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radio

handbook
seventeenth edition
William I. Orr, W6SAI
radio
handbook
seventeenth edition

William I. Orr, WESAI

EDITORS AND ENGINEERS, LTD.


NEW AUGUSTA, INDIANA 46268

www.americanradiohistory.com
SEVENTEENTH EDITION

FIRST PRINTING
SECOND PRINTING
-- 1967
1968
THIRD PRINTING -1969
RADIO HANDBOOK

Copyright 1967 by Editors and Engineers, Ltd., New Augusta,


Indiana. Printed in the United States of America.

All rights reserved. Reproduction or use, without express


permission, of editorial or pictorial content, in any manner,
is prohibited. No patent liability is assumed with respect
to the use of the information contained herein.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 40 -33904

"Rodio Handbook" is also available on special order in Spanish.

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Preface
Vast changes have taken place in the Amateur Radio Service throughout the past
two decades. The amateur station has literally moved from the garage or home work-
shop into the living room, and ham gear has forsaken the black -crackle panel and the
six -foot relay rack for the streamlined, sleek, miniaturized desk -top cabinet. This
progression has been brought about by the sweeping change from amplitude modu-
lation (a -m) to single -sideband transmission, heralding a whole new field of technical
advances in the communication art. Bandswitching linear amplifiers, compact solid -
state power supplies, and highly stable variable-frequency oscillators (all of which
were practically unknown twenty years ago) are modern counterparts of the bulky
plug -in coil class-C amplifier, the cumbersome modulators, and the weighty power
supplies that identified the amateur station of the late "forties."
The gradual eclipse of amplitude modulation has also been stimulated by the advent
of the SSB transceiver and its unique VOX -operated break-in ability to make use of
a single communications channel for local and long- distance contacts. In addition,
the elimination of the interstation heterodyne and selective a -m fading by the wide-
spread use of SSB has permitted more efficient occupancy of the high- frequency
amateur bands by double the number of stations compared to twenty years ago.
Today's radio equipment bears little resemblance to the rough- and -ready ham gear
of the pre -TVI, pre -SSB era of the relay rack and the breadboard. Today's radio
amateur, moreover, is a more proficient, sophisticated operator than his counterpart
of twenty or thirty years ago. The horizons of the Amateur Radio Service have been
greatly expanded as a result of this worthwhile revolution in communication tech-
niques and practices. It is hoped that this trend will be evident in the years to come.
The author is pleased to note that the RADIO HANDBOOK has been a force in
advancing the state of the art of these various and diversified radio amateur develop-
ments, many of which are reflected in this new edition of the handbook.
Over thirty years ago the historic first edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK was
published as a unique, independent communications manual written especially for the
advanced radio amateur and electronics engineer. Since that early time, each succeed-
ing edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK has -led the rapidly advancing field of
communications electronics. This new seventeenth edition typifies the modern trend
in amateur radio today toward more advanced and sophisticated communication
techniques and equipment.
The preparation of this edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK would have been
impossible without the help that was tended the author by fellow radio amateurs and
sympathetic electronics organizations. To those individuals and companies whose
unselfish support made the compilation and publication of this Handbook an
interesting and inspired task, I extend my thanks.
WILLIAM I. ORR, W6SAI
Acknowledgments

Orrin H. Brown, W6HB Harold R. Vance, K2FF International Crystal Co.


John T. Chambers. W6NLZ Paul M. Wilson, W4HHK E. F. Johnson Ca
Frank Clement, W6KPC Barker & Williamson Co. McCoy Electronics Co.
W. W. Eitel, W6UF Bird Electronic Corp. Merit Coil & Transformer Co.
William Hillard, K6OPZ British Radio Electronics, Ltd. J. W. Miller Co.
Oscar Jaeger, K3OKX Centralab Division of Potter- Brumfield, Inc.
Clifford C. Johnson, WAURQ Globe-Union, Inc. Radio Corporation of Ameri-
Harold R. Jones, W6ZVV Diodes, Inc. ca (Electronic Compo-
James G. Lee, W6VAT Eimac Division of nents and Devices Div.)
Jack McCullough, W6CHE Varian Associates Stancor Electronics, Inc.
B. A. Ontiveros, W6FFF General Electric Co. Triad Transformer Co.
Kenneth L. Pierce, W6SLQ (Semiconductor Div.) Wyco Metal Products Co.
Robert W. Sutherland, Illumitronic Engineering
W6UOV Corp.

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Contents
Chapter One. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO 1

1 -1 Amateur Radio 1

1 -2 Station and Operator Licenses 2


1 -3 The Amateur Bands 3
1 -4 Starting Your Study 5

Chapter Two. DIRECT- CURRENT CIRCUITS 3

2 -1 The Atom 3
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical Units and Relationships 24
2 -3 Electrostatics- Capacitors 33
2 -4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 39
2 -5 RC and RL Transients 3

Chapter
ter Three. ALTERNATING -CURRENT CIRCUITS 46

3 -1 Alternating Current 46
3 -2 Resonant Circuits 60
3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves and Transients 5
3 -4 Transformers 69
3 -5 Electric Filters 1

Chapter Four. VACUUM -TUBE PRINCIPLES 5

4 -1 Thermionic Emission 75
4 -2 The Diode 80
4 -3 The Triode 81
4 -4 Tetrode or Screen -Grid Tubes 86
4 -5 Mixer and Converter Tubes 89
4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very -High Frequencies 90
4 -7 Special Microwave Electron Tubes 91
4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube 94
4 -9 Gas Tubes 97
4 -10 Miscellaneous Tube Types 99

Chapter Five. TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 00


5 -1 Atomic Structure of Germanium and Silicon 100
5 -2 Mechanism of Conduction 101
5 -3 The PN Junction Diode 102
5 -4 The Transistor 105
5 -5 Transistor Characteristics 108
5 -6 Transistor Circuitry 110
5 -7 The Field Effect Transistor 118

Chapter Six. VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 20


6 -1 Vacuum -Tube Parameters 20
6 -2 Classes and Types of Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers . 122

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6 -3 Biasing Methods 123
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers 123
6 -5 Resistance -Capacitance Coupled Audio -
Frequency Amplifiers 125
6 -6 Video -Frequency Amplifiers 127
6 -7 Other Interstage Coupling Methods 128
6 -8 Phase Inverters 130
6-9 D -C Amplifiers 132
6 -10 Single -Ended Triode Amplifiers 133
6 -11 Single -Ended Pentode Amplifiers 135
6 -12 Push -Pull Audio Amplifiers 137
6 -13 Class -B Audio -Frequency Power Amplifiers 138
6 -14 Cathode- Follower Power Amplifiers 143
6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers 145

Chapter Seven. RADIO- FREQUENCY


VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS 147

7 -1 Grid -Circuit Considerations 147


7 -2 Plate- Circuit Considerations 149
7 -3 Class -C R -F Power Amplifiers 150
7 -4 Class -B Radio -Frequency Power Amplifiers 156
7 -5 Special R -F Power Amplifier Circuits 159
7 -6 Class-AB, Radio- Frequency Power Amplifiers 163
7 -7 Grounded -Grid Linear Amplifiers 165
7 -8 Intermodulation Distortion 168

Chapter Eight. THE OSCILLOSCOPE 169

8 -1 A Modern Oscilloscope 169


8 -2 Display of Waveforms 173
8 -3 Lissajous Figures 175
8 -4 Monitoring Transmitter Performance with the
Oscilloscope 178
8 -5 Receiver I -F Alignment with an Oscilloscope 179
8-6 Single- Sidebond Applications 182

Chapter Nine. SPECIAL VACUUM -TUBE CIRCUITS 185

9 -1 Limiting Circuits 185


9 -2 Clomping Circuits 188
9 -3 Multivibrators 188
9 -4 The Blocking Oscillator 190
9 -5 Counting Circuits 190
9 -6 Resistance -Capacitance Oscillators 191
9 -7 Feedback 192

Chapter Ten. RADIO RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 194

10 -1 Detection or Demodulation 194


10 -2 Superregenerative Receivers 195
10 -3 Superheterodyne Receivers 197
10 -4 Mixer Noise and Images 200

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10 -5 R -F Stages 201
10 -6 Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 203
10 -7 I -F Tuned Circuits 206
10 -8 Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 213
10 -9 Noise Suppression 216
10 -10 Special Considerations in UHF Receiver Design 220
10 -11 Receiver Adjustment 224
10 -12 Receiving Accessories 226

Chapter Eleven. GENERATION OF RADIO- FREQUENCY ENERGY 229

11 -1 Self- Controlled Oscillators 229


11-2 Quartz Crystal Oscillators 234
11 -3 Crystal Oscillator Circuits 237
11 -4 Radio-Frequency Amplifiers 242
11 -5 Neutralization of R -F Amplifiers 244
11 -6 Neutralizing Procedure 247
11 -7 Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 250
11 -8 Frequency Multipliers 251
11 -9 Tank- Circuit Capacitances 253
11 -10 L- and Pi- Matching Networks 258
11 -11 Grid Bias 262
11 -12 Protective Circuits for Tetrode Transmitting Tubes 264
11 -13 Interstage Coupling 265
11 -14 Radio- Frequency Chokes 267
11 -15 Parallel and Push -Pull Tube Circuits 268

Chapter Twelve. R -F FEEDBACK 269


12 -1 R-F Feedback Circuits 269
12 -2 Feedback and Neutralization of a Two -Stage
R -FAmplifier 272
12 -3 Neutralization Procedure in Feedback -Type Amplifiers 274

Chapter Thirteen. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 277


13 -1 Sidebands 277
13 -2 Mechanics of Modulation 278
13 -3 Systems of Amplitude Modulation 280
13 -4 Input Modulation Systems 289
13 -5 Cathode Modulation 293
13 -6 The Doherty and the Terman- Woodyard
Modulated Amplifiers 294
13 -7 Speech Clipping 297
13 -8 The Bias -Shift Heising Modulator 305

Chapter Fourteen. FREQUENCY MODULATION 308

14 -1 Frequency Modulation 308


14 -2 Direct F -M Circuits 312
14 -3 Phase Modulation 316
14 -4 Reception of F -M Signals 319

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Chapter Fifteen. RADIO TELETYPE SYSTEMS 325
15 -1 Radioteletype Systems 325
15 -2 RTTY Reception 326
15 -3 Frequency -Shift Keying 328

Chapter Sixteen. SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 331

16 -1 Commercial Applications of SSB 331


16 -2 Derivation of Single -Sideband Signals 332
16 -3 Carrier- Elimination Circuits 336
16 -4 Generation of Single -Sideband Signals 338
16 -5 Single -Sideband Frequency- Conversion Systems 346
16 -6 Distortion Products Due to Nonlinearity of
R -F Amplifiers 350
16 -7 Sideband Exciters 353
16 -8 Reception of Single -Sideband Signals 355

Chapter Seventeen. TRANSMITTER DESIGN 358

17 -1 Resistors 358
17 -2 Capacitors 360
17 -3 Wire and Inductors 362
17 -4 Grounds 364
17 -5 Holes, Leads, and Shafts 365
17 -6 Parasitic Resonances 366
17 -7 Parasitic Oscillation in R -F Amplifiers 367
17 -8 Elimination of VHF Parasitic Oscillations 369
17 -9 Checking for Parasitic Oscillations 372

Chapter Eighteen. TELEVISION AND BROADCAST


INTERFERENCE 374

18 -1 Types of Television Interference 374


18 -2 Harmonic Radiation 377
18 -3 Low -Pass Filters 379
18 -4 Broadcast Interference 384
18 -5 Hi -Fi Interference 391

Chapter Nineteen. TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 392

19 -1 Power Systems 392


19 -2 Transmitter Control Methods 397
19 -3 Safety Precautions 398
19 -4 Transmitter Keying 401
19 -5 Cathode Keying 403
19 -6 Grid- Circuit Keying 404
19 -7 Screen -Grid Keying 405
19 -8 Differential Keying Circuits 407
19 -9 VOX Circuitry 408

Chapter Twenty. RADIATION, PROPAGATION, AND


TRANSMISSION LINES 410

20 -1 Radiation From an Antenna 410


20 -2 General Characteristics of Antennas 411
20 -3 Radiation Resistance and Feed -Point Impedance 415

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20 -4 Antenna Directivity 418
20 -5 Bandwidth 421
20 -6 Propagation of Radio Waves 421
20 -7 Ground -Wave Communication 422
20 -8 Ionospheric Propagation 425
20 -9 Transmission Lines 429
20 -10 Nonresonant Transmission Lines 430
20 -11 Tuned or Resonant Lines 433
20 -12 Line Discontinuities 434
20 -13 A Broadband 50 -Ohm Balun 435

Chapter Twenty -One. ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MATCHING 436


21 -1 End -Fed Half -Wave Horizontal Antennas 436
21 -2 Center -Fed Half -Wove Horizontal Antennas 437
21 -3 The Half -Wave Vertical Antenna 441
21 -4 The Ground -Plane Antenna 441
21 -5 The Marconi Antenna 442
21 -6 Space-Conserving Antennas 444
21 -7 Multiband Antennas 447
21 -8 Matching Nonresonant Lines to the Antenna 455
21 -9 Antenna Supports 461
21 -10 Coupling to the Antenna System 464
21 -11 Antenna Couplers 467
21 -12 A Single -Wire Antenna Tuner 469
21 -13 A Tuner for Center -Fed Antenna Systems 471

Chapter Twenty -Two. HIGH -FREQUENCY DIRECTIVE


ANTENNAS 474
22 -1 Directive Antennas 474
22 -2 Long -Wire Radiators 476
22 -3 The V Antenna 477
22 -4 The Rhombic Antenna 479
22 -5 Stacked -Dipole Arrays 481
22 -6 Broadside Arrays 483
22 -7 End -Fire Directivity 488
22 -8 Combination End -Fire and Broadside Arrays 491

Chapter Twenty -Three. VHF AND UHF ANTENNAS 493


23 -1 Antenna Requirements 493
23 -2 Simple Horizontally Polarized Antenna 496
23 -3 Simple Vertical -Polarized Antenna 497
23 -4 The Discone Antenna 498
23 -5 Helical Beam Antennas 500
23 -6 The Corner- Reflector and Horn -Type Antennas 502
23 -7 VHF Horizontal Rhombic Antenna 503
23 -8 Multielement VHF Beam Antennas 505

Chapter Twenty -Four. ROTARY BEAMS 512


24 -1 Unidirectional Parasitic End -Fire Arrays (Yogi Type) 512
24 -2 The Three -Element Array 515
24 -3 Feed Systems for Parasitic (Yogi) Arrays 517

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24 -4 Unidirectional Driven Arrays 523
24 -5 Bidirectional Rotatable Arrays 525
24 -6 Construction of Rotatable Arrays 525
24 -7 Tuning the Array 528
24 -8 Indication of Direction 530
24 -9 Three -Band Beams 531

Chapter Twenty -Five. MOBILE EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND


INSTALLATION 533

25 -1 A Transistorized Mobile Converter 533


25 -2 Mobile Power Sources 535
25 -3 Antennas for Mobile Work 537
25 -4 Construction and Installation of Mobile Equipment 539
25 -5 Vehicular Noise Suppression 541
25 -6 A Six -Band Trans -Receiver for Portable or
Emergency Work 544
25 -7 Transistor Power Supplies 553
25 -8 Two Transistorized Mobile Supplies 556

Chapter Twenty -Six. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS 558

26 -1 A Nuvistor Converter for Six Meters 560


26 -2 An Antioverload Converter for 50 MHz 563
26 -3 A Nuvistor Two -Meter Converter 567
26 -4 A Single -Band SSB Transceiver 572
26 -5 A 200 -Watt 3 -Band Sideband Transceiver 583
26 -6 A 432 -MHz Low -Noise Converter System .. 594
26 -7 The Deluxe HBR Receiver 604

Chapter Twenty -Seven. LOW -POWER TRANSMITTERS AND


EXCITERS 620

27 -1 General -Purpose Exciters for 6 and 2 Meters 620


27 -2 A 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 624
27 -3 The Deluxe HBT -200 SSB Transmitter- Exciter 635
27 -4 A Transistor Keyer 648

Chapter Twenty- Eight. HIGH- FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 652


28 -1 Power Amplifier Design 652
28 -2 Push -Pull Triode Amplifiers 654
28 -3 Push -Pull Tetrode Amplifiers 656
28 -4 Tetrode Pi- Network Amplifiers 659
28 -5 Cathode- Driven Amplifier Design 662
28 -6 A Kilowatt Linear Amplifier for Six Meters 668
28 -7 A 500 -Watt Amplifier for 432 -MHz Linear or
Class -C Service 675
28 -8 The Utility 2- Kilowatt PEP (U -2) Linear Amplifier 682
28 -9 The "Tribander" Linear Amplifier for 20 -15 -10 692

Chapter Twenty -Nine. SPEECH AND AMPLITUDE -


MODULATION EQUIPMENT 698
29 -1 Modulation 698
29 -2 Design of Speech Amplifiers and Modulators 701

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29 -3 General- Purpose Triode Class -B Modulator 702
29 -4 A 15 -Watt Clipper -Amplifier 704
29 -5 Zero -Bias Tetrode Modulators 706

Chapter Thirty. POWER SUPPLIES 707


30 -1 Power -Supply Requirements 707
30 -2 Rectification Circuits 713
30 -3 Standard Power -Supply Circuits 714
30 -4 Selenium and Silicon Rectifiers 720
30 -5 Series Diode Operation 743
30 -6 Silicon Supplies for SSB 724
30 -7 A 1- Kilowatt IVS Power Supply 728
30 -8 A 2- Kilowatt PEP Supply for SSB 729
30 -9 IVS Bridge- Rectifier Supplies 731
30 -10 A Supply for SSB Transceivers 733
30 -11 Power -Supply Components 733
30 -12 Special Power Supplies 736
30 -13 Power -Supply Design 739
30 -14 A Kilowatt CSS Power Supply . 743

Chapter Thirty -One. ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT 744


31 -1 Voltage and Current 744
31 -2 The Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 748
31 -3 Measurement of Power 752
31 -4 Measurement of Circuit Constants 754
31 -5 Measurements With o Bridge 755
31 -6 A Transistorized Capacitance Meter
757
31 -7 Frequency Measurements 758
31 -8 Antenna and Transmission -Line Measurements 759
31 -9 A Simple Coaxial Reflectometer
762
31 -10 Measurements on Balanced Transmission Line 764
31 -11 The Antennascope
765
31 -12 A Silicon Crystol Noise Generator 768
31 -13 A Monitor Scope for AM and SSB
769
30 -14 A Kilowatt CCS Power Supply
743

Chapter Thirty -Two. WORKSHOP PRACTICE 773


32 -1 Tools
773
32 -2 The Material
776
32 -3 TVI -Proof Enclosures
777
32 -4 Enclosure Openings
778
32 -5 Summation of the Problem
778
32 -6 Construction Practice
779
32 -7 Shop Layout
782
Chapter Thirty -Three. RADIO MATHEMATICS AND
CALCULATIONS 784
Appendix
827
Index
832

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Radio

The field of radio is a division of the available spectrum, it becomes necessary to


much larger field of electronics. Radio itself delve more deeply into the basic principles
is such a broad study that it is still further underlying radio communication, both from
broken down into a number of smaller fields the standpoint of equipment design and
of which only short -wave or high- frequency operation and from the standpoint of signal
radio is covered in this book. Specifically the propagation. Hence, it will be found that
field of communication on frequencies from this edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK
1.8 to 450 MHz is taken as the subject mat- has been devoted in greater proportion to
ter for this work. the teaching of the principles of equipment
The largest group of persons interested in design and signal propagation. It is in re-
the subject of high- frequency communica- sponse to requests from schools and agencies
tion is the more than 350,000 radio ama- of the Department of Defense, in addition
teurs located in nearly all countries of the to persistent requests from the amateur
world. Strictly speaking, a radio amateur is radio fraternity, that coverage of these
anyone noncommercially interested in radio, principles has been expanded.
but the term is ordinarily applied only to
those hobbyists possessing transmitting 1 -1 Amateur Radio
equipment and a license to operate from the
Government.
It was for the radio amateur, and particu- Amateur radio is a fascinating hobby with
larly for the serious and more advanced ama- many facets. So strong is the fascination of-
teur, that most of the equipment described fered by this hobby that many executives,
in this book was developed. However, in engineers, and military and commercial
each equipment group, simple items also are operators enjoy amateur radio as an avoca-
shown for the student or beginner. The de- tion, even though they are also engaged in
sign principles behind the equipment for the radio field commercially. It captures and
high- frequency radio communication are of holds the interest of many people in all
course the same whether the equipment is to walks of life, and in all countries of the
be used for commercial, military, or ama- world where amateur activities are permitted
teur purposes. The principal differences lie in by law.
construction practices, and in the tolerances Amateurs have rendered much public
and safety factors placed on components. service through furnishing communications
With the increasing complexity of high - to and from the outside world in cases
frequency communication, resulting pri- where disaster has isolated an area by sever-
marily from increased utilization of the ing all wire communications. Amateurs have
12 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO
a proud record of heroism and service on tion for the license includes a code test at
such occasions. Many expeditions to remote 20 words per minute, the usual tests cover-
places have been kept in touch with home ing basic amateur practice and general ama-
by communication with amateur stations on teur regulations, and an additional test on
the high frequencies. The amateur's fine advanced amateur practice. All amateur
record of performance with the "wireless" privileges are accorded the holders of this
equipment of World War I has been sur-
passed by his outstanding service in World
War II.
General Class -
operator's license.
This class of amateur
license is equivalent to the old Amateur
By the time peace came in the Pacific in Class -B license, and accords to the holders
the summer of 1945, many thousand ama- all amateur privileges except those which
teur operators were serving in the Allied may be set aside for holders of the Amateur
Armed Forces. They had supplied the Army, Extra -Class license. This class of amateur
Navy, Marines, Coast Guard, Merchant Ma- operator's license is available to any U. S.
rine, Civil Service, war plants, and civilian citizen. The examination for the license in-
defense organizations with trained personnel cludes a code test at 13 words per minute,
for radio, radar, wire, and visual communi- and the usual examinations covering basic
cations and for teaching. Even now, at the amateur practice and general amateur regu-
time of this writing, amateurs are being lations.
called back into the expanded defense forces, Conditional Class-This class of amateur
are returning to defense plants where their license and the privileges accorded by it are
skills are critically needed, and are being equivalent to the General -Class license.
organized into communication units as an However, the license can be issued only to
adjunct to civil- defense groups. those whose residence is more than 175
miles airline distance from the nearest loca-
1 -2 Station and tion at which FCC examinations are held at
Operator Licenses intervals of twice yearly, or oftener, for
the General -Class amateur operator license,
or to those who for any of several speci-
Every radio transmitting station in the fied reasons are unable to appear for exam-
United States no matter how low its power
must have a license from the Federal Govern-
ment before being operated; some classes of
ination.
Technician Class - This class of license
is available to any citizen of the United
stations must have a permit from the gov-
States. The examination is the same as that
ernment even before being constructed. And for the General -Class license, except that
every operator of a transmitting station
the code test is at a speed of 5 words per
must have an operator's license before oper- minute. The holder of a Technician -Class
ating a transmitter. There are no exceptions. license is accorded all authorized amateur
Similar laws apply in practically every major privileges in the amateur frequency bands
country. above 220 -MHz, in the 50 -MHz band; and
in the 145- to 147 -MHz portion of the
Classes of Amateur There are at present five
2 -meter band.
Operator Licenses classes of amateur oper-
Novice Class -This is a new class of li-
ator licenses which have cense which is available to any U. S. citizen
been authorized by the Federal Communi- who has not previously held an amateur li-
cations Commission. These classes differ in cense of any class issued by any agency of
many respects, so each will be discussed the U. S. Government, military or civilian.
briefly. The examination consists of a code test at a
Amateur Extra Class -This class of li- speed of 5 words per minute, plus an ex-
cense is available to any U. S. citizen who amination on the rules and regulations es-
at any time has held for a period of two sential to beginner's operation, including
years or more a valid amateur license, issued sufficient elementary radio theory for the
by the FCC, excluding licenses of the Nov- understanding of those rules. The Novice -
ice and Technician Classes. The examina- Class license affords severely restricted priv-

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HANDBOOK Amateur Bands 13

ileges, is valid for a period of only one year been made. As a usual rule, however, 160 -
(as contrasted to all other classes of amateur meter amateur operation is confined to
licenses which run for a term of five years), ground -wave contacts or single -skip con-
and is not renewable. tacts of 1000 miles or less. Popular before
All Novice- and Technician -Class ex- World War II, the 160 -meter band is now
aminations are given by volunteer examin- only sparsely occupied since many areas of
ers, as regular examinations for these two the country are blanketed by the megawatt
classes are not given in FCC offices. Ama- pulses of the Loran chains.
teur radio clubs in the larger cities have
established examining committees to assist 80 Meters The 80 -meter band
would -be amateurs of the area in obtaining (3500 kHz -4000 kHz) is the most popular
their Novice and Technician licenses. amateur band in
the continental United States for local "rag
chewing" and traffic nets. During the years
1 -3 The Amateur Bands of minimum sunspot activity the iono-
spheric absorption on this band may be
Certain small segments of the radio -fre- quite low, and long distance DX contacts
quency spectrum between 1500 kHz and are possible during the winter night hours.
10,000 MHz are reserved for operation of Daytime operation, in general, is limited to
amateur radio stations. These segments are contacts of 500 miles or less. During the
in general agreement throughout the world, summer months, local static and high iono-
although certain parts of different amateur spheric absorption limit long distance con-
bands may be used for other purposes in tacts on this band. As the sunspot cycle ad-
various geographic regions. In particular, vances and the MUF rises, increased iono-
the 40 -meter amateur band is used legally spheric absorption will tend to degrade the
(and illegally) for short -wave broadcasting long distance possibilities of this band. At
by many countries in Europe, Africa and the peak of the sunspot cycle, the 80 -meter
Asia. Parts of the 80 -meter band are used band becomes useful only for short -haul
for short distance marine work in Europe, communication.
and for broadcasting in South America. The
amateur bands available to United States 40 Meters The 40 -meter band
radio amateurs are: (7000 kHz-7300 kHz) is high enough in
frequency to be se-
160 Meters The 160 -meter band verely affected by the 11 -year sunspot cycle.
(1800 kHz -2000 kHz) is divided into 25- During years of minimum solar activity,
kHz segments on a the MUF may drop below 7 MHz, and the
regional basis, with day and night power band will become very erratic, with signals
limitations, and is available for amateur use dropping completely out during the night
provided no interference is caused to the hours. Ionospheric absorption of signals is
Loran (Long Range Navigation) stations not as large a problem on this band as it is
operating in this band. This band is least on 80 and 160 meters. As the MUF grad-
affected by the 11 -year solar sunspot cycle. ually rises, the skip distance will increase on
The maximum usable frequency (MUF) 40 meters, especially during the winter
even during the years of decreased sunspot months. At the peak of the solar cycle, the
activity does not usually drop below 4 MHz, daylight skip distance on 40 meters will be
therefore this band is not subject to the quite long, and stations within a distance of
violent fluctuations found on the higher - 500 miles or so of each other will not be
frequency bands. DX contacts on this band able to hold communication. DX operation
are limited by the ionospheric absorption of on the 40 -meter band is considerably ham-
radio signals, which is quite high. During pered by broadcasting stations, propaganda
winter nighttime hours the absorption is stations, and jamming transmitters. In
often of a low enough value to permit trans- Europe and Asia the band is in a chaotic
oceanic contacts on this band. On rare oc- state, and amateur operation in this region
casions, contacts up to 10,000 miles have is severely hampered.

