATAN

MULA Dari Proses Kerja Rekabentuk Permulaan

PPK/JKK Terima ulasan dan kelulusan cadangan

Cadangkan konsep struktur / rekabentuk piawai


PB

Tidak Ya
JKK/
Luluskan ?
PPK

PB Siapkan rekabentuk terperinci

PY Semak perkiraan

Tidak Ya

JKK Luluskan?

KP Atur kerja dan lantik pelukis

PL Siapkan lukisan terperinci

Tidak
KP Semak dan luluskan

Ya

PB Semak dan tandatangani

PY Semak dan tandatangani

JKK Semak dan tandatangani

Ya
Tidak
PPK Luluskan

P/JP Tandatangani Lukisan

PPK/JKK Serah pada O.K

O.K Buat Salinan

TAMAT Proses Kerja Penyediaan Dokumen Meja Tawaran

* Bersambung dimuka surat sebelah

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APPENDIX 1 C

C. CARTA ALIRAN KERJA PENYEDIAAN DOKUMEN MEJA TAWARAN UNIT JAMBATAN

MULA Dari Proses Kerja Rekabentuk Terperinci

Terima salinan lukisan


JKK

Deraf/pinda penentuan dan jadual bahan


PB
Tidak Ya

JKK/ Luluskan format penentuan dan jadual bahan ?


PPK

KP Arah bagi kerja

J/PP Buat taking off, abstracting dan billing

KP Semak taking off, abstracting dan billing

PB Susun dokumen meja tawaran

PY Semak dokumen meja tawaran

JKK Semak dokumen meja tawaran

Tidak
PPK Luluskan?

Ya

JT Taip dokumen

PB Semak

JKK Luluskan
Tidak
Ya

* Bersambung dimuka surat sebelah

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APPENDIX 1 C

C. CARTA ALIRAN KERJA PENYEDIAAN DOKUMEN MEJA TAWARAN UNIT JAMBATAN

* Sambungan dari muka surat sebelah

Tulis surat
PB

Tulis surat
JT

PB
Semak surat dan tandatangan ringkas

PPK Tandatangan surat

Tidak
Ya

Failkan surat
K

Pel.Pej Hantar surat/dokumen

Pb/kp Susun semula data rekabentuk dan jilid dokumen untuk rekod

TAMAT

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STANDARD PRESTRESSED BEAMS AVAILABLE IN THE BRIDGE UNIT

NO. NO.BEAM OVERALL EFFECTIVE


LENGTH-(m) LENGTH-(m)

1. I-BEAM 31.24 30.33

2. 1 - BEAM 25.00 24.23

3. INVERTED T 18.90 18.59

4. INVERTED T 16.76 16.53

5. INVERTED T 12.50 12.34

6. INVERTED T 9.45 9:29

LIST Of RELEVENT B.S CODES & B.E TECHNICAL MEMO FOR BRIDGE DESIGN:

B.S B. E

1. LOADING B.S 153 : Pt3A ' 1972. 1/77.

2. R.C DESIGN CP 114 1/73

3. P.C DESIGN CP 115 " 2/73

4. PRECAST BEAM CP 116 -

5. COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION CP 117: Pt 11

6. FOUNDATIONS CP 2004 -

7,, ILASTOMETRIC BEARING - 1/76 r

8. NEW BRIDGE CODE B .S 5400 -

9. EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE - 3/78

10. PARAPET - 5

11. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR


FOOTBRIDGES - 1/78

12: EXPANSION JOIKTS - 3/72


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LIST OF 0. I.0 HYDROLOGICAL PRO- (i) Stream course for 100 m. on either side
CEDURES FOR HYDROLOGICAL of bridge
CALCULATION:- (ii) road approaches within 100 m.
of bot ends of bridge.
1. HP 1 - ESTIMATION OF THE DESIGN Drg. Not ..........................
STORM (e) Plan showing details of existing
piers and abutments and other
2. HP 5 - RATIONAL Mtd. obstructions, Drg. No:.......................

3. HP 11 - UNIT HYDROGRAPH Mtd. 3 BRIDGE:


Proposed deck level. R.L.....................
4. URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN Foot paths:
Stds AND PROCEDURES FOR Carriageway: clear distance between kerbs.
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
4. CONSTRUCTION:
5. HP 4 - REGIONAL FLOOD FREQUEN State whether:
CY Mtd. (a) Divided deck type is required:
.............................. or
PROFORMA FOR BRIDGE DESIGN (b) Alternative arrangemcnt will be made
for traffic di viation during construc-
Federal:.................... State:.................... Bridge tion:.........................................
No: ................ S7ungai: ..........*........ ............................................................
State:.,................... Route or
Road:............................ at. Milestone:................ 5.. SERVICES:
Accommodation required for:
1. STREAM: (a) water mains.
(a) FLOOD LEVEL Size:........................
Normal R.L. ........................ (b) Electricity cab1c ducts.
Exceptional R.L.................... . Date: Size:.........................................
.................. (c) Telephone ducts.
(b) NORMAL WATER LEVEL Size:..........................................
- R.L............... ........... (d) Lighting standards:..................................
(c) POSSIBILITY OF DEBRIS DURING
FLOODS:........................................ 6. GROUND CONDITIONS:
(d) NORMAL VELOCITY ....................... (Preliminary information, if available)
h/Sec . ................ ....... Whether
(a) Open type foundations feasible ............... (b)
2. PLANS FORWARDED: Good bearing strata. likely at
(a) Site Plan ........................... Drg. R.L......................... ........
No:............................. (c) Extremely poor ground ............................ (d)
(b) Longitudinal Section on: Mackintosh probes details 1n Drg. No:
(i) Centre line of Bridge ..................... .........
(ii)' 15 m. on either side of centre line of
bridge to a distance of 150 m. on either 7.STIPULATIONS BY OTHER AliiHGR'.k
bank of stream. IES I IF ANY:
Drg. No. .......................... ...................
(c) Cross-section through road embankment .............................................................. ..
near abutments. Drg. No.................................... ............................................. ..........................
(d) Plan Showing: ..............................

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NOTES ON HYDROLOGICAL CALCU- important catchment area characteristic in .


LATIONS FOW- BRIDGE DESIGN comparing f18od magnitudes.

1. INTRODUCTION Main channel slope can be determined by sim-


ple measurement from topographic maps. For
In the design of a hydraulic structure, hydrolog- non-uniform slope, 'weighted mean slope' can
ical calculation is necessary to determine the be used though it can be argued that in the
rate of flow or discharge that the hydraulic preparation of H.P. No. 5 the 'rough' slope had
structure will be required to accomodate. been used~so it would be more appropriate to
use the 'rough' slope in the calculation.
The design discharge is a 'hydraulic load' anal-
ogous to the structural load in a structural 2.3 LAND USE
design.
The effect of urbanization and land develop-
In a bridge design, we need to determine the ment on peak flow depend upon the percent of
design flood discharge for a certain Return the area made impervious and the changes
Period so we can propose a bridge with the made in the drainage pattern through the instal-
deck level well above the flood level. lation of storm sewers and modification of sur-
face channels:
Besides this, we have to calculate the flood
velocity to determine if the river bed is suscep- DID HP No.5 has recommended as a general
tible to scouring. guide, factors to allow for varying amounts of
change from undeveloped vegetation to agri-
2. FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD cultural crop. (Table 3)
RUNOFF
2.4 SOIL TYPE & SURFACE
2.1 SIZE INFILTRATION

The size of a catchment area has an important The type of soil and its surface infiltration
bearing on the response of the catchment to capacity affect the amount of runoff in the
rainfall, and consequently on the methods used catchment area. These factors are taken into
to predict flood runoff. consideration by the Runoff Coefficient (C).

Topographic maps are valuable aids in obtain- 2.5 STORAGE


ing the size of -cafchrnent areas.
Storage within a catchment area may be deten-
In the Rational method (HP No.5) the size of tion storage, which is the rainfall lost in filling
catchment area is limited to 0.5 - 40 sq. miles. small depressions in the ground surface; stor-
Return Period is the average interval of time (in age in transit in overland channel flow, or
years) between the years that contain an event, storage in ponds, lakes or swamps. Storage
greater than or equal to the one under consider- may also occur in flood control structures like
ation. It is a statistical measure of the probabili- reservoirs.
ty of occurence of a.flood under consideration.
The effect of storage on peak flows can be
2.2 SLOPE quite large. However, this effect has not been
taken into account in DID HP. No. 5, such that
Many investigations have found that next to catchment areas where storage effect
catchment area size, some index representing is expected to be serve as in the case of reser-
the slope of the catchment area is a very voirs, DID HP No.5 should not be used.

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Helpful data can then be obtained from the designer are:


controlling public agencies. (a) Photographs of structures during flood
(b) Maximum flood level
For urban drainage modified rational method (c) Distribution of flow and approximate
can be used velocities in different sections of the
in which storage coefficient.(Cs) shall be multi- stream
plied by basic Rational Method formula (d) Duration of flood
(e) Magnitude of flood
Q = CSCiA (f) Scour, erosion & sediment deposits
Where Cs = 2 tc (g) Damage to structures & adjacent
__________ property
2tc + td
These information may be obtained from the
and tc is the time of concentration local residents and.the related local public
td is the time of flow in the drain but, C is the agencies like the D.I.D.
composite runoff coefficient and shall be deter-
mined as follows 4. STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE
ESTIMATION OF FLOOD
C = A1 C1 + A2 C2......An Cn MAGNITUDES
_______________________
Where actual records of runoff from historical
' A
floods extending over long periods are avail-
Al, A2 etc. are n areas, each of relatively uni-
able, such records may be analysed to furnish
form land use or Furface character, comprising the basic design data.
the total area A.
And C1, C2 etc. are the corresponding runoff Unfortunately, in the majority of cases ade-
coefficients obtained from table below. quate runoff records are not available and esti-
mated of storm runoff by statistical method has
2.6 RAINFALL to be used.

The total amount of rainfall is most important 3 methods have been established by the DID,
in producing peak flows from large areas, Malaysia:
while the intensity of rainfall is . most impor- (a) Rational Method (Hp No.5)
tant in producing peak flows from small areas. (b) Unit Hydrograph Method (Hp No.11)
(c) Regional Flood Frequency Method (Hp
Catchment area characteristics and antecedent No.4)
conditions have a major effect on the propor-
tion of rainfall which becomes runoff.

3. BLOOD HISTORY

HISTORICAL FLOODS

The history of past floods and their effect on


existing structures are useful in making flood
hazard evaluation studies, including needed
information for sizing our structures.

Records of the past floods that are useful to a

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Table 1 Rational Method Runoff Coefficients for urban centres

Land Use Runoff Coefficient

Business:-
City Areas Fully built-up and shophouses 0.90

Industrial:-
Fully built-up 0.80

Residential:-
4 houses/acre 0.55
4-8 houses/acre 0.65
8-12 houses/acre 0.75
12 houses/acre 0.85
Pavement 0.95
Parks (normally flat in Urban Areas) 0.30
Rubber 0.45
Jungle (normally steep in urban areas) 0.35
Mining Land 0.10
Bare Earth 0.75

5. RATIONAL METHOD (HP No. 5) 5.1.4 The frequency of occurence of the


peak discharge is the same as that of
5.1 ASSUMPTIONS the sample intensity from which it was
calculated.
5.1.1 Homogeniety of rainfall in terms of
time and space 5.1.5 The coefficient of runoff C remains
5.1.2 The maximum rate of runoff for a constant for all storms on a given
particular rainfall intensity occurs if the watershed. (Catchment area)
duration of rainfall is equal to or
greater than Tc: 5.2 ANALYSIS OF POINT RAINFALL

*'Tc = Time of concentration is defined as Point rainfall is the rainfall records taken at a
being the time taken for the most remote single gauging station.
part of the catchment to contribute to
flow at the design point. The DID Malaysia had collected rainfall
N.B. Minimum Tc recommended in HP records for the peninsular and produced iso-
No. 5 is 30 minutes. pleths after statistical analysis

5.1.3 The maximum rate of runoff from a These isopleths can be made use of to calculate
specific rainfall intensity whose the storm intensity for various return period
duration is equal to or greater than TC and duration.
is directly proportional to the rainfall
intensity.