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14 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO
20 meters At the present model TV receivers having a 21 -MHz i -f
(14,000 kHz- 14,350 kHz) time, the 20 -me- channel, which falls directly in the 1 5 -meter
ter band is by band. The interference problem may be al-
far the most popular band for long- distance leviated by retuning the i -f system to a
contacts. High enough in frequency to be frequency outside the amateur assignment.
almost obliterated at the bottom of the
10 Meters During the peak
solar cycle, the band nevertheless provides
good DX contacts during years of minimal
(28,000 kHz- 29,700 kHz) of the sunspot
sunspot activity. At the present time, the cycle, the 10-
band is open to almost all parts of the world meter band is without doubt the most pop-
at some time during the year. During the ular amateur band. The combination' of
summer months, the band is active until the long skip and low ionospheric absorption
late evening hours, but during the winter make reliable DX contacts with low -powered
months the band is only good for a few equipment possible. The great width of the
hours during daylight. Extreme DX contacts band (1700 kHz) provides room for a
are usually erratic, but the 20 -meter band is large number of amateurs. The long skip
the only band available for DX operation (1500 miles or so) prevents nearby amateurs
the year around during the bottom of the from hearing each other, thus dropping the
sunspot cycle. As the sunspot count increases interference level. During the winter
and the MUF rises, the 20 -meter band will months, sporadic -E (short -skip) signals up
become open for longer hours during the to 1200 miles or so will be heard. The 10-
winter. The maximum skip distance in- meter band is poorest in the summer months,
creases, and DX contacts are possible over even during a sunspot maximum. Extreme-
paths other than the Great Circle route. ly long daylight skip is common on this
Signals can be heard via the "long path," 180 band, and in years of high MUF the 10-
degrees opposite the Great Circle path. Dur- meter band will support intercontinental
ing daylight hours, absorption may become DX contacts during daylight hours.
apparent on the 20 -meter band, and all The second harmonic of stations operating
signals except very short skip may disappear. in the 10 -meter band falls directly into
On the other hand, the band will be open television channel 2, and the higher har-
for worldwide DX contacts all night long. monics of 10 -meter transmitters fall into
The 20 -meter band is very susceptible to the higher TV channels. This harmonic
"fadeouts" caused by solar disturbances, and problem seriously curtailed amateur 10 -meter
all except local signals may completely dis- operation during the late 40's. However,
appear for periods of a few hours to a day with new circuit techniques and the TVI
or so. precautionary measures stressed in this Hand-
book, 10 -meter operation should cause little
15 Meters
or no interference to nearby television re-
This is a rela- ceivers of modern design.
(21,000 kHz-21,450 kHz) tively new band
for radio ama- Six Meters At the peak of the sun -
teurs since it has only been available for (50 MHz -54 MHz) spot cycle, the MUF
amateur operation since 1952. It has charac- occasionally rises high
teristics similar to both the 20- and 10- enough to permit DX contacts up to 10,000
meter amateur bands. During a period of miles or so on 6 meters. Activity on this
low sunspot activity, the MUF will rarely band during such a period is often quite high.
rise as high as 15 meters, so this band will Interest in this band wanes during a period
be "dead" for a large part of the sunspot of lesser solar activity, since contacts, as a
cycle. During the next few years, 15 -meter rule, are restricted to short -skip work. The
activity should pick up rapidly, and the proximity of the 6 -meter band to television
band should support extremely long DX channel 2 often causes interference prob-
contacts. The band will remain open 24 lems to amateurs located in areas where
hours a day in Equatorial areas of the world. channel 2 is active. As the sunspot cycle
Fifteen -meter operation may be hampered increases, activity on the 6 -meter band will
in some cases when neighbors possess older- increase.

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HANDBOOK Learning the Code 15

The VHF Bands The vhf bands are send very slowly when working other sta-
(Two Meters and "Up ") the least affected by tions at great distances. Stations repeat their
the vagaries of the calls many times when calling other stations
sunspot cycle and Heaviside layer. Their before contact is established, and one need
predominant use is for reliable communica- not have achieved much code proficiency to
tion over distances of 150 miles or less. make out their calls and thus determine
These bands are sparsely occupied in the their location.
rural sections of the United States, but are The Code The applicant for any class of
quite heavily congested in the urban areas amateur operator license must be
of high population.
able to send and receive the Continental
In recent years it has been found that Code (sometimes called the International
vhf signals are propagated by other means Morse Code). The speed required for the
than by line -of -sight transmission. "Scatter
sending and receiving test may be either 5,
signals," Aurora reflection, and air-mass
13, or 20 words per minute, depending on
boundary bending are responsible for vhf the class of license assuming an average of
communication up to 1200 miles or so. five characters to the word in each case.
Weather conditions will often affect long -
The sending and receiving tests run for
distance communication on the 2 -meter
five minutes, and one minute of errorless
band, and all the vhf bands are particularly
transmission or reception must be accom-
sensitive to this condition.
plished within the five -minute interval.
In recent years the vhf bands have been
If the code test is failed, the applicant
used for experimental "moonbounce" (earth -
must wait at least one month before he
moon- earth) transmissions and for repeater -
may again appear for another test. Approxi-
satellite experiments (Project Oscar). The
vhf bands hold great promise for serious mately 30% of amateur applicants fail to
pass the test. It should be expected that
experimenters as radio amateurs forge into
nervousness and excitement will, at least to
the microwave region.
some degree, temporarily lower the appli-
cant's code ability. The best insurance
1 -4 Starting Your Study against this is to master the code at a little
greater than the required speed under ordi-
When you start to prepare yourself for nary conditions. Then if you slow down a
the amateur examination you will find that little due to nervousness during a test the
the circuit diagrams, tube characteristic result will not prove fatal.
curves, and formulas appear confusing and
difficult to understand. But after a few Memorizing There is no shortcut to code
study sessions one becomes sufficiently fa- the Code proficiency. To memorize the
miliar with the notation of the diagrams alphabet entails but a few eve-
and the basic concepts of theory and opera- nings of diligent application, but consider-
tion so that the acquisition of further able time is required to build up speed. The
knowledge becomes easier and even fascinat- exact time required depends on the individ-
ing. ual's ability and the regularity of practice.
Since it takes a considerable time to be- While the speed of learning will naturally
come proficient in sending and receiving vary greatly with different individuals, about
code, it is a good idea to intersperse techni- 70 hours of practice (no practice period to
cal study sessions with periods of code prac- be over 30 minutes) will usually suffice to
tice. Many short code -practice sessions ben - bring a speed of about 13 w.p.m.; 16 w.p.m.
fit one more than a small number of longer requires about 120 hours; 20 w.p.m., 175
sessions. Alternating between one study and hours.
the other keeps the student from getting Since code reading requires that individual
"stale" since each type of study serves as a letters be recognized instantly, any memor-
sort of respite from the other. izing scheme which depends on orderly se-
When you have practiced the code long quence, such as learning all "doh" letters and
enough you will be able to follow the gist of all "dit" letters in separate groups, is to be
the slower- sending stations. Many stations discouraged. Before beginning with a code
16 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO

A im N .8. IM ss
a ss
i

>..

s
f3 1=9 2

a.
O IMS MI
C a= =ID p I= MD 3 OM
am

.
D Q INEDMIS 4
E R 5
F S 6
G OM MI T 7 .,OM.
H U
.,. 8 ss sa a
J
I
wss V
W ss
9 ss ssm
0
s
ess

L a. X am
ss
0 MEANS ZERO. AND IS WRITTEN IN THIS
WAY TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM THE LETTER `O"

,
Y
M Z s IT OFTEN IS TRANSMITTED INSTEAD AS ONE
LONG DASH (EQUIVALENT TO S DOTS)

ss
PERIOD (.)
COMMA (,)
INTERROGATION (7
QUOTATION MARK ("
sss .
MIIM
ss
MID

ssNM=1
IMP
WAIT SIGN (AS)
DOUBLE DASH (BREAK)
ERROR (ERASE SIGN)
FRACTION BAR (/)
Mss
CM

COLON (i
SEMICOLON ())
PARENTHESIS (
ssss NMI

IMss1WO
END OF MESSAGE (AR)
END OF TRANSMISSION (SK)
INTERNAT. DISTRESS SIG. (SOS)
.1.IMP
IMO

MI/ Inatf.
Figure 1

The Continental (or International Morse) Code is used for substantially all non -automatic
radio
communication. DO NOT memorize from the printed pane; code is a language of SOUND, and
must not be learned visually; learn by listening as explained in the text.

practice set it is necessary to memorize the period, comma, and question mark have been
whole alphabet perfectly. A good plan is to memorized so thoroughly that any one can
study only two or three letters a day and be sounded without the slightest hesitation.
to drill with those letters until they become Do not bother with other punctuation or
part of your consciousness. Mentally trans- miscellaneous signals until later.
late each day's letters into their sound equiv-
alent wherever they are seen, on signs, in
papers, indoors and outdoors. Tackle two
Sound - Each letter and figure must be
Not Sight memorized by its sound rather
additional letters in the code chart each day, than its appearance. Code is a
at the same time reviewing the characters system of sound communication, the same
already learned. as is the spoken word. The letter A, for ex-
Avoid memorizing by routine. Be able
to sound out any letter immediately with-
out so much as hestitating to think about all MI
the letters preceding or following the one
in question. Know C, for example, apart
MO OMMI
I111 1111 OM GM
from the sequence ABC. Skip about among
all the characters learned, and before very IM
long sufficient letters will have been acquired OM MOMIMD
to enable you to spell out simple words to
yourself in "dit dahs." This is interesting
OM Mil OM
exercise, and for that reason it is good to 1=1 MD
memorize all the vowels first and the most Figure 2
common consonants next.
Actual code practice should start only These code characters are used in languages
other than English. They may occasionally
when the entire alphabet, the numerals, be encountered so it is well to know them.

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HANDBOOK Learning the Code 17

ample, is one short and one long sound in manner until a speed of about 16 words
combination sounding like dit dah, and it per minute is attained if the object is to pass
must be remembered as such, and not as the amateur 13 -word per minute code test.
"dot dash." The margin of 3 w.p.m. is recommended to
overcome a possible excitement factor at
Practice Time, patience, and regularity are examination time. Then when you take the
required to learn the code properly. test you don't have to worry about the
Do not expect to accomplish it within a few "jitters" or an "off day."
days. Speed should not be increased to a new
Don't practice too long at one stretch; it level until the student finally makes solid
does more harm than good. Thirty minutes copy with ease for at least a five-minute
at a time should be the limit. period at the old level. How frequently in-
Lack of regularity in practice is the creases of speed can be made depends on in-
most common cause of lack of progress. dividual ability and the amount of practice.
Irregular practice is very little better than Each increase is apt to prove disconcerting,
no practice at all. Write down what you but remember "you are never learning when
have heard; then forget it; do not look back. you are comfortable."
If your mind dwells even for an instant on A number of amateurs are sending code
a signal about which you have doubt, you practice on the air on schedule once or
will miss the next few characters while your twice each week; excellent practice can be
attention is diverted. obtained after you have bought or con-
While various automatic code machines, structed your receiver by taking advantage
phonograph records, etc., will give you prac- of these sessions.
tice, by far the best practice is to obtain a If you live in a medium -size or large city.
study companion who is also interested in the chances are that there is an amateur -
learning the code. When you have both radio club in your vicinity which offers
memorized the alphabet you can start send- free code -practice lessons periodically.
ing to each other. Practice with a key and
oscillator or key and buzzer generally proves Skill When you listen to someone speaking
superior to all automatic equipment. Two you do not consciously think how his
such sets operated between two rooms are words are spelled. This is also true when you
-or
fine between your house and his will read. In code you must train your ears to
be just that much better. Avoid talking to read code just as your eyes were trained in
your partner while practicing. If you must school to read printed matter. With enough
ask him a question, do it in code. It makes practice you acquire skill, and from skill,
more interesting practice than confining speed. In other words, it becomes a habit,
yourself to random practice material. something which can be done without con-
When two co- learners have memorized scious effort. Conscious effort is fatal to
the code and are ready to start sending to speed; we can't think rapidly enough; a
each other for practice, it is a good idea to speed of 25 words a minute, which is a com-
enlist the aid of an experienced operator for mon one in commercial operations, means
the first practice session or two so that they 125 characters per minute or more than two
will get an idea of how properly formed per second, which leaves no time for con-
characters sound. scious thinking.
During the first practice period the speed
should be such that substantially solid copy Perfect Formation When transmitting on the
can be made without strain. Never mind if of Characters code practice set to your
this is only two or three words per minute. partner, concentrate on the
In the next period the speed should be in- quality of your sending, not on your speed.
creased slightly to a point where nearly all Your partner will appreciate it and he could
of the characters can be caught only through not copy you if you speeded up anyhow.
conscious effort. When the student becomes If you want to get a reputation as hav-
proficient at this new speed, another slight ing an excellent "fist" on the air, just re-
increase may be made, progressing in this member that speed alone won't do the

www.americanradiohistory.com
18 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO
trick. Proper execution of your letters and oqo;oocod.
spacing will make much more of an im-
pression. Fortunately, as you get so that
you can send evenly and accurately, your B C
sending speed will automatically increase.
Remember to try to see how evenly you can
send, and how fast you can receive. Con-
centrate on making signals properly with
ei * i
A
- O. Ni
your key. Perfect formation of characters Figure 3
is paramount to everything else. Make every
signal right no matter if you have to prac- Diagram illustrating relative lengths of
dashes and spaces referred to the duration
tice it hundreds or thousands of times. of a dot. A dash is exactly equal in duration
Never allow yourself to vary the slightest to three dots; spaces between parts of a
letter equal one dot; those between letters,
from perfect formation once you have three dots; spare between words, five dots.
learned it. Note that a slight increase between two parts
of a letter will make it sound like two letters.
If possible, get a good operator to listen
to your sending for a short time, asking him
to criticize even the slightest imperfections. dashes. At the greater speed he will merely
have to learn the identification of the same
Timing It is of the utmost importance to sound without taking as long to do so.
maintain uniform spacing in charac- Be particularly careful of letters like B.
ters and combinations of characters. Lack of Many beginners seem to have a tendency to
uniformity at this point probably causes be- leave a longer space after the dash than
ginners more trouble than any other single that which they place between succeeding
factor. Every dot, every dash, and every dots, thus making it 'sound like TS. Simi-
space must be correctly timed. In other larly, make sure that you do not leave
words, accurate timing is absolutely essen- a longer space after the first dot in the
tial to intelligibility, and timing of the letter C than you do between other parts
spaces between the dots and dashes is just as of the same letter: otherwise it will sound
important as the lengths of the dots and like NN.
dashes themselves.
The characters are timed with the dot as Sending vs. Once you have memorized the
a "yardstick." A standard dash is three times Receiving code thoroughly you should con-
as long as a dot. The spacing between parts centrate on increasing your re-
of the same letter is equal to one dot, the ceiving speed. True, if you have to practice
space between letters is equal to three dots, with another newcomer who is learning the
and that between words equal to five dots. code with you, you will both have to do
The rule for spacing between letters and some sending. But don't attempt to prac-
words is not strictly observed when sending tice sending just for the sake of increasing
slower than about 10 words per minute for your sending speed.
the benefit of someone learning the code When transmitting on the code practice
and desiring receiving practice. When send- set to your partner so that he can get re-
ing at, say, f w.p.m., the individual letters ceiving practice, concentrate on the quality
should be made the same as if the sending of your sending, not on your speed.
rate were about 10 w.p.m., except that the Because it is comparatively easy to learn
spacing between letters and words is greatly to send rapidly, especially when no particu-
exaggerated. The reason for this is obvious. lar care is given to the quality of sending,
The letter L, for instance, will then sound many operators who have just received their
exactly the same at 10 w.p.m. as at 5 licenses get on the air and send mediocre (or
w.p.m., and when the speed is increased worse) code at 20 w.p.m. when they can
above f w.p.m. the student will not have barely receive good code at 13. Most old -
to become familiar with what may seem timers remember their own period of initia-
to him like a new sound, although it is in tion and are only too glad to be patient and
reality only a faster combination of dots and considerate if you tell them that you are

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Learning the Code 19

a newcomer. But the surest way to incur


their scorn is to try to impress them with
your "lightning speed," and then to re-
quest them to send more slowly when they
come back at you at the same speed.
Stress your copying ability; never stress
your sending ability. It should be obvious
that if you try to send faster than you can
receive, your ear will not recognize any
mistakes which your hand may make.

Using the Key Figure 4 shows the proper po-


sition of the hand, fingers and
wrist when manipulating a telegraph or
Figure 4
radio key. The forearm should rest naturally
on the desk. It is preferable that the key be PROPER POSITION OF THE FINGERS FOR
placed far enough back from the edge of OPERATING A TELEGRAPH KEY
the table (about 18 inches) that the elbow
Tho fingers hold the knob and act as a cush-
can rest on the table. Otherwise, pressure of ion. The hand rests lightly on the key. The
the table edge on the arm will tend to muscles of the forearm provide the power,
hinder the circulation of the blood and the wrist acting as the fulcrum. The power
should not cony. from the Angers, but rather
weaken the ulnar nerve at a point where it from the f m muscles.
is close to the surface, which in turn will
tend to increase fatigue considerably.
The knob of the key is grasped lightly purpose. Not until you have thoroughly
with the thumb along the edge; the index mastered both sending and receiving at the
and third fingers rest on the top towards maximum speed in which you are interested
the front or far edge. The hand moves with should you tackle any form of automatic or
a free up and down motion, the wrist acting semiautomatic key such as the Vihroplex
as a fulcrum. The power must come entirely ( "bug ") or an electronic key.
from the arm muscles. The third and index
fingers will bend slightly during the sending Difficulties Should you experience difficulty
but not because of deliberate effort to ma- in increasing your code speed
nipulate the finger muscles. Keep your finger after you have once memorized the charac-
muscles just tight enough to act as a cushion ters, there is no reason to become discour-
for the arm motion and let the slight move- aged. It is more difficult for some people to
ment of the fingers take care of itself. The learn code than for others, but there is no
key's spring is adjusted to the individual justification for the contention sometimes
wrist and should be neither too stiff nor too made that "some people just can't learn the
loose. Use a moderately stiff tension at first code." It is not a matter of intelligence; so
and gradually lighten it as you become more don't feel ashamed if you seem to experience
proficient. The separation between the con- a little more than the usual difficulty in
tacts must be the proper amount for the learning code. Your reaction time may be
desired speed, being somewhat under 1/16 a little slower or your coordination not so
inch for slow speeds and slightly closer to- good. If this is the case, remember you can
gether (about 1/32 inch) for faster speeds. still learn the code. You may never learn to
Avoid extremes in either direction. send and receive at 40 w.p.m., but you
Do not allow the muscles of arm, wrist or can learn sufficient speed for all noncom-
fingers to become tense. Send with a full, mercial purposes (and even for most com-
free arm movement. Avoid like the plague mercial purposes) if you have patience, and
any finger motion other than the slight refuse to be discouraged by the fact that
cushioning effect mentioned above. others seem to pick it up more rapidly.
Stick to the regular handkey for learning When the sending operator is sending just
code. No other key is satisfactory for this a bit too fast for you (the best speed for

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20 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO
Figure 5

THE SIMPLEST CODE PRACTICE


r eUZ2ER INEXPENSIVE 500 - SET CONSISTS OF A KEY AND
OHM POTENTIOMETER
VOLUME CONTROL A BUZZER
1.5 TO 4.5 VOLTS
or BATTERY
PHONES. The b is adjusted to give a
1 TO 4 steady, high -pitched whine. If de-
r .
PAIR
sired, the phones may be omitted,
in which case the b hould be
KEY THESE PARTS REQUIRED
ONLY IF HEADPHONE mounted firmly on a sounding board.
OPERATION IS DESIRED Crystal, magnetic, or dynamic ear-
phones may be used. Additional
sets of phones should be c ted
In parallel, not in series.

practice), you will occasionally miss a sig- Copying Behind All good operators copy sev-
nal or a small group of them. When you do, eral words behind, that is,
leave a blank space; do not spend time fu- while one word is being received, they are
tilely trying to recall it; dismiss it, and writing down or typing, say the fourth or
center attention on the next letter; other- fifth previous word. At first this is very
wise you'll miss more. Do not ask the sender difficult, but after sufficient practice it will
any questions until the transmission is fin- be found actually to be easier than copying
ished. close up. It also results in more accurate
To prevent guessing and get equal prac- copy and enables the receiving operator to
tice on the less common letters, depart oc- capitalize and punctuate copy as he goes
casionally from plain language material and along. It is not recommended that the be-
use a jumble of letters in which the usually ginner attempt to do this until he can send
less commonly used letters predominate. and receive accurately and with ease at a
As mentioned before, many students put speed of at least 12 words a minute.
a greater space after the dash in the letter It requires a considerable amount of train-
B, than between other parts of the same ing to disassociate the action of the subcon-
letter so it sounds like TS. C, F, Q,V, X, Y, scious mind from the direction of the con-
and Z often give similar trouble. Make a list scious mind. It may help some in obtaining
of words or arbitrary combinations in which
these letters predominate and practice them,
both sending and receiving until they no GE-2 2N406.
longer give you trouble. Stop everything else 2N108.oR 2N2614
and stick to them. So long as these characters E C

give you trouble you are not ready for any-


thing else.
Follow the same procedure with letters 20001i
PHONES
which you may tend to confuse such as F
and L, which are often confused by begin- 10K
ners. Keep at it until you always get them 0.5W

right without having to stop even an instant I.5V.


to think about it.
If you do not instantly recognize the Figure 6
sound of any character, you have not
SIMPLE TRANSISTOR CODE
learned it; go back and practice your alpha-
PRACTICE OSCILLATOR
bet further. You should never have to omit
writing down every signal you hear except An inexpensive entertainment -type PNP ger-
manium transistor requires only a single 1.5-
when the transmission is too fast for you. volt flashlight battery for power. The induc-
Write down what you hear, not what you tance of the phone windings forms part of the
think it should be. It is surprising how often oscillator circuit. The pitch of the note may be
changed by varying the value of the two ca-
the word which you guess will be wrong. pacitors across the earphones.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Learning the Code 21

this training to write down two columns of can use a set of phonograph code-practice
short words. Spell the first word in the first records. The records are of use only if you
column out loud while writing down the have a phonograph whose turntable speed is
first word in the second column. At first readily adjustable. The tape machine can
this will be a bit awkward, but you will be rented by the month for a reasonable fee.
rapidly gain facility with practice. Do the Once you can copy about 10 w.p.m. you
same with all the words, and then reverse can also get receiving practice by listening
columns. to slow- sending stations on your receiver.
Next try speaking aloud the words in the Many amateur stations send slowly par-
one column while writing those in the ticularly when working far distant stations.
other column; then reverse columns. When receiving conditions are particularly
After the foregoing can be done easily, poor many commercial stations also send
try sending with your key the words in one slowly, sometimes repeating every word. Un-
column while spelling those in the other. til you can copy around 10 w.p.m. your
It won't be easy at first, but it is well worth receiver isn't much use, and either another
keeping after if you intend to develop any operator or a machine or records is neces-
real code proficiency. Do not attempt to sary for getting receiving practice after you
catch up. There is a natural tendency to have once memorized the code.
close up the gap, and you must train your-
self to overcome this. Code Practice If you don't feel too foolish
Next have your code companion send you Sets doing it, you can secure a
a word either from a list or from straight measure of code practice with
text; do not write it down yet. Now have the help of a partner by sending "dit -dah"
him send the next word; after receiving this messages to each other while riding to work,
second word, write down the first word. eating lunch, etc. It is better, however, to
After receiving the third word, write the use a buzzer or code- practice oscillator in
second word; and so on. Never mind how conjunction with a regular telegraph key.
slowly you must go, even if it is only two As a good key may be considered an in-
or three words per minute. Stay behind. vestment it is wise to make a well -made key
It will probably take quite a number of your first purchase. Regardless of what type
practice sessions before you can do this with code- practice set you use, you will need a
any facility. After it is relatively easy, then key, and later on you will need one to key
try staying two words behind; keep this up your transmitter. If you get a good key to
until it is easy. Then try three words, four begin with, you won't have to buy another
words, and five words. The more you prac- one later.
tice keeping received material in mind, the The key should be rugged and have
easier it will be to stay behind. It will be fairly heavy contacts. Not only will the
found easier at first to copy material with key stand up better, but such a key will
which one is fairly familiar, then gradually contribute to the "heavy" type of sending
switch to less familiar material. so desirable for radio work. Morse (tele-
graph) operators use a "light" style of
Automatic Code The two practice sets which sending and can send somewhat faster when
Machines are described in this chapter using this light touch. But, in radio work
are of most value when you static and interference are often present,
have someone with whom to practice. Auto- and a slightly heavier dot is desirable. If
matic code machines are not recommended you use a husky key, you will find yourself
to anyone who can possibly obtain a com- automatically sending in this manner.
panion with whom to practice, someone who To generate a tone simulating a code
is also interested in learning the code. If signal as heard on a receiver, either a me-
you are unable to enlist a code partner and chanical buzzer or an audio oscillator may
have to practice by yourself, the best way be used. Figure S shows a simple code -prac-
to get receiving practice is by the use of tice set using a buzzer which may be used
a tape machine (automatic code -sending directly simply by mounting the buzzer on
machine) with several practice tapes. Or you a sounding board, or the buzzer may be
22 Introduction to Radio

9V.
100K
OIBIo--s KEY
GE-3, 2N2148,
OR 2N2869

GE-10, 2N2923, PM
OR 2N339I SPEAKER

.04

Figure 8

CODE -PRACTICE OSCILLATOR SUITABLE


FOR SPEAKER OPERATION.

used to feed from one to four pairs of con-


ventional high- impedance phones.
An example of the audio -oscillator type
of code -practice set is illustrated in figures 6
and 7. An inexpensive entertainment -type
transistor is used in place of the more ex-
pensive, power- consuming vacuum tube. A
single "penlite" 11/2-volt cell powers the
unit. The coils of the earphones form the
inductive portion of the resonant circuit.
'Phones having an impedance of 2000 ohms
Figure 7 or higher should be used. Surplus type R -14
earphones also work well with this circuit.
The circuit of Figure 6 is used in this
miniature transistorized code Practice oscil- A code -practice oscillator that will drive
lator. Components are mounted in a small a loudspeaker to good room volume is shown
plastic case. The transistor is attached to a in figure 8. Inexpensive entertainment -type
three terminal phenolic mounting strip. Sub-
miniature jacks are used for the key and transistors are used and any size permanent
phones connections. A hearing aid earphone magnet speaker may be used. Mount the
may also be used, as shown. The phone Is
stored in the plastic case when not in use. speaker on a large sounding board for best
volume.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER TWO

Direct -Current Circuits

All naturally occurring matter (exclud- elliptical orbits at an incredible rate of


ing artifically produced radioactive sub- speed, are called orbital electrons.
stances) is made up of 92 fundamental con- It is on the behavior of these orbital
stituents called elements. These elements can electrons when freed from the atom, that
exist either in the free state such as iron, depends the study of electricity and radio, as
oxygen, carbon, copper, tungsten, and alu- well as allied sciences. Actually it is pos-
minum, or in chemical unions commonly sible to subdivide the nucleus of the atom
called compounds. The smallest unit which into a dozen or so different particles, but
still retains all the original characteristics of this further subdivision can be left to
an element is the atom. quantum mechanics and atomic physics. As
Combinations of atoms, or subdivisions of far as the study of electronics is concerned
compounds, result in another fundamental it is only necessary for the reader to think
unit, the molecule. The molecule is the small- of the normal atom as being composed of a
est unit of any compound. All reactive ele- nucleus having a net positive charge that is
ments when in the gaseous state also exist in exactly neutralized by the one or more
the molecular form, made up of two or orbital electrons surrounding it.
more atoms. The nonreactive gaseous ele- The atoms of different elements differ in
ments helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, respect to the charge on the positive nucleus
and radon are the only gaseous elements and in the number of electrons revolving
that ever exist in a stable monatomic state around this charge. They range all the way
at ordinary temperatures. from hydrogen, having a net charge of one
on the nucleus and one orbital electron, to
uranium with a net charge of 92 on the
2 -1 The Atom nucleus and 92 orbital electrons. The number
of orbital electrons is called the atomic
An atom is an extremely small unit of number of the element.
matter -there are literally billions of them
making up so small a piece of material as a Action of the From the foregoing it must
speck of dust. To understand the basic Electrons not be thought that the elec-
theory of electricity and hence of radio, we trons revolve in a haphazard
must go further and divide the atom into manner around the nucleus. Rather, the
its main components, a positively charged electrons in an element having a large
nucleus and a cloud of negatively charged atomic number are grouped into rings hav-
particles that surround the nucleus. These ing a definite number of electrons. The only
particles, swirling around the nucleus in atoms in which these rings are completely

www.americanradiohistory.com
24 Direct- Current Circuits THE RADIO

filled are those of the inert gases mentioned attract free electrons from the wire in order
before; all other elements have one or more for the positive terminal to become neutral.
uncompleted rings of electrons. If the un- The attracting of electrons continues
completed ring is nearly empty, the element through the wire, and finally the excess elec-
is metallic in character, being most metallic trons at the negative terminal of the battery
when there is only one electron in the outer are attracted by the positively charged atoms
ring. If the incomplete ring lacks only one at the end of the wire. Other sources of
or two electrons, the element is usually non- electrical potential (in addition to a bat-
metallic. Elements with a ring about half tery) are: an electrical generator (dynamo),
completed will exhibit both nonmetallic and a thermocouple, an electrostatic generator
metallic characteristics; carbon, silicon, (static machine), a photoelectric cell, and
germanium, and arsenic are examples. Such a crystal or piezoelectric generator.
elements are called semiconductors. Thus it is seen that a potential dif-
In metallic elements these outer ring elec- ference is the result of a difference in the
trons are rather loosely held. Consequently, number of electrons between the two (or
there is a continuous helter -skelter move- more) points in question. The force or pres-
ment of these electrons and a continual sure due to a potential difference is termed
shifting from one atom to another. The the electromotive force, usually abbreviated
electrons which move about in a substance e.m.f. or E.M.F. It is expressed in units
are called free electrons, and it is the ability called volts.
of these electrons to drift from atom to It should be noted that for there to be a
atom which makes possible the electric cur- potential difference between two bodies or
rent. points it is not necessary that one have a
positive charge and the other a negative
Conductors and If the free electrons are nu- charge. If two bodies each have a negative
Insulators merous and loosely held, charge, but one more negative than the
the element is a good con - other, the one with the lesser negative
ductor. On the other hand, if there are few charge will act as though it were positively
free electrons (as is the case when the elec- charged with respect to the other body. It
trons in an outer ring are tightly held), the is the algebraic potential difference that
element is a poor conductor. If there are determines the force with which electrons
virtually no free electrons, the element is a are attracted or repulsed, the potential of
good insulator. the earth being taken as the zero reference
point.
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical
Units and Relationships The Electric The flow of electrons along a
Current conductor due to the applica-
Electromotive Force: The free electrons in a tion of an electromotive force
Potential Difference conductor move con- constitutes an electric current. This drift is
stantly about and in addition to the irregular movements of
change their position in a haphazard man- the electrons. However, it must not be
ner. To produce a drift of electrons, or elec- thought that each free electron travels from
tric current, along a wire it is necessary that one end of the circuit to the other. On the
there be a difference in "pressure" or poten- contrary, each free electron travels only a
tial between the two ends of the wire. This short distance before colliding with an atom;
potential difference can be produced by con- this collision generally knocks off one or
necting a source of electrical potential to more electrons from the atom, which in
the ends of the wire. turn move a short distance and collide with
As will be explained later, there is an ex- other atoms, knocking off other electrons.
cess of electrons at the negative terminal of Thus, in the general drift of electrons along
a battery and a deficiency of electrons at the a wire carrying an electric current, each
positive terminal, due to chemical action. electron travels only a short distance and
When the battery is connected to the wire, the excess of electrons at one end and the
the deficient atoms at the positive terminal deficiency at the other are balanced by the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Resistance 25

source of the e.m.f. When this source is Resistance The flow of current in a materi-
removed the state of normalcy returns; al depends on the ease with
there is still the rapid interchange of free which electrons can be detached from the
electrons between atoms, but there is no atoms of the material and on its molec-
general trend or "net movement" in either ular structure. In other words, the easier
one direction or the other -in other words, it is to detach electrons from the atoms the
no current flows. more free electrons there will be to contrib-
ute to the flow of current, and the fewer
Ampere and There are two units of meas- collisions that occur between free electrons
Coulomb urement associated with cur- and atoms the greater will be the total
rent, and they are often con- electron flow.
fused. The rate of flow of electricity is The opposition to a steady electron flow
stated in amperes. The unit of quantity is is called the resistance of a material, and is
the coulomb. A coulomb is equal to 6.28 one of its physical properties.
X 10'" electrons, and when this quantity of The unit of resistance is the ohm. Every
electrons flows by a given point in every substance has a specific resistance, usually
second, a current of one ampere is said to expressed as ohms per mil -foot, which is de-
be flowing. An ampere is equal to one termined by the material's molecular struc-
coulomb per second; a coulomb is, converse- ture and temperature. A mil -foot is a piece
ly, equal to one ampere- second. Thus we of material one circular mil in area and one
see that coulomb indicates amount and foot long. Another measure of resistivity
ampere indicates rate of flow of electric frequently used is expressed in the units
current. microhms per centimeter cube. The resist-
ance of a uniform length of a given sub-
Current and Older textbooks speak of cur- stance is directly proportional to its length
Electron Flow rent flow as being from the and specific resistance, and inversely pro-
positive terminal of the e.m.f. portional to its cross -sectional area. A wire
source through the conductor to the nega- with a certain resistance for a given length
tive terminal. Nevertheless, it has long been will have twice as much resistance if the
an established fact that the current flow length of the wire is doubled. For a given
in a metallic conductor is the electron drift length, doubling the cross -sectional area of
from the negative terminal of the source the wire will halve the resistance, while
of voltage through the conductor to the doubling the diameter will reduce the re-
positive terminal. The only exceptions to sistance to one fourth. This is true since
the electronic direction of flow occur in the cross -sectional area of a wire varies as
gaseous and electrolytic conductors where the square of the diameter. The relationship
the flow of positive ions toward the cathode between the resistance and the linear dimen-
or negative electrode constitutes a positive sions of a conductor may be expressed by
flow in the opposite direction to the elec- the following equation:
tron flow. (An ion is an atom, molecule, or rl
particle which either lacks one or more R
electrons, or else has an excess of one or
more electrons.)
where,
In radio work the terms "electron flow" R equals resistance in ohms,
and "current" are becoming accepted as r equals resistivity in ohms per mil -foot,
being synonymous, but the older terminology l equals length of conductor in feet,
is still accepted in the electrical (industrial) A equals cross -sectional area in circular
field. Because of the confusion this some- mils.
times causes, it is often safer to refer to the The resistance also depends on tempera-
direction of electron flow rather than to the ture, rising with an increase in tempera-
direction of the "current." Since electron ture for most substances (including most
flow consists actually of a passage of nega- metals), due to increased electron accelera-
tive charges, current flow and algebraic tion and hence a greater number of impacts
electron flow do pass in the same direction. between electrons and atoms. However, in

www.americanradiohistory.com
26 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO
Conductors and In the molecular structure
TABLE 1. TABLE OF RESISTIVITY
Insulators of many materials such as
Resistivity in glass, porcelain, and mica all
Ohms per Temp. Coeff. of
Circular resistance per C. electrons are tightly held within their orbits
Material Mil -Feet at 20 C.
and there are comparatively few free elec-
Aluminum 17 0.0049 trons. This type of substance will conduct
Brass 45 0.003 to 0.007
an electric current only with great difficulty
Cadmium 46 0.0038
Chromium 16 0.00 and is known as an insulator. An insulator
Copper 10.4 0.0039 is said to have a high electrical resistance.
iron 59 0.006 On the other hand, materials that have a
Silver 9.8 0.004 large number of free electrons are known'as
Zinc 36 0.0005
Nichrome 650 0.0002 conductors. Most metals (those elements
Constantan 295 0.00001 which have only one or two electrons in
Manganin 290 0.00001 their outer ring) are good conductors. Silver,
Monet 255 0.0019 copper, and aluminum, in that order, are
the best of the common metals used as con-
the case of some substances such as carbon ductors and are said to have the greatest
and glass the temperature coefficient is nega- conductivity, or lowest resistance to the flow
tive and the resistance decreases as the tem- of an electric current.
perature increases. This is also true of elec-
trolytes. The temperature may be raised by Fundamental These units are the volt, the
the external application of heat, or by the Electrical Unitsampere, and the ohm. They
flow of the current itself. In the latter case, were mentioned in the pre-
the temperature is raised by the heat gen- ceding paragraphs, but were not completely
erated when the electrons and atoms collide. defined in terms of fixed, known quantities.

yri

11111111111111M1111
.

Figure 1

TYPICAL RESISTORS
Shown above are various types of resistors used in electronic circuits. The larger
units are power resistors. On the left is a variable power resistor. Three precision -
type resistors are shown in the canter with two small composition resistors beneath
them. At the right is a composition -type potentiometer, used for audio circuitry.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Resistive Circuits 27
RESISTANCE RI -- R2
W
A

Figure 3

--
CONDUCTORS -4.
SIMPLE PARALLEL
E
CIRCUIT
--

The two resistors R and R, are said to be in
parallel since the flow of is offered
Figure 2 two parallel paths. An electron leaving point
A will pass either through R, or R,, but not
SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUITS through both. to reach the positive terminal
of the battery. If a large number of electreat
At (A) the battery Is in series with o single are considered, the greater number will pass
resistor. At (I) the battery is in series with through whichever of the two resistors has
two resistors, the resistors themselves being the lower resistance.
in series. The arrows indicate the direction of
electron Row.
found. If the voltage and current are
The fundamental unit of current, or rate known, and the resistance is unknown, the
of flow of electricity is the ampere. A cur- E
rent of one ampere will deposit silver from resistance (R) is equal to .When the
a specified solution of silver nitrate at a
rate of 1.118 milligrams per second. voltage is the unknown quantity, it can be
The international standard for the ohm is found by multiplying 1 X R. These three
the resistance offered by a uniform column equations are all secured from the original
of mercury at 0 C., 14.4521 grams in mass, by simple transposition. The expressions are
of constant cross- sectional area and 106.300 here repeated for quick reference:
centimeters in length. The expression meg-
ohm (1,000,000 ohms) is also sometimes
used when speaking of very large values of
I= R
R= E =IR
resistance. where,
A volt is the e.m.f. that will produce a
current of one ampere through a resistance 1 is the current in amperes,
of one ohm. The standard of electromotive R is the resistance in ohms,
force is the Weston cell which at 20 C. E is the electromotive force in volts.
has a potential of 1.0183 volts across its
terminals. This cell is used only for reference Application of All electrical circuits fall into
purposes in a bridge circuit, since only an Ohm's Law one of three classes: series
infinitesimal amount of current may be circuits, parallel circuits, and
drawn from it without disturbing its char- series - parallel circuits. A series circuit is
acteristics. one in which the current flows in a single
continuous path and is of the same value at
Ohm's Low The relationship between the every point in the circuit (figure 2). In a
electromotive force (voltage), parallel circuit there are two or more cur-
the flow of current (amperes), and the re- rent paths between two points in the circuit,
sistance which impedes the flow of current as shown in figure 3. Here the current di-
(ohms), is very clearly expressed in a simple vides at A, part going through R, and part
but highly valuable law known as Ohm's through R2, and combines at B to return
Law. This law states that the current in am-
peres is equal to the voltage in volts divided
by the resistance in ohms. Expressed as an Figure 4
equation: SERIES -PARALLEL
CIRCUIT
I = R
In this type of circuit the resistors are ar-
If the voltage (E) and resistance (R) ranged in series groups, and those groups are
are known, the current (I) can be readily then placed in parallel.

www.americanradiohistory.com
28 Direct -Current Circuits THE RADIO
to the battery. Figure 4 shows a series - Resistances Consider two resistors, one of
parallel circuit. There are two paths between in Parallel 100 ohms and one of 10 ohms,
points A and B as in the parallel circuit, and connected in parallel as in fig-
in addition there are two resistances in series ure 3, with a potential of 10 volts applied
in each branch of the parallel combination. across each resistor, so the current through
Two other examples of series -parallel ar- each can be easily calculated.
rangements appear in figure S. The way in
which the current splits to flow through E
1
the parallel branches is shown by the arrows.
In every circuit, each of the parts has
some resistance: the batteries or generator,
= 10 volts
E
= 10
= 0.1 ampere
the connecting conductors, and the appa- R, = 100 ohms I' 100
ratus itself. Thus, if each part has some re-
sistance, no matter how little, and a current
is flowing through it, there will be a volt-
E = lO volts
R. = 10 ohms
12 - 10
10
= 1.0 ampere

age drop across it. In other words, there will Total current = 1, + I2 = 1.1 ampere
be a potential difference between the two
ends of the circuit element in question. This Until it divides at A, the entire current
drop in voltage is equal to the product of of 1.1 amperes is flowing through the con-
the current and the resistance hence it is ductor from the battery to A, and again
called the IR drop. from B through the conductor to the bat-
tery. Since this is more current than flows
Internal The source of voltage has an in- through the smaller resistor it is evident
Resistance ternal resistance, and when con- that the resistance of the parallel combina-
nected into a circuit so that tion must be less than 10 ohms, the re-
current flows, there will be an IR drop sistance of the smaller resistor. We can find
in the source just as in every other part this value by applying Ohm's Law.
of the circuit. Thus, if the terminal voltage
of the source could be measured in a way RT =
that would cause no current to flow, it
would be found to be more than the voltage E = 10 volts 10
measured when a current flows by the I = 1.1 amperes RT- 1.1 = 9.09 ohms
amount of the IR drop in the source. The
voltage measured with no current flowing The resistance of the parallel combination
is termed the no load voltage; that measured is 9.09 ohms.
with current flowing is the load voltage. Mathematically, we can derive a simple
It is apparent that a voltage source having formula for finding the effective resistance
a low internal resistance is most desirable. of two resistors connected in parallel.
R, X R_
Resistances The current flowing in a series RT = R, + R2
in Series circuit is equal to the voltage
impressed divided by the total where,
resistance across which the voltage is im- RT is the unknown resistance,
pressed. Since the same current flows through R, is the resistance of the first resistor,
every part of the circuit, it is merely nec- R_ is the resistance of the second resistor.
essary to add all the individual resistances
to obtain the total resistance. Expressed as If the effective value required is known,
a formula:
and it is desired to connect one unknown
resistor in parallel with one of known value,
RTo1a1= R, +R2 +R1 +... +R,. the following transposition of the above
formula will simplify the problem of ob-
Of course, if the resistances happened to be taining the unknown value:
all the same value, the total resistance would
be the resistance of one multiplied by the
number of resistors in the circuit.
R - R, X RT
R, -RT

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Voltage Divider 29

where, Resistors in To find the total resistance of


RT is the effective value required, Series -Parallel several resistors connected in
R1 is the known resistor, series-parallel, it is usually
/12 isthe value of the unknown resistance easiest to apply either the formula for series
necessary to give RT when in parallel resistors or the parallel resistor formula first,
with R1. in order to reduce the original arrangement
to a simpler one. For instance, in figure 4
The resultant value of placing a number the series resistors should be added in each
of unlike resistors in parallel is equal to the branch, then there will be but two resistors
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of in parallel to be calculated. Similarly in
the various resistors. This can be expressed figure 6, although here there will be three
as: parallel resistors after adding the series re-
sistors in each branch. In figure 6B the par-
1
RT = alleled resistors should be reduced to the
equivalent series value, and then the series
resistance value can be added.
Resistances in series- parallel can be solved
The effective value of placing any num- by combining the series and parallel formu-
ber of unlike resistors in parallel can be las into one similar to the following (refer
determined from the above formula. How- to figure 6) :
ever, it is commonly used only when there
are three or more resistors under considera- 1

tion, since the simplified formula given RT = 1 1 1


before is more convenient when only two R1 -- R_ R3 -- R, R55 + Re + RT
resistors are being used.
From the above, it also follows that when Voltage Dividers A voltage divider is exactly
two or more resistors of the same value are what its name implies: a
placed in parallel, the effective resistance of resistor or a series of resistors connected
the paralleled resistors is equal to the value across a source of voltage from which
of one of the resistors divided by the num- various lesser values of voltage may be ob-
ber of resistors in parallel. tained by connection to various points along
The effective value of resistance of two the resistor.
or more resistors connected in parallel is A voltage divider serves a most useful
always less than the value of the lowest re- purpose in a radio receiver, transmitter or
sistance in the combination. It is well to amplifier, because it offers a simple means of
bear this simple rule in mind, as it will assist obtaining plate, screen, and bias voltages of
greatly in approximating the value of paral- different values from a common power sup-
leled resistors. ply source. It may also be used to obtain
very low voltages of the order of .01 to .001
A volt with a high degree of accuracy, even
though a means of measuring such voltages
is lacking. The procedure for making these
measurements can best be given in the fol-
lowing example.

Rs
Ri R
Re R
R2 Rs R1

Figure 5 Figure 6

OTHER COMMON SERIES -PARALLEL ANOTHER TYPE OF


CIRCUITS SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
30 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO
Assume that an accurately calibrated volt- In addition, it is also necessary that the de-
meter reading from 0 to 150 volts is avail- sired voltage and the exact current at each
able, and that the source of voltage is tap on the voltage divider be known.
exactly 100 volts. This 100 volts is then Figure 7 illustrates the flow of current
impressed through a resistance of exactly in a simple voltage- divider and load circuit.
1000 ohms. It will then be found that the The light arrows indicate the flow of bleeder
voltage along various points on the resistor, current, while the heavy arrows indicate the
with respect to the grounded end, is exactly flow of the load current. The design of a
proportional to the resistance at that point. combined bleeder resistor and voltage divid-
From Ohm's Law, the current would be 0.1 er, such as is commonly used in radio equip-
ampere; this current remains unchanged ment, is illustrated in the following example:
since the original value of resistance (1000 A power supply delivers 300 volts and
ohms) and the voltage source (100 volts) is conservatively rated to supply all needed
are unchanged. Thus, at a 500 -ohm point current for the receiver and still allow a
on the resistor (half its entire resistance), bleeder current of 10 milliamperes. The fol-
the voltage will likewise be halved or re- lowing voltages are wanted: 75 volts at 2
duced to 50 volts. milliamperes for the detector tube, 100
The equation (E = I X R) gives the volts at 5 milliamperes for the screens of
proof: E = 500 X 0.1 = 50. At the point the tubes, and 250 volts at 20 milliamperes
of 250 ohms on the resistor, the voltage for the plates of the tubes. The required
will be one- fourth the total value, or 25 voltage drop across R, is 75 volts, across
volts (E = 250 X 0.1 = 25). Continuing R2 25 volts, across R3 150 volts, and across
with this process, a point can be found R, it is 50 volts. These values are shown in
where the resistance measures exactly 1 ohm the diagram of figure 8. The respective cur-
and where the voltage equals 0.1 volt. It rent values are also indicated. Apply Ohm's
is, therefore, obvious that if the original Law:
source of voltage and the resistance can be
E 75
measured, it is a simple matter to predeter- R1- I - .01
= 7500 ohms
mine the voltage at any point along the
resistor, provided that the current remains E 25
constant, and provided that no current is
taken from the tap-on point unless this
RZ-
I -.012 = 2083 ohms

current is taken into consideration.


R3 = T=
E 150
.017
= $823 ohms
Voltage- Divider Proper design of a voltage
Calculations divider for any type of radio E 50
equipment is a relatively R'-= 1 -.037 = 1351 ohms
simple matter. The first consideration is the
amount of "bleeder current" to be drawn. RTOtt = 7500 + 2083 + 8823 +
1351 = 19,757 ohms
A 20,000 -ohm resistor with three sliding
taps will be the approximately correct
size, and would ordinarily be used because
BLEEDER CURRENT
FLOW! BETWEE
POINT] A ANDb of the difficulty in securing four separate
resistors of the exact odd values indicated,
and because no adjustment would be possible
to compensate for any slight error in esti-
mating the probable currents through the
Figure 7
various taps.
SIMPLE VOLTAGE -DIVIDER When the sliders on the resistor once are
CIRCUIT set to the proper point, as in the above ex-
ample, the voltages will remain constant at
The arrows indicate the manner in which the
current flow divides between the voltage the values shown as long as the current
divider itself and the external load circuit. remains a constant value.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Kirchhoff's Laws 31

-2 AMP3
ySly

lo +z+S+zoM 1 !

50 VOLTS DROP { Ps

I
A r -2 AMPS
10 +2 +5
MA. R2
{
150 VOLTS DROP AMP.;
l
300 VOLTS - +
10+2 MA. 111111
25 VOLTS DROP 20 VOLTS

Figure 9
BLEEDER CURRENT,10 MA.
75 VOLTS DROP
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S
FIRST LAW
--POWER SUPPLY LOAD The carrent flowing toward point "A" is equal
to the current flowing away from point "A."
Figure 8

MORE COMPLEX VOLTAGE DIVIDER


Stated in another way: if currents flowing to
the point are considered positive, and those
The method for computing the values of the flowing from the point are considered nega-
resistors is discussed in the accompanying text.

Disadvantages of One of the serious disad-


tive, the sum of all currents flowing toward
and away from the point
into account - taking signs
is equal to zero. Such a sum
-
Voltage Dividers vantages of the voltage is known as an algebraic sum; such that the
divider becomes evident law can be stated thus: The algebraic sum
when the current drawn from one of the of all currents entering and leaving a point
taps changes. It is obvious that the voltage is zero.
drops are interdependent and, in turn, the Figure 9 illustrates this first law. If
individual drops are in proportion to the the effective resistance of the network of
current which flows through the respective resistors is S ohms, it can be seen that 4
sections of the divider resistor. The only amperes flow toward point A, and 2 amperes
remedy lies in providing a heavy steady flow away through the two 1-ohm resistors
bleeder current in order to make the indi- in series. The remaining 2 amperes flow
vidual currents so small a part of the total away through the 10 -ohm resistor. Thus,
current that any change in current will there are 4 amperes flowing to point A
result in only a slight change in voltage. and 4 amperes flowing away from the
This can seldom be realized in practice be- point. If RT is the effective resistance of
cause of the excessive values of bleeder cur- the network (S ohms) , R, = 10 ohms, R2
rent which would be required. = S ohms, R3 = S ohms, and E = 20 volts,
we can set up the following equation:
Kirehhoff's Laws Ohm's Law is all that is
necessary to calculate the E E E
values in simple circuits, such as the pre- RT R, RZ + R3
=
ceding examples; but in more complex prob-
lems, involving several loops, or more than 20 20 20
one voltage in the same closed circuit, the 5 10 S+S
use of Kirchhoff's laws will greatly simplify
the calculations. These laws are merely rules
4 - - 2 2 =
for applying Ohm's Law. Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with
Kirchhoff's first law is concerned with net net voltage drop around a closed loop in a
current to a point in a circuit and states circuit and states that:
that: In any closed path or loop in a circuit
At any point in a circuit the current the sum of the IR drops must equal
the sum of the applied e.m.f.'s.
flowing toward the point is equal to
the current flowing away from the The second law also may be conveniently
point. stated in terms of an algebraic sum as: The

www.americanradiohistory.com
32 Direct -Current Circuits THE RADIO
algebraic sum of all toltage drops around a which was drawn originally. This is illus-
closed path or loop in a circuit is zero. The trated in the example of figure 10, where
applied e.m.f.'s (voltages) are considered the direction of flow of I, is opposite to the
positive, while IR drops taken in the direc- direction assumed in the sketch.
tion of current flow (including the internal
drop of the sources of voltage) are consid- Power in In order to cause electrons
ered negative. Resistive Circuits to flow through a conduc-
Figure 10 shows an example of the appli- tor, constituting a current
cation of Kirchhoff's laws to a comparative- flow, it necessary to apply an electromotive
is
ly simple circuit consisting of three resistors force (voltage) across the circuit. Less pow-
and two batteries. First assume an arbitrary er is expended in creating a small current
direction of current flow in each closed loop flow through a given resistance than in
of the circuit, drawing an arrow to indicate creating a large one; so it is necessary to
the assumed direction of current flow. Then have a unit of power as a reference.
equate the sum of all IR drops plus battery The unit of electrical power is the watt,
drops around each loop to zero. You will which is the rate of energy consumption
need one equation for each unknown to be when an e.m.f. of 1 volt forces a current
determined. Then solve the equations for the of 1 ampere through a circuit. The power
unknown currents in the general manner in a resistive circuit is equal to the product
indicated in figure 10. If the answer comes of the voltage applied across, and the cur-
out positive the direction of current flow rent flowing in, a given circuit. Hence: P
you originally assumed was correct. If the (watts) = E (volts) X I (amperes).
answer comes out negative, the current flow Since it is often convenient to express
is in the opposite direction to the arrow power in terms of the resistance of the cir-
cuit and the current flowing through it,
a substitution of IR for E (E =
IR) in the
above formula gives: P =
IR X I or P =
2 OHMS
12--'')11,
S OHMS /2R. in terms of voltage and resistance, P
= E2 /R. Here, I =
E/R and when this is
substituted for 1 the original formula be-
3
+
VOLTS
Iz
3 VOLTS
comes P =
E X E /R, or P=
E2 /R. To
repeat these three expressions:
1. SET VOLTAGE DROPS AROUND EACH LOOP EQUAL TO ZERO. P =EI,P =12R, and P =E2 /R
1 1 .
2 (0 . s ) + 2 ( 1 1 - 1 2) +3= 0 (FIRST Loop)
-6 +2 (12- I1)+312 =0 (SECOND LOOP) where,
2. SIMPLIFY P is the power in watts,
211 +211 -212 +3 =0 212-2I1+312-6=0 E is the electromotive force in volts, and
411+3 51z-211-6 =0 I is the current in amperes.
2 tz 211+6 I2
5
To apply the above equations to a typical
3. EQUATE
41, +3 2I1+6 problem: The voltage drop across a cathode
2 - 5 resistor in a power amplifier stage is SO
volts; the plate current flowing through the
4 SiMPLIFV
201,+15= 411 +12 resistor is 150 milliamperes. The number of
AMPERE watts the resistor will be required to dissi-
pate is found from the formula: P = EI, or
5. RE
Z+3
-SUBSTITUTE
24- 50 X .1S0 = 7.S watts (.150 ampere is
12= 2 = 2 - 1 a
I
AMPERE
equal to 150 milliamperes). From the fore-
Figure 10 going it is seen that a 7.5 -watt resistor will
safely carry the required current, yet a 10-
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S or 20 -watt resistor would ordinarily be used
SECOND LAW to provide a safety factor.
voltage drop a d any closed loop in a
In another problem, the conditions being
Tho
network is equal to zero. similar to those above, but with the resist-

www.americanradiohistory.com
I

HANDBOOK , Cpacitance 33

our electric bill to' the power company we


have purchased a specific amount of energy
or work expressed in the common units of
kilowatt- hours. Thus rate of energy con-
sumption (watts or kilowatts) multiplied
Figure 11 by time (seconds, minutes, or hours) gives
us total energy or work. Other units of
MATCHING OF
RESISTANCES
energy are the watt -second, BTU, calorie,
erg, and joule.
To deliver the greatest amount of power to
the load, the load resistance R, should be Heating Effect Heat is generated when a
equal to the internal resistance of the
battery RA. source of voltage causes a
current to flow through a resistor (or, for
that matter, through any conductor). As
ance (R = 3331/3 ohms), and current being explained earlier, this is due to the fact
the known factors, the solution is obtained that heat is given off when free electrons
as follows: P = I2R = .0225 X 333.33 = collide with the atoms of the material. More
7.5. If only the voltage and resistance are heat is generated in high -resistance materials
known, P = E2 /R = 2500/333.33 = 7.5 than in those of low resistance, since the
watts. It is seen that all three equations give free electrons must strike the atoms harder
the same results; the selection of the particu- to knock off other electrons. As the heating
lar equation depends only on the known effect is a function of the current flowing
factors. and the resistance of the circuit, the power
expended in heat is given by the second
Power, Energy It is important to remember formula: P = I2R.
and Work that power (expressed in
watts, horsepower, etc.), rep-
resents the rate of energy consumption or 2 -3 Electrostatics
the rate of doing work. But when we pay Ca pacitors
Electrical energy can be stored in an elec-
trostatic field. A device capable of storing
energy in such a field is called a capacitor
(in earlier usage the term condenser was
frequently used but the IEEE standards call
for the use of capacitor instead of conden-
ser) and is said to have a certain capacitance.
The energy stored in an electrostatic field
is expressed in joules (watt- seconds) and is
equal to CE2 /2, where C is the capacitance
in farads (a unit of capacitance to be dis-
cussed) and E is the potential in volts. The
charge is equal to CE, the charge being ex-