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It is customary in engineering practice to (f) Read off values of:


assume that, point . rainfall values are applica- X(10, ) )
ble to areas up to 1sq mile and for larger areas X(10,2 ) ) if Tc is between
reduced values are to be used (Areal Reduction X(100, ) ) hr. & 2 hrs.
Factor - Table 2). X(100,2 ) )

5.3 PROCEDURE X(10,2 ) )


X(10,24 )) if T c is between
5.3.1 INFORMATION 2 hrs. & 24 hrs.
. X(100,2 ) )
(a) Cross-sectional drawings and X(100,24 ) )
other site plans
(b) Topographic maps AND SO FORTH............
(c) Design Profoma:
(i) History Flood (g) Plot the above values in
(ii) Channel characteristic graphFig. 10 (Fig. 9 of Hp. No.1)
(iii) Client's requirements (h) Read off values of X(2, TC )
(d) DID Hydrological procedures X(10, TC)
(Hp No. 1 & Hp No. 5)
X (20, TC )
5.3.2 HYDROLOGICAL CALCULATION X(100, TC )
(i) Compute confidence Limit
5.3.2.1 Estimation of the design rain D = X(20) - X(2)
storm (use of Hp.. N0.1) Limit = 0.43 D
(a) Adopt Return Period T = 100 (j) Max X(100) = X(100) + 0.43D
years
* T can be calculated from Hp. No. 8 but it is
(b) Determine Time of the JKR practice to adopt T = 100 years.
Concentration
5.3.2.2 Flood Estimation
TC = 0.434 A0.117L
____________ Use of HP No. 5
S 0.467 (a) obtain values of X(10) & Max
X(100)
(b) Compute 110 = X(10)
NB
Note that A is in sq. miles ______
L is in miles TC
S is weighted .mean slope and reduce the intensity accordingly
(in percent) by the appropriate Areal Reduction
(c) Obtain values of X(T,t) from figs Factor
1-8 for T = 2, 20; and t to Table 2 - (Table 8 of Hp No.1)
envelope value of TC. (c) Evaluate C from fig. 11 &.,12
(i.e. t 1, <tC < t2) (d) Compute i100 = X(100)
(d) Plot values in graph fig.9(fig 10 _______
of Hp No. 1) TC
(e) Draw straight lines between - again applying the appropriate
points representing the same Areal Reduction Factor
duration.

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(e) Compute Peak discharge D = X(20) - x(2)


Q100 - F (C x i 100 x Ac), Standard error = 0.43D based on 20
value of F from table 3 being years record and return period of 100 years.
Land-use Factor. Note that Ac in
Acres (1 sq mile = 640 acres)

5.4 RELIABILITY OF THE RATIONAL


METHOD

5.4.1 It cannot be over. emphasised to


state that the results obtained from
the Rational Method should not be
adopted indiscriminately because of
the following uncertainties in the
method:

1. There is a degree of uncertainty


Jinvolved in the initial
computation of the qT & iT
frequency distributions in the
preparation of fig. 12 for values
of Runoff coefficient (C)

2. In developing the components of


the procedure, the TG
relationship and the selection
chart for C, averaging is carried
out in semi quantitative fashion
only.

Lastly, it must be emphasised again that the


use of any flood estimation procedures must
be complemented by sound engineering
judgement and experience. Flood
information collected from the local
residents in the vicinity can be very useful.

5.4.2 CONFIDENCE LIMITS

The computed value of an event for a certain


return period by Hp. No.1 is not the 'real'
value, and has a certain statistical uncertainty
attached to it.

The standard error can be computed based


on the work by Robertson: This standard
error can be used to construct two control
curves such that 2/3 of the estimate would
be expected to fall within this range.

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TABLE 2: AREAL REDUCTION FACTOR FA


(FROM TABLE 8 OF HP 1)

CATCHMENT STORM DURATION t (hrs)


AREA Ac
(sq miles)
1/2 1 3 6 24

0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

50 0.69 0.80 0.90 0.93 0.95

100 0.61 0.72 0.84 0.89 0.93

150 0.58 0.68 0.82 0.86 0.92

200 0.67 0.80 0.84 0.92

250 0.66 0.80 0.84 0.92

300 0.65 0.80 0.84 0.92

350 0.80 0.84 0.92

400 0.80 0.83 0.92

TABLE 3: LANDUSE FACTOR F


(FROM TABLE 2 OF HP 5)

DEVELOPMENT TO AGRICULTURE F
FROM JUNGLE IN PERCENT

0-25 1.00

25-50 1.05

50-75 1.15

75-100 1.20

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6. UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD 4. Calculate design storm using HP. 1 (P


(HP. No. 11) in)XT t
N.B. }
This method estimate total flood hydrograph for 3 hrs. storm } T is any design
for ungauged rural. catchments: This return
procedure is not applicable to urban catch Pin = XT 3 } period say 50 or
ments. one advantage of this method is that
for 4 hrs. storm } 100 yrs.
it can be used to distribute runoff from
Pin = X T,4 }
storms of varying temporal pattern. The
disadvantage is that.it is fairly tedious to 5. Calculate direct runoff volume, Q
apply. (i) Design storm < 3 ins.
Q = 0.33 P ins.
6.1 REQUIREMENTS (ii) Design storm > 3 ins.
= P2 ins.
1. It should estimates: ---------
(i) The peak flow (P+6)
(ii) The volume and time distribution of 6. Calculate Peak Discharge,.gp
runoff for various recurrence = Dp x A 640 x Q
intervals. ----------------------- ft 3 /Sec.
2. Account for significant differences in (Lg + D/2)
the catchment characteristics that effect Where Dp = peak ordinate of the
floods. dimensionless hydrograph
3. Utilize catchment data that can be i.e. charateristics of the catchment -
readily determined from topographical (table 5)
maps. D = Duration of storm
4. Should be simple and relatively fast to 7. Add baseflow component of 5 cusecs
apply. per sq. mile. Table 4: Values Ct and n
For Equation
6.2 PROCEDURE

1. Determine the catchment group (From


table 4)
2. Compute:
(i) L - Length of stream from the out
let to the catchment boundary (mile)
it
(ii) Lc - Length of stream from outlet to
the. catchment centroid (See fig. 13)
(iii) A - catchment area
(iv) S - Stream slope (Formula is as in
egn.(1)
3. Calculate catchment lag, Lg is the time
from half the duration of rainfall excess
to half the volume of direct runoff.

Lg=- Ct x [ LLS] n . . . . . . (2) .


---------
S

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Table 4: Values Ct and n for Equation

Catchment Type Ct n

Group 1 Whole catchment very steep and 2.0 0.35


covered in virgin jungle

Group 2 Upper catchment very steep and 4.0 0.35


jungle covered, lower catchment
reaches hilly and covered pre-
dominantly with rubber

Group 3 Whole carchment undulating with 8.0 0.35


variable vegetation including jun-
gle, rubber and agricultural devel-
opment

Table 5 : Values of Dp, Tb and Tp

Catchment Type Dp Tb Tp Tp/Tb

Group 1 1.06 1.89 C 0.94C * 0.50 *

Group 2 0.89 2.24 C 0.87C 0.39

Group 3 0.75 2.67 C 0.58C. 0.22

* Adapted for design flood estimation

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7. Regional Flood Frequency Method Example of Case 2


(Hp No.4)
Station: Unnamed point on Sg. Seminyih Flood
A total of 11 regions (F1 to F11) have Frequency Region: F4 (from Plate 1)
been defined in Peninsular Malaysia, Catchment area: 148 sq. miles (NB. same as
within which reasonably consistent for 4442) .
regional flood frequency relationship Mean annual flood (from Figure 16): 3600
have been established. Thes regions are cusecs
shown on plate 1, together with location From Figure 14, using the region F4 flood fre-
of the gauging stations used in analysis. quency line, prepare Table 7 shown below:
location of the gauging stations used in
Example of Case 3 (67% confidence limit)
It has not been possible to provide Take the same station as for case 1
rational flood frequency coverage for 'Q20 = 6260 )
the whole of Peninsular Malaysia. This is Q2 = 4360 ) From Fig.18
especially so for the areas between the R = 1900 )
coastline and the foothills of the central
and western mountain range. On such R = 1900 = 425 V
areas data in respects of flood peaks are n f 20
very difficult to obtain because of large
flood plain storage and tidal effects. Standard error of the estimate of

7.1 Use of Procedure Q2 = 0.54 x 425 = 230


Q5 = 0.86 x 425 = 366
This procedure may be used for Q10 = 1.23 x 425 = 522
estimating the flood frequency Q20 = 1.73 x 425 = 736
distribution within any of the regions Q25 = 0.43 x 1900 = 820
shown on Plate 1. There are two Q50 = 0.43 x 1900 = 820
situations, for which different methods
are used-to make the flood estimate: Control curves are plotted on the estimated
Case 1 : Stations with sufficient data to flood frequency curve for case 1 shown on
define the mean annual flood Fig.18. The control curves indicate that two-
Case 2 : Stations with zero or very little thirds of the (say) Q25 estimate made from
streamflow data. ' data samples of length 20 yrs. would lie in the
range 6439 t 820,cusecs, i.e. from 5619 to 7259
Example of Case 1 cusecs.

Station No. 4442 Station Name : Sg. Langat 7.3 Limitation


at Kajang
Catchment Area : 148 sq. miles (from Plate 1. This procedure applies only to the catchment
1) Flood frequency Region: F4 areas indicated by the position of the mean
Mean Annual flood: 4503 cusecs (From annual flood - catchment area lines on figures
Appendix A) 15, 16, 17 and reproduced in Table 8 below:
From Figure 14, using the region F4 flood fre-
quency line,
prepare Table 6 shown on page 47.

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Table 6: Reconstituded flood frequency estimates


(Region F4, Case 1)
T (y rs) QT/Q2.33 QT(Cusecs)
2.33 1.00 4503
5 1.16 5223
10 1.27 5719
25 1.43 6439
50 1.54 6934
100 1.64 7385
The Flood frequency curve reconstituted for station
No. 4442 using the data from Table 6 is shown
on Figure 18.

Table 7: Reconstituded flood frequency estimates


(Region F4, Case 2)
T (yrs) QT/Q2.33 QT(Cusecs)
2.33 1.00 4503
5 1.16 5223
10 1.27 5719
25 1.43 6439
50 1.54 6934

The Flood frequency curve reconstituted for the unnamed


location on Sg. Semenyih using the data from Table 7 is shown
on Figure 18.