\\"46\1
pressed in coulombs.
Capacitance and Two metallic plates sep-
Capacitors arated from each other by
a thin layer of insulating
material (called a dielectric, in this case)
Figure 12 becomes a capacitor. When a source of d -c
potential is momentarily applied across these
TYPICAL CAPACITORS
plates, they may be said to become charged.
The two large units are high value filter ca- If the same two plates are then joined to-
pacitors. Shown beneath these are various gether momentarily by means of a switch,
types of by -pass capacitors for r -f and audio
application. the capacitor will discharge.

www.americanradiohistory.com
i

34 Direct Cuiren,t Circuits THE RADIO

When the potential was first applied, ELECTROSTATIC


rFIELO
electrons immediately flowed from one plate SHORTAGE ,,SURPLUS
OF ELECTRONS OF ELECTRONS
to the other through the battery or such
source of d -c potential as was applied to
the capacitor plates. However, the circuit
from plate to plate in the capacitor was
incomplete (the two plates being separated
i
by an insulator) and thus the electron flow
ceased, meanwhile establishing a shortage of CHARGING CURRENT
electrons on one plate and a surplus of elec-
trons on the other. Figure 13
Remember that when a deficiency of elec- SIMPLE CAPACITOR
trons exists at one end of a conductor, there
is always a tendency for the electrons to Illustrating the imaginary linos of force repro-
sooting the paths along which the repelling
move about in such a manner as to re- estab- force of the 'plastrons would act on a free
lish a state of balance. In the case of the electron located between the two capacitor
capacitor herein discussed, the surplus quan- plates.
tity of electrons on one of the capacitor
plates cannot move to the other plate be- Now the potential energy, or capacity for
cause the circuit has been broken; that is, doing work, of the 5 gallons of water will be
the battery or d -c potential was removed. twice as great when confined to the 1 sq. in.
This leaves the capacitor in a charged con- standpipe as when confined to the 2 sq. in.
dition; the capacitor plate with the electron standpipe. Yet the volume of water or
deficiency is positively charged, the other "charge" is the same in either case.
plate being negative. Likewise a 1 -pfd capacitor charged to
In this condition, a considerable stress 1000 volts possesses twice as much potential
exists in the insulating material (dielectric) energy as does a 2-pfd capacitor charged to
which separates the two capacitor plates, 500 volts, though the charge (expressed in
due to the mutual attraction of two unlike coulombs: Q = CE) is the same in either
potentials on the plates. This stress is known case.
known as electrostatic energy, as contrasted
with electromagnetic energy in the case of The Unit of Capac- If the external circuit of
an inductor. This charge can also be called itance: The Farad the two capacitor plates
potential energy because it is capable of per- is completed by joining
forming work when the charge is released the terminals together with a piece of wire,
through an external circuit. The charge is the electrons will rush immediately from
proportional to the voltage but the energy one plate to the other through the external
is proportional to the voltage squared, as circuit and establish a state of equilibrium.
shown in the following analogy. This latter phenomenon explains the dis-
The charge represents a definite amount of charge of a capacitor. The amount of stored
electricity, or a given number of electrons. energy in a charged capacitor is dependent
The potential energy possessed by these elec- on the charging potential, as well as a factor
trons depends not only on their number, but which takes into account the size of the
also on their potential or voltage. plates, dielectric thickness, natxre of the di-
Compare the electrons to water, and two electric, and the number of plates. This
capacitors to standpipes, a 1 -fd capacitor to factor, which is determined by the fore-
a standpipe having a cross section of 1 going, is called the capacitance of a capaci-
square inch and a 2-pfd capacitor to a tor and is expressed in farads.
standpipe having a cross section of 2 square The farad is such a large unit of capaci-
inches. The charge will represent a given tance that it is rarely used in radio calcula-
volume of water, as the "charge" simply tions, and the following more practical units
indicates a certain number of electrons. Sup- have, therefore, been chosen.
pose the quantity of water is equal to S 1 microfarad = 1 /1,000,000 farad, or
gallons. .000001 farad, or 10-6 farad.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Capacitive Circuits 35

at hand. Air is a very good dielectric ma-


1 micromicro f arad or picot arad = terial, but an air -spaced capacitor does not
111,000,000 microfarad, or .000001 have a high capacitance since the dielectric
microfarad, or 10 -6 microfarad. constant of air is only slightly greater than
1 micromicrofarad or pico farad = one - one. A group of other commonly used di-
millionth of one- millionth of a farad, or electric materials is listed in Table 2.
10_12 farad. Certain materials, such as bakelite, lucite,
and other plastics dissipate considerable
If the capacitance is to be expressed in energy when used as capacitor dielectrics.
microfarads in the equation given for ener- This energy loss is expressed in terms of the
gy storage, the factor C would then have to power factor of the capacitor, which repre-
be divided by 1,000,000, thus: sents the portion of the input volt- amperes
lost in the dielectric material. Other ma-
Stored energy in joules - 2
C X E2
X 1,000,000
terials including air, polystyrene and quartz
have a very low power factor.
This storage of energy in a capacitor is The new ceramic dielectrics such as stea-
one of its very important properties, par- tite (talc) and titanium dioxide products
ticularly in those capacitors which are used are especially suited for high- frequency and
in power -supply filter circuits. high- temperature operation. Ceramics based
on titanium dioxide have an unusually high
Dielectric Although any substance which has dielectric constant combined with a low
Materials the characteristics of a good in- power factor. The temperature coefficient
sulator may be used as a dielectric with respect to capacitance of units made
material, commercially manufactured ca- with this material depends on the mixture
pacitors make use of dielectric materials of oxides, and coefficients ranging from
which have been selected because their char- zero to over -700 parts per million per
acteristics are particularly suited to the job degree Centigrade may be obtained in com-
mercial production.
TABLE. 2. TABLE OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS Mycalex is a composition of minute mica
Dielectric Power Softening particles and lead- borate glass, mixed and
Material Constant
10 MHz
Factor Point
10 MHz Fahrenheit
fired at a relatively low temperature. It is
Aniline-Formaldehyde
hard and brittle, but can be drilled or ma-
Resin 3.4 0.004 260' chined when water is used as the cutting
Barium Titianate 1200 1.0 - lubricant.
Castor Oil 4.67
3.7 0.04 180'
Mica dielectric capacitors have a very low
Cellulose Acetate
Gloss, Window 6-8 Poor 2000' power factor and extremely high voltage
Glass, Pyrex 4.5 0.02 breakdown per unit of thickness. A mica
Kel -F Fluorothene 2.5 0.6 - and copperfoil "sandwich" is formed under
Methyl-Methacrylate-
Lucite 2.6 0.007 160' pressure to obtain the desired capacity value.
Mica 5.4 0.0003 The effect of temperature on the pressures
Mycalex Mykroy 7.0 0.002 650' in the "sandwich" causes the capacitance of
Phenol- Formaldehyde,
Low -Loss Yellow 5.0 0.015 270' the usual mica capacitor to have large, non -
Phenol -Formaldehyde cyclic variations. If the copper electrodes
Black Bakelite 5.5 0.03 350'
7.0 0.005 2800'
are plated directly on the mica sheets, the
Porcelain
Polyethylene 2.25 0.0003 220' temperature coefficient can be stabilized at
Polystyrene 2.55 0.0002 175' about 20 parts per million per degree Centi-
Quartz, Fused 4.2 0.0002 2600' grade. A process of this type is used in the
Rubber Hard -Ebonite 2.8 0.007 150'
Steatite 6.1 0.003 2700'
manufacture of "silver mica" capacitors.
Sulfur 3.8 0.003 236' Paper dielectric capacitors consist of strips
Teflon 2.1 .0006 - of aluminum foil insulated from each other
Titanium Dioxide 100.175 0.0006 2700' by a thin layer of paper, the whole assembly
Transformer Oil 2.2 0.003
0.05 260'
being wrapped in a circular bundle. The
Urea- Formaldehyde 5.0
Vinyl Resins 4.0 0.02 200' cost of such a capacitor is low, the capaci-
Wood, Maple 4.4 Poor tance is high in proportion to the size and
36 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO

III\
weight, and the power factor is good. The
CIRCULAR PLATE CAPACITORS
life of such a capacitor is dependent on the CAPACITANCE POR A GIVEN SPACING
moisture penetration of the paper dielectric,
and on the level of the applied d -c voltage. 11111
Air-dielectric capacitors are used in trans- IIIIM
mitting and receiving circuits, principally

..
where a variable capacitor of high resetabil- MEE
ity is required. The dielectric strength is
high, though somewhat less at radio fre-
1111
RE O
\\E
quencies than at 60 Hz. In addition,
ii..
:iii
corona discharge at high frequencies will
cause ionization of the air dielectric causing HEMP
an increase in power loss. Dielectric strength MATME5511 OMEN
may be increased by increasing the air pres-
sure, as is done in hermetically sealed radar 1 2 3 S s 7 f 10 11 12 13 It
units. In some units, dry nitrogen gas may CAPACITANCE IN PICOFARAOS

be used in place of air to provide a higher Figure 14


dielectric strength than that of air.
Through the use of this chart it is possible to
Likewise, the dielectric strength of an determine the required plate diameter (with
"air" capacitor may be increased by placing the necessary spacing established by peak
the unit in a vacuum chamber to prevent voitogt considerations) for a circular-plate
neutralizing capacitor. The capacitance given
ionization of the dielectric. is for a dielectric of air and the spacing given
The temperature coefficient of a variable is between adjacent foots of the two plates.
air -dielectric capacitor varies widely and is
often noncyclic. Such things as differential
A
expansion of various parts of the capacitor, C = 0.2248 X K X
t
changes in internal stresses, and different
temperature coefficients of various parts con- where,
tribute to these variances.
C equals capacitance in picofarads,
Dielectric The capacitance of a capacitor is K equals dielectric constant of spacing
Constant determined by the thickness and material,
nature of the dielectric material A equals area of dielectric in square inches,
between plates. Certain materials offer a t equals thickness of dielectric in inches.
greater capacitance than others, depending
on their physical makeup and chemical con-
stitution. This property is expressed by a
constant K, called the dielectric constant. _Lcl
(K =1 for air.) C

Dielectric If the charge becomes too great


Breakdown for a given thickness of a cer- T`2 1
PARALLEL CAPACITORS SERIES CAPACITORS
tain dielectric, the capacitor will
break down, i.e., the dielectric will puncture.
It is for this reason that capacitors are
rated in the manner of the amount of lC3 ICS
voltage they will safely withstand as well
as the capacitance in microfarads. This rat- ICs ICs
ing is commonly expressed as the d -c work- T T i
ing voltage (DCWV) . CAPACITORS IN SERIES- PARALLEL

Calculation of The capacitance of two par -


Figure 15
Capacitance allel plates may be determined
with good accuracy by the CAPACITORS IN SERIES, PARALLEL,
following formula: AND SERIES -PARALLEL

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Capacitive Circuits 37

This formula indicates that the capaci- Capacitors in Equations for calculating ca-
tance is directly proportional to the area of Parallel and pacitances of capacitors in par -
the plates and inversely proportional to the in Series allel connections are the same
thickness of the dielectric (spacing between as those for resistors in series.
the plates). This simply means that when
the area of the plate is doubled, the spacing
CT= C1 +C2 +... +C
between plates remaining constant, the ca- Capacitors in series connection are cal-
pacitance will be doubled. Also, if the area culated in the same manner as are resistors
of the plates remains constant, and the in parallel connection.
plate spacing is doubled the capacitance will The formulas are repeated: (1) For two
be reduced to half. or more capacitors of unequal capacitance
The above equation also shows that ca- in series:
pacitance is directly proportional to the di-
electric constant of the spacing material.
An air -spaced capacitor that has a capaci-
CT - I
1

1
+
tance of 100 pf in air would have a ca- Cl C2 Cq
pacitance of 467 pf when immersed in castor
1 1 1 1
oil, because the dielectric constant of castor or,
oil is 4.67 times as great as the dielectric CT Cl C2 Cs
constant of air. (2) Tim capacitors of unequal capacitance
Where the area of the plate is definitely in series:
set, when it is desired to know the spacing
needed to secure a required capacitance, C1 X Cz
CT = Ci +C_
AX0.2248XK
t
(3) Three capacitors of equal capacitance
in series:
where all units are expressed just as in the
preceding formula. This formula is not con-
fined to capacitors having only square or CT = 3 1

rectangular plates, but also applies when the


plates are circular in shape. The only change where,
will be the calculation of the area of such C1 is the common capacitance.
circular plates; this area can be computed
by squaring the radius of the plate, then (4) Three or more capacitors of equal ca-
multiplying by 3.1416, or "pi." Expressed pacitance in series.
as an equation:
Value of common capacitance
A = 3.1416 X r2 CT Number of capacitors in series
where, (f) Six capacitors in series -parallel:
r equals radius in inches.
1 1
The capacitance of a multiplate capacitor CT= + + I

can be calculated by taking the capacitance + +


of one section and multiplying this by the C, C2 C3 + Ca C5 Cs
number of dielectric spaces. In such cases,
however, the formula gives no consideration Capacitors in A -C When a capacitor is con -
to the effects of edge capacitance; so the and D -C Circuits nected into a direct -cur-
capacitance as calculated will not be en- rent circuit, it will block
tirely accurate. These additional capacitances the d.c., or stop the flow of current. Beyond
will be but a small part of the effective total the initial movement of electrons during the
capacitance, particularly when the plates period when the capacitor is being charged,
are reasonably large and thin, and the final there will be no flow of current because the
result will, therefore, be within practical circuit is effectively broken by the dielectric
limits of accuracy. of the capacitor.
38 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO
Strictly speaking, a very small current
may actually flow because the dielectric of
the capacitor may not be a perfect insulator. EQUAL
CAPACITANCE RESISTANCE
This minute current flow is the leakage cur-
rent previously referred to and is dependent
on the internal d -c resistance of the capaci-
tor. This leakage current is usually quite F sure 16
noticeable in most types of electrolytic ca-
pacitors. SHOWING THE USE OF VOLTAGE EQUAL-
When an alternating current is applied to IZING RESISTORS ACROSS CAPACITORS
a capacitor, the capacitor will charge and CONNECTED IN SERIES
discharge a certain number of times per
second in accordance with the frequency of Capacitors in When two capacitors are con-
the alternating voltage. The electron flow Series on A.C. nected in series, alternating
in the charge and discharge of a capacitor
voltage pays no heed to the
when an a -c potential is applied constitutes
relatively high internal resistance of each
an alternating current, in effect. It is for
capacitor, but divides across the capacitors
this reason that a capacitor will pass an in inverse proportion to the capacitance. Be-
alternating current yet offer practically in- cause, in addition to the d -c voltage across
finite opposition to a direct current. These a capacitor in a filter or audio amplifier cir-
two properties are repeatedly in evidence in cuit there is usually an a -c or a -f voltage
a radio circuit.
component, it is inadvisable to series -connect
Voltage Rating capacitors of unequal capacitance even if
Any good paper- dielectric
of Capacitors dividers are provided to keep the d -c volt-
filter capacitor has such a
in Series ages within the ratings of the individual
high internal resistance (in-
capacitors.
dicating a good dielectric) For instance, if a 500-volt 1-pfd capaci-
that the exact resistance will vary consider-
tor is used in series with a 4 -pfd 500-
ably from capacitor to capacitor even though
volt capacitor across a 250 -volt a -c supply,
they are made by the same manufacturer
the 1 -pfd capacitor will have 200 a -c volts
and are of the same rating. Thus, when
across it and the 4 -pfd capacitor only 50
1000 volts d. c. are connected across two 1-
volts. An equalizing divider, to do any good
pfd 500 -volt capacitors in series, the in this case, would have to be of very low
chances are that the voltage will divide un-
resistance because of the comparatively low
evenly; one capacitor will receive more than impedance of the capacitors to alternating
500 volts and the other less than 500 volts.
current. Such a divider would draw ex-
cessive current and be impracticable.
Voltage Equalizing By connecting a half - The safest rule to follow is to use only
Resistors megohm 1 -watt carbon capacitors of the same capacitance and volt-
resistor across each ca- age rating and to install matched high -
pacitor, the voltage will be equalized be- resistance proportioning resistors across the
cause the resistors act as a voltage divider, various capacitors to equalize the d -c volt-
and the internal resistances of the capacitors age drop across each capacitor. This holds
are so much higher (many megohms) that regardless of how many capacitors are series -
they have but little effect in disturbing the connected.
voltage divider balance.
Carbon resistors of the inexpensive type ElectrolyticElectrolytic capacitors use a very
are not particularly accurate (not being de- Capacitors thin film of oxide as the dielec-
signed for precision service) ; therefore it is tric, and are polarized; that is,
advisable to check several on an accurate they have a positive and a negative terminal
ohmmeter to find two that are as close as which must be properly connected in a cir-
possible in resistance. The exact resistance cuit; otherwise, the oxide will break down
is unimportant, just so it is the same for and the capacitor will overheat. The unit
the two resistors used. then will no longer be of service. When elec-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Magnetism 39

trolytic capacitors are connected in series, these fields to build up into a resultant
the positive terminal is always connected external field which acts in a plane at right
to the positive lead of the power supply; angles to the direction in which the cur-
the negative terminal of the capacitor con- rent is flowing. This field is known as the
nects to the positive terminal of the next magnetic field.
capacitor in the series combination. The The magnetic field around a current -car-
method of connection for electrolytic ca- rying conductor is illustrated in figure 17.
pacitors in series is shown in figure 16. Elec- The direction of this magnetic field depends
trolytic capacitors have very low cost per entirely on the direction of electron drift or
microfarad of capacitance, but also have a current flow in the conductor. When the
large power factor and high leakage; both flow is toward the observer, the field about
dependent on applied voltage, temperature, the conductor is clockwise; when the flow
and the age of the capacitor. The modern is away from the observer, the field is
electrolytic capacitor uses a dry paste elec- counterclockwise. This is easily remembered
trolyte embedded in a gauze or paper dielec- if the left hand is clenched, with the thumb
tric. Aluminum foil and the dielectric are outstretched and pointing in the direction
wrapped in a circular bundle and are of electron flow. The fingers then indicate
mounted in a cardboard or metal box. the direction of the magnetic field around
Etched electrodes may be employed to in- the conductor.
crease the effective anode area, and the total Each electron adds its field to the total
capacitance of the unit. external magnetic field, so that the greater
The capacitance of an electrolytic ca- the number of electrons moving along the
pacitor is affected by the applied voltage, conductor, the stronger will be the resulting
the usage of the capacitor, the temperature field.
and the humidity of the environment. The One of the fundamental laws of magnet-
capacitance usually drops with the aging ism is that like poles repel one another and
of the unit. The leakage current and power unlike poles attract one another. This is
factor increase with age. At high frequen- true of current -carrying conductors as well
cies the power factor becomes so poor that as of permanent magnets. Thus, if two
the electrolytic capacitor acts as a series conductors are placed side by side and the
resistance rather than as a capacitance. current in each is flowing in the same di-
rection, the magnetic fields will also be in
2 -4 Magnetism the same direction and will combine to form
a larger and stronger field. If the current
and Electromagnetism flow in adjacent conductors is in opposite
The common bar or horseshoe magnet is directions, the magnetic fields oppose each
familiar to most people. The magnetic field other and tend to cancel.
The magnetic field around a conductor
which surrounds it causes the magnet to at-
tract other magnetic materials, such as iron may be considerably increased in strength
nails or tacks. Exactly the same kind of
by winding the wire into a coil. The field
magnetic field is set up around any conduc-
tor carrying a current, but the field exists
only while the current is flowing.
Magnetic Fields Before a potential, or volt-
age, is applied to a conduc- ELECTRON OR FT

tor there no external field, because there


is
- SWITCH

is no general movement of the electrons in


-
one direction. However, the electrons do
Figure 17
progressively move along the conductor
when an e.m.f. is applied, the direction of LEFT -HAND RULE
motion depending on the polarity of the
Showing the direction of the magnetic lines of
e.m.f. Since each electron has an electric force produced around a conductor carrying
field about it, the flow of electrons causes an electric current.
40 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO
around each wire then combines with those the property of a material that opposes the
of the adjacent turns to form a total field creation of a magnetic flux in the material.
through the coil which is concentrated It is expressed in refs, and the symbol is the
along the axis of the coil and behaves ex- letter R. A material has a reluctance of 1 rel
ternally in a way similar to the field of a when an m.m.f. of 1 ampere -turn (NI) gen-
bar magnet. erates a flux of I line of force in it. Com-
If the left hand is held so that the thumb binations of reluctances are treated the
is outstretched and parallel to the axis of a same as resistances in finding the total ef-
coil, with the fingers curled to indicate the fective reluctance. The specific reluctance of
direction of electron flow around the turns any substance is its reluctance per unit vol-
of the coil, the thumb then points in the ume.
direction of the north pole of the magnetic
field.
Except for iron and its alloys, most com-
mon materials have a specific reluctance
The Magnetic In the magnetic circuit, the very nearly the same as that of a vacuum,
Circuit units which correspond to which, for all practical purposes, may be
current, voltage, and resist- considered the same as the specific reluct-
ance in the electrical circuit are flux, mag- ance of air.
netomotive force, and reluctance.
Ohm's Law for The relations between flux,
Flux; Flux As a current is made up of a drift Magnetic Circuits magnetomotive force, and
Density of electrons, so is a magnetic reluctance are exactly the
field made up of lines of force, same as the relations between current, volt-
and the total number of lines of force in a age, and resistance in the electrical circuit.
given magnetic circuit is termed the flux. These can be stated as follows:
The flux depends on the material, cross sec-
tion, and length of the magnetic circuit,
and it varies directly as the current flowing R
F
R- -F F -R
in the circuit. The unit of flux is the max-
well, and the symbol is the Greek letter where,
(phi). $ equals flux, F equals m.m.f.,
Flux density is the number of lines of R equals reluctance.
force per unit area. It is expressed in gauss
if the unit of area is the square centimeter Permeability Permeability expresses the ease
(1 gauss = 1 line of force per square cen- with which a magnetic field
timeter), or in lines per square inch. The may be set up in a material as compared
symbol for flux density is B if it is expressed
with the effort required in the case of air.
in gauss, or B if expressed in lines per sq. in.
Iron, for example, has a permeability of
Magnetomotive The force which produces a around 2000 times that of air, which means
Force flux in a magnetic circuit that a given amount of magnetizing effort
is called magnetomotive produced in an iron core by a current flow-
force. It is abbreviated m.m.f. and is desig- ing through a coil of wire will produce
nated by the letter F. The unit of magneto - 2000 times the flux density that the same
motive force is the gilbert, which is equiva- magnetizing effect would produce in air. It
lent to 1.26 X NI, where N is the number may be expressed by the ratio B/H or B /H.
of turns and I is the current flowing in the In other words,
circuit in amperes.
The m.m.f. necessary to produce a given or
flux density is stated in gilberts per centi-
meter (oersteds) (H), or in ampere -turns
where is the permeability, B is the flux
per inch (H) .
density in gausses, B is the flux density in
Reluctance Magnetic reluctance corresponds lines per square inch, H is the m.m.f. in
to electrical resistance, and is gilberts per centimeter (oersteds), and H

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Inductance 41

is the m.m.f. in ampere -turns per inch. Residual Magnetism; The magnetism remain -
These relations may also be stated as follows: Retentivity ing in a material after
the magnetizing force
H =-or H = -B and B= Hp. orB= H is removed called residual magnetism. Re-
is
P. tentivity the property which causes a
is

It can be seen from the foregoing that magnetic material to have residual magne-
permeability is inversely proportional to the tism after having been magnetized.
specific reluctance of a material.
Hysteresis; Hysteresis is the characteristic
Coercive Force of a magnetic system which
Saturation Permeability is similar to electric
conductivity. This is, however, causes a loss of power due to
one important difference: the permeability
the fact that a negative magnetizing force
of magnetic materials is not independent of must be applied to reduce the residual mag-
the magnetic current (flux) flowing through netism to zero. This negative force is termed
coercive force. By "negative" magnetizing
it, although electrical conductivity is sub-
force is meant one which is of the opposite
stantially independent of the electric cur-
polarity with respect to the original magne-
rent in a wire. When the flux density of a
magnetic conductor has been increased to tizing force. Hysteresis loss is apparent in
the saturation point, a further increase in
transformers and chokes by the heating of
the core.
the magnetizing force will not produce a
corresponding increase in flux density. Inductance If the switch shown in figure 17
is opened and closed, a pulsating
B -H Curve To simplify magnetic circuit
calculations, a magnetization
direct current will be produced. When it is
first closed, the current does not instanta-
curve may be drawn for a given unit of
neously rise to its maximum value, but
material. Such a curve is termed a B -H
curve, and may be determined by experi- builds up to it. While it is building up, the
magnetic field is expanding around the con-
ment. When the current in an iron -core
coil is first applied, the relation between the
ductor. Of course, this happens in a small
winding current and the core flux is shown fraction of a second. If the switch is then
opened, the current stops and the magnetic
at A -B in figure 18. If the current is then
field contracts quickly. This expanding and
reduced to zero, reversed, brought back
again to zero and reversed to the original
contracting field will induce a current in
any other conductor that is part of a contin-
direction the flux passes through a typical uous circuit which it cuts. Such a field can
hysteresis loop as shown.
be obtained in the way just mentioned by
means of a vibrator interruptor, or by ap-
plying a. c. to the circuit in place of the
battery. Varying the resistance of the circuit
will also produce the same effect. This in-
ducing of a current in a conductor due to
MAGNETIZ I NG FORCE
a varying current in another conductor not
H -
in actual contact is called electromagnetic
induction.

Self- inductance If an alternating current


Figure 18
flows through a coil the
TYPICAL HYSTERESIS LOOP varying magnetic field around each turn
(B -H CURVE = A -B) cuts itself and the adjacent turn and in-
duces a voltage in the coil of opposite po-
Showing relationship between the t In
the winding of on iron -core inductor and the larity to the applied e.m.f. The amount of
core flux. A direct c t flowing through the induced voltage depends on the number of
inductance brings the magnetic state of the turns in the coil, the current flowing in the
core to some point on the hysteresis loop,
such as C. coil, and the number of lines of force thread-
42 Direct-Current Circuits THE RADIO
ing the coil. The voltage so induced is
known as a counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f.,
and the effect is termed self -induction. When
the applied voltage is building up, the
counter e.m.f. opposes the rise; when the ap-
I , I 71
Figure 19
plied voltage is decreasing, the counter
e.m.f. is of the same polarity and tends to MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
maintain the current. Thus, it can be seen The quantity M represents the mutual indus.
that self -inductance tends to prevent any tance between the two coils L, and L,.
change in the current in the circuit.
The storage of energy in a magnetic field The magnitude of the mutual inductance
is expressed in joules and is equal to (LIZ) /2. depends on the shape and size of the two
(A joule is equal to 1 watt -second. L is de- circuits, their positions and distances apart,
fined immediately following.) and the permeability of the medium. The
extent to which two inductors are coupled
The Unit of Inductance is usually denoted is expressed by a relation known as coeffi-
Inductance: by the letter L, and is expressed cient of coupling. This is the ratio of the
The Henry in henrys. A coil has an in- mutual inductance actually present to the
ductance of 1 henry when a maximum possible value.
voltage of 1 volt is induced by a current The formula for mutual inductance is L
change of 1 ampere per second. The henry, = L, + L2 + 2M when the coils are poled
while commonly used in audio- frequency so that their fields add. When they are poled
circuits, is too large for reference to induct- that their fields buck, then L = L, +
ance coils, such as those used in radio -fre-
quency circuits; millihenry or microhenry
so
L_ - 2M (figure 19).

is more commonly used, in the following Inductors in Inductors in parallel are com-
manner: Porallel bined exactly as are resistors
in parallel, provided that they
1 henry = 1000 millihenrys, or 10' are far enough apart so that the mutual
millihenrys. inductance is entirely negligible.
1 millihenry = 1/1000 henry, .001
Inductors in Inductors in series are additive,
henry, or 10 -9 henry.
Series just as are resistors in series,
1 microhenry = 1 /1,000,000 henry, again provided that no mutual
.000001 henry, or 10 -e henry. inductance exists. In this case, the total in-
ductance L is:
microhenry = 1 /1000 millihenry,
1

.001, or 10 -9 millihenry. L -L, +L2 +...,etc.


Where mutual inductance does exist:
1000 microhenrys = 1 millihenry.
L = L, + L2 + 2M
Mutual Inductance When one coil is near an-
where,
other, a varying current
in one will produce a varying magnetic M is the mutual inductance.
field which cuts the turns of the other This latter expression assumes that the
coil, inducing a current in it. This induced coils are connected in such a way that all
current is also varying, and will therefore flux linkages are in the same direction, i.e.,
induce another current in the first coil. This additive. If this is not the case and the
reaction between two coupled circuits is mutual linkages subtract from the self -link-
called mutual inductance, and can be cal- ages, the following formula holds:
culated and expressed in henrys. The symbol
for mutual inductance is M. Two circuits L =L, +L2 -2M
thus joined are said to be inductively cou- where,
pled. M is the mutual inductance.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Time Constant 43

f~ -s I INDUCTANCE OF
SINGLE-LAVER
SOLENOID COILS
Iron -Core Inductors Iron -core inductors may
at Radio Frequencies be used at radio fre-
quencies if the iron is
L MICRONENRYS in a very finely divided form, as in the case
9R+qS
of the powdered -iron cores used in some
types of r -f coils and i -f transformers. These
WHERE R RADIUS OF COIL TO CENTER WIRE cores are made of extremely small particles
S LENGTH OF COIL
N NUMBER CF TURNS of iron. The particles are treated with an in-
sulating material so that each particle will
Figure 20 be insulated from the others, and the treated
powder is molded with a binder into cores.
FORMULA FOR Eddy current losses are greatly reduced,
CALCULATING INDUCTANCE with the result that these special iron cores
Through the use of the equation and the are entirely practical in circuits which op-
sketch shown above the inductance of single - erate up to 100 MHz in frequency.
layer solenoid coils can be calculated with an
accuracy of about one p t for the types
of coils normally used ln the hf and vhf range. 2 -5 RC and RL Transients
Core Material Ordinary magnetic cores can- A voltage divider may be constructed as
not be used for radio frequen- shown in figure 21. Kirchhoff's and Ohm's
cies because the eddy current and hysteresis Laws hold for such a divider. This circuit
losses in the core material become enormous is known as an RC circuit.
as the frequency is increased. The principal
use for conventional magnetic cores is in the
audio- frequency range below approximately
15,000 Hertz, whereas at very low frequen-
cies (50 to 60 Hertz) their use is manda-
T E
tory if an appreciable value of inductance
isdesired.
An air -core inductor of only 1 henry in-
ductance would be quite large in size, yet
values as high as 500 henrys are commonly
available in small iron -core chokes. The in-
ductance of a coil with a magnetic core will
vary with the amount of current (both a -c
and d -c) which passes through the coil.
For this reason, iron -core chokes that are used TIM[t, IN TERMS OS TIME CONSTANT RC3
in power supplies have a certain inductance
rating at a predetermined value of direct
current.
The permeability of air does not change
with flux density; so the inductance of iron -
core coils often is made less dependent on
flux density by making part of the magnetic z 3
e 2.* 1, C
path air, instead of utilizing a closed loop of TIME IN TERMS OS TIME CON

iron. This incorporation of an air gap is


necessary in many applications of iron -core Figure 21
coils, particularly where the coil carries a TIME CONSTANT OF AN RC CIRCUIT
considerable d -c component. Because the
permeability of air is so much lower than Shown at (A) Is the circuit upon which is
based the curves of (I) and (C). (R) shows the
that of iron, the air gap need comprise only rate at which capacitor C will charge from
a small fraction of the magnetic circuit in the instant at which switch S is placed in
position 1. (C) shows the discharge curve of
order to provide a substantial proportion of capacitor C from the instant at which switch
the total reluctance. S is placed in position 3.

www.americanradiohistory.com
44 Direct -Current Circuits T H E R A D I O

Figure 22

TYPICAL INDUCTANCES
The large inductance is a 1000 -watt transmitting coil. To the right and left of this coil are
small r -f chokes. Several varieties of low power capability coils are shown below, along
with various types of r -f chokes intended for high- frequency operation.

Time Constant - When switch S in figure 21 Time Constant A mathematical analysis of


RC and RL is placed in position 1, a the charging of
a capacitor
Circuits voltmeter across capacitor in this manner would show that the relation-
C will indicate the manner ship between battery voltage E and the volt-
in which the capacitor will become charged
through the resistor R from battery B. If
relatively large values are used for R and C,
R (INCLUDING DC RESISTANCE
and if a vacuum -tube voltmeter which Or INDUCTOR L)
draws negligible current is used to measure
the voltage (e), the rate of charge of the
capacitor may actually be plotted with the
aid of a stop watch.

Voltage Gradient It will be found that the loo


s
voltage (e) will begin to w
u
rise rapidly from zero the instant the switch
is closed. Then, as the capacitor begins to
LO
charge, the rate of change of voltage across
W 20
the capacitor will be found to decrease, the
00
charging taking place more and more slowly 2 a

as capacitor voltage e approaches battery TIME t, IN TERMS Of TIME CONSTANT

voltage E. Actually, it will be found that


in any given interval a constant percentage Figure 23
of the remaining difference between e and E
TIME CONSTANT OF AN RL CIRCUIT
will be delivered to the capacitor as an in-
crease in voltage. A voltage which changes Note that the time constant for the increase
in current through an R L circuit is identical
in this manner is said to increase logarithmi- to the rate of increase in voltage across the
cally, or follows an exponential curve. capacitor in an R C circuit.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Time Constant 45

age across the capacitor (e) could be ex- maining difference in voltage, or 86.5 per
pressed in the following manner: cent of the applied voltage (E).
e =E (1 - tl") RL CircuitIn the case of a series combina-
tion of a resistor and an inductor,
where e,E,R, and C have the values discussed as shown in figure 23, the current through
above, r = 2.716 (the base of Naperian or the combination follows a very similar law
natural logarithms), and t represents the to that given above for the voltage appear-
time which has elapsed since the closing of ing across the capacitor in an RC series cir-
the switch. With t expressed in seconds, R cuit. The equation for the current through
and C may be expressed in farads and ohms, the combination is:
or R and C may be expressed in microfarads
and megohms. The product RC is called the i = (1-F -il")
time constant of the circuit, and is expressed R
in seconds. As an example, if R is one meg- where i represents the current at any instant
ohm and C is one microfarad, the time through the series circuit, E represents the
constant RC will be equal to the product of applied voltage, and R represents the total
the two, or one second. resistance of the resistor and the d -c resist-
When the elapsed time (t) is equal to the ance of the inductor in series. Thus the time
time constant of the RC network under constant of the RL circuit is L /R, with R
consideration, the exponent of F becomes expressed in ohms and L expressed in henrys.
-1. Now F-1 is equal to 1/r, or 1/2.716,
which is 0.368. The quantity (1- 0.368) Voltage Decay When the switch in figure
then is equal to 0.632. Expressed as percent- 21 is moved to position 3
age, the above means that the voltage across after the capacitor has been charged, the
the capacitor will have increased to 63.2 per- capacitor voltage will drop in the manner
cent of the battery voltage in an interval shown in figure 21 -C. In this case the volt-
equal to the time constant or RC product age across the capacitor will decrease to 36.8
of the circuit. Then, during the next period percent of the initial voltage (will make
equal to the time constant of the RC com- 63.2 per cent of the total drop) in a period
bination, the voltage across the capacitor of time equal to the time constant of the
will have risen to 63.2 per cent of the re- RC circuit.

Figure 24

TYPICAL IRON -CORE INDUCTANCES


At the right is an upright mounting Alter choke intended for use in low- powered
transmitters and audio equipment. At the center is a hermetically sealed inductance
for use under poor environmental conditions. To the left is an inexpensive receiving -
type choke, with a small iron -core r-f choke directly in front of it.
CHAPTER THREE

Alternating- Current Circuits

The previous chapter has been devoted to Frequency Spectrum At present the usable
a discussion of circuits and circuit elements frequency range for al-
upon which is impressed a current consisting ternating electrical currents extends over
of a flow of electrons in one direction. This the electromagnetic spectrum from about
type of unidirectional current flow is called 15 cycles per second to perhaps 30,000,-
direct current (abbreviated d -c or d.c.). 000,000 cycles per second. It is obviously
Equally as important in radio and communi- cumbersome to use a frequency designation
cations work and power practice is a type of in c.p.s. for enormously high frequencies,
current whose direction of electron flow so three common units which are multiples
reverses periodically. The reversal of flow of one cycle per second were established and
may take place at a low rate, in the case of are still used by many engineers.
power systems, or it may take place millions
of times per second, in the case of communi-
cations frequencies. This type of current
flow is called alternating current (abbrevi-

-
I-
ated a -c or a.c.). W
+
!r

3 -1 Alternating Current u o TIME


DIRECT CURRENT
Frequency of an An alternating current is
Alternating Current one whose amplitude of I CYCLE
crCLC-+{
current flow periodically
rises from zero to a maximum in one direc-
tion, decreases to zero, changes its direction,
TIME
rises to maximum in the opposite direction,
and decreases to zero again. This complete
process, starting from zero, passing through
two maximums in opposite directions, and ALTERNATING CURRENT
returning to zero again, is called a cycle.
The number of times per second that a Figure 1

current passes through the complete cycle ALTERNATING CURRENT


is called the frequency of the current. One AND DIRECT CURRENT
and one -quarter cycles of an alternating
current wave are illustrated diagrammati- Graphical comparison between unidirectional
(direct) c and alternating as
cally in figure 1. plotted against Ham.

www.americanradiohistory.com
The Sine Wave 47

These units have been: Frequency Classification Abbrei'.


(1) the kilocycle (kc) , 1000 c.p.s. 10 to 30 kHz Very-low frequencies vlf
(2) The megacycle (Mc), 1,000,000 30 to 300 kHz Low frequencies If
c.p.s. or 1000 kc. 300 to 3000 kHz Medium frequencies mf
(3) the kilomegacycle (kMc) , 3 to 30 MHz High frequencies hf
1,000,000,000 c.p.s. or 1000 Mc. 30 to 300 MHz Very-high
frequencies vhf
Used for some time in other countries, 300 to 3000 MHz Ultrahigh frequencies uhf
and recently adopted by the U. S. National 3 to 30 GHz Superhi .gh frequencies shf
Bureau of Standards, IEEE, and many other 30 to 300 GHz Extremely high
American organizations, the Hertz is the frequencies ehf
new unit of frequency measurement.
One Hertz is precisely defined as one cycle rent will flow in the conductor. He also dis-
per second and is not to be confused with covered that, when a conductor in a second
any other time base. Hertz is abbreviated as closed circuit is brought near the first con-
Hz (no period). The standard metric pre- ductor and the current in the first one is
fixes for kilo, mega, giga, etc. are used with varied, a current will flow in the second
the basic unit. Since "m" denotes "milli," conductor. This effect is known as induc-
capitarM4is used for mega, and small "k" is tion, and the currents so generated are
kilo. Thus megacycle becomes megahertz induced currents. In the latter case it is the
(MHz), kilocycle is kilohertz (kHz). lines of force which are moving and cutting
These newer units will be used through- the second conductor, due to the varying
out this Handbook. With easily handled units current strength in the first conductor.
such as these we can classify the entire us- A current is induced in a conductor if
able frequency range into frequency bands. there is a relative motion between the con-
The frequencies falling between about 15 ductor and a magnetic field, its direction of
and 20,000 Hertz are called audio frequen- flow depending on the direction of the rela-
cies (abbreviated a.f.), since these frequen- tive motion between the conductor and the
cies are audible to the human ear when con- field, and its strength depends on the in-
verted from electrical to acoustical signals tensity of the field, the rate of cutting lines
by a speaker or headphone. Frequencies in of force, and the number of turns in the
the vicinity of 60 Hz also are called power conductor.
frequencies, since they are commonly used
to distribute electrical power to the con- Alternators A machine that generates an al-
sumer. ternating current is called an
The frequencies falling between 10,000 alternator or a -c generator. Such a machine
c.p.s. (10 kHz) and 30,000,000,000 c.p.s. in its basic form is shown in figure 2. It
(30 GHz) are commonly called radio fre- consists of two permanent magnets, the op-
quencies (abbreviated r.f.), since they are posite poles of which face each other and are
commonly used in radio communication and
allied arts. The radio- frequency spectrum is
often arbitrarily classified into seven fre-
quency bands, each one of which is ten times
as high in frequency as the one just below
it in the spectrum (except for the vlf band
at the bottom end of the spectrum). The
present spectrum, with classifications, is
given in the following table.

Generation of Faraday discovered that Figure 2


Alternating Current if a conductor which
forms part of a closed THE ALTERNATOR
circuit is moved through a magnetic field Semi- schematk representation of the simplest
.

so as to cut across the lines of force, a cur- form of the alternator.


48 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

1
II

II
I
IMI
.
LINES OF FONCE

111111j111IIIII;.T_-__

II II III11 I

ILII_
-
A s c o c
-- - ,
'MAX
I

IIIIIIIII1111 11111111
LINES Of PONCE
TIME
(uunroott. OENsITT)

Figure 3 I CYCLE = 3-
ZCYCLE =
OUTPUT OF THE ALTERNATOR
WHERE F . FREQUENCY IN CYCLES OR HERTZ
Graph showing sine -wave output current of
the alternator of figure 2. Figure 4

THE SINE WAVE


machined so that they have a common Illustrating one cycle of a sine wave. One
radius. Between these two poles (north and complete cycle of alternation is broken up
into 360 degrees. Then one -half cycle is 180
south) a substantially constant magnetic degrees, one -quarter cycle is 90 degrees, and
field exists. If a conductor in the form of so on down to the smallest division of the
a loop (C) is suspended so that it can be wave. A cosine wave has a shape identical to
a sine wave but is shifted 90 degrees in phase
freely rotated between the two poles, and if - in other words the wave begins at full am-
the opposite ends of conductor C are brought plitude, the 90- degree point comes at zero
amplitude, the 180- degree point comes at full
to collector rings, there will be a flow of amplitude in the opposite direction of current
alternating current when conductor C is flow, etc.
rotated. This current, flows out through the
collector rings (R) and brushes (B) to the a strictly pure sine curve, the departures are
external circuit (X -Y) . usually so slight that the assumption can be
The field intensity between the two pole regarded as fact for most practical purposes.
pieces is substantially constant over the en- All that has been said in the foregoing para-
tire area of the pole face. However, when graphs concerning alternating current also
the conductor is moving parallel to the lines is applicable to alternating voltage.
of force at the top or bottom of the pole The rotating arrow to the left in figure
faces, no lines are being cut. As the con- 3 represents a conductor rotating in a con-
ductor moves on across the pole face it cuts stant magnetic field of uniform density. The
more and more lines of force for each unit arrow also can be taken as a vector repre-
distance of travel, until it is cutting the senting the strength of the magnetic field.
maximum number of lines when opposite This means that the length of the arrow is
the center of the pole. Therefore, zero cur- determined by the strength of the field
rent is induced in the conductor at the in- (number of lines of force), which is con-
stant it is midway between the two poles, stant. Now if the arrow is rotating at a
and maximum current is induced when it is constant rate (that is, with constant angu-
opposite the center of the pole face. After lar velocity), then the voltage developed
the conductor has rotated through 180 it across the conductor will be proportional to
can be seen that its position with respect to the rate at which it is cutting lines of force,
the pole pieces will be exactly opposite to which rate is proportional to the vertical
that when it started. Hence, the second distance between the tip of the arrow and
180 of rotation will produce an alternation the horizontal base line.
of current in the opposite direction to that If EO is taken as unity,or a voltage of 1,
of the first alternation. then the voltage (vertical distance from tip
The current does not increase directly as of arrow to the horizontal base line) at point
the angle of rotation, but rather as the sine C for instance may be determined simply by
of the angle; hence, such a current has the referring to a table of sines and looking up
mathematical form of a sine wave. Although the sine of the angle which the arrow makes
most electrical machinery does not produce with the horizontal.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A -C Relationships 49

When the arrow has traveled from point ing- current circuits. However, trigonometric
A to point E, it has traveled 90 degrees or tables are much more readily available in
one quarter cycle. The other three quadrants terms of degrees than radians, so the follow-
are not shown because their complementary ing simple conversions are useful.
or mirror relationship to the first quadrant
is obvious.
2a radians = 1 cycle = 360
It is important to note that time units are 7r radians = 1/2 cycle = 180
represented by degrees or quadrants. The
fact that AB, BC, CD, and DE are equal radians = 1/4 cycle = 90
chords (forming equal quadrants) simply 2
means that the arrow (conductor or vector)
is traveling at a constant speed, because
radians = 1/6 cycle = 60

3
these points on the radius represent the pas-
sage of equal units of time.
The whole picture can be represented in radians = 1/8 cycle = 45
4
another way, and its derivation from the
foregoing is shown in figure 3. The time
bise is represented by a straight line rather 1 radian = 2a cycle = 57.3
than by angular rotation. Points A, B, C,
etc., represent the same units of time as be- When the conductor in the simple alter-
fore. When the voltage corresponding to nator of figure 2 has made one complete
each point is projected to the corresponding revolution it has generated one cycle and
time unit, the familiar sine curve is the re- has rotated through 2rr radians. The expres-
sult. sion 2irf then represents the number of
The frequency of the generated voltage is radians in one cycle multiplied by the num-
proportional to the speed of rotation of the ber of cycles per second (the frequency) of
alternator, and to the number of magnetic the alternating voltage or current. The ex-
poles in the field. Alternators may be built pression then represents the number of ra-
to produce radio frequencies up to 30 kHz, dians per second through which the con-
and some such machines are still used for ductor has rotated. Hence 274 represents the
low- frequency communication purposes. By angular velocity of the rotating conductor,
means of multiple windings, three -phase or of the rotating vector, which represents
output may be obtained from large in- any alternating current or voltage, expressed
dustrial alternators. in radians per second.
In technical literature the expression 274
Radian Notation From figure 1 we see that is often replaced by m, the lower-case Greek
the value of an a -c wave letter omega. Velocity multiplied by time
varies continuously. It is often of impor- gives the distance travelled, so 2ir f t (or
tance to know the amplitude of the wave in (4) represents the angular distance through
terms of the total amplitude at any instant which the rotating conductor or the rotat-
or at any time within the cycle. To be able ing vector has travelled since the reference
to establish the instant in question we must time t = 0. In the case of a sine wave the
be able to divide the cycle into parts. We reference time t = 0 represents the instant
could divide the cycle into eighths, hun- when the voltage or the current, whichever
dredths, or any other ratio that suited our is under discussion, also is equal to zero.
fancy. However, it is much more convenient
mathematically to divide the cycle either Instantaneous Value The instantaneous volt -
into electrical degrees (360 represent one of Voltage or age or current is propor-
cycle) or into radians. A radian is an arc of Current tional to the sine of the
a circle equal to the radius of the circle; angle through which the
-or
hence there are 2irr radians per cycle per rotating vector has travelled since reference
circle (since there are zr diameters per cir- time t = 0. Hence, when the peak value of
cumference, there are 27r radii). the a -c wave amplitude (either voltage or
Both radian notation and electrical- degree current amplitude) is known, and the angle
notation are used in discussions of alternat- through which the rotating vector has
50 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

WHERE
when O = 90
e (THETA). PHASE ANGLE= 2 Fr FT sin 0 = 1.0
A = RADIANS OR RO
D=rr RADIANS OR 1eO soe =Erna=
G. AIL RADIANS OR 270
277 RADIANS OR SeO
D =

I RADIAN = 57.324 DEGREES


when O = radian
1

sin O = 0.8415
Figure 5 so e = 0.8415 E.a,
ILLUSTRATING RADIAN NOTATION Effective Value The instantaneous value
The radian is a unit of phase angle, equal te of an of an alternating cur -
57.324 degrees. It is commonly used in math- Alternating Current rent or voltage varies
ematical relationships involving phase angles
since such relationships are simplified when continuously throughout
radian notation is used. the cycle, so some value of an a -c wave
must be chosen to establish a relationship
travelled is established, the amplitude of the between the effectiveness of an a -c and a
wave at this instant can be determined d -c voltage or current. The heating value
through use of the following expression: of an alternating current has been chosen
to establish the reference between the ef-
e = Emaz Sin 271 t fective values of a.c. and d.c. Thus an
where, alternating current will have an effective
e equals the instantaneous voltage,
value of 1 ampere when it produces the
E equals maximum crest value of voltage,
same heat in a resistor as does 1 ampere of
f equals frequency in Hertz, direct current.
t equals period of time which has elapsed The effective value is derived by taking
since t = 0(expressed as a fraction of the instantaneous values of current over a
one second). cycle of alternating current, squaring these
values, taking an average of the squares,
The instantaneous current can be found and then taking the square root of the
from the same expression by substituting i average. By this procedure, the effective
for e and /mar for E0100. value becomes known as the root mean
It is often easier to visualize the process square, or rms, value. This is the value that
of determining the instantaneous amplitude is read on a -c voltmeters and a -c ammeters.
by ignoring the frequency and considering The rms value is 70.7 percent of the peak
only one cycle of the a -c wave. In this case, or maximum instantaneous value (for sine
for a sine wave, the expression becomes: waves only) and is expressed as follows:
e = E. sin O
EFrr or E,.,,,.1 = 0.707 X E,,,,,s,or
where O represents the angle through which lrrr or /rm., = 0.707 X Inns
the vector has rotated since time (and am-
plitude) were zero. As examples: The following relations are extremely use-
ful in radio and power work:
when O = 30
E,.n,, = 0.707 X Emex, and
sin O = 0.5
E,,,,,s = 1.414 X Enos
so e = 0.5 E,naz
Rectified Alternating If an alternating cur -
when 0=60 Current or Pulsat- rent is passed through a
ing Direct Current rectifier, it emerges in
sin = 0.866
O
the form of a current
so e = 0.866 E. of varying amplitude which flows in one
direction only. Such a current is known as

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Reactance 51

average = 0.9 X rms

rms = 1.11 X average

peak = 1.414 X rms

Figure 6
peak = 1i 7 X average

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED Applying Ohm's Law Ohm's Law applies


SINE WAVE to Alternating Current equally to direct or al-
ternating current, pro -
Waveform obtained at the output of a full-
wave rectifier being fed with a sine wave vided the circuits under consideration are
and having 100 per cent rectification effi- purely resistive, that is, circuits which have
ciency. Each pulse has the same shape as one -
half cycle of a sine wave. This type of cur- neither inductance (coils) nor capacitance
rent is known as pulsating direct (capacitors). Problems which involve tube
filaments, dropping resistors, electric lamps,
heaters or similar resistive devices can be
rectified a.c. or pulsating d.c. A typical solved with Ohm's Law, regardless of wheth-
wave form of a pulsating direct current as
er the current is direct or alternating. When
would be obtained from the output of a a capacitor or coil is made a part of the
full -wave rectifier is shown in figure 6. circuit, a property common to either, called
Measuring instruments designed for d -c reactance, must be taken into consideration.
operation will not read the peak or instan- Ohm's Law still applies to a -c circuits con-
taneous maximum value of the pulsating taining reactance, but additional considera-
d -c output from the rectifier; they will
tions are involved; these will be discussed in
read only the average value. This can be ex- a later paragraph.
plained by assuming that it could be pos-
sible to cut off some of the peaks of the
waves, using the cutoff portions to fill in
the spaces that are open, thereby obtaining
an average d -c value. A milliammeter and
voltmeter connected to the adjoining circuit, TIuE
or across the output of the rectifier, will
read this average value. It is related to peak
value by the following expression:
4.-s0-l
CURRENT LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 90
Ea,g = 0.636 X E,na,, (CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY)

It is thus seen that the average value is 63.6 Figure 7


percent of the peak value.
LAGGING PHASE ANGLE
Relationship Between To summarize the three
Showing the m in which the current lags
Peak, RMS, or most significant values the voltage in an a-c circuit containing pure
Effective, and of an a -c sine wave: the inductance only. The lag is equal to one-
Average Values quarter cycle or 90 degrees.
peak value is equal to
1.41 times the rms or
effective, and the rms value is equal to Inductive stated in Chapter Two,
As was
0.707 times the peak value; the average Reactance changing current flows
when a
value of a full -wave rectified a -c wave is through an inductor a back- or
0.636 times the peak value, and the average counterelectromotive force is developed, op-
value of a rectified wave is equal to 0.9 posing any change in the initial current. This
times the rms value. property of an inductor causes it to offer
opposition or impedance to a change in cur-
rms = 0.707 X peak
rent. The measure of impedance offered by
average = 0.636 X peak an inductor to an alternating current of a
given frequency is known as its inductive
52 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO
reactance. This is expressed as XL and is 1

shown in figure 7. Xo
27rfC
XL = 2TrfL
where,
where,
Xe equals capacitive reactance in ohms,
XL equals inductive reactance expressed a equals 3.1416,
in ohms, f equals frequency in Hertz,
ITequals 3.1416 (27r = 6.283), C equals capacitance in farads.
f equals frequency in Hertz,
L equals inductance in henrys.
Capacitive Re- Here again, as in the case
Inductive Reactance It is very often neces- actance at of inductive reactance,
at Radio Frequencies sary to compute induc- Radio Frequencies the units of capacitance
tive reactance at radio and frequency can be
frequencies. The same formula may be used, converted into smaller units for practical
but to make it less cumbersome the induct- problems encountered in radio work. The
ance is expressed in millihenrys and the equation may be written:
frequency in kilohertz. For higher frequen-
cies and smaller values of inductance, fre-
1,000,000
Xc =
quency is expressed in megahertz and induct- 2zrfC
ance in microhenrys. The basic equation where,
need not be changed, since the multiplying
factors for inductance and frequency appear f equals frequency in megahertz,
in numerator and denominator, and hence C equals capacitance in picofarads.
are cancelled out. However, it is not pos- In the audio range it is often convenient to
sible in the same equation to express L in express frequency (f) in Hertz and capac-
millihenrys and f in Hertz without con- itance (C) in microfarads, in which event
version factors. the same formula applies.
E
Phase When an alternating current flows
through a purely resistive circuit, it
will be found that the current will go
TIME through maximum and minimum in perfect
step with the voltage. In this case the cur-
rent is said to be in step, or in phase with
the voltage. For this reason, Ohm's Law will
apply equally well for a.c. or d.c. where
CURRENT LEADING VOLTAGE BY 90
(CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE CAPACITANCE ONLY)
pure resistances are concerned, provided that
the same values of the wave (either peak or
Figure 8 rms) for both voltage and current are used
LEADING PHASE ANGLE in the calculations.
However, in calculations involving alter-
Showing the manner in which the nt
leads the voltage in an a-c circuit containing nating currents the voltage and current are
pure capacitance only. The lead is equal to not necessarily in phase. The current
one -quarter cycle or 90 degrees. through the circuit may lag behind the
voltage, in which case the current is said to
Capacitive It has been explained that induc- have lagging phase. Lagging phase is caused
Reactance tive reactance is the measure of by inductive reactance. If the current
the ability of an inductor to of- reaches its maximum value ahead of the
fer impedance to the flow of an alternating voltage (figure 8) the current is said to
current. Capacitors have a similar property have a leading phase. A leading phase angle
although in this case the opposition is to is caused by capacitive reactance.
any change in the voltage across the capaci- In an electrical circuit containing re-
tor. This property is called capacitive react- actance only, the current will either lead or
ance and is expressed as follows: lag the voltage by 90 . If the circuit con-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Impedance 53

tains inductive reactance only, the current combination the resulting phase angle of
will lag the voltage by 90 . If only capaci- current flow with respect to the impressed
tive reactance is in the circuit, the current voltage lies somewhere between plus or
will lead the voltage by 90 . minus 90 and 0 depending on the relative
Reactances
magnitudes of the reactance and the resist-
Inductive and capacitive re- ance.
in Combination actance have exactly op- The term impedance is a general term
posite effects on the phase which can be applied to any electrical entity
relation between current and voltage in a which impedes the flow of current. Hence
circuit. Hence when they are used in com- the term may be used to designate a resist-
bination their effects tend to neutralize. The ance, a pure reactance, or a complex corn -
combined effect of a capacitive and an in- bination of both reactance and resistance.
ductive reactance is often called the net re- The designation for impedance is Z. An im-
actance of a circuit. The net reactance (X) pedance must be defined in such a manner
is found by subtracting the capacitive that both its magnitude and its phase angle
reactance from the inductive reactance are established. The designation may be ac-
(X = X1, - X0)
The result of such a combination of pure
complished in either of two ways -one of
which is convertible into the other by
reactances may be either positive, in which simple mathematical operations.
case the positive reactance is greater so that
the net reactance is inductive, or it may be The j Operator The first method of des-
negative in which case the capacitive react- ignating an impedance is
ance is greater so that the net reactance is actually to specify both the resistive and the
capacitive. The net reactance may also be reactive component in the form R + X.
zero in which case the circuit is said to be In this form R represents the resistive com-
resonant. The condition of resonance will be ponent in ohms and X represents the re-
discussed in a later section. Note that in- active component. The j merely means that
ductive reactance is always taken as being the X component is reactive and thus can-
positive while capacitive reactance is always not be added directly to the R component.
taken as being negative. Plus jX means that the reactance is positive
Impedance; Circuits
or inductive, while if minus jX were given
Pure reactances intro - it would mean that the reactive component
Containing Reactance duce a phase angle of was negative or capacitive.
and Resistance 90 between voltage In figure 9 we have a vector (+A) lying
and current; pure re- along the positive X -axis of the usual X -Y
sistance introduces no phase shift between coordinate system. If this vector is multi-
voltage and current. Hence we cannot add plied by the quantity ( -1) , it becomes
a reactance and a resistance directly. When
a reactance and a resistance are used in
(- A) and its position now lies along the
X -axis in the negative direction. The opera-
tor (-1) has caused the vector to rotate
Y-sxIa