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Table 8: Range of Catchment Area applicability for each region

Flood Frequency Range of Catchment Area for which


Region procedure is suitable (sq. mile)
F1 30 - 1500
F2 30 - 300
F3 100 - 450
F4 45 - 600
F5 30 - 200
F6 45 - 1200
F7 80 - 400
F8 20 -1000
F9 40 - 2000
F10 40 - 3000

F11 2000-- 10,000

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APPENDIX A
Region F4

MEAN ANNUAL FLO O D DATA MAXIMUM RECO RDED FLO O D DATA

Maximum discharge data

STATIO N PERIO D O F Station Regional Date Gauge Height cusecs cusecs Regional Ratio to
NO RECO RD Q .33(cusecs) Q .33(cusecs) (ft.above m.s.t) per Return Regional
sq.ml Period (yrs) Q 50

3413 1947-1970 3650 2900 24.4.54 128.3 3950 31.8 41 0.98


4411 1949-1970 8110 6800 30.10.55 67.8 10800 25.6 80 1.05
4412 1947-1970 2130 2010 4.6.66 134.7 2530 35.1 10 0.83
4421 1950-1970 8820 8250 1.11.55 26.8 10900 19.5 14 0.87
4422 1961-1970 4000 2900 26.11.67 118.5 5000 40.3 >100 1.13
4431 1948-1970 4000 5010 27.10.57 33.6 5600 20.4 4 0.74
4432 1948-1970 5220 3920 28.4.52 93.5 7450 39.4 >100 1.25
4433 1948-1970 1180 1500 14.9.64 103.2 1600 34 3 0.7
4434 1948-1970 1460 1700 2.2.51 107.8 1680 30 2 0.65
4441 1949-1970 4800 7450 11.6.54 27.2 6915 14.5 2 0.61
4442 1948-1970 4500 3350 27.10.57 89.5 7500 50.7 >100 1.47
4443 2170 2175 4.3.64 109.8 3190 38.9 36 0.97

(FROM APPENDIX B HP" 4)

8 DETERMINATION OF THE 2. Assume a flood level based on the


FLOOD WATER LEVEL past flood records (from Proforma)
FLOOD WATER LEVEL AND 3. Subdivide the cross-section
VELOCITY according to marked changes in
roughness.
8.1. Manning's Formula: 4. Assign values of Mannings
Roughness coefficienct to each'sub
8.1.1 Manning's Formula is used to section (Table 9)."
calculate the flood Velocity of the 5. Further divide the subsections
main stream according to marked changes in depth
v = 1.49 (R) 2/3 (S o)1/2 of flow and work out the areas (A) and
n wetted perimeter (P) for each
8.1.2 The formula is strictly valid for sebsection Work out the Hydraulic radii
cross-sections shaped like wide for each subsection:
rectangles having approximately R i = Ai
level bottoms --------
8.1.3 The hydraulic gradient is assumed Pi
to run parallel to the energy
i = no of subsections.
gradient
(i.e. uniform flow)
6. Compute the velocity of each
subsection by Manning's Formula.
8.2. Procedures
1. Draw out the cross-section of river
at bridge site to scale on a graph
paper.

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10. PRESENTATION OF SKETCH


PROPOSAL

At this juncture, we could have arrived


at:-'
10.1 Proposed deck level (Having
Maximum Permissible velocity or taken into account the depth off
nonerrodible velocity is the greatest standard beams to be used;
mean velocity that will not cause thickness of deck slab; premix;
erosion of the channel body (Table 7). bearing and amount~of-freeboard)
Vm is not to exceed this velocity. It is JKR practice to allow for a
free board of 0.3-1.0m to cater for
the debris brought along by the
flood water.
10.2 Number of-spans-required-and the
length of.each span.
10.3 .Whether .or not-bed protection is
required. with these infomation.
The discharge capacity should be able we should be able to put up a .
to accomodate the peak discharge sketch proposal. This sketch
Q100. proposal is to be submitted to the
If Qc < . Q100 client and the D.I.D for approval.
Repeat steps 2-8 by a ew trial flood
level until Qc is slightly higher than
Q 100 ,

* If the mean velocity is ' her than the


maximum permissible velocity this.can be
rediced by using a longer span bridge. Should
this turnout to uneconomical, bed protection
should s be provided.

9 Computation of Back Water Curve

When the crossing at the bridge Bite is


constricted dire to the construction of a
new bridgb, back water will be resulted
causing a rise in water level above the
calculated water level.
This rise in water level (if it occurs) has
to be taken into account in considering
the deck level of the proposed bridge.
This computation may not be necessary
if there is no constriction causes by the
new bridge.
Steps for. such computation are
available in the DID manual for 'Urban
drainage design standard and procedures
for Peninsular Malaysia'.

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TABLE 10. PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES FOR DIFFERENT


BEDMATERIALS

NATURE OF BED PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY(ft/s)

CLAY 7

SANDY CLAY 5

VERY FINE SAND 2 TO 3

FINE SAND 3 TO 5

FINE GRAVEL 5 TO 6

ROCKY SOIL 10

ROCK 14 TO 20

GRASS - LINED 7.5

* EXTRACTED FROM DID URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN STANDARD


PROCEDURE FOR PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

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APPENDIX REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AS USED IN THE 1. T,D. Heiler, Estimation of the


HYDROLOGICAL CALCULATION . Design Rainstorm, D.I.D.
Hydrological Procedure No. 1,
A = Area of cross section of river Ministry of Agriculture and
Ac = Area of supplying catchment Fisheries Malaysia, 1973
C = Runoff coefficient 2. T.D. Heiler and Chew Hai Hong,
D = X (20).- X (2) . Magnitude and Frequency of Floods
F = Land-use Factor in Peninsular Malaysia, D.I.D.
FA = Areal Reduction Factor Hydrological Procedure No.4,
A h = Difference in level Ministry of Agriculture and
iT = Average intensity of the design rain Fisheries, Malaysia, 1974
storm of return period T years 3. T.D. Heiler, Rational Method of
li = Incremental stream length Flood Estimation for Rural
L = Length of the main stream Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia,
/n = Roughness coefficient D.I.D. Hydrological Procedure No.
p = Wetted Perimeter 5. Ministry of Agriculture and
QC = Discharge capacity of a Fisheries, Malaysia, 1974
river cross section 4. M.A.W. Taylor and Toh Yuan Kiat,
Q T= Peak Discharge of design flood with Design Flood Hydrograph
return. period T year Estimation for Rural Catchments in
R = Hydraulic Radius Peninsular Malaysia, D.I.D.
S, = Incremental Stream slope Hydrological Procedure No.11,
S = Weighted mean stream slope Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia,
SO = Stream slope at bridge site 1980
t = storm duration 5. K.V. Lewis, P.A. Cassell and T.J.
T = turn Period Fricke, Urban Drainage Design
Tc = Time of concentration Standards and Procedures for
Vm = mean stream velocity Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of
v = stream velocity Agriculture and Rural Development,
X(T,t) = Rainfall depth of a storm Malaysia 1975.
with an estimated return period of T
years and having a duration of t hours.
X(T) = Rainfall depth of a storm with an
estimated return period of T years
the duration of which is specified
elsewhere.

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CHAPTER 3 (ii) Live Loads (HA Loading and


BRIDGE LOADING HB Loading)

(A) Unlike in the design of Buildings The Standard normal highway


where there is a complete and loading is called HA loading and the
comprehensive code of practise, no standard abnormal highway loading,
such code for the design of concrete the HB loading. Type HA loading
Bridges,ekist until recently. The recently comprises a uniform distributed load
published BS5400, for the design and combined with a line load across the
construction of concrete Bridges, is yet width of each traffic lane. This loading
to be adopted by the Bridge Unit Until is considered to be adequate to represent
such time, the design of bridges will be the the effects of three vehicles, each
in accordance with BS 153: Part 3A 220 KN in weight, closely spaced, in
(Loads) : 1973 and the C.P.114 (The each of two carriageway lanes followed
elastic analysis method). by 100 KN and 50 KN vehicles. It
Amendments and up-dating of the should be noted here that Type HA
various a clauses in the BS 153 are Loading includes a 25% allowances for
carried out by the Ministry of transport. impact.
(United Kingdom) from time to time
and are published in the Technical Type.HB loading caters for
Memorandum. As such, when referring the safe passage of an abnormally
to the BS 153 for loading, the current heavy vehicle of up to 180 tonnes
Technical Memorandum must also be gross laden weight with a configuration
refered to in conjuction with-the BS153. of wheels and axle as shown:

(B) Loads Acting an a Bridge Type HB loading is usually expressed in


Superstructure Units per axle.
The full type HB Loading (180 tonnes)
The following Loads are to be taken is commonly expressed as 45 units (1
into consideration when designing a unit - IOKN).or part of it, 371 units
bridge. They are: (150 tonnes) or 30 units (120 tonnes).

(i) Dead Load


Dead Loads consist of structural dead
Loads and superimposed dead Loads.
Structural dead Loads are Loads due to
the self-weight of the various structural
components of the bridge. It should be
noted here that a preliminary estimation
of the sizes of the various structural
components is necessary at this stage.
The superimposed dead load consist
of items like road surfacing road
furniture, weight of services (water
mains, Telecoms cables, electric
cables ...... etc). -

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(iii) Loads due to centrifugal force stability problems will inevitably tend to
On elevated roadway structures and be more sensitive-to wind loading.
bridges carrying highways that have
sharp horizontal curvature, (vi) Load due to shrinkagey
centrifugal force must be taken into temperature.& creep
account. This involves making
assumptions about the speed and These are horizontal loads due to
weight of vehicles, together with the forces generated in the beams/slab
intervals between them where the caused by shrinkage, temperature
loaded length allows several vehicles changes and creep in the concrete.
in line. A judgement may be made
on the intervals between vehicles, (vii) Seismic Loads
based on the information about These are loads due to earthquakes.
stopping distances given in the For Bridges designed in this country
highway code. The Technical no seismic force are taken into
Memorandum BE 1/77 specifies consideration. The only exception to
design forces to cover these this, is the Penang Bridge where
conditions in anticipition of the seismic Loads are considered.
requirements of BS 5400.
Procedure for determination of loads
(iv) Tractive/Braking Loads on Bridge Superstructure

The longitudinal force on a bridge STEP 1


structure result from the traction or Determine the dead loads & superimpose dead
braking of vehicles at the level of loads of all structural components.
the carriageway surface. It is applied
horizontally to the carriageway STEP II
surface. Determine width and number of traffic lanes

(v) Wind Loads STEP III


Wind forces though rarely significant Determine live loads'type,HA & HB. '
in small-span and medium-span
bridgeworks, can be critical in STEP IV
bridges like the suspension type Determine Tractive load,
where the span is large. Generally
any structure which is sensitive to

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STEP V follow is provided by the 'Summary of


Determine movement of beam due to tempera- Loadings on Bridge Superstructure'. It should
ture, shrinkage and creep and Ca1c . horiz. be noted here i that the total.dead loads are sup-
load. ported equally by the two supports.

STEP VI STEP II
Determine loads due to wind forces , Width and number of traffic (design) lanes

Guide-Lines for Determination of Loads on Very frequently, views differ on what should be
Bridge Superstructure the carriageway width for live loads (HA &
HB) considerations on a bridge and conse-
Within the normal scope of design work carried quently, the number of traffic (design) lanes. It
out by the Bridge Section, the loads on a is the writerts opinion that
Bridge superstructure normally considered are: the carriageway width of a bridge should be the
(i) Dead Loads clear distance between raised kerbs. However
(ii) Live Loads the more recent standards issued by the Road
(iii) Tractive/Braking Loads prdt\ch does not encourage the use of Kerbs
(Longitudinal load) but instead adopts 'Road Edge Stripping' to
(iv) Wind Loads demarcate the traffic lane from the cycle/
(v) Loads due to shrinkage, temperature & pedestrian lane. In such cases, the carriageway
creep (S.T.C) width should include the cycle/pedestrian
lanes. The justification for the inclusion being,
The loads normally not taken into considera- there is a very likely possibility of an errant
tion are loads due to centrifugal force (except vehicle going onto the cycle/pedestrian lane, in
for sharp horizontal curvature) and even more the absence of road kerbs. (see fig. 1 and fig.
infrequently, seismic loads. 2).