`f
(+A)* (-
VECTOII
ROTATES
TNWGM
(- 1 ) is equal to ( X Ji)
through an angle of 180 degrees. Since
, the
same result may be obtained by operating on
IRO* ` \ the vector with the operator ( X

X AMR
11-1) However if the vector is operated
.

on but once by the operator (1,/-1) , it is


caused to rotate only 90 degrees (figure 10).
Thus the operator (1,r1") rotates a vector
by 90 degrees. For convenience, this opera-
tor is called the j operator. In like fashion,
Figure 9 the operator ( -j) rotates the vector of
figure 9 through an angle of 270 degrees,
Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity
(-I) causes vector to rotate through 180 so that the resulting vector ( -jA) falls on
degrees. -
the ( Y) axis of the coordinate system.

www.americanradiohistory.com
54 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO
Polar Notation The second method of repre- Y-A%IS
senting an impedance is to
specify its absolute magnitude and the phase
angle of current with respect to voltage, in
(+A)
'
C TO rNRWGM
v 90
Es

the form Z L B. Figure 11 shows graphically +JA

the relationship between the two common


ways of representing an impedance. X AXIS

The construction of figure 11 is called an


impedance diagram. Through the use of
such a diagram we can add graphically a
resistance and a reactance to obtain a value
for the resulting impedance in the scalar Figure 10
form. With zero at the origin, resistances
are plotted to the right, positive values of Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity
(I) causes vector to rotate through 90 degrees.
reactance (inductive) in the upward direc-
tion, and negative values of reactance (ca-
pacitive) in the downward direction. The inverse problem, that of converting
from the B to the R + jX form is
Note that the resistance and reactance are
drawn as the two sides of a right triangle, done with the following relationships, both
with the hypotenuse representing the result- of which are obtainable by simple division
ing impedance. Hence it is possible to deter- from the trigonometric expressions just
mine mathematically the value of a result- given for determining the angle B:
ant impedance through the familiar right - R = IZI cos B
triangle relationship-the square of the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the jX = IZI j sin O

squares of the other two sides:


By simple addition these two expressions
Z2 = R2 + X2 may be combined to give the relationship
or, between the two most common methods of
indicating an impedance:
!Zi = V R2 + X2
Note also that the angle B included between R + X= IZI (cos O + j sin 8)
R and Z can be determined from any of the In the case of impedance, resistance, or re-
following trigonometric relationships: actance, the unit of measurement is the
X
sin B
!Zi
+J3
R
cos 6 =
1ZI

X Z' 4+J3
tan B =
R
Ji<
+ IzI 4Le.^-'i
x" 2 LSe.e! IZ I` 5 ran
One common problem is that of determining
the scalar magnitude of the impedance, IZI, 0I RESISTANCE -R IZI 5 se.es
L R=ONMS
and the phase angle B, when resistance and
reactance are known; hence, of converting
from the Z = R + jX to the IZI L B form. Figure 11
In this case we use two of the expressions THE IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE
just given:
Showing the graphical construction of a tri-
angle for obtaining the net (scalar) impedance
= R2 + X2 resulting from the connection of a resistance
and a reactance in series. Shown also along-
side is the alternative mathematical pro-
tan = cedure for obtaining the values associated
O
R,(or8=tatR )
with the triangle.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vector Algebra 55

ohm; hence, the ohm may be thought of as Multiplication and It is often necessary in
a unit of opposition to current flow, with- Division of solving certain types of
out reference to the relative phase angle be- Complex Quantities circuits to multiply or
tween the applied voltage and the current divide two complex
which flows. quantities. It is a much simpler mathemati-
Further, since both capacitive and in- cal operation to multiply or divide complex
ductive reactance are functions of fre- quantities if they are expressed in the polar
quency, impedance will vary with fre- form. Hence if they are given in the rec-
quency. Figure 12 shows the manner in tangular form they should be converted to
which IZI will vary with frequency in an the polar form before multiplication or
RL series circuit and in an RC series circuit. division is begun. Then the multiplication is
Series RLC Circuits
accomplished by multiplying the IZI terms
In a series circuit con- together and adding algebraically the L O
taining R, L, and C, the terms, as:
impedance is determined as discussed before
except that the reactive component in the (1Z11 Le,) (1Z2! Lee) =
expressions defines the net reactance -that IZ1I 1221 (Le, + Le2)
is,the difference between XL and Xc. Hence
( XL- Xe) may be substituted for X in For example, suppose that the two imped-
the equations. Thus: ances 1201 L43 and 1321 L -23 are to be
multiplied. Then:
1ZI=VR2+ ()CL -Xc)2 (1201 L43 ) (1321 L -23 ) =120.321
(L43 + L -23 )
O =tan - 1(X1 -Xc) = 640 L20
Division is accomplished by dividing the
A series RLC circuit thus may present denominator into the numerator, and sub-
an impedance which is capacitively reactive
tracting the angle of the denominator from
if the net reactance is capacitive, inductively that of the numerator, as:
reactive if the net reactance is inductive, or
resistive if the capacitive and inductive re-
actances are equal.
Addition of The addition of complex
Complex Quantities quantities (for example,
impedances in series) is
quite simple if the quantities are in the rec-
tangular form. If they are in the polar form
they only can be added graphically, unless
they are converted to the rectangular form
by the relationships previously given. As an
example of the addition of complex quanti-
ties in the rectangular form, the equation
for the addition impedance is: o

(R, +jX,) +(R2 +jX2)= Figure 12


(R1 + R2) + j()C1 + X2)
IMPEDANCE -FREQUENCY GRAPH
For example if we wish to add the imped-
ances (10 + j50) and (20 -
j30) we ob-
FOR RL AND RC CIRCUITS

tain: The impedance of an RC circuit approaches


frequency approaches sere
(10 + j50) + (20 j30) - infinity as the
((Lc.), while the impedance of a series RL dr-
cult approaches infinity as the frequency ap-

= (10 + 20) + j[50 + (-30)] proaches infinity. The impedance of an RC cir-


cuit approaches the impedance of the series
resistor as the frequency approaches Infinity,
= 30+j(50-30) while the impedance of a series RL circuit ap-
proaches the resistance as the frequency ap-
= 30 + j20 proaches zero,
56 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

Iz11 LB, Iz1I


(LB, -L62)
1Z2I Lee Iz_I
For example, suppose that an impedance of
I501 L67 is to be divided by an impedance
of Ilol L45 . Then:
ISOI [67 _150! Figure 13
(Z67 = I51(L22 )
I10IL45 1101
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

Ohm's Law for The simple form of


Complex Quantities Ohm's Law used for d -c Note that in a series circuit the resulting
circuits may be stated in impedance takes the sign of the largest re-
a more general form for application to a -c actance in the series combination.
circuits involving either complex quantities Where a slide rule is being used to make
or simple resistive elements. The form is: the computations, the impedance may be
E
found without any addition or subtraction
I operations by finding the angle O first, and
then using the trigonometric equation below
in which, in the general case, I, E, and Z for obtaining the impedance. Thus:
are complex (vector) quantities. In the
simple case where the impedance is a pure
resistance with an a -c voltage applied, the
O = tan-1
X
- tan -' 200
tan -1(- 1)

equation simplifies to the familiar I = E /R. -45 .


In any case the applied voltage may be ex-
pressed either as peak, rms, or average; the
resulting current always will be in the same Then, Z equals
cos 0
type used to define the voltage.
In the more general case vector algebra and cos -45 = 0.707
must be used to solve the equation. And,
since either division or multiplication is in- ZI =
200
0.707
- 282 ohms
volved, the complex quantities should be
expressed in the polar form. As an example, Since the applied voltage will be the refer-
take the case of the series circuit shown in ence for the currents and voltages within
figure 13 with 100 volts applied. The im- the circuit, we may define it as having a
pedance of the series circuit can best be ob- zero phase angle: E = 100 LO . Then:
tained first in the rectangular form, as:
200 + j(100 - 300) = 200 - j200 I- 100 LO
282 L -45
- 0.34L0 - ( -4f )
Now, to obtain the current we must con- = 0.354 Z45 amperes
vert this impedance to the polar form.
This same current must flow through all
IZI = 2002 + (-200)2 three elements of the circuit, since they are
in series and the current through one must
= V 40,000 + 40,000 already have passed through the other two.
Hence the voltage drop across the resistor
80,000 (whose phase angle of course is 0 ) is:
=282 1.1
E =IR
O = tan ' = tan-1
-200 tan -1(- 1) E _ (0.354 L45 ) (200 L0 )
R 200
= 70.8 L45 volts
= - 45 The voltage drop across the inductive re-
Therefore, Z = 282 L -45 actance is:

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vector Algebra 57

E =1X,, ER = 70.8 Z45


E = (0.354 L45 ) (100 L90 ) = 70.8 (cos 45 + j sin 45)
= 35.4 L135 volts = 70.8 (0.707 + j0.707)
Similarly, the voltage drop across the capac- = 50 + j50
itive reactance is:
= 35.4 L 135
E =IXc
= 35.4 (cos 135 + j sin 135)
E = (0.354 L45 ) (300 L -90 )
= 35.4 ( -0.707 + j0.707)
= 106.2 L -45
= -25 + j25
Note that the voltage drop across the ca-
pacitive reactance is greater than the supply Ec = 106.2 L45
voltage. This condition often occurs in a
series RLC circuit, and is explained by the = 106.2 (cos-45 + j sin-45)
fact that the drop across the capacitive re-
actance is cancelled to a lesser or greater = 106.2 (0.707 -j0.707)
extent by the drop across the inductive re- = 75 -j75
actance.
It is often desirable in a problem such as ER +E,, +Ec= (50 +j50)
the above to check the validity of the an-
swer by adding vectorially the voltage drops + ( -25 + j25) + (75 -j75)
across the components of the series circuit = (50 -25 + 75) +
voltage -
to make sure that they add up to the supply
or to use the terminology of
Kirchhoff's Second Law, to make sure that
ER
j(50 + -75)
25
+Eh +Ec= 100 +j0
the voltage drops across all elements of the = 100 L0 ,
circuit, including the source taken as nega- which is equal to the supply voltage.
tive, is equal to zero.
In the general case of the addition of a Checking by It
is frequently desirable
number of voltage vectors in series it is best Construction on the to check computations
to resolve the voltages into their in -phase Complex Plane involving complex quan-
and out -of -phase components with respect tities by constructing
to the supply voltage. Then these compo- vectors representing the quantities on the
nents may be added directly. Hence: complex plane. Fig. 14 shows such a con-
struction for the quantities of the problem
just completed. Note that the answer to
b the problem may be checked by construct-
ing a parallelogram with the voltage drop
VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS across the resistor as one side and the net
X L. 55.4 L. DROP ACROSS RESISTOR voltage drop across the capacitor plus the
inductor (these may be added algebraically
1110 /..moLINoC VOLTAGE 1AV_
as they are 180 out of phase) as the ad-
jacent side. The vector sum of these two
DROP ACROSS XC 210e.2 -45 voltages, which is represented by the diag-
onal of the parallelogram, is equal to the
NET DROP ACROSS XL t XC T0.// -45
supply voltage of 100 volts at zero phase
W angle.

Figure 14 Resistance and Re- a series circuit, such


In
actance in Paralleljust discussed, the cur-
as
Graphical construction of the voltage drops
associated with the series RLC circuit of rent through all the ele-
figure 13. ments which go to make up the series cir-
58 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO
cuit is the same. But the voltage drops Then the denominator is changed to the
across each of the components are, in gen- polar form for the division operation:
eral, different from one another. Conversely,
in a parallel RLC or RX circuit the voltage O = tan -1 -6= tan -1 -0.667 = -33.7
is, obviously, the same across each of the
elements. But the currents through each of
the elements are usually different. IZ1 =
cos -
6
33.7
6
0.832
- 7.21 ohms
There are many ways of solving a prob-
lem involving paralleled resistance and re- 6 -j4 = 7.21 L -33.7
actance; several of these ways will be de-
scribed. In general, it may be said that the Then:
impedance of a number of elements in par-
allel is solved using the same relations as are
- 90 -
24 L
3.33 L-56.3
used for solving resistors in parallel, except -33.7
7.21 L
that complex quantities are employed. The
basic relation is:
= 3.33 (cos - 56.3 + j sin - 56.3 )
= 3.33 [0.5548 + j (- 0.832) ]
1

ZTotat
1

Z1 Z,
1 1

Z:,
= 1.85 - j 2.77
or when only two impedances are involved: Equivalent Series Through the series of op-
Circuit erations in the previous
ZTotal - Z,
Z,Z2
+ Z,
paragraph we have con-
verted a circuit composed of two imped-
As an example, using the two -impedance ances in parallel into an equivalent series cir-
relation, take the simple case, illustrated in cuit composed of impedances in series. An
figure 15, of a resistance of 6 ohms in paral- equivalent series circuit is one which, as
lel with a capacitive reactance of 4 ohms. far as the terminals are concerned, acts iden-
To simplify the first step in the computa- tically to the original parallel circuit; the
tion it is best to put the impedances in the current through the circuit and the power
polar form for the numerator, since multi- dissipation of the resistive elements are the
plication is involved, and in the rectangular same for a given voltage at the specified
form for the addition in the denominator. frequency.
We can check the equivalent series
Zrotal - (6 L0 ) (4 L -90 ) circuit of figure 15 with respect to the
6 -j4 original circuit by assuming that one volt
a -c (at the frequency where the capacitive
24 L -90 reactance in the parallel circuit is 4 ohms)
6 -j4 is applied to the terminals of both the series
and parallel circuits.
In the parallel circuit the current through
the resistor will be % ampere (0.166 amp)
1.11511 while the current through the capacitor will
-J 40. be j 1/4 ampere (+ j 0.25 amp) . The total
-J 2.nn current will be the sum of these two cur-
o T rents, or 0.166 + j 0.25 amp. Adding these
vectorially we obtain:
PARALLEL EQUIVALENT SERIES
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
= \/0.1662 + 0.252 = 0.09
Figure 15 = 0.3 amp.
THE EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT The dissipation in the resistor will be 12/6
= 0.166 watts.
Showing a parallel RC circuit and the equiv-
alent series RC circuit which represents the In the case of the equivalent series cir-
same net impedance as the parallel circuit. cuit the current will be:

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Voltage Dividers 59

0.3 amp
III IZ 3.33 =
And the dissipation in the resistor will be:
W= 12R= 0.32 X1.85
EzE. EzE. XCz Ea E. L:
L.+Lz
= 0.09 X 1.85 RI. Rz XC. +XCa
C.
Ez E.
tCz
= 0.166 watts C.

C)
So we see that the equivalent series circuit
checks exactly with the original parallel cir- Figure 16
cuit.
SIMPLE A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
Parallel RLC In solving a more complicated
Circuits circuit made up of more than
two impedances in parallel we in phase with the input voltage. By using
may elect to use either of two methods of combinations of different types of imped-
solution. These methods are called the ad- ances, the phase angle of the output may be
mittance method and the assumed- voltage shifted in relation to the input phase angle
method. However, the two methods are at the same time the amplitude is reduced.
equivalent since both use the sum-of- recip- Several dividers of this type are shown in
rocals equation: figure 17. Note that the ratio of output
voltage is equal to the ratio of the output
1 1
+
1 1 impedance to the total divider impedance.
ZTotal Z1 Z2 Z:4 This relationship is true only if negligible
current is drawn by a load on the output
In the admittance method we use the rela-
termina Is.
tion Y = I /Z, where Y =
G + jB; Y is
called the admittance, defined above, G is
the conductance or R /Z2 and B is the sus -
cebtance or -X
/Z2. Then Ytotal = 1 /Ztotal
= Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ....
In the assumed -
voltage method we multiply both sides of
the equation above by E, the assumed volt-
age, and add the currents, as:

E xc XL
EEE...=1Z1+122+IZ3... Ea. E. E: E.
ZTotal Z1 Z2 Z3 R2+xCa Rz +XLz

Then the impedance of the parallel com-


bination may be determined from the rela-
tion:
ZTotal = E /IZ Total

A -C Voltage Voltage dividers for use with


Dividers alternating current are quite
similar to d -c voltage dividers.
Ez E. XX
-Xc E. E.
R:.z
Xc

However, since capacitors and inductors as pD Ea E.


XL
Rz.(XL-Xc)z
well as resistors oppose the flow of a -c cur-
XL-XC
rent, voltage dividers for alternating volt- E. E.
R=+
ages may take any of the configurations
shown in figure 16.
Figure 17
Since the impedances within each divider
are of the same type, the output voltage is COMPLEX A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
60 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

3 -2 Resonant Circuits This can be more easily understood when


one considers that inductive reactance and
A series circuit such as shown in figure 18 capacitive reactance change in opposite direc-
is said to be in resonance when the applied tions as the frequency is varied. For ex-
frequency is such that the capacitive react- ample, if the frequency were to remain
ance is exactly balanced by the inductive re- constant and the values of inductance and
actance. At this frequency the two react- capacitance were then changed, the follow-
ances will cancel in their effects, and the ing combinations would have equal react-
impedance of the circuit will be at a mini- ance:
mum so that maximum current will flow. In
Frequency is constant at 60 Hz.
fact, as shown in figure 19 the net imped-
ance of a series circuit at resonance is equal L is expressed in henrys.
to the resistance which remains in the cir-
cuit after the reactances have been can- C is expressed in microfarads (.000001
celled. farad.)

Resonant Frequency Some L X,, C /Cc


resistance is always
present in a circuit be- .265 100 26.5 100
cause it is possessed in some degree by both 2.65 1000 2.65 1000
the inductor and the capacitor. If the fre- 26.5 10,000 .265 10,000
quency of the alternator E is varied from 265.00 100,000 .0265 100,000
nearly zero to some high frequency, there 2,650.00 1,000,000 .00265 1,000,000
will be one particular frequency at which
the inductive reactance and capacitive re-
actance will be equal. This is known as the Frequency From the formula for reso-
resonant frequency, and in a series circuit
of Resonance nance, 2afL = 1 /2irfC , the
it is the frequency at which the circuit resonant frequency is deter-
current will be a maximum. Such series - mind:
resonant circuits are chiefly used when it is 1
desirable to allow a certain frequency to pass
through the circuit (low impedance to this
frequency), while at the same time the cir-
cuit is made to offer considerable opposition
to currents of other frequencies.

Figure 18

SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT


Figure 19
If the values of inductance and capaci-
tance both are fixed, there will be only one IMPEDANCE OF A
resonant frequency. SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT
If both the inductance and capacitance Showing the variation in reactance of the
are made variable, the circuit may then separate elements and in the net impedance
be changed or tuned, so that a number of a series resonant circuit (such as figure 18)
with changing frequency. The vertical line is
of combinations of inductance and capaci- drawn at the point of resonance (X -X, 0)
tance can resonate at the same frequency. in the series circuit.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Resonant Circuits 61

where, capacitive or inductive, and the difference is


f equals frequency in Hertz, squared.
L equals inductance in henrys, Current and Voltage Formulas for calculat-
C equals capacitance in farads. in Series- Resonant ing currents and volt-
Circuits ages in a series- resonant
It is more convenient to express L and circuit are similar to
C in smaller units, especially in making those of Ohm's Law.
radio -frequency calculations; f can also be
expressed in MHz or kHz. A very useful
group of such formulas is:
I= ZIE =IZ

f
25,330
LC
or L = 25,330 or C
f2C
- 25,330
f -L
The complete equations are:
E
where,
I- 1 r2 + (XL - Xc) 2

L equals inductance in microhenrys,


f equals frequency in MHz, E=YVIVr2+ (XL -X0)2
C equals capacitance in picofarads.
Inspection of the above formulas will
Impedance of Series The impedance across show the following to apply to series -reso-
Resonant Circuits the terminals of a series -
nant circuits: When the impedance is low,
resonant circuit (figure the current will be high; conversely, when
18) is:
the impedance is high, the current will be
low.
Z = r2 4- (XI, - X0)2 Since it is known that the impedance will
be very low at the resonant frequency, it
where, follows that the current will be a maximum
Z equals impedance in ohms, at this point. If a graph is plotted of the
r equals resistance in ohms,
X0 equals capacitive reactance in ohms,
XI, equals inductive reactance in ohms.

From this equation, it can be seen that


the impedance is equal to the vector sum of
the circuit resistance and the difference be- i
tween the two reactances. Since at the
resonant frequency XL equals Xe, the dif-
ference between them (figure 19) is zero,
so that at resonance the impedance is sim-
ply equal to the resistance of the circuit;
therefore, because the resistance of most
normal radio- frequency circuits is of a very .Oy
low order, the impedance is also low.
At frequencies higher and lower than the
_
>yJ!

a'?,
resonant frequency, the difference between El'`
the reactances will be a definite quantity FREQUENCY
and will add with the resistance to make ohe
impedance higher and higher as the circuit Figure 20
is tuned off the resonant frequency. RESONANCE CURVE
If Xe should be greater than X,,, then the
term (X1, -
X0) will give a negative num- Showing the increase in impedance at reson-
ance for a parallel -resonant circuit, and
ber. However, when the difference is squared similarly, the increase in t at resonance
the product is always positive. This means for a series -resonant circuit. She sharpness of
once is determined by the Q of the cir-
that the smaller reactance is subtracted cuit, as illustrated by a comparison between
from the larger, regardless of whether it be the three curves.
62 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

current against the frequency either side Skin Effect The actual resistance in a wire
of resonance, the resultant curve becomes or an inductor can be far greater
what is known as a resonance curve. Such a than the d -c value when the coil is used in a
curve is shown in figure 20, the frequency radio -frequency circuit; this is because the
being plotted against current in the series - current does not travel through the entire
resonant circuit. cross section of the conductor, but has a
Several factors will have an effect on the tendency to travel closer and closer to the
shape of this resonance curve, of which re- surface of the wire as the frequency is in-
sistance and L -to -C ratio are the important creased. This is known as the skin effect.
considerations. The lower curves in figure The actual current carrying portion of the
20 show the effect of adding increasing val- wire is decreased as a result of the skin
ues of resistance to the circuit. It will be effect so that the ratio of a -c to d -c resist-
seen that the peaks become less and less ance of the wire, called the resistance ratio,
prominent as the resistance is increased; is increased. The resistance ratio of wires to
thus, it can be said that the selectivity of be used at frequencies below about 500 kHz
the circuit is thereby decreased. Selectivity may be materially reduced through the use
in this case can be defined as the ability of of litz wire. Litz wire, of the type common-
a circuit to discriminate against frequencies ly used to wind the coils of 45 5 - kHz i -f
transformers, may consist of 3 to 10 strands
adjacent to (both above and below) the
resonant frequency. of insulated wire, about No. 40 in size, with
the individual strands connected together
Voltage Across Coil Because the a -c or r -f only at the ends of the coils.
and Capacitor in voltage across a coil and Variation of Q Examination of the equation
Series Circuit capacitor is proportional with Frequency for determining Q might
to the reactance (for a
given current), the actual voltages across give rise to the thought that
the coil and across the capacitor may be even though the resistance of an inductor
many times greater than the terminal volt- increases with frequency, the inductive re-
age of the circuit. At resonance, the voltage
actance does likewise, so that the Q might
be a constant. Actually, however, it works
across the coil (or the capacitor) is Q
times the applied voltage. Since the Q (or
out in practice that the Q of an inductor
merit factor) of a series circuit can be in will reach a relatively broad maximum at
some particular frequency. Hence, coils nor-
the neighborhood of 100 or more, the volt-
age across the capacitor, for example, may
mally are designed in such a manner that the
peak in their curve of Q versus frequency
be high enough to cause flashover, even
will occur at the normal operating frequen-
though the applied voltage is of a value con-
cy of the coil in the circuit for which it is
siderably below that at which the capacitor
designed.
is rated.