However, in special circumstances where a In the determination of Live Loads, two impor-
bridge is designed to be submerged, then the tant items need to be obtained initially.
lateral horizontal force due to the water current
and the bouyant force of the water need to be (i) The number of traffic (design)
calculated and taken into consideration. lanes
(ii) The width of each traffic
STEP I (design) lanes
Dead Loads
There are two cases of carriageway width to
The calculations for the dead loads of a bridge consider:
superstructure is quite straightforward. (i) Bridge with carriageway width of
However a preliminary estimation of the sizes 4.60 m or more
of the various structural components-, thickness (ii)Bridge with carriageway width of less
of the deck slab, premix surfacing ... etc is than 4.60 m
required. This can be a problem for those
designers attempting bridge design for the first In case (i) the number of traffic (design) lanes
time. The is obtained by dividing the carriageway width
importance of an orderly and systematic by 3.80 m and rounding up to the next whole
approach to the calculations of dead loads can- number.
not be overemphasized. Any haphazard
approach may result in a structural component
or item inadvertently left out. A good guide to

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Example and (ii) HA-KEL load (See fig. 3) and (iii) HA-
Wheel loads. This implies that the HA-UDL
Assume carriageway width = 7.5 m load is uniformly distributed bothways equally
From Table in B.S. 153: Part 3A:1972 (pg. 5) i.e. longtudinally and across the width of the
Number of traffic lanes = 3 design (traffic) lane. The HA-KEL load is a
width per lane = 7.5 = 2.5 m line load acting across the width of the design
3 (traffic) l6e. An important point to note here is
In case (ii) the number of traffic (design) lanes that the HA-KEL load is a movabl load (along
is obtained by dividing the carriageway width the span). The HA-KEL load must be placed in
by 3.0 m. This implies that there will be frac- such a position so as to cause worst effects. For
tional lane and the loading on the fractional example, in the design of abutment or pier the
lane will be proportional to the full lane. HA-KEL must be positioned over the abutment
or pier. In beam design however, the HA-KEL
Example must be positioned mid-span.
Assume carriage width = 4.20m ,
To wheel loads each 112KN force in line trans-
Number of lanes = 4.2 lanes versely to the direction of traffic flow spaced at
3 0.90m centres and having a contact area of 375
mm x 75 mm, the smaller dimension being in
Width per lane = 4.2 = 3.0 m. the direction of travel, to be used in the follow-
1.4 ing cases:

At this juncture, it is appropriate to give some (a) Where the member supports a small area
clarification on the concept of traffic lanes. of roadway such that it may be called
Rightfully, when designing, the lanes referred on to carry the weight of one or two
to should be called Design Lanes rather than wheels, and where the proportion of
traffic lanes so as.to distinguish it from traffic distributed load and knife edge load
lanes in the context of Road design. which would be allocated to it is small
and on cantilever projections not
From the above example Of carriageway width exceeding 1.80m.
of 4.20m, it is clear why the distinction
between the two must be made. In that exam- (b) Where deck slabs are designed as
ple we have the number of lanes (for Loading supported on all four sides and the
Consideration) = 1.4 lanes, which would not be distance between supports in one
a possible number in Road Design. It would, directions is less than twice the
in Road design, be a one lane or two lane road- distance in the other direction.
way. This clearly demonstrates that the number
of traffic (design) lanes of a bridge need not The values for HA-udl (spanwise) and HA-
necessary be equal to the number of traffic KEL (across the width of lane) are obtained
lanes of a roadway. from Table 1 and Fig. 1 of B.S. 153. However
the values obtained need to be reduced by the
STEP III factor 3 for lanes less than 3.Om width for HA-
Live Loads HA & HB UDL values (W= width of design lane) and for
HA Loads HA-KEL the values are 40KN/m (across
widths/lane), for lane width less than 3.Om and
When considering HA (normal live load) 120 KN per lane for,lane width greater than
3.0m. .
loads, it is important to note HA loads
onsist of three components; (i) HA-udl load

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Bridge with two or less design lanes shall be (b) Number of Design (traffic) lanes =3
loaded with the full HA-UDL and HA-KEL (c) Span of Bridge = 31.0m.
loads. However for every additional design
lane above two lanes, it shall be loaded with From Table 1 and Fig. Y of B.S. 153,
one-third (1/3) the full intensify. (see Fig.4). HA-UDL = 28.5 KN/m (per lane) - HA-KEL
The relevant clause pertaining to this rule is (Fig.1) = 120 KN per lane.
clause 4.1.3. Of the B.S. 153.
HA-UDL (for first two lanes) = 28.5 x 31.0
The following examples will illustrate more x 2.
clearly the computations for HA-UDL and HA- = 1767.0 KN
KEL loads. HA-UDL (for third lane) = 7R-5 x31.0 x 1/3
= 294.5 KN
Case (i) Design (traffic) lane width 3.0m. or Total HA-UDL = 1767 + 294.5
less Assume: = 2061.5 KN
(a) Design' (traffic) lane width
= 2.70m(w) HA-KEL (f6r first two lanes) = 120 x 2 = 240
(b) Number of Design (traffic) lanes = 3 KN HA-KEL (for third lane)
(c) Span of Bridge = 31.O m = 120 x 1 x 1/3 = 40 KN
Total HA-KEL = 240 + 40
From Table 1 and Fig.1 of B.S. 153, = 280 KN
HA-UDL = 28.5 KN/m (spanwise, per lane)
HA-UDL (Reduced) HB Load
= 28.5 x 2.70 = 25.65 KN/m (per lane)
3 The configuration of axles and wheels of a HB
vehicle is as shown in Fig. 5. The load per axle
HA-KEL (Fig.1) = 40 ICN/m (across width of is 450 KN and the total weight of the HB vehi-
lane) cle is 1800 KN. Very often the full weight of
HA-UDL.(for first two lanes) = 25.65 x 31.0 the HB load is also expressed as units per axle.
x2 The full HB load is referred to as 45 units . (1
= 1590.3 KN unit = 10 KN) or part of it, say, 37J units HB.
HA-UDL (for third lane) = 25.65 x 31.0 x (375 KN/axle).
1 x 1/3
= 265.05 KN Like the HA-KEL, the HB load is a movable
Total HA-UDL = 1590.3 + 265.05 load. For the design of abutment/pier or beams,
= 1855.35 KN the vehicle must be placed in such a position so
as to cause the most adverse effects. (See
HA-KEL (for first two lanes) = 40 x 2.70 Fig.6).
x2
= 216 KN In Bridges designed (checked) for HB loads,
HA-KEL (for third lane) = 40 x 2.7 x 1 x the Live Loads to be adopted for design will be
x 1/3 either loads due to HA (Normal) or HB (abnor-
= 36 KN mal) loads, depending whichever is greater.
Total HA-KEL = 216 + 36 = 252 KN
In Bridges designed (checked) for HB loads,
Case (ii) Design (traffic) lane width greater the Live Loads to be adopted for design will be
than 3.Om assume: either loads due to HA (Normal) or HB (abnor-
mal) loads, depending whichever is greater.
(a) Design (traffic) lane width
= 3.2m (w)

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STEP IV speculative than anything else. It is not


Determination of Tractive/Braking Load uncommon to see designer's assuming a
variety of figures. In the Bridge sectin we nor-
This is horizontal force acting longitudinally on mally assume two-thirds (2/3) shrinkage and
a bridge deck generated by sudden braking or half (1) creep has(already occurred at the time
traction of vehicles (see Fig.7) on the bridge. It of placing of beams. (See Fig.8).
is even more severe if the vehicles are heavy.
The determination of this Tractive load is sim- Therefore the actual beam movement,
ple enough and the relevant clause in clause 10 = Temperature shortening + shrinkage + creep
of the B.S. 153. However the present JKR 3 2
Practice predetermines a maximum value of
253 KN for tractive load for both HA and HB Knowing the actual beam movement, Plan area
(45 units) Loadings. of elastomer and it's-shear Modulus, (for that
particular 'Hardnesl';of elastomer) the horizon-
This is a slight departure from the B.S. 153 tal force due-to shrinkage, Temperature and
where the maximum load is 450 KN. The Creep, (commonly abbreviated to S.T.C.) can
reason for this adoption of a smaller load is, in be determined. (See Fig.9). Shrinkage and
my opinion,. due to the present system of creep can act in.only one 'direction but
control and approval of passage of HB- Class temperature can act in ;either direction,
of vehicles over a public road bridge. Any longitudinally.
heavier than normal load intending to use any
bridge has got to seek prior approval of JKR STEP VI
authorities. A condition normally imposed will Loads due to Wind Forces
be that the abnormally heavier vehicle to travel
along the bridge centre-line at a very slow Generally, structures that possessed stability
speed. No other vehicles will be permitted to problems, like the suspension bridges, will be
use the bridge during this time. In such circum- sensitive to wind loads. For the types of
stances, the force due to sudden braking and bridges designed in this section, wind loads are
traction is reduced to a minimum or none at all. not critical but nevertheless they have to be
Hence the adoption of a smaller load is justi- taken into consideration of design purposes.
fied.
Only the longtudinally component of the lateral
STEP V wind force is taken into consideration. The lat-
Loads due to movement of beam caused by eral horizontal'wind force is normally omitted-
temperature, shrinkage and creep due to the fact the ratio of the total vertical
forces to the lateral horizontal forces is so large
They are horizontal forces acting longtudinally that stability of the structure can be provided by
on a bridge generated by movement of beam the sheer weight (Live Dead Load) of the struc-
caused by temperature, shrinkage and creep. ture itself.

The temperature and shrinkage coefficients In the calculations for wind forces the area of
adopted may be assumed to be universal values superstructure (AW/s) normal to the direction
but the creep coefficients is dependent on con- of the wind in the windward side will be
crete cube strength and cube strength at transfer required. This AW/s will normally be made up
(for prestressed beams). of the height of the beam thickness of deck slab
and the edge kerb, in the case of the bridge is
How much of shortening caused by shrinkage of the metal. railings type or plus concrete
and creep that has occured at the time of parapet height if it is of the concrete parapet
casting of the beams and prestressing, is more type.

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The height of the live load is taken as 2.50m the superstructure and half of the lateral wind
from the top surface of the deck and shall be force on the live load.
assumed to occupy the span of the bridge. - Longtudinal Wind Forcez[( 1/4 x 0.7 x Aw/s)
Thus, the area of live load (AL.L.) normal to + (1 /2 x 0.7 x AL.L) ] (1 + n/16)
the direction of the wind is = 2.50 x span of
bridge. Case should be taken to ensure that
scree,ing effect of the concrete parapet on the References .
live load is taken into conside-ation. Hence the B.S. 153: Part 3A = 1972 (Loads)
AL.L. always refer to the net exposed area of CONCRETE BRIDGE DESIGNER'S
live load. In the case where the concrete para- MANUAL
pet is used, then AL.L,= (2.50-0.80) x span of E. PENNELLS - 1981
bridge. (Assuming concrete parapet height LECTURE NOTES ON BRIDGE
approx. = 0.80m). LOADINGS
BRIDGE DESIGN COURSE - BANGI 1983.
Another factor just simply referred to as 'n' in
the B.S. 153, (perhaps should be termed as the
leeward side factor) is simply defined as the
ratio of the distance between the windward
girders (beams) to the leeward girders (Beams)
to the height of the windward girder. This
factor, n/16 , is always less than unity and is
applied at the leeward side when determining
wind forces on it. The following shows the
derivation of the formulas shown i/n Fig. 10.

A. Unloaded Case

From B.S. 153, Wind Pressure = 1.4 KN/m2


on windward side, The lateral wind force
= 1.4 x Aw/s on leeward side the lateral wind
force = 1.4 x Aw/s x n
16
Since the two forces act in the same direction,
the total lateral wind force = 1.4 x Aw/s x n/16
+ 1.4 x Aw/s = 1.4 x Aw/s (1 + n/16)
The longtudinal wind Force is simply taken as
=1/4 of Lateral Wind Force.

B. Loaded Case

From B.S. 153, Wind Pressure = 0.7 KN/m2 .


Here however, the area providing resistance to
the wind will be (Aw/s + ALL ).
As before;
The total lateral Wind Force = 0.7 (Aw/s +
AL.L) (1 + n/16). In this case, the B.S. 153
states that the longtudinal wind force should be
taken as a.quarter of the lateral wind force on

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BS 153.: Part 3A: 1972 load initially assumed shall be checked after
British Standard Specification for the design is made and the design shall be
Steel girder bridges Part 3A. Loads revised as found necessary.