Circuit Q - Sharp.
ness of Resonance
An extremely important
property of a capacitor
The Q of a capacitor ordinarily is much
higher than that of the best coil. Therefore,
it usually is the merit of the coil that limits
the over -all Q of the circuit.
or an inductor is its fac- At audio frequencies the core losses in an
tor-of-merit, more generally called its Q. iron -core inductor greatly reduce the Q
It is this factor, Q, which primarily deter- from the value that would be obtained sim-
mines the sharpness of resonance of a tuned
ply by dividing the reactance by the resist-
circuit. This factor can be expressed as the ance. Obviously the core losses also represent
ratio of the reactance to the resistance, as
circuit resistance, just as though the loss
follows:
occurred in the wire itself.
27rfL Parallel
Q In radio circuits, parallel reso-
R Resonance nance (more correctly termed
where, antiresonance) is more frequent-
ly encountered than series resonance; in fact,
R equals total resistance. it is the basic foundation of receiver and

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Circuit Q 63

in which the current is at a maximum and


the impedance is minimum at resonance. It
is for this reason that in a parallel -resonant
circuit the principal consideration is one of
impedance rather than current. It is also sig-
nificant that the impedance curve for paral-
lel circuits is very nearly indentical to that
Figure 21 of the current curve for series resonance.
The impedance at resonance is expressed as:
PARALLEL -RESONANT CIRCUIT
(27rfL)2
The inductance and capacitance C comprise Z =
the reactive elements of the parallel- at R
(antiresonant) tank circuit, and the resistance
R indicates the sum of the r-f resistance of the where,
coil and capacitor, plus the resistance cou-
pled into the circuit from the external load. Z equals impedance in ohms,
la most cases the tuning capacitor has much L equals inductance in henrys,
lower r-f resistance than the coil and can
therefore be Ignored In comparison with the f equals frequency in Hertz,
coil resistance and the coupled -in resistance. R equals resistance in ohms.
The instrument M, indicates the "line current"
which keeps the circuit in a state of oscilla- Or, impedance can be expressed as a func-
tion -this nt is the same as the funda-
mental component of the plate current of a tion of Q as:
class -C amplifier which might be feeding the
tank circuit. The Instrument M, indicates the Z = 2nfLQ
"tank at" which is equal to the line car-
rent multiplied by the operating Q of the showing that the impedance of a circuit is
tank circuit.
directly proportional to its effective Q at
resonance.
transmitter circuit operation. A circuit is The curves illustrated in figure 20 can be
shown in figure 21. applied to parallel resonance. Reference to
the curve will show that the effect of adding
The "Tank" In this circuit, as contrasted resistance to the circuit will result in both a
Circuit with a circuit for series reso- broadening out and lowering of the peak of
nance, L (inductance) and C the curve. Since the voltage of the circuit
(capacitance) are connected in parallel, yet is directly proportional to the impedance,
the combination can be considered to be in and since it is this voltage that is applied to
series with the remainder of the circuit. This the grid of the vacuum tube in a detector
combination of L and C, in conjunction or amplifier circuit, the impedance curve
with R, the resistance which is principally must have a sharp peak in order for the
included in L, is sometimes called a tank circuit to be selective. If the curve is broad -
circuit because it effectively functions as a topped in shape, both the desired signal and
storage tank when incorporated in vacuum - the interfering signals at close proximity to
tube circuits. resonance will give nearly equal voltages on
Contrasted with series resonance, there the grid of the tube, and the circuit will
are two kinds of current which must be con- then be nonselective ; that is , it will tune
sidered in a parallel -resonant circuit: (1) broadly.
the line current, as read on the indicating
meter M,, (2) the circulating current which Effect of L/C Ratio In order that the highest
flows within the parallel LCR portion of the In Parallel Circuits possible voltage can be
circuit. See figure 21. developed across a paral-
At the resonant frequency, the line cur- lel- resonant circuit, the impedance of this
rent (as read on the meter M,) will drop to circuit must be very high. The impedance
a very low value although the circulating will be greater with conventional coils of
current in the LC circuit may be quite large. limited Q when the ratio of inductance to
It is interesting to note that the parallel - capacitance is great, that is, when L is large
resonant circuit acts in a distinctly opposite as compared with C. When the resistance of
manner to that of a series- resonant circuit, the circuit is very low, XL will equal Xc at
64 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO
maximum impedance. There are innumer- Effect of Coupling If
a parallel- resonant cir-
able ratios of L and C that will have equal on Impedance cuit is coupled to another
reactance, at a given resonant frequency, circuit, such as an anten-
exactly as in the case in a series- resonant na output circuit, the impedance and the
circuit. effective Q of the parallel circuit is decreased
In practice, where a certain value of in- as the coupling becomes closer. The effect
ductance is tuned by a variable capacitance of closer (tighter) coupling is the same as
over a fairly wide range in frequency, the though an actual resistance were added in
L/C ratio will be small at the lowest -fre- series with the parallel tank circuit. The re-
quency end and large at the high- frequency sistance thus coupled into the tank circuit
end. The circuit, therefore, will have un- can be considered as being reflected from tite
equal gain and selectivity at the two ends output or load circuit to the driver circuit.
of the band of frequencies which is being The behavior of coupled circuits depends
tuned. Increasing the Q of the circuit (low- largely on the amount of coupling, as shown
ering the resistance) will obviously increase in figure 22. The coupled currrent in the
both the selectivity and gain. secondary circuit is small, varying with fre-
quency, being maximum at the resonant
Circulating Tank The Q of a circuit has frequency of the circuit. As the coupling
Current at Resonance a definite bearing on is increased between the two circuits, the
the circulating tank secondary resonance curve becomes broader
current at resonance. This tank current is and the resonant amplitude increases, until
very nearly the value of the line current the reflected resistance is equal to the pri-
multiplied by the effective circuit Q. For mary resistance. This point is called the
example: an r-f line current of 0.050 am- critical coupling point. With greater cou-
pere, with a circuit Q of 100, will give a pling, the secondary resonance curve becomes
circulating tank current of approximately broader and develops double resonance
f amperes. From this it can be seen that humps, which become more pronounced
both the inductor and the connecting wires and farther apart in frequency as the cou-
in a circuit with a high Q must be of very pling between the two circuits is increased.
low resistance, particularly in the case of
high -power transmitters, if heat losses are Tank -Circuit When the plate circuit of a
to be held to a minimum. Flywheel Effect class -B or class -C operated
Because the voltage across the tank at tube is connected to a par-
resonance is determined by the Q, it is pos- allel- resonant circuit tuned to the same fre-
sible to develop very high peak voltages quency as the exciting voltage for the ampli-
across a high -Q tank with but little line fier, the plate current serves to maintain this
current. L/C circuit in a state of oscillation.

T LOOlC CONrUnG
NiGN a
CI% MAL COUPLING
LOW O

O
Figue 22
EFFECT OF COUPLING ON CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE AND Q

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Nonsinusoidal Waves 65

The plate current is supplied in short which ordinarily are very low. The unloaded
pulses which do not begin to resemble a sine Q of a good quality large diameter tank coil
wave, even though the grid may be excited in the high- frequency range may be as high
by a sine -wave voltage. These spurts of as 500 to 800, and values greater than 300
plate current are converted into a sine wave are quite common.
in the plate tank circuit by virtue of the
Q or flywheel effect of the tank. Tank- Circuit Since the unloaded Q of a tank
If a tank did not have some resistance Efficiency circuit is determined by the
losses, it would, when given a "kick" with a minimum losses in the tank,
single pulse, continue to oscillate indefinitely. while the loaded Q is determined by useful
With a moderate amount of resistance or loading of the tank circuit from the external
"friction" in the circuit the tank will still load in addition to the internal losses in the
have inertia, and continue to oscillate with tank circuit, the relationship between the
decreasing amplitude for a time after being two Q values determines the operating effi-
given a "kick." With such a circuit, almost ciency of the tank circuit. Expressed in the
pure sine -wave voltage will be developed form of an equation, the loaded efficiency of
across the tank circuit even though power a tank circuit is:
is supplied to the tank in short pulses or
spurts, so long as the spurts are evenly
spaced with respect to time and have a fre-
Tank efficiency = 1 - Q.,
' X 100

quency that is the same as the resonant fre-


where,
quency of the tank.
Another way to visualize the action of Q equals unloaded Q of the tank circuit,
the tank is to recall that a resonant tank Q1 equals loaded Q of the tank circuit.
with moderate Q will discriminate strongly As an example, if the unloaded Q of the
against harmonics of the resonant frequency. tank circuit for a class -C r -f power ampli-
The distorted plate current pulse in a class - fier is 400, and the external load is coupled
C amplifier contains not only the funda- to the tank circuit by an amount such that
mental frequency (that of the grid excita- the loaded Q is 20, the tank -circuit effi-
tion voltage) but also higher harmonics. As ciency will be: eff. = (1 -20/400) X
the tank offers low impedance to the har-
monics and high impedance to the funda-
100, or (1 -0.05) X 100, or 95 per cent.
Hence 5 cent of the power output of
per
the fundamental -
mental (being resonant to the latter) , only
a sine -wave voltage
appears across the tank circuit in substantial
- the class -C amplifier will be lost as heat in
the tank circuit and the remaining 95 per
cent will be delivered to the load.
magnitude.
Loaded and Confusion sometimes exists as 3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves
Unloaded Q to the relationship between and Transients
the unloaded and the loaded
Q of the tank circuit in the plate of an r -f Pure sine waves, discussed previously, are
power amplifier. In the normal case the basic wave shapes. Waves of many different
loaded Q of the tank circuit is determined and complex shapes are used in electronics,
by such factors as the operating conditions particularly square waves, sawtooth waves,
of the amplifier, bandwidth of the signal to and peaked waves.
be emitted, permissible level of harmonic
radiation, and such factors. The normal Wove Composition Any periodic wave (one
value of loaded Q for an r -f amplifier used that repeats itself in defi-
for communications service is from perhaps nite time intervals) is composed of sine
6 to 20. The unloaded Q of the tank circuit waves of different frequencies and ampli-
determines the efficiency of the output cir- tudes, added together. The sine wave which
cuit and is determined by the losses in the has the same frequency as the complex, peri-
tank coil, its leads and plugs and jacks if odic wave is called the fundamental. The
any, and by the losses in the tank capacitor frequencies higher than the fundamental are
66 Alternating -Current Circuits THE RADIO
FUND. FINS 2ND 3110, 4T14.
/.\AND STN HARMONICS
FUND. PLUS WO HARM. FUND. PLUS 2ND MD. AND

- FUNDAMENTAL -TM HARMONICS


FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVE (A)
ENO HARM.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS c STN HARMONIC
3RD HARMONIC IC)

SQUARE WAVE

SRD HARMONIC IB) Np 11p\


FUND. PLIS END AND
!TM IIDTE MAIIYOMIC!
IC ! FUND. PLUS 2ND. 3MD. TN.
MD. PLUS 2ND MARY. AMO !TN HARMONICS
!C HARMONIC /TM HARMONIC

O ` \ I
FUND. PLUS 2M0. 3RO
AND TM HARYONIC4
FUND. PLUS 2NC IRO, sTN.
15TH. /TH. AND TTN HARMS.
\ !

NDMA YS IMD AMD


Y HIC! !u UTMNMACEIG1
71H HARMONIC
Figure 23

COMPOSITE WAVE- FUNDAMENTAL


PLUS THIRD HARMONIC
SAWTOOTH WAVE
ND. /LW 2M0. SRD. TH. 5114,
FUAND /TN.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARMONIC - 7TH HARMONICS

FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD AND


STH HARMONICS IE)

!TN HARMONIC ID)


Figure 26

COMPOSITION OF A SAWTOOTH WAVE

FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
HARMONIC
FUNDAMENTAL
3RD HARMONIC

\y/
Figure 24

THIRD -HARMONIC WAVE PLUS


FIFTH HARMONIC

FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD. STH.


AND 7TH HARMONICS IC,I
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD AND
STN HARMONICS FUNDAMENTAL P.US 3RD
SQUARE WAVE AND STH HARMONICS
7TH HARMONIC IF)
` Imo / FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARM.
'TH HARMONIC

Figure 25

RESULTANT WAVE, COMPOSED OF FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD, STH,


AND 7TH HARMONICS
FUNDAMENTAL, THIRD, FIFTH,
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
AND SEVENTH HARMONICS AND 5TH HARMONIC

7TH HARMONIC
called harmonics, and are always a whole
number of times higher than the funda-
mental. For example, the frequency twice as
high as the fundamental is called the second
harmonic.
The Square Wave Figure 23 compares a Figure 27
square wave with a sine
wave (A) of the same frequency. If another COMPOSITION OF A PEAKED WAVE

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN D BO O K Nonsinusoidal Waves 67

sine wave (B) of smaller amplitude, but RC Differentiotor An RC voltage divider


three times the frequency of A, called the and Integrator that is designed to distort
third harmonic, is added to A, the resultant the input waveform is
wave (C) more nearly approaches the de- known as a differentiator or integrator, de-
sired square wave. pending on the locations of the output taps.
This resultant curve (figure 24) is added The output from a differentiator is taken
to a fifth -harmonic curve (D), and the sides across the resistance, while the output from
of the resulting curve (E) are steeper than an integrator is taken across the capacitor.
before. This new curve is shown in figure Such circuits will change the shape of any
25 after a 7th -harmonic component has been complex a -c waveform that is impressed on
added to it, making the sides of the com- them. This distortion is a function of the
posite wave even steeper. Addition of more value of the time constant of the circuit as
higher odd harmonics will bring the result- compared to the period of the waveform.
ant wave nearer and nearer to the desired Neither a differentiator nor an integrator
square -wave shape. The square wave will be can change the shape of a pure sine wave,
achieved if an infinite number of odd har- they will merely shift the phase of the wave
monics are added to the original sine wave. (figure 29). The differentiator output is a
sine wave leading the input wave, and the
The Sowtooth Wave In the same fashion, a integrator output is a sine wave which lags
sawtooth wave is made the input wave. The sum of the two out-
up of different sine waves (figure 26). The puts at any instant equals the instantaneous
addition of all harmonics, odd and even, input voltage.
produces the sawtooth waveform.

The Peaked Wave Figure 27 shows the com- 100v


1000 HERTZ
position of a peaked ware.
Note how the addition of each successive
harmonic makes the peak of the resultant R xC 50000 ar5LCORO3
PERIOD OF e. 1000 L SECONDS
higher, and the sides steeper.
Figure 28
Other Waveforms The three preceding ex- RC COUPLING CIRCUIT WITH
amples show how a com- LONG TIME CONSTANT
plex periodic wave is composed of a funda-
mental wave and different harmonics. The 100V.
shape of the resultant wave depends on the
ec
harmonics that are added, their relative am- NTEGIIA
ovrPUT r
plitudes, and relative phase relationships. In E. moo.
(KAK)
general, the steeper the sides of the wave- 10001,
el -1oov
form, the more harmonics it contains. Dir 100131A100
OUTPUT

rs0v
A -C Transient CircuitsIf an a -c voltage is eft o
substituted for the d -c -50V.
input voltage in the RC transient circuits
discussed in Chapter 2, the same principles
may be applied in the analysis of the tran- i i
I

sient behavior. An RC coupling circuit is


designed to have a long time constant with
respect to the lowest frequency it must pass.
Such a circuit is shown in figure 28. If a C 0
nonsinusoidal voltage is to be passed un- Figure 29
changed through the coupling circuit, the
time constant must be long with respect RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND
to the period of the lowest frequency con- INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
tained in the voltage wave. A SINE WAVE
68 Alternating -Current Circuits THE RADIO

INTEGRATOR
F100V eE INTEGRATOR OUTPUT 100V OUTPUT (ec
(PEAK) (PEAK)

-
100HERTZ 1000 HERTZ R= 35011. DIFFERENTIATOR
eR OIRERENTIATOR OUTPUT OUTPUT (e0)

+IDO

OUTPUT WAVE FORK


e0 Or TOR OUTPUT WAVEFORM
OF GENERATOR

0o v.
-00
+125V.

T5 V.
CO / /r pU- U10
EIITEIIdTAT011'(R)
OUTPUT OF
DIFFERENTIATOR (es)

-- -125V.
e0 OUTPUT OP
INTEGRATOR (ec)
+25 V.
ED 1TC MOT ec)
-25 V. 11

Figure 30 Figure 31

RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND RC DIFFERENTIATOR AND


INTEGRATOR ACTION ON INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
A SQUARE WAVE A SAWTOOTH WAVE

Square -Wove Input Ifsquare -wave voltage


a
impressed on the cir-
is
cuit of figure 30, a square -wave voltage
output may be obtained across the integrat-
ing capacitor if the time constant of the
circuit allows the capacitor to become fully
charged. In this particular case, the capacitor
never fully charges, and as a result the out-
put of the integrator has a smaller ampli-
tude than the input. The differentiator out-
put has a maximum value greater than the
input amplitude, since the voltage left on
the capacitor from the previous half wave
will add to the input voltage. Such a
circuit, when used as a differentiator, is often
called a peaker. Peaks of twice the input
amplitude may be produced.
Sawtooth -Wove Input If a back -to -back saw -
tooth voltage is applied
to an RC circuit having a time constant
one -sixth the period of the input voltage,
the result is shown in figure 31. The capaci-
tor voltage will closely follow the input
voltage, if the time constant is short, and
the integrator output closely resembles the Figure 32
input. The amplitude is slightly reduced
and there is a slight phase lag. Since the Diferentiator outputs of short -time-constant
RC circuits for various input voltage wave -
voltage across the capacitor is increasing at shapes. The output voltage is proportional to
a constant rate, the charging and discharg- the rate of change of the input voltage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transformers 69

O
Figure 33
Amplifier deficient in low -frequency response will distort square wave applied to the input
circuit, as shown. A 60-Hz square wave may be used.
A: Drop in gain at low frequencies
a: Leading phase shift at low frequencies
C: Lagging phase shift at low frequencies
D: Accentuated low- frequency gain

Figure 34 Figure 35

Output waveshape of amplifier having defi- Output waveshape of amplifier having limited
ciency in high -frequency response. Tested low- frequency and high -frequency response.
with 10 -kHz square wave. Tested with I kHz s wave.

ing current is constant. The output voltage Low -frequency and high- frequency re-
of the differentiator, therefore, is constant sponse, as well as transient response can be
during each half of the sawtooth input. examined easily.
If the amplifier is deficient in low -fre-
Miscellaneous Various voltage waveforms quency response, the flat top of the square
Inputs other than those represented wave will be canted, as in figure 33. If the
here may be applied to short - high- frequency response is inferior, the rise
time- constant RC circuits for the purpose of time of the output wave will be retarded
producing across the resistor an output volt- (figure 34).
age with an amplitude proportional to the An amplifier with a limited high- and
rate of change of the input signal. The low- frequency response will turn the square
shorter the RC time constant is made with wave into the approximation of a sawtooth
respect to the period of the input wave, the wave (figure 3 f) .
more nearly the voltage across the capacitor
conforms to the input voltage. Thus, the Transformers
3 -4
differentiator output becomes of particular
importance in very short - time- constant RC When two coils are placed in such induc-
circuits. Differentiator outputs for various tive relation to each other that the lines of
types of input waves are shown in figure 32. force from one cut across the turns of the
Square -Wave Test The application of a other inducing a current, the combination
for Audio Equipment square -wave input sig- can be called a transformer. The name is
nal to audio equipment, derived from the fact that energy is trans-
and the observation of the reproduced out- formed from one winding to another. The
put signal on an oscilloscope will provide inductance in which the original flux is
a quick and accurate check of the over -all produced is called the primary; the induct-
operation of audio equipment. ance which receives the induced current is

www.americanradiohistory.com
70 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

called the secondary. In a radio- receiver In practice, the transformation ratio of a


power transformer, for example, the coil transformer is somewhat less than the turns
through which the 120 -volt a.c. passes is ratio, since unity coupling does not exist
the primary, and the coil from which a between the primary and secondary wind-
higher or lower voltage than the a -c line ings.
potential is obtained is the secondary.
Transformers can have either air or mag- Ampere Turns (NI) The current that flows in
netic cores, depending on the frequencies at the secondary winding as
which they are to be operated. The reader a result of the induced voltage must pro-
should thoroughly impress on his mind the duce a flux which exactly equals the primary
fact that current can be transferred from flux. The magnetizing force cf a coil is ex-
one circuit to another only if the primary pressed as the product of the number of
current is changing or alternating. From turns in the coil times the current flowing
this it can be seen that a power transformer in it:
cannot possibly function as such when the
primary is supplied with nonpulsating d -c. Np = Is
A power transformer usually has a mag-
Np X Ip = Ns X 1s, or
Ns Ip
netic core which consists of laminations of
iron, built up into a square or rectangular where,
form, with a center opening or window. Ii. equals primary current,
The secondary windings may be several in Is equals secondary current.
number, each perhaps delivering a different
voltage. The secondary voltages will be It can be seen from this expression that
proportional to the turns ratio and the when the voltage is stepped up, the current
is stepped down, and vice versa.
primary voltage.

Types of Transformers are used in al- Leakage Reactance Since unity coupling does
Transformers ternating- current circuits to not exist in a practical
transfer power at one voltage transformer, part of the flux passing from
and impedance to another circuit at another the primary circuit to the secondary circuit
voltage and impedance. There are three main follows a magnetic circuit acted on by the
classifications of transformers: those made primary only. The same is true of the sec-
for use in power- frequency circuits, those ondary flux. These leakage fluxes cause leak-
made for audio -frequency applications, and age reactance in the transformer, and tend
those made for radio frequencies. to cause the transformer to have poor volt-
age regulation. To reduce such leakage re-
The Transformation In a perfect transformer actance, the primary and secondary windings
Ratio all the magnetic flux should be in close proximity to each other.
lines produced by the The more expensive transformers have inter-
primary winding link every turn of the leaved windings to reduce inherent leakage
secondary winding. For such a transformer, reactance.
the ratio of the primary and secondary volt-
ages is exactly the same as the ratio of the Impedance In the ideal transformer, the
number of turns in the two windings: Transformation impedance of the secondary
load is reflected back into
Np_ Ep
the primary winding in the following rela-
Ns Es tionship:
where, Zr = NzZs, or N = Zp/Zs
Np equals number of turns in the primary,
Ns equals number of turns in the sec- where,
ondary, Zr equals reflected primary impedance,
Er equals voltage across the primary, N equals turns ratio of transformer,
Es equals voltage across the secondary. Zs equals impedance of secondary load.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Electric Filters 71

the purpose of increasing or decreasing the

El Z, line voltage. In effect, it is merely a con-


tinuous winding with taps taken at various
points along the winding, the input voltage
being applied to the bottom and also to
one tap on the winding. If the output is
Figure 36
taken from this same tap, the voltage ratio
IMPEDANCE -MATCHING TRANSFORMER will be 1 to 1; i.e., the input voltage will be
the same as the output voltage. On the other
The reflected Impedance Z. varies directly in
proportion to the secondary load Z, and hand, if the output tap is moved down to-
directly in proportion to the square of the ward the common terminal, there will be
primary -to- secondary turns ratio. a stepdown in the turns ratio with a conse-
quent stepdown in voltage. The initial set-
Thus any specific load connected to the ting of the middle input tap is chosen so
secondary terminals of the transformer will that the number of turns will have sufficient
be transformed to a different specific value reactance to keep the no -load primary cur-
appearing across the primary terminals of rent at a reasonable low value.
the transformer. By the proper choice of
turns ratio, any reasonable value of second-
ary load impedance may be "reflected" into 3 -5 Electric Filters
the primary winding of the transformer to
produce the desired transformer primary im- There are many applications where it is
pedance. The phase angle of the primary desirable to pass a d -c component without
"reflected" impedance will be the same as passing a superimposed a -c component, or
the phase angle of the load impedance. A to pass all frequencies above or below a
capacitive secondary load will be presented certain frequency while rejecting or attenu-
to the transformer source as a capacitance, ating all others, or to pass only a certain
a resistive load will present a resistive "re- band or bands of frequencies while attenu-
flection" to the primary source. Thus the ating all others.
primary source "sees" a transformer load All of these things can be done by suit-
entirely dependent on the secondary load able combinations of inductance, capaci-
impedance and the turns ratio of the trans- tance, and resistance. However, as whole
former (figure 36). books have been devoted to nothing but
electric filters, it can be appreciated that it
The Auto- The type of transformer in fig - is possible only to touch on them superficial-
transformer ure 37, when wound with heavy
ly in a general- coverage book.
wire over an iron core, is a com-
mon device in primary power circuits for virtue of its
Filter Operation A filter acts by
property of offering very
high impedance to the undesired frequencies,
1-
-U
STE while offering but little impedance to the
desired frequencies. This will also apply to
INPUT
STE-DOWN
- OUTPUT
d. c. with a superimposed a -c component, as
VOLTAGE - VOLTAGE
d. c. can be considered as an alternating cur-
rent of zero frequency so far as filter dis-
cussion goes.
Figure 37
THE AUTOTRANSFORMER Basic Filters Filters are divided into four
classes, descriptive of the fre-
Schematic diagram of an autotransformer
showing the method of c cling it to the quency bands which they are designed to
line and to the load. When only a small transmit: high -pass, low -pass, bandpass, and
amount of step up or step down is required,
the autotransformer may be much smaller band -elimination. Each of these classes of fil-
physically than would be a transformer with ters is made up of elementary filter sections
a separate s dory winding. Conti ly called L sections which consist of a series
variable autotransformers (Variac and Power-
stat) are widely used commercially. element (ZA) and a parallel element (ZB) as
72 Alternating- Current Circuits THE RADIO

ELEMENTARY FILTER SECTIONS Filter Sections The most common filter sec-
L-iLCT1ON4 7-NETWORK
tion is one in which the two
impedances ZA and ZB are so related that
their arithmetical product is a constant: ZA
X ZB = k2 at all frequencies. This type of
:. filter section is called a constant -k section.
T A section having a sharper cutoff fre-
Po NCTWORR
quency than a constant -k section, but less
attenuation at frequencies far removed from
cutoff is the m- derived section, so called
because the shunt or series element is reso-
nated with a reactance of the opposite sign.
If the complementary reactance is added
to the series arm, the section is said to be
Figure 38 shunt derived; if added to the shunt arm,
Complex Alters may for made up from those series derived. Each impedance of the m-
basic Alter sections. derived section is related to a corresponding
impedance in the constant -k section by some
illustrated in figure 38. A definite number of factor which is a function of the constant
L sections may be combined into basic filter m. In turn, m is a function of the ratio
sections, called T networks or 7r networks, between the cutoff frequency and the fre-
also shown in figure 38. Both the T and Tr quency of infinite attenuation, and will
networks may be divided in two to form have some value between zero and one. As
half -sections. the value of m approaches zero, the sharp-

LOW -PASS SHUNT- DERIVED FILTER HON -PASS SERIES -DERIVED FILTER
(SERIES ARM RESONATED) (SHUNT ARM RESONATED)

CI
2

2C, 2C1

T2

f2 1,C 14
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

R LOAD RESISTANCE R LOAD RESISTANCE


L1 InLM
2
m
XCM m
C1.1imm xc M
C2 mCM m2

L2

LMnf2 R
m2 1
CM
2
LM.
4n11
R
m2 11
CM
4n11R

12 CUTOFF FREQUENCY 1C FREQUENCY OF 1i CUTOFF FREQUENCY 1q FREQUENCY OF


HIGH ATTENUATON HIGH ATTENUATION

Figure 39

TYPICAL LOW -PASS AND HIGH -PASS FILTERS, ILLUSTRATING SHUNT AND SERIES
DERIVATIONS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Electric Filters 73

/7-SECTION FILTER DESIGN


CONSTANT m -0.g TERMINAT NG HALF-SECTIONS
l-
k

R LOAD RESISTANCE

' :Flo
ICT- -T
12CUTOFF FREQUENCY I O p O '
6 I

LI
fFREQUENCY OF VERY fC2 C2 }C2 /CT ti iC2 '
HIGH ATTENUATION
o T T o a o ; o
Ly R
LILy LI 0.6Lymly
f2
C2 Cy CI 0.267 Cy
I<m'y SAME MOLUES AS m 0.6
LOW PASS n
C2 0.6 CymCy
C
y nf2R
I

4
r f4
6

m I- W
z j SAME CURVE AS m 0 6
.0.6 W
IQ ) 12
< 12
FREOUENCY FREQUENCY

R LOAD RESISTANCE CI Li (j # L1 jLl 00


II CUTOFF FREQUENCY
W-2jCI e 4 2C1

I
I

1 iREOUEyKr OF VERY
HIGH ATTENUATION
2L2 2L2 2L2- - 2L2 2L2 I
m
I 2L2
O O

Lk
R LI 3.75 Ly 2%
9m
m
Ly
I I

CICy I

L2 Ly Cy Cy SAME VALUES AS m06


CI' 0.6 'm
HIGH PASS
Cy
I LY' Ly Ly
m
OnIIR
''' I
4 =
_ SAME CURVE AS m 0 6
m VI- /fC\2 .0.6
1II / F
ti 11
` fl
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

Figure 40
Through the use of the curves and equations which accompany the diagrams in the illustra-
tion above it is possible to determine the c lues of inductance and capacitance for
the usual typos of pi- section Alters.

ness of cutoff increases, but the less will be loss. This attenuation is usually uniform to
the attenuation at several times cutoff fre- all frequencies within the passband. The
quency. A value of 0.6 may be used for in insertion loss varies with the type of filter,
in most applications. The "notch" frequency the Q of the components, and the type of
is determined by the resonant frequency of termination employed.
the tuned filter element. The amount of
attenuation obtained at the "notch" when Electric Filter Electric wave filters have long
a derived section is used is determined by Design been used in some amateur sta-
the effective Q of the resonant arm (fig- tions in the audio channel to
ure 39). reduce the transmission of unwanted high
frequencies and hence to reduce the band-
Filter Assembly Constant -k sections and m- width occupied by a radiophone signal. The
derived sections may be cas- effectiveness of a properly designed and
caded to obtain the combined characteristics properly used filter circuit in reducing QRM
of sharp cutoff and good remote frequency and sideband splatter should not be under-
attenuation. Such a filter is known as a estimated.
composite filter. The amount of attenuation In recent years, high- frequency filters
will depend on the number of filter sec- have become commonplace in TVI reduction.
tions used, and the shape of the transmission High -pass type filters are placed before the
curve depends on the type of filter sec- input stage of television receivers to reject
tions used. All filters have some insertion the fundamental signal of low- frequency
74 Alternating- Current Circuits

transmitters. Low -pass filters are used in the commonly used type, figure 40 gives design
output circuits of low- frequency transmit- data and characteristics for this type of
ters to prevent harmonics of the transmitter filter.
from being radiated in the television chan- The image -parameter technique of filter
nels. design outlined in this section is being super -
The chart of figure 40 gives design data ceded by modern network synthesis, which
and procedure on the 7r section type of takes advantage of the digital computer as a
filter. The in- derived sections with an m of tool for multisection filter design. Filters
0.6 will be found to be most satisfactory as designed by this new technique provide su-
the input section (or half- section) of the perior performance with less components
usual filter since the input impedance of such than equivalent filters designed by the image -
a section is most constant over the passband parameter scheme. Design tables for synthesis
of the filter section. systems may be found in Simplified Modern
Simple filters may use either L, T, or 7r Filter Design by Geffe, published by John F.
sections. Since the 7r section is the more Rider Publisher, Inc., New York.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER FOUR

Vacuum -Tube Principles

In the previous chapters we have seen the electrons which have been emitted. The
manner in which an electric current flows electron source is called the cathode, and the
through a metallic conductor as a result of electron collector is usually called the anode.
an electron drift. This drift, which takes Some external source of energy must be ap-
place when there is a difference in potential plied to the cathode in order to impart suffi-
between the ends of the metallic conductor, cient velocity to the electrons within the
is in addition to the normal random electron cathode material to enable them to overcome
motion between the molecules of the con- the surface forces and thus escape into the
ductor. surrounding medium. In the usual types of
The electron may be considered as a min- electron tubes the cathode energy is applied
ute negatively charged particle, having a in the form of heat; electron emission from
mass of 9 X 10 -28 gram, and a charge of a heated cathode is called thermionic emis-
1.59 X 10-19 coulomb. Electrons are always sion. In another common type of electron
identical, regardless of the source from tube, the photoelectric cell, energy in the
which they are obtained. form of light is applied to the cathode to
An electric current can be caused to cause photoelectric emission.
flow through other media than a metallic
conductor. One such medium is an ionized
solution, such as the sulfuric acid electrolyte 4 -1 Thermionic Emission
in a storage battery. This type of current
flow is called electrolytic conduction. Fur- Electron Emission of electrons from the
ther, it was shown at about the turn of the Emission cathode of a thermionic electron
century that an electric current can be tube takes place when the cath-
carried by a stream of free electrons in an ode of the tube is heated to a tempera-
evacuated chamber. The flow of a current ture sufficiently high that the free elec-
in such a manner is said to take place by trons in the emitter have sufficient velocity
electronic conduction. The study of elec- to overcome the restraining forces at the
tron tubes (also called vacuum tubes, or surface of the material. These surface forces
valves) is actually the study of the control vary greatly with different materials. Hence
and use of electronic currents within an different types of cathodes must be raised
evacuated or partially evacuated chamber. to different temperatures to obtain adequate
Since the current flow in an electron tube quantities of electron emission. The several
takes place in an evacuated chamber, there types of emitters found in common types of
must be located within the enclosure both transmitting and receiving tubes will be
a source of electrons and a collector for the described in the following paragraphs.
76 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO

Figure 1

ELECTRON -TUBE TYPES


The I Electric ceramic triode (601'4) is shown alongside a c tional miniature
tube (6265) and an octal-based receiving tube (25L6). The ceramic tube is designed for
rugged service and features extremely low lead inductance.