1. Scope of BS 153 . In determining the dead load, actual ascertained


unit weights shall be used, but if these are not
This specification is primarily intended to available unit weights as given in 13S 648 may
apply to the superstructure of simply supported be used, as appropriate.
steel bridges of spans up to 100 m. Where
appropriate, the requirements of the specifica- 4. Live load .
tion may be adopted for larger spans or other
types of steel bridges, but care should be taken, The live load is the weight of traffic and shall
in these circumstances to make whatever be of the type and magnitude specified. The
amendments are necessary for fixity at the sup- following standard loadings shall be adopted
ports, continuity and other indeterminate or where appropriate:
special conditions, such as, for instance, may 4.1 Standard highway loading
apply to opening bridges. 4.1.1 Loading. Standard highway loadings
are given in Appendix A.
2. Forces 'to be taken into account
These are:
For the purpose of computing stresses the Type HA. Equivalent lane loading which is
following items shall, where applicable; be the normal design loading for Great Britain
taken into account: but may be varied in intensity where
(1) Dead load. conditions are other than, those prevailing in
(2)Live load. Great Britain.
(3) Impact effect. Type HB. Abnormal unit loading. To be
(4) Lurching effect. used when specified by the appropriate
(5) Nosing effect. authority. In Great Britain 45 units shall be
(6) Centrifugal force. taken for bridges carrying the heaviest class
(7) Longitudinal force. of load This is an idealized load which
(8) Wind pressure effect allows for the weight of tractors
(9) Temperature effect. accompanying trailers.
(10) Resistance of expansion bearings to
movement. 4.1.2 Width and number of traffic lanes to
(11) Forces on parapets. be used in conjunction with standard
(12) Erection forces and effects. highway loadings .
(13) Forces and effects due to earthquakes, ice 4.1.2.1 Bridges having a carriageway width
packs, subsidence and other similar causes. of 4.60 m,or more. Traffic lanes shall
be taken to be not less than 2.30 m
Subject to the provisions of other clauses, all nor more than 3.70 m wide. The
forces shall be considered as applied and all carriageway shall be divided into the
loaded lengths chosen in such a way that the least possible number of traffic lanes
most adverse effect is caused on the member having equal widths as follows:
under consideration.

3. Dead load

The dead load is the weight of the structure and


any permanent loads fixed thereon. The dead

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Carriageway width (m) No.of lanes 4.1.3 Application of standardloading on a


single superstructure
4.60 up to and including 7.40 2
Type HA loading Type HA loading
7.40 up to and including 11.1 3
shall be taken. to occupy one
11.1 up to and including 14.8 4 carriageway lane and to be uniformly
distributed over the full width of the
14.8 up to and including 18.5 5
lane.
Two lanes shall always be considered
as occupied by full Type HA loading,
4.1.2.2 Bridges having a carriageway width while all other lanes shall be
of less than 4.60 m. Where the considered as occupied by one-third the
carriageway on a bridge is less than full lane loading, except where other
4.60 min width it shall be taken to wise specified by the appropriate
have a number of traffic lanes. authority.
Type HB loading. One lane shall be
= width of carriageway in metres loaded with Type HB loading only.
---------------------------------------- Where one carriageway only is carried
3.00 on a superstructure, all other lanes shall
4.1.2.3 Where dual carriageways are carried be considered as occupied by one-third
on one single superstructure, the of the full lane loading, except where
number of lanes on the bridge shall otherwise specified by the appropriate
be taken as the sum of the number of authority.
lanes in each of the single Where dual carriageways are carried on
carriageways, as provided in the one single superstructure two lanes on
table above. Where hard shoulders the carriageway not carrying HB
and marginal strips are provided loading shall be taken as occupied with
these shall be considered as forming full HA loading. All other lanes- shall
part of the carriageway and the be taken as carrying J, HA loading.
number and width of traffic lanes
calculated accordingly. 4.2 Standard railway loading
Where marginal strips are provided
without hard shoulders the number Standard railway loadings are given in
of traffic lanes shall be calculated Appendix B, in imperial units only.
after deducting the widths of the Where the remaining calculations are in
marginal strips from the overall SI units, the values obtainedain imperial
width of the carriageway between units shall be converted into SI units
the verges or raised 'kerbs; the using the appropriate conversion factor.
intensity of loading on the marginal
strip shall be taken as equal to that These are:
for the adjacent carriageway lane,
except where the adjacent Type RA. British Standard unit
arriageway lane carries HB loading, loading, for various gauges.
in which case the marginal strip is Type RB. Total uniformly distributed
unloaded. load, including impact, for gauges of
4 ft 81 in (1.432 m) and over.

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972 case may be, and o the condition of
loading for which the member being
This loading is based on the Bridge Stress considered is designed.
Committee's report of 1928, a brief pricis of
which is given in Appendix D. It is suitable (2) Where the loaded length required to
for railways in Great Britain and abroad with a produce the maximum stress in any
gauge 4 ft 81 in (1.432 m) and over and with member exceeds 30.0 m impact
locomotive and track characteristics similar to shall be ignored.
those obtaining on the main railways in Great
Britain. No addition for impact shall be made to the
live load due to pedestrian or equivalent light
4.3 Standard footway loading . traffic.

The live load due to pedestrian traffic 6. Impact effect on railway bridges
shall be treated as uniformly distributed
over the footway. For loaded lengths up A propriate additions shall be made to
to and including 23.0 m it shall the live load specified in 4 for impact
normally be taken as 4 kN/m' and for effects caused by the hammer blow of
lengths over 23.0 m as the standard locomotives, rail joints, and track and
uniformly distributed loads given in wheel irregularities.
Fig. 1 multiplied by a reduction factor In determining these additions due
of 4.0/31.5. Where crowd loading is consideration shall be given by the
likely the live load for the design of engineer to the standard and
members exclusively supporting or maintenance of track and roiling stock,
forming the footway shall be taken as the types and characteristics of
5 kN/m'. locomotives, and the. type and /
In the case of highway bridges each characteristics. of the bridge.
part of the footway shall be capable of Type RB loading, which is suitable for
carrying a wheel load of 40 M, which the main line railways of Great Britain
shall be deemed to include impact, and other railways having similar
distributed over a contact area 300 mm locomotive and track characteristics,
in diameter; the working stresses shall already includes an allowance for
be increased by 25 % to meet this impact and co further additions shall be
provision. This provision need not be made. For all other loadings, including
made where vehicles cannot mount the type RA, the additions for impact shall
footway. be specified by the engineer. For his
guidance three methods of calculating
5. Impact effect on highway bridges the additions, those of Foxlee and Greet,
Where Types HA ant"HB loadings the Government of India and the
given in Appendix A are not adopted, American Railway Engineering
the allowance for impact on highway Association, are described in detail in
bridges shall be to en as follows: Appendix C.

(1) An impact allowance of 25 % shall 7 Lurching on railway bridges


be added to the axle-load, or (where
there is more than one lane of A separate allowance shall be made for
traffic) the pair of adjacent wheel lurching, unless this has already been
loads, which produces the greatest included in the impact effect. 'Lurching
bending moment or shear, as the results from the temporary transfer of

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972 case of an inner main girder assisting in sup-
porting more than one track.
part of the live loading from one rail to No addition for impact shall be made to the
the other, the total load on the track lurching effect.
remaining unaltered. The transfer shall
be taken to increase the load on the rail 8. Nosing on railway bridges .
which most adversely affects the An allowance shall be made for
member under consideration. nosing, and this shall be taken as a
The proportion QL of live load on one single force of 10 tonf, acting
rail so transferred shall be calculated horizontally, in either direction, at
from the expression. right angles to the track, at the rail level
160k n and at such a paint in the span as to
QL = --------- produce the maximum effect in the
member under consideration. This
I +100 value is appropriate to the conditions
where k is a coefficient depending on obtaining on railways in Great Britain.
the type of spring suspension, In other cases the amount of force may
the weight and height of the be amended at the engineer's discretion.
rolling stock, and the type of Vertical effects shall be disregarded. :
construction and lateral rigidity On multi-track bridges, a single force as
of the bridge structure; specified above shall be deemed
n is the number of revolutions per sufficient.
second of the driving wheels of
the locomotives (see Fig. 6, 9. Centrifugal force on railway bridges
Appendix B);
1 is the effective span in feet, as Where the track or tracks are curved,
defined in 1.4 of Part 4. allowance for centrifugal action of the
moving loads shall be made in
NOTE. For conditions corresponding. to those designing the members, all tracks on the
ruling on the railways of Great Britain (4 ft structure being considered as occupied.
81/2 in gauge = 1.432 m gauge), and provided The centrifugal force due to the load per
the structure is adequately stiffened laterally, track shall be calculated from the
k = 1/24 and n = 6 for maximum speed, but following formula:
with a maximum value of QL of 0.25. For
w v2
conditions other than those ruling on the C = -----------
railways of Great Britain, and where provision 15R
for a greater lurching effect is necessary, it is where C = the centrifugal force per lin
recommended that the value of the coefficient ear foot considered as a
k be increased but to not more than 1/15 with a moving load, acting at a
maximum value for the factor QL of 0.40. height of 6 ft (1.83 m)
Where a member supports or assists in support- above the level of the rails,
ing more than one track, provision for the unless otherwise specified
effect of lurching need only be made in respect by the engineer;
of one of the tracks where these are two. or in w = the equivalent distributed
respect of alternate tracks where there are more live load, without impact,
than two, the track or tracks selected being per linear foot per track;
those on which the transfer of the load has the v = the allowable maximum
greatest effect on the member. speed of the train in miles
Lurching need not be taken into account in the per hour, as specified by the

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972 design of the structure, shall be taken


as the larger of:
engineer; and (1) A force due' to traction of
R = the radius of the track curve 20 % of the total axle loads
in feet. on the coupled or driving
No addition for impact shall be wheels on one track without
made to the centrifugal force. impact. When type RB
loading is used, 20 units of
10. Longitudinal force on highway type RA loading shall be
bridges taken for this purpose.
(2) A force due to braking of
The following longitudinal force 10 % of the total load on one
resulting from the traction or track without impact.
braking of vehicles shall be taken as
acting Where the structure carries two
horizontally at the level of the tracks, one up and one down, both
carriageway surface, and having the tracks shall. be considered as being
following values for all widths of occupied simultaneously, and the
bridge. The force shall be applied force due to braking shall be applied
over an area 3.00 m wide by 9.00 m to one track and, the force (in the
long, or the length of the bridge, same direction) due to traction to the
whichever is less, and in that other.
position which will have the worst
effect on the member under Where the structure carries more
consideration. than two tracks, the longitudinal
forces shall be considered as applied
Type HA Loading Type HB Loading to two tracks only, unless otherwise
for 45 units specified by the engineer, the worst
case being taken as'regards its effect
Span up 3.00m 100 kN }
on any part of the structure.
}
Spans above 100 KN plus 17kN }
3.00m for each metre of }450kN for all Some relief in the effect of the
span over 3.00 spans
mm but not }
longitudinal force on the bridge and
exceeding 253 kN } its supports may be taken into
} account where the tracks are capable
of transmitting part of these forces to
resistances outside the bridge
No increase for impact effect shall be made to structure.
the stresses due to longitudinal forces. Only No addition for impact shall be made
one such force shall be considered. the longitudinal force.

11. Longitudinal force on railway


bridges

Provision shall be made for the


forces due to traction and the
application of brakes. These forces
shall be considered as acting-on the
rail, and, for the purpose of the

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972 Windward girder, deck end


bracing. The net exposed area in
12. Wind pressure effects normal projected elevation of the
windward girder, deck
12.1 General construction, bracing and parapet.
Leeward girders. The following
Where the effect of wind has to fractions (not exceeding unity) of
be taken into consideration, it the net exposed area in normal
shall be treated as a moving projected elevation of the leeward
load (i.e. taken of such length girder :
along the span as to produce the
maximum stress in the member n /16 when the windward girder
under consideration) acting at the is a plate girder
centroids of the exposed areas as n / 16 + 0.5 when the windward
defined below. girder is a trussed girder

The maximum effects from the where n = ratio of distance,


wind blowing in either lateral centre to centre between the
direction on the loaded or windward and outermost leeward
unloaded structure., shall be girder, to the depth of the
taken, having regard to the windward girder.
disposition of the live load.
Where there are more than two
For conditions normally main girders, only that fraction of
prevailing in Great Britain the the area of the outmost leeward
wind pressures specified below girder as calculated above shall
shall be used, but where owing to be taken.
the position of the bridge or any
special conditions the assumed In cases where a leeward girder
wind speeds cannot be realized or projects in elevation beyond the
may be exceeded, the engineer windward girder, the full net
shall at his discretion specify exposed area.,of the projection as
different values. For this purpose seen in elevation shall be treated
the wind pressure shall be as subject to full wind pressure.
assumed to vary as the square of
the wind speed. 12.2.2 On loaded structures. In arriving
at the total effective area exposed
12.2 For maximum lateral effect to wind on a loaded structure,
allowance shall be made for the
12.2.1 On unloaded structures. A wind screening effect, based on
pressure of 1.4 kN/m2 projected areas, of the structure
corresponding to a wind speed of on the live load, or of the live
40 m/s shall be '. taken as acting load on the structure, or of live
horizontally and normal to the loads on each other:
sides of the bridge on a total
exposed area of the
superstructure made up of the
following areas as applicable:

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972

12.2.2.1 Highway and jootway bridges. lateral wind forces on the


A wind pressure of 0.7 kN/m2, superstructure and half the total
corresponding to 28 m/s, shall lateral wind forces on the live
be taken as acting horizontally load,in the loaded condition (see
and normal to the sides of the 12.2.2).
bridge on the exposed area of
the superstructure (calculated (2) For trussed girder bridges:
as in 12.2.1). and of live load half the total lateral wind
taken as a single vertical plane forces on the superstructure in the
surface having a continuous unloaded condition (see 12.2.1);
height of 22.500 m above the or, half the total lateral wind
carriageway or.1,25 m above forces on the superstructure and
footway and cycle tracks, as live load, in the loaded condition
applicable. (see 12.2.2).

12.2.2.2 Railway bridges. A wind pres 12.4 For maximum overturning effect
sure of 1.4 kN/m= (30lbf/ft2) On the bridge and its supports, the
corresponding to a wind speed following shall be taken into
of 40 m/s, shall be taken as account :
acting horizontally and normal
to the sides of the bridges on (1) In addition to the lateral and
the exposed. area of the longitudinal wind forces specified
superstructure (calculated as in above, an upward vertical
12.2.1) and of live load taken pressure of . 0.24 kN/ml acting
as a single vertical plane over the net exposed area of the
surface having a continuous bridge in plan.
height of 3.75 m (12 ft) above. (2) In considering the overturning
the rail. effect due to wind on live load,
the live load shall consist of
12.3 For longitudinal effect standard loading or of unloaded
wagons or vehicles of the lightest
A longitudinal wind force shall tare, whichever produces the
be combined with a maximum overturning effects.
corresponding lateral wind The latter shall be taken as not
force equal to half the total greater than 12 kN per linear
lateral force given in 1.2.2 and metre of bridge for railway
the two shall be distributed bridges and not greatet than 6 kN
compatibly. per linear metre of bridge for
The longitudinal wind forces highway bridges.
shall be determined as follows:
13. Temperature effect
(1) For plate girder bridges: a Allowances shall be made for the
quarter of the total lateral forces resulting from the following
wind forces on the super conditions:
structure in the unloaded
condition (see 12.2.1) (1) Any portion of the superstructure
or a quarter of the total being restrained from moving

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972

when subjected to variations of Parapets may be subject to horizontal


temperature. For this purpose in loads acting at a height of 1.00 m
Great Britain a minimum of -7 C above the level of the footway, ranging
and a maximum between 27 C and from 0.7 kN per metre to 1.4 kN per
49 C, depending on the location of metre, according to circumstances. The
the structure, shall be taken. maximum load will only be
Elsewhere the temperature limits encountered in extreme cases of crowd
shall be based on local conditions. loading.
(2) Any portion of the superstructure The value of the loading shall be taken
being at a temperature different from at the discretion of the engineer'.
the rest of the structure, due to the
effect of sun and shade. For this 15.2 Motorway and other highway bridge
purpose the maximum difference of parapets
temperature shall be taken as 8 C.
In determining forces and Reference should be made to the
movements due to change of Ministry of Transport memorandum
temperature the coefficient of on the subject.
expansion of steel shall be taken as
1.17 x 10-5 per C. 16. Combination of forces

14. Frictional resistance of. expansion The following combinations of forces


bearings shall be considered:

For expansion and contraction of the (1) The worst combination possible of
structure due to variations of dead load with live load, impact,
temperature or to other causes, the lurching and centrifugal force.
forces due to friction on the When a member whose primary
expansion bearings under dead load function is to resist longitudinal and
only shall be taken into account and nosing forces due to live load is
the following coefficients of friction under consideration the term live
shall be used: load shall include these forces.
(2) The worst combination possible of
For roller bearings with 1 or 2 rollers any or all of the'forces listed under
- 0.01 (1).to (11) inclusive in 2.
For roller bearings with 3 or more (3) The worst combination possible of
rollers - 0.05 forces during erection: .
For sliding of steel on hard copper (4) The worst combination possible of
alloy bearing - 0.15 any or all of the forces listed in 2, at
For sliding of steel on cast iron or steel the discretion of the engineer. 17.
-0.25 Erection forces and effects
The weight of all permanent and
15. Forces on parapets temporary material, together with all
other forces and effects which can
15.1 Footbridge parapets . operate , or. any part of the structure
during erection, shall be taken into
Consideration shall be given to the account.
strength and stability of parapets.

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972

18. Anchorage . of traffic lane are given in Table I and


Fig. 1.
The stability of the structure and its (2) One knife edge load uniformly
parts shall be investigated and weight or distributed across the width of the traffic
anchorage shall be provided so that the lane. The values of this load, which shall
least restoring moment, including be applied in accordance with A.3.I, are
anchorage, is not less than the sum of: given in Fig. 1.
1.1 x dead load overturning moment, (3) Two wheel loads each 112 kN force in
and 1.4 x overturning moments due to line transversely to the direction of traffic
applied loads. flow spaced at 0.90 m centres and having
Account shall be taken of possible a contact area of 375 mm x 75 mm, the
variations of dead load for repair or smaller dimension being in the direction
other temporary purposes to ensure of travel, to be used in the following
stability at all times. cases:
This margin of stability ifs so far as a. Where the member supports a
stresses are concerned shall be deemed small area of roadway,such that it
to be covered in respect of.all parts. of may be called on to carry the
the structure which have been designed weight of one or two wheels, and
for their working loads to the where the proportion of
permissible stresses in this British distributed load and knife edge
Standard. In complying with the load which would be allocated to
requirements of this clause it. is it is small and on cantilever
necessary to ascertain that the resulting projections not exceeding 1.80 m.
pressures and shears deemed to be b. Where deck slabs are designed as
communicated by the bearings to the supported on all four sides and
substructure will not produce failure. the distance between supports in
one direction is less than twice
19. Clauses to be referred to the engineer the distance in the other direction.
In this respect the edge stiffening
The following clauses in Part 3A of slabs as required by A.3.9 of
contain points on which the decision of this appendix shall not be deemed
the engineer is required and concerning as providing adequate support for
which information-is to be supplied at this purpose.
the time of inviting tenders.
Clauses 4.1.1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11(2), 12.1, A.2 Varied intensities of type HA loading .
13(1), 15,16(4).
Where a different intensity of loading is
required, Type HA loading may be varied pro-
Appendix A portionately, each item of the loading being
varied pro rata.
Standard highway loading When making any reduction it should be borne
in mind that an impact allowance of 25 % as
A.1 Type HA loading specified in A.5.1 has been taken into account
Type HA loading consists of (1) and (2), or (3), in this loading. This allowance is considered
viz.: adequate for conditions in Great Britain, but
(1) A uniformly distributed lane loading. may not necessarily be sufficient elsewhere.
The values for this load per linear metre

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972

A.3 Application of type HA loading Distribution reinforcement transverse to the


span of the slab shall be provided throughout.
A.3.1 The knife edge load shall be taken as For spans not exceeding 6.00 m its amount in
acting as follows: the area of sagging moment shall be sufficient
to resist not less than 5090 of the maximum
A.3.1.1 On reinforced concrete slabs effectively dive load moment at the sections considered
supported on two sides and on cantilever slabs and it shall be so placed as to ensure effective
exceeding 1.80 m. In a direction parallel to the resistance to transverse bending.
supporting members.
A.3.9 Where the wheels of vehicles using the
A.3.1.2 On longitudinal girders, stringers, etc. bridge can travel on or near the unsupported
In. a direction at right angles to the member. edge parallel to the main reinforcement of slab
decks, edge stiffening or its equivalent shall be
A.3.1.3 On cross members, including trans- provided capable of carrying live load as
verse cantilever girders. In a direction in line described below, in addition to the live load
with the member. which would normally be allocated to it.

A.3.2 Where longitudinal members are spaced A.3.9.1 Longitudinal slabs. That proportion of
at less than half the width of the lane the load- loading from Fig. 1 and Table 1 appropriate to
ing to be taken on these members shall be that a strip of slab having a width equal to one-
appropriate to a half lane width. quarter of the span, but not more than 1.50 m
nor less than 0.60 m.
A.3.3 The total end live load shear on any lon- Alternatively, the slab may be extended beyond
gitudinal beam shall be taken as not less the edge of the carriageway for a distance equal
than.90 kN per metre width of carriageway to one-quarter of the span, but not more than
supported by the member. 1.50 m nor less than 0.60 m.

A.3.4 No allowance shall be made for impact A.3.9.2 Transverse slabs. That proportion of
or dispersal of load in respect of the distributed loading from Fig. 1 and Table 1 appropriate to
load or knife edge load. a strip having a width equal to two-thirds of the
span.
A.3.5 No allowance shall be made for impact
under the wheel loads. A.3.10 Where elements of a structure. can sus-
tain the effects of live load in 'two ways, i.e., as
A.3.6 Dispersal under the wheel loads, where it elements in themselves and also as parts of the
can occur, shall be taken at 45. structure (as, e.g., the top flange of a box girder
functioning as a deck plate), the elements shall
A.3.7 It shall be permissible in considering the be designed to resist the sum of the effects of
effects of the 112 kN loads to allow a 25 90 the appropriate loading for each condition.
overstress. Where the wheel loads of A.1(3) are used, the
25 % overstress permitted in A.3.7 shall be
A.18 Reinforced concrete slabs shall be- applied in considering the sum of the effects.
designed on the basis of 1 m wide strips carry-
ing one-third of the appropriate lane loading as
given in Table- I and Fig. 1 except when using
the wheel loads A.1(3).

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Table 1. Highway loading. Type HA

Equivalent uniformly distributed load (U.D.L) to be used in conjunction with the knife edge
load (see Fig. 1)

Loaded U.D.L for U.D.L for U.D.L for Loaded U.D.L for U.D.L for U.D.L for
Length beams per longitudinal transverse length beams per longitudinal transverse
metre of lane slabs per slabs and metre of lane slabs per slabs and
metre of lane cross girders metre of lane coss girders
per metre of per metre of
lane lane.

m kN kN kN m kN kN kN
1.00 318.6 318.6 282 4.00 64.8 42 34.2
1.25 233.7 233.7 153.6 4.25 60.9 39.0 33.0
1.50 179.4 179.4 113.4 4.50 57.0 36.3 31.8
1.75 146.4 139.5 89.4 4.75 52.8 35.1 31.5

2.00 126.6 107.1 72.6 5.00 49.2 33.9 31.5


2.25 112.8 85.5 62.7 5.50 41.1 32.1 31.5
2.50 101.7 72.0 55.2 6.00 33.0 31.5 31.5
2.75 92.4 64.5 48.6 6.50-23.0 31.5 31.5 31.5

3.00 84.6 58.5 45.0


3.25 77.4 53.4 41.7
3.50 72.3 49.2 37.7
3.75 68.4 45.3 36.3

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Loaded Force Loaded Force Loaded Force Loaded Force


length length length length

m kN/m m kN/m m kN/m m kN/m


24.0 31.2 52.0 22.3 80.0 17.7 220 12.2
25.0 30.8 53.0 22.0 82.0 17.4 240 11.7
26.0 30.4 54.0 21.8 84.0 17.2 260 11.3
27.0 30.0 55.0 21.5 86.0 17.0 280 10.9

28.0 29.0 56.0 21.3 88.0 16.8 300 10.6


29.0 29.3 57.0 21.1 90.0 16.6 325 10.1
30.0 28.9 58.0 20.9 92.0 16.4 350 9.8
31.0 28.5 59.0 20.7 94.0 16.2 375 9.5

32.0 28.2 60.0 20.6 96.0 16.1 400 9.0


33.0 27.8 61.0 20.4 98.0 16.0 425 8.6
34.0 27.4 62.0 20.2 100 15.9 450 8.4
35.0 27.0 63.0 20.0 105 15.6 475 8.2

36.0 26.8 64.0 19.8 110 15.3 500 7.9


37.0 26.6 65.0 19.7 115 15.12 525 7.7
38.0 26.2 66.0 19.6 120 14.9 550 7.4
39.0 26.0 67.0 19.4 125 14.7 575 7.3

40.0 25.7 68.0 19.3 130 14.5 600 7.1


41.0 25.4 69.0 19.1 135 14.3 625 7.0
42.0 25.2 70.0 19.0 140 14.1 650 6.8
43.0 24.9 71.0 18.9 145 14.0 675 6.7

44.0 24.6 72.0 18.7 150 13.8 700 6.6


45.0 24.3 73.0 18.6 155 13.7 725 6.5
46.0 24.0 74.0 18.5 160 13.6 750 6.4
47.0 23.8 75.0 18.3 165 13.5 775 6.3

48.0 23.5 76.0 18.2 170 13.4 800 6.1


49.0 23.2 77.0 18.1 180 13.1 850 5.9
50.0 22.9 78.0 17.9 190 12.9 900 5.8
51.0 22.6 79.0 17.8 200 12.7

Note to Table t and Fig. i


Normal loading (Type HA) approximately, represents the effect of three vehicles, each 22 tonne
(220 kN) in weight, closely spaced, in each of two carriageway lanes, followed by 10 tonne (I00
kN) and 5 tonne (50 kN) vehicles. Design loads for short span members to allow for possible local
concentration of loads, the effect of two 90 kN wheel forces 0.90 m apart have been considered (i.e.
approximately two 112 kN wheel forces with 25 % overstress).
In general, normal loading is sufficient to cover 30 units of abnormal loading (Type HB) for loaded
lengths above 30.0 m and for slabs (but see A.5), and at least 20 units of abnormal loading for
beams having spans less than 30.0 m carrying decks with a weight similar to that of an ordinary
reinforced concrete slab. Where a bridge is definitely required to carry abnormal loads in excess of
20 units a check should be made.
A special case is a narrow bridge or one in which the carriageway is cantilevered beyond the beams,
where high stresses car.
occur under abnormal loading.

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BS 153: Part 3A: 1972

A.4- Type HB loading A.5.4 Suitable provision shall be made for the
dispersion (at 45 } or distribution of the wheel
Type HB loading is a unit loading representing loads where these can take place. .
a single abnormally heavy vehicle.
Figure 2 shows the plan and axle arrangement A.5.5 Members which occur in such a position
for one unit this loading. The weight factora for that they may be straddled by two axles or
each of the four axles shall each be multiplied wheels of Type HB loading may, if desired, be
by an appropriate number of units. designed by simple statical methods, subject to
All parts of the btidge shall be capable of carry- a reduction factor obtained from the following
ing Type HA loading, and shall be increased in table where the bridge deck is designed to pos-
strength, where necessary so as to be able to sess sufficient rigidity to admit of reasonable
carry Type HB loading as an alternative. transverse distribution. The reduction can be
applied td jack arch decks.

A.5 Application of type- HB loading.

A.5.1 No allowance for impact shall be made.:

A.5.2 t shah be permissible in considering the


effects of this loading to allow 25 % overstress
(but see 4 in Part 38 for total permissible
stress).

A.5.3 The contact area of the heaviest wheel


shall be taken as 375 mm x 75 mm the smaller
dimension being taken in the direction of
travel.

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Spacing of member Reduction factor Spacing of members Reduction factor

mm mm

250 0.66 1500 0.81


500 0.68 1750 0.88
750 0.70 2000 0.96
1000 0.73 2150 1.00
1250 0.77
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CHAPTER4 2.0 Pigeaud's Method


DECK. SLAB

DESIGN OF DECK SLAB

1.0 Introduction.
2.0 Pigeauds Method:
2.1 Application of Pigeaud's Method.
3.0 Westergaard+s Method.
3.1 Effect of encastre.
3.2 Application of Westergaard's Method.

1.0 Introduction

In addition to the distribution of the load in the


main longitudinal beams and the tranverse of the surfacing. Hence, for HB wheel of
diaphragm beam, there will also be a local dimension 15 in x 3 in.
stress distribution in the deck slab. This u = 15+2t
local stress distribution is due to: V = 3+ 2t
A) Dead load of deck slab and surfacing. where t is the surfacing thickness.
B) HA Loading. Ratio of a/b , u/a and v/b are.then calculated.
C) HB wheel loads. Values of M1, and M2. can then be determined
from Pigeaud's Curve, where M.1 and M.2 .are
This stress distribution will, in general, be functions of u/a and v/b for various values .of
restricted to. the deck slab but may be superim- P = a/b equal to 1.0. 0.9 , 0.8 , 0.707 , 0.6 , 0.5
posed to give the resultant stress distribution in 0.4 , 0.3 , 0.2 and 0.
the bridge as a whole. The minimum moments are then derived as
The boundary conditions of the deck slab are follows:
complex since the longitudinal and the tran- M= max. moment across direction a = ( M1 +
verse beams do not deflect equally. The prob-
0.15 M2) P
lem can be simplified by assuming.that the
boundaries of the deck slab are simple and M= max. moment across direction b = ( 0.15
undeflecting. A factor is then introduced to take M1 + M 2) P .
account of,the continuity over the supports. The where P is,the wheel load in lbs and M and M2
determination of stress due to uniform loading, in lbs in/in. Pigeaud suggested that for two cen-
i.e dead load and HA load, is quite straight for- tral load, as shown in figure 2, the value of U
ward and methods described in CP 114 can be and V should be taken as follows.
employed. For stress due to wheel load, it may
be determined by Pigeaud's Method or
Westergaard's Method. However, Westergaard's
Method is the most commonly used since the
conditions in most practical bridge structure
suit this method.

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Fig.2. Notation in Pigeaud's Method for two central loads.


u = 3 in + 2t } For load.as in fig.2 (a).
v = w + bo + 2t }
and

u = w + bo + 2t } for load as in fig.2 (b)


V = 3in + 2t }

2.1 Application of Pigeaud's Method. 3.0 Westergaard's Method


The notation adopted by Westergaard is as
Pigeaud's Method is most useful wh shown.
dealing with slab in which the width is less
than 1.8 times t e span. To take account of
fixity at the boundaries of the slab a factor
of 0.8 is normally introduced. Thus the
moments are derive for the simply supported
slab and multiplied by 0.8 to give the
approximate moment for the boundries.
Some limitations of Pigeaud's Method are as
follows:
i)Only central load can be dealt
with.
ii)When dealing with 2 loads, it is
not sufficiently accurate to replace
the loads by a single load having
an area which is dependant on the
spacing.
iii) It is not very easy to read accu
rately the values of. MI and M2
from Pigeaud's Curve. Fig.3. Westergaard's Notation.

The initial assumption is that the slab extends


sufficiently far in the direction + y without
being supported. by dia~ragms for it to be con-
sidered as an infinite slab Poison's ratio was
taken as 0.15.

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REFERENCE'
R.E. Rowe,, Concrete Bridge Design/Applied Science Publishers LTD

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CHAPTER 5 following factors:


i) Longitudinal movements due to
BRIDGE BEARING, DOWEL BAR AND temperature variation, creep and
EXPANSION JOINT shrinkage of concrete (S.T.C effects).
ii) Rotation of girders due to the effect of
BEARINGS IN BRIDGES dead, superimposed and live loads.

1.0 DESIGN CODE (CONCERNING 4.0 TYPES OF BEARINGS


ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS)
Basically, there are three different types of
Department of the Environment Highway bearings commonly used in structural
Directorate Technical Memorandum engineering. They are categorised
(Bridges) No. BE 1/76 according to material

2.0 FUNCTIONS OF BEARINGS Classification as follows :


i) Elastomeric Bearing.
i) To trgnsfer loads from superstructure to An.elastomer is either vulcanised natural
substructure. rubber or synthetic material-called
ii) To accomodate expansion and neoprene having rubberlike
contraction movements between characteristics. Movement and rotation
different parts of a .structure. are accommodated by compressing or
iii)To accomodate q nd rotations of deck shearing .the layers.
girders. Rotation occurs as the deck ii) Mechanical Bearing.
deflects under load. The bearings are made up of metal such
iv)To limit the forces actually transmitted as steel. Movement and rotation are
to the substructures by suitable design. accommodated by rolling, rocking or
v) To damp down vibrations and minimise sliding action of the metal parts.
the effect of impact loading in case of iii) Combination of Elastomeric and
elastomeric bearings. Mechanical Parts..-For bearings in this
category, elastomer is used as the
3.0 SOURCES OF DISPLACEI%ENTS rotation medium'while horizontal
movement capacity is.provided
3.1 Movement and rotations tend to occur in mechanically.
all types of structural members. In bridges,
these are generated due to the following
reasons:
I) Temperature variations
ii) Concrete shrinkage and creep
iii) Effect of prestressing
iv)Dead, superimposed and live loads
v) Tilt, settlements and seismic
disturbances
Displacements can either be in the form of
movement in the longitudinal, transverse and
vertical directions, rotational modes or any of
their combinations.
3:2 For the purpose of,designing elastomeric
bearings, it is the practice of Unit Jambatan to
consider displacements only due to the

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5.0 INITIAL SELECTION OF 6.1 PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMER


BEARINGS Elastomers can be produced with a wide
range of physical properties. Some of
Many small bridges need no formal the important properties include
bearings. In general, this is true for spans hardness, elastic, shear and bulk
below 10m, except where vibration is modulus which form part of the design
involved. In situation where bearings are parameters.
required, they are designed and supplied by
a specialist company. The criteria for the
initial selection of bearings shall be based
upon the following data :

CHARACTERISTIC ELASTOMERIC MECHANICAL

Vertical load capacity (KN) 3000 over 30,000


Horizontal load capacity (KN) 20 over 3000
Horizontal movement (mm) 70 Virtually
unlimited
Rotatian about horizontal axis (rod) 0.02 0.08
To resist uplist forces improbable possible
Vibration damping possible improbable
Maintenance negligible required
Contact stresses under bearing system lower higher
First cost lower higher
Life under proper maintenance schedule 45-80 100-120
(years)

6.0 ELASTOMERIC BEARING i

Basically all the bearings being designed


and adopted by Unit Jambatan are of,the
elastomeric type. This is so due to the
fact that the majority of bridges are
subjected to-loadings and rotations
which are within the capacity of
elastomeric bearings.
For the purpose of this design manual,
only elastomeric bearing will be
discussed.

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The properties that formed the des4.gn parame-


ters are as -tabulated below :

TABLE 1 (ELASTIC CONSTANT)

Hardness Youngs Shear K Buld Elongation


(IRHD) Modulus, E Modulus Constant Modulus, at Break,
(N/mm2) G (N/mm2) E (N/mm2) Xe (%)

45 1.80 0.54 0.8 2000 600


50 2.20 0.64 0.73 2000 600
55 3.25 0.81 0.64 2000 600
60 4.45 1.06 0.57 2000 450
65 5.85 1.37 0.54 2000 400

IRHD denotes International Rubber Hardness iii) The thickness of bearing pads and
whose scale extends from 0 (very soft) to 100 strips shall be not less than 10mm nor
(very hard). greater than 25mm. (Not counting inner
rubber slabs of laminated bearings).
K is an empirically determined constant. iv)The thickness of the steel plate
reinforcement shall be not less than
6.2 THREE TYPES OF ELASTOMERIC 2(t1 + t2.,) V, but the thickness shall
BEARINGS --------------
A1.fs
i) A laminated bearing consists of one
be not less than 3mm for outer plates
or more elastomer slabs bonded to
and not less than 1.5mm for internal
metal plates so as to form a
plates. A greater thickness of
sandwich.
ii) A bearing pad is a single
unreinforced elastomer slab.
iii) A bearing strip is a continuous
bearing pad for which B/L is greater
than 5.

6.3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN DESIGN

i) The elastomer is an elastic and


almost incompressible material; its
bulk modulus has to be taken into
account where appropriate.
ii) There is no relative movement
between elastomer and
reinforcement plate at an interface.

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ii) Rotational Capacity of bearing shall be On the same plan area, a thinner block
equal to or greater than rotation of girder will be stiffer vertically.
at support. An additional tolerance of
0.005 radian shall be added to the ii) Partial Slippage.
rotation of girders to cater for the seating Under compressive loading, partial slip
allowance. page will occur to the unbonded layers
iii) Factors on stability of bearing. of an elastomeric bearing. Thus, the
iv) Friction location.This is to ascertain that vertical stiffeness of the unbonded layers
the bearing will not be displaced from are reduced.
the original position during service. To compensate for this, the two outer
layers of a laminated bearing is treated
6.6 STATIC BEHAVIOUR OF as being 40% greater than the actual
ELASTOMER UNDER thickness. For the inner layers, since
COMPRESSION they are bonded on both sides by the
steel plates, the effective thickness is
When a block of elastomer is loaded in equal to the actual thickness. For pad
compression, its vertical stiffeness and strip bearings, their thickness is
depends upon its freedom to bulge at the treated as being 80% greater than the
sides. This is expressed in terms of the actual thickness
shape factor.

The shape factor depends on the


dimensions ans shapes of the elastomer
slab.
The Vertical stiffeness of the block
increases rapidly with the shape factor.

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7.0 LOCATION OF BEARING BY


FRICTION

When a bearing is subjected to direct


shear strain, horizontal force is induced
which tends to displace the bearing
from its original position. To prevent
this happening, there must be sufficient
minimum vertical load acting on the
bearing. Assuming the coefficient of
friction between elastomer and concrete
seating of 0.33 and a coefficient of 0.25
with steel seating, the friction location is
checked as follow :

Minimum Compressive Force, V min.


----------------------------------------------- > 3 for elastomer in contact
Maximum Horizontal Force, H max with concrete
(> 4 for steel contact)
V min = Dead Load Alone
H Max = Ao G e b

7.1 DESIGN EXAMPLE

The bridge designer can either select


proprietory elastomeric bearings, or
design bearings in detail, or even simply
specify the requisite loads, movements
and rotations, and then approve the
bearing details submitted by the
contractor. Standard. proprietory
bearings, even if not fully loaded, will
prove to be cheaper than special designs.
The design of elastomeric bearings is
Note
essentially a trial and error process.
The rotation of the beam shall include an
The plan size of a bearing is normally
additional tolerance of 0.005 radians to.cater
governed by the. width of the beam it
for the seating allowgnce. Thus, the minimum
supports and the width of the abutment
rotational capacity of the bearing shall.be 0.006
seating in the direction of the bridge
and 0.008 radians respectively under HA and
span.
HB loadings.
An elastomeric bearing shall now be
designed to satisfy the following
requirements:-

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The carrying capacity of a free P nd bearing,


subjected to horizontal movement, can be taken
to be about 0.8 S N/mm2, as a first guess.
Normally,, laminating is required in order to
provide sufficient horizontal movement, while
maintaining the vertical load carrying capacity.
Plain.pad.may be sufficient if horizontal
movement is very small, but not in this case.
Horizontal movement of about half the total
thickness of elastomer can be used as a starting
point in design.

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DESIGN OF DOWEL BARS (Note: The load due to S.T.C is such that F- Z
A,G eb,)
1) Elastomeric bearing can he conveniently
subdivided into two types 'fixed', where the 5) TYPICAL CALCULATION
support member can only rotate, all
horizontal movements. being restrained, and A) Design suibtable dowel bars at the fixed
'free', where the member can rctate and also end of a bridge span to transfer the
move horizontally. horizontal forces to the abutment. Input
datas are as follwos :
2) The fixed state is provided by dowels
passing from the beam. to its support. In
order to make provision for the possible
replacement of bearings, these dowels are
best placed between bearings, but where
space is restricted they car. pass through
holes in the bearing. Dowels usually need an
elastomeric cap at one end to permit the
superstructure to rotate relative to the sub
structure. The dowels must penetrate to
sufficient depth to resist the horizontal load,
without inducing excessive stresses in the
concrete. In all cases the doi,lels should be
long enough to reach the main reinforcement
in the support.

3) Dowel bars at one end of a bridge span will


form an expansion centre line, longitudinal
movements of the deck will be accomodated
by the bearings at the free end, horizontal
loads will be carried by the dowels.
It should be remembered that horizontal
forces will be transmitted to the support at
the tree end, due to the resistance of the
bearings there to the horizontal movements,
and this same force will be transmitted
through the superstructure to the fixed end
dowels. In Unit Jambatan,this force is
calculated on the basis of the movement of
the deck due /to changes in temperature,
shrinkage and creep of concrete ( S.T.C ).

4) The dowel bars shall be designed to resist a


combination of three types of horizontal load
as follows:
(i) Tractive load
(ii) Wind load.
(iii)Load due to the effect of S.T.C above.

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EXPANSION JOINTS vii) Facilities easy inspection, maintenance


and repair
1) GENERAL
The expansion joint is an integral part of any 4) CLASSIFICATION OF EXPANSION
bridge structure and should be considered at JOINTS.
an early stage in the design. Joints which
are properly designed, installed by specialist i) Open Gap Joint.
operatives together with reasonable The joint comprises of two edges which
maintenance should give trouble free are spaced some distance apart and not
service within its lifespan. Expansion joint interconnected by. any load supporting
is situated in the most vulnerable position connection. There are two categories of
on the bridge deck where it is subjected to open gap joint :
impact.loading, vibration and exposed to
dirt, ozone attack and other corrosive a) Buried joint under continuous premix
chemicals. surfacing. Most of the expansion joints
being adopted by Unit Jambatan fall
2) FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS . under this category.
These are as follows b)Exposed joints which are installed to
flush with the wearing surface of
i) To accommodate movements and with the bridge deck. The joint may be
stand loadings. completely opened or be sealed up with,
ii) To cater for operational needs. say, neoprene sealing element.

The sources of movements to be ii) Covered Gap Joint ( or Bridged Joint ).


accommodated by an expansion joint are The gap is bridged by a sliding plate or
identical to that of a bearing.For this reason, some other transverse structural element.
expansion joints and bearings of any The structural element will be subjected
particular span of a bridge shall be designed to a combination of vertical and
to be compatible. An expansion joint shall horizontal loads.
be designed to withstand a combination of iii) Composite Expansion Joint.
vertical and horizontal loads. This shall be The joint comprises of a gap bridging
discussed later under the heading of design element for carrying the traffic loads
load. together with a deformable closing seal
element to ensure continuity of the
The operational requirements for joints are carriageway surface.
as follows
i)Possess good riding characteristics.
ii) Not a skid hazard or danger.
iii) Silent and vibration free
iv) Be sealed against1water and foreign
matter or make provision for their
disposal.
v) Be capable of absorbing the various types
and ranges of movement., without being
extruded or expelled from position.
vi) Riding surface of joint must be able to
withstand wear and tear and be durable
against petroleum product, weather, etc.

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5) SELECTION OF JOINT TYPE joints are installed in precompressed


This is largely determined by the total condition:
range.of movement to be expected. - During placing+fconcrete or epoxy
mortar, the joint assembly shall be
6) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . immovable both in vertical and horizontal
Expansion gap should be straight of directions.
uniform width and have a minimum gap of - Can be achieved by :-
6mm at maximum temperature. a) Clamp down the joint assembly.
b) Install under uniform temperature
7) DESIGN LOAD condition.
a) Vertical Two 112 KN wheel loads, 0.9m iv) The joint shall hot be subjected to any
apart, with a contact area of 265 x kind of loading until /all the materials
265mm. It shall be applied to the edge have gained the required strength.
ef.the expansion gap. It.may be spread
tranversely over such a length as is 10) PROVISION FOR DRAINAGE
justified by the continuity and rigidity of Water and other foreign products shall not
the joint subject to a maximum of be allowed to reach the bearings, girders,
450mm on either side of the centre line pier head etc, Provision must be made to
of each wheel. prevent the ingress of surface water
b) Horizontal through the joint.
A traffic force of 60KN/m run o joint, i) For water tight joints, ensure that the
acting at load level.. sealing agents are performing in the
manner intended.
8) ANCHORAGE SYSTEM ii) For large open joints, Special drainage
i) The joints are severely loaded. Forces techniques must be adopted to deal with
involved are vertical, horizontal together surface water, earth etc, easy access for
with twisting moments. cleaning shall be provided.
ii) The common types of anchorage iii) Provide with proper Camber and
system: . crossfall within the carriageway surface
- Epoxy mortar nosing. around the joint to discharge water.
- Anchor bars. v) Water that collects and runs along the
- Holding down bolts ( May be kerbs sould be intercepted by suitable
prestressed ). drainage outlet before it reaches the
iii) Stresses in concrete, structural steel, joints
epoxy mortar etc must be within the
permissible values. 11) MAINTENANCE
It is essential that expansion joints are
9) INSTALLATION OF EXPANSION easily accessible for the purpose of
JOINT maintenance.
i) The whole operation shall receive
competent supervision. Only.proper i) Joints shall be regularly inspected to
materials and equipment shall be used, ensure that no parts are loose, the
in accordancewith the manufacturers sealing materials are intact, and drainage
instructions. systems are working properly.
ii) Prior to installing the joint system, the
bedding shall be prepared accordingly ii) Safeguard the screws and bolts against
without traces of dirt, oil and other corrosion. Holding down bolts need to
impurities. be retentioned to the required torque
iii) Composite meoprene expansion once they are.loose.

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iii) Ensure that no debris are left to


accumulate in the joint gape This will
induce enormous restraining forces
causing damaging effects.
iv) The road surface should be maintained
to the level of the joint and in no case
should the difference in level become
more than 6mm.

References.

1. Department of the Environment Highways


Directorate. Technical Memorandum B.E.
1/76.
Design Requirements For Elastomeric
Bridge Bearings.

2. Bearings in Structural Engineering.


J.E. Long M. Sc. M.I.C.E., M.I. Structural
Engineering. Newnes - Butterworths,
London. (1974)

3. The Theory and Practice of Bearings and


Expansion Joints For Bridges. David J. Lee
B. Sc. Tech, DIC, C. Eng., FILE, FI
Struct. E.
Cement & }Concrete Association (1971)

4. Expansion Joints in Bridges and Concrete


Roads. - W. Koster.
Maclaren & Sons, London..

5. Department of the Environment Highways


Directorate. Technical Memorandum BE
3/72.
Design Requirement for Expansion Joints.

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