Cathode Types The emitters or cathodes as tubes. Tungsten is not adversely affected by
used in present -day thermi- such bombardment.
onic electron tubes may be classified into
The Thoriated- In the course of experi-
two groups; the directly heated or fila-
Tungsten Filament ments made upon tung-
ment type and the indirectly heated or
heater- cathode type. Directly heated emit- sten emitters, it was found
ters may be further subdivided into three that filaments made from tungsten having a
important groups, all of which are common- small amount of thoria (thorium oxide) as
ly used in modern vacuum tubes. These an impurity had much greater emission than
classifications are: the pure- tungsten fila- those made from the pure metal. Subsequent
ment, the thoriated- tungsten filament, and development has resulted in the highly effi-
the oxide -coated filament. cient carburized thoriated- tungsten filament
as used in many medium -power trans-
The Pure-Tung- Pure -tungsten wire was used mitting tubes today.
sten Filament as the filament in nearly all Thoriated - tungsten emitters consist of a
the earlier transmitting and tungsten wire containing from 1% to 2%
receiving tubes. However, the thermionic thoria. The activation process varies between
efficiency of tungsten wire as an emitter different manufacturers of vacuum tubes,
(the number of milliamperes emission per but it is essentially as follows: (1) the tube
watt of filament -heating power) is quite is evacuated; (2) the filament is burned for
low; the filaments become fragile after use; a short period at about 2860 Kelvin to
their life is rather short, and they are sus- clean the surface and reduce some of the
ceptible to burnout at any time. Pure -tung- thoria within the filament to metallic thor-
sten filaments must be run at bright white ium; (3) the filament is burned for a longer
heat (about 2500 Kelvin). For these rea- period at about 2100 Kelvin to form a
sons, tungsten filaments have been replaced layer of thorium on the surface of the
in all applications where another type of tungsten; (4) the temperature is reduced
filament could be used. They are, however, to about 1600 Kelvin and some pure hy-
still often employed in large water -cooled drocarbon gas is admitted to form a layer
tubes and in certain large, high -power of tungsten carbide on the surface of the
air -cooled triodes where another filament tungsten. This layer of tungsten carbide re-
type would be unsuitable. Tungsten fila- duces the rate of thorium evaporation from
ments are the most satisfactory for high - the surface at the normal operating temper-
power, high -voltage tubes where the emitter ature of the filament and thus increases the
is subjected to positive ion bombardment operating life of the vacuum tube. Tho-
caused by the residual gas content of the rium evaporation from the surface is a natu-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Types of Emitters 77

ONE INCH

Figure 2

VHF and UHF TUBE TYPES


At the left is an 8058 nuvistor tetrode, rep- X -843 (Eimac) planar triode designed to de-
resentative of the family of small vhf types liver over 100 watts at 2100 MHz The tube is
useful in receivers and low power transmitters. used in a grounded -grid cavity configuration.
The second type is an 6816 planar tetrode The tube to the right is a 7213 planar tetrode,
rated at 180 watts input to 1215 MHz. The rated at 2500 watts input to 1215 MHz. All of
third tube from the left is a 3CX100A5 planar these vhf /uhf negative -grid tubes make use
triode, an improved and ruggedized version of ceramic insulation for lowest envelope loss
of the 2C39A, and rated at 100 watts input to at the higher frequencies and the larger ones
2900 MHz. The fourth tube from the left is the have coaxial bases for use in resonant cavities.

ral consequence of the operation of the as a result of insufficient filament voltage, a


thoriated- tungsten filament. The carburized severe temporary overload, a less severe ex-
layer on the tungsten wire plays another tended overload, or even normal operation
role in acting as a reducing agent to produce may quite frequently be reactivated to their
new thorium from the thoria to replace that original characteristics by a process similar
lost by evaporation. This new thorium con- to that of the original activation. However,
tinually diffuses to the surface during the only filaments which have not approached
normal operation of the filament. too close to the end of their useful life may
The last process, (5) , in the activation of be successfully reactivated.
a thoriated tungsten filament consists of re- The actual process of reactivation is rel-
evacuating the envelope and then burning or atively simple. The tube which has gone
aging the new filament for a considerable "flat" is placed in a socket to which only
period of time at the normal operating the two filament wires have been connected.
temperature of approximately 1900 K. The filament is then "flashed" for about 20
One thing to remember about any type of to 40 seconds at about 11/2 times normal
filament, particularly the thoriated type, is rated voltage. The filament will become ex-
that the emitter deteriorates practically as tremely bright during this time and, if
fast when "standing by" (no plate cur- there is still some thoria left in the tungsten
rent) as it does with any normal amount of and if the tube did not originally fail as a
emission load. Also, a thoriated filament may result of an air leak, some of this thoria
be either temporarily or permanently dam- will be reduced to metallic thorium. The
aged by a heavy overload which may strip filament is then burned at 15 to 2 S percent
the surface layer of thorium from the fila- overvoltage for from 30 minutes to 3 to 4
ment. hours to bring this new thorium to the
surface.
Reactivating Thoriated- tungsten fila- The tube should then be tested to see if
Thoriated- Tungsten ments (and only thori- it shows signs of renewed life. If it does, but
Filaments ated- tungsten filaments) is still weak, the burning process should be
which have lost emission continued at about 10 to 15 percent over-

www.americanradiohistory.com
78 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
voltage for a few more hours. This should
bring it back almost to normal. If the tube
checks still very low after the first attempt
at reactivation, the complete process can
be repeated as a last effort.
The Oxide- The most efficient of all
Coated Filament modern filaments is the
oxide- coated type which
consists of a mixture of barium and stron-
tium oxides coated on a nickel alloy wire or
strip. This type of filament operates at a Figure 3

dull -red to orange -red temperature (1050 CUTAWAY DRAWING OF A .5C4 TRIODE
to 1170 K) at which temperature it will
emit large quantities of electrons. The oxide -
would be destroyed in an exceedingly short
coated filament is somewhat more efficient
than the thoriated- tungsten type in small period of time.
The activation of oxide -coated filaments
sizes and it is considerably less expensive to
also varies with tube manufacturers but
manufacture. For this reason all receiving
consists essentially in heating the wire which
tubes and quite a number of the low -pow-
has been coated with a mixture of barium
ered transmitting tubes use the oxide- coated
and strontium carbonates to a temperature
filament. Another advantage of the oxide -
coated emitter is its extremely long life
the average tube can be expected to run
- of about 1500 Kelvin for a time and then
applying a potential of 100 to 200 volts
through a protective resistor align limit the
from 3000 to 5000 hours, and when loaded
very lightly, tubes of this type have been emission current. This process thermally
known to give 50,000 hours of life before reduces the carbonates to oxides, cleans the
filament surface of foreign materials, and
their characteristics changed to any great
extent. activates the cathode surface.
Oxide filaments are unsatisfactory for use
Reactivation of oxide -coated filaments is
at very high plate voltage because: (1)
not possible since there is always more than
sufficient reduction of the oxides and diffu-
their activity is seriously impaired by the
sion of the metals to the surface of the
high temperature necessary to de -gas the
filament to meet the emission needs of the
high -voltage tubes and, (2) the positive ion
cathode.
bombardment which takes place even in the
best evacuated high -voltage tube causes de- The Heater The heater -type cathode was de-
struction of the oxide layer on the surface of Cathode veloped as a result of the re-
the filament. quirement for a type of emitter
Oxide -coated emitters have been found which could be operated from alternating
capable of emitting an enormously large current and yet would not introduce a -c
current pulse with a high applied voltage ripple modulation even when used in low -
for a very short period of time without level stages. It consists essentially of a small
damage. This characteristic has proved to nickel -alloy cylinder with a coating of
be of great value in radar work. For example, strontium and barium oxides on its surface
the relatively small cathode in a microwave similar to the coating used on the oxide -
magnetron may be called on to deliver 25 to coated filament. Inside the cylinder is an
50 amperes at an applied voltage of perhaps insulated heater element consisting usually
25,000 volts for a period in the order of one of a double spiral of tungsten wire. The
microsecond. After this large current pulse heater may operate on any voltage from 2
has been passed, plate voltage normally will to 117 volts, although 6.3 is the most com-
be removed for 1000 microseconds or more mon value. The heater is operated at quite
so that the cathode surface may recover a high temperature so that the cathode itself
in time for the next pulse of current. If the usually may be brought to operating tem-
cathode were to be subjected to a contin- perature in a matter of 15 to 30 seconds.
uous current drain of this magnitude, it Heat -coupling between the heater and the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Thermionic Emission 79

cathode is mainly by radiation, although


there is some thermal conduction through
the insulating coating on the heater wire,
since this coating is also in contact with the
cathode thimble.
Indirectly heated cathodes are employed
in all a -c operated tubes which are designed
to operate at a low level either for r -f or
a -f use. However, some receiver power tubes
use heater cathodes (6L6, 6V6, 6F6, and
6K6 -GT) as do some of the low -power Figure 4
transmitter tubes (802, 807, 815, 3E29,
2E26, 5763, 6146, etc.). Heater cathodes CUTAWAY DRAWING OF A 6CB6 PENTODE
are employed almost exclusively when a
number of tubes are to be operated in series Electron emission per unit area of emitting
as in an a -c /d-c receiver. A heater cathode surface is a function of the temperature (T)
is often called a unipotential cathode be- in degrees Kelvin, the work function of
cause there is no voltage drop along its emitting surface b (which is a measure of
length as there is in the directly heated or the surface forces of the material and hence
filament cathode. of the energy required of the electron be-
fore it may escape) , and of the constant
The Bombardment A special bombardment (A) which also varies with the emitting
Cathode cathode is employed in surface. The relationship between emission
many of the high -powered current in amperes per square centimeter
television transmitting klystrons (Eimac 3K (I) and the above quantities can be ex-
20,000 LA). The cathode takes the form of pressed as:
a tantalum diode, heated to operating tem-
perature by the bombardment of electrons I = AT2e -61T
from a directly heated filament. The cathode Secondary The bombarding of most metals
operates at a positive potential of 2000 volts Emission and a few insulators by electrons
with respect to the filament, and a d -c will result in the emission of other
bombardment current of 0.66 ampere flows electrons by a process called secondary emis-
between filament and cathode. The filament sion. The secondary electrons are literally
is designed to operate under space -charge knocked from the surface layers of the bom-
limited conditions. Cathode temperature is barded material by the primary electrons
varied by changing the bombardment poten- which strike the material. The number of
tial between the filament and the cathode. secondary electrons emitted per primary
electron varies from a very small percent-
The Emission The emission of electrons from age to as high as S to 10 secondary electrons
Equation a heated cathode is quite sim- per primary.
ilar to the evaporation of mole- The phenomena of secondary emission is
cules from the surface of a liquid. The mole- undesirable for most thermionic electron
cules which leave the surface are those tubes. However, the process is used to ad-
having sufficient kinetic (heat) energy to vantage in certain types of electron tubes
overcome the forces at the surface of the such as the image orthicon (TV camera
liquid. As the temperature of the liquid is tube) and the electron -multiplier type of
raised, the average velocity of the molecules photoelectric cell. In types of electron tubes
is increased, and a greater number of mole- which make use of secondary emission, such
cules will acquire sufficient energy to be as the type 931 photocell, the secondary-
evaporated. The evaporation of electrons electron emitting surfaces are specially
from the surface of a thermionic emitter is treated to provide a high ratio of secondary
similarly a function of average electron ve- to primary electrons. Thus a high degree of
locity, and hence is a function of the tem- current amplification in the electron- multi-
perature of the emitter. plier section of the tube is obtained.
80 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO

TTPE 6W4 -GT


EF = e.a VOLTS

OXIDE COATED

AMONT

POINT OF MAXIMUM SPACE -


CHARGE -LIMITED EMISSION

10 20 a0 40 SO PLATE VOLTAGE
DC PLATE VOLTS
Figure 6
Figure S
MAXIMUM SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS
EMISSION FOR DIFFERENT
OF A POWER DIODE
TYPES OF EMITTERS

The Space- As a cathode is heated so that


Charge Effect
If a battery or other source of d -c voltage
it begins to emit, those elec-
is placed in the external circuit between the
trons which have been dis-
charged into the surrounding space form a plate and cathode so that it places a posi-
negatively charged cloud in the immediate tive potential on the plate, the flow of cur-
vicinity of the cathode. This cloud of elec- rent from the cathode to plate will be in-
trons around the cathode is called the space creased. This is due to the strong attraction
charge. The electrons comprising the charge offered by the positively charged plate for
are continuously changing, since those elec- any negatively charged partirles (figure 5) .
trons making up the original charge fall
back into the cathode and are replaced by The Three -Halves At moderate values of
others emitted by it. Power Law plate voltage the cur-
rent flow from cath-
ode to anode is limited by the space charge
4 -2 The Diode
of electrons around the cathode. Increased
values of plate voltage will tend to neutral-
If a cathode capable of being heated either ize a greater portion of the cathode space
indirectly or directly is placed in an evacu- charge and hence will cause a greater cur-
ated envelope along with a plate, such a rent to flow.
two -element vacuum tube is called a diode. Under these conditions, with plate cur-
The diode is the simplest of all vacuum tubes rent limited by the cathode space charge, the
and is the fundamental type from which all plate current is not linear with plate voltage.
the others are derived. In fact it may be stated in general that the
plate- current flow in electron tubes does not
Characteristics When the cathode within a
obey Ohm's Law. Rather, plate current in-
of the Diode diode is heated, it will be creases as the three-halves power of the
found that a few of the elec- plate voltage. The relationship between plate
trons leaving the cathode will leave with voltage, (E) and plate current, (I) can
sufficient velocity to reach the plate. If the be expressed as:
plate is electrically connected back to the
cathode, the electrons which have had suf- I = K E'i2
ficient velocity to arrive at the plate will
flow back to the cathode through the ex- where,
ternal circuit. This small amount of initial K is a constant determined by the geome-
plate current is an effect found in all two - try of the element structure within the
element vacuum tubes. electron tube.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Triode Characteristics 81

Plate- Current As plate voltage is raised to Electron Energy The current flowing in the
Saturation the potential where the Dissipation plate- cathode space of a con-
cathode space charge is neu- ducting electron tube repre-
tralized, all the electrons that the cathode is sents the energy required to accelerate elec-
capable of emitting are being attracted to trons from the zero potential of the cathode
the plate. The electron tube is said then to space charge to the potential of the anode.
have reached saturation plate current. Then, when these accelerated electrons strike
Further increase in plate voltage will cause the anode, the energy associated with their
only a relatively small increase in plate cur- velocity is immediately released to the anode
rent. The initial point of plate- current sat- structure. In normal electron tubes this
uration is sometimes called the point of energy release appears as heating of the plate
Maximum Space -Charge- Limited Emission or anode structure.
(MSCLE) .
4 -3 The Triode
If an element consisting of a mesh or
O spiral of wire is inserted concentric with the
plate and between the plate and the cathode,
such an element will be able to control by
electrostatic action the cathode-to -plate cur-
rent of the tube. The new element is called
a grid, and a vacuum tube containing a cath-
ode, grid, and plate is commonly called a
triode.

Figure 7 Action of If this new element through which


the Grid the electrons must pass in their
ACTION OF THE GRID IN A TRIODE course from cathode to plate is
(A) shows the triode tube with cutoff bias on made negative with respect to the cathode,
the grid. Note that all the electrons emitted the negative charge on this grid will effec-
by the cathode remain inside the grid mesh. tively repel the negatively charged electrons
(B) shows the same tube with an intermediate
value of bias on the grid. Note the medium (like charges repel; unlike charges attract)
value of plate current and the fact that there back into the space charge surrounding the
is a reserve of electrons remaining within the
grid mesh. (C) shows the operation with a cathode. Hence, the number of electrons
relatively small amount of bias which with which are able to pass through the grid
certain tube types will allow substantially all mesh and reach the plate will be reduced,
the electrons emitted by the cathode to reach
the plate. Emission is said to be saturated in and the plate current will be reduced ac-
this ease. In a majority of tube types a high cordingly. If the charge on the grid is made
value of positive grid voltage is required be-
fore plate -current saturation takes place. sufficiently negative, all the electrons leav-
ing the cathode will be repelled back to it
and the plate current will be reduced to
The degree of flattening in the plate -volt- zero. Any d -c voltage placed on a grid is
age plate- current curve after the MSCLE called a bias (especially so when speaking
point will vary with different types of cath- of a control grid). The smallest negative
odes. This effect is shown in figure 6. The voltage which will cause cutoff of plate cur-
flattening is quite sharp with a pure tung- rent at a particular plate voltage is called
sten emitter. With thoriated tungsten the the value of cutoff bias (figure 7).
flattening is smoothed somewhat, while with
an oxide -coated cathode the flattening is Amplification The amount of plate current
quite gradual. The gradual saturation in Factor in a triode is a result of the
emission with an oxide- coated emitter is net field at the cathode from
generally considered to result from a lower- interaction between the field caused by the
ing of the surface work function by the grid bias and that caused by the plate volt-
field at the cathode resulting from the plate age. Hence, both grid bias and plate voltage
potential. affect the plate current. In all normal tubes
82

3
,s

12
.
I'.1
Vacuum -Tube Principles

...r...............
.... IIi.I
TYPE
Er
6J5
.S VOLTS
THE RADIO

portional to the equivalent voltage (Eg +


EP /14), where the amplification factor, ,
actually represents the relative effectiveness
of grid potential and plate potential in pro-

_ . IIIIiIIGI
lIIIIlNI
IIIIIIII'I
IIlIIIIIIl I
ducing a field at the cathode.
It would then be expected that the cath-
ode current in a triode would be proportion-
_
/II/IIIIIIIIII
IIIIII,IIIIIII
al to the three -halves power of (Eg +

+
III,/IIIIII:
IIIIIIAII%I/I
I.%I,III.II./%I.II/%/
EP /). The cathode current of a triode can
be represented with fair accuracy by the
expression:

0
/DIG!!IMCM2IZII
,00 200 300 400 SOO cathode current - K +
PLATE VOLTS (Er) (E,
Figure 8 where,
NEGATIVE -GRID CHARACTERISTICS (IP K is a constant determined by element
VS. E,, CURVES) OF A TYPICAL geometry within the triode.
TRIODE
Average plate characteristics of this form Plate ResistanceThe plate resistance of a
are most commonly used in determining the vacuum tube is the ratio of
class -A operating characteristics of a triode
amplifier stage. a change in plate voltage to the change in
plate current which the change in plate
a small change in grid bias has a consider- voltage produces. To be accurate, the
ably greater effect than a similar change in changes should be very small with respect
plate voltage. The ratio between the change to the operating values. Expressed as an
in grid bias and the change in plate current equation:
which will cause the same small change in
plate current is called the amplification fac-
tor or tt of the electron tube. Expressed as
P - oEP
0tP
an equation: where,
AE, Eg is held constant,
DEg equals small increment.

with i, constant (0 represents a small incre- The plate resistance can also be determined
ment) .
by the experiment mentioned above. By
The can be determined experimentally noting the change in plate current as it oc-
by making a small change in grid bias, thus curs when the plate voltage is changed (grid
slightly changing the plate current. The voltage held constant), and by dividing the
plate current is then returned to the original latter by the former, the plate resistance
value by making a change in the plate volt- can be determined. Plate resistance is ex-
age. The ratio of the change in plate voltage pressed in ohms.
to the change in grid voltage is the p. of the
tube under the operating conditions chosen Transconductonce The mutual conductance,
for the test. also referred to as trans -
Current Flow In a diode it was shown that conductance, is the ratio of a change in the
in o Triode the electrostatic field at the plate current to the change in grid voltage
cathode was proportional to which brought about the plate- current
the plate potential (En) and that the total change, the plate voltage being held con-
cathode current was proportional to the stant. Expressed as an equation:
three- halves power of the plate voltage.
Similiarly, in a triode it can be shown that SIP
the field at the cathode space charge is pro- gm
- DEg

www.americanradiohistory.com
a
HANDBOOK
.,,
400

aso

300

aa0

ROO

'
t 00
JD

ao
F
J
O

f
530

300

2!o

200 \\`
-.,,
.".,.
-,.,.,
-50
Triode Load Line

-IS -0 -S
GRID VOLTS
0
(Ea)
45 IO 11S
83

410

Figure 10
?0 -4 -a 0 10 30 40 00 00 70 b0 00 100
RO
GRID VOLTAGE (Eg)
CONSTANT CURRENT (E7 vs. E0)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
Figure 9 TYPICAL TRIODE TUBE
POSITIVE -GRID CHARACTERISTICS This type of graphical representation is used
for class -C amplifier calculations since the
(Ip vs. E6) OF A TYPICAL TRIODE operating characteristic of a class -C amplifier
is a straight line when drawn on a constant
Plate characteristics of this type are most current graph.
commonly used in determining the pulse -
signal operating characteristics of a triode
amplifier stage. Note the large emission cap- from the Ip vs. Eg curve, and the amplifica-
ability of the oxide -coated heater cathode in
tubes of the g type of the 6J5.
1
tion factor (to) may be determined from the
Ep vs. E curve.
where, The Load Line A load line is a graphical
E held constant,
is representation of the voltage
A equals small increment. on the plate of a vacuum tube and the cur-
rent passing through the plate circuit of the
The transconductance is also numerically tube for various values of plate load resist-
equal to the amplification factor divided by ance and plate supply voltage. Figure 11
the plate resistance. gm = p. /Rp. illustrates a triode tube with a resistive plate
Transconductance is most commonly ex- load, and a supply voltage of 300 volts. The
pressed in microreciprocal -ohms or micro -
voltage at the plate of the tube (er) may be
mhos. However, since transconductance ex-
expressed as:
presses change in plate current as a function
of a change in grid voltage, a tube is often
said to have a transconductance of so many eP=E - ( IpXRL )
milliamperes per volt. If the transconduct-
ance in milliamperes per volt is multiplied where,
by 1000 it will then be expressed in mi- the plate supply voltage,
Ep is
cromhos. Thus the transconductance of a the plate current,
ip is
6A3 could be called either 5.25 ma /volt or RL is the load resistance in ohms.
5250 micromhos. Assuming various values of ip flowing in
the circuit, controlled by the internal resist-
Characteristic Curves The operating charac- ance of the tube, (a function of the grid
of a Triode Tube teristics of a triode bias) values of plate voltage may be plotted
tube may be summa- as shown for each value of plate current
rized in three sets of curves: The Ip vs. Ep (i7). The line connecting these points is
curve (figure 8) , the Ip vs. ER curve (figure called the load line for the particular value
9) and the Ep vs. Eg curve (figure 10). of plate load resistance used. The slope of
The plate resistance (Rp) of the tube may the load line is equal to the ratio of the
be observed from the Ip vs. Ep curve, the lengths of the vertical and horizontal pro-
transconductance (gm) may be observed jections of any segment of the load line.
84 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO

Er
o 300
s 250
10 200 RL=sK
Is 150
20 100
25 So
30 0

3
Figure 12
DA l
STATIC LOAD LINE
25 IOR RL= 10000L TRIODE TUBE CONNECTED FOR DETER-
IPZ
0 MINATION OF PLATE- CIRCUIT LOAD
LINE AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
OF THE CIRCU :T
5 I
I

loo
Er
200 300 nal voltage drop, or if the tube is short -cir-
cuited from cathode to plate. Point B on the
Figure 11 load line corresponds to the cutoff point of
The static load line for a typical triode tube
the tube, where no plate current is flowing.
with a plate load resistance of 10,000 ohms. The operating range of the tube lies between
these two extremes. For additional informa-
For this example it is: tion regarding dynamic load lines, the reader
is referred to the Radiotrnz Designer's

= .01 - .02
-( 100 Handbook distributed by Radio Corporation
slope
- 200 of America.
1
= -.0001 = Application of Tube As an example of the
10,000
Characteristics application of tube char-
The slope of the load line is equal to acteristics, the constants
-1 /RL. At point A on the load line, the of the triode amplifier circuit shown in fig-
voltage across the tube is zero. This would ure 12 may be considered. The plate supply
be true for a perfect tube with zero inter- is 300 volts, and the plate load is 8000 ohms.

40

37.5

35

o'
ao
OAD LINE 1000A
6
AJ
25 INSTANTA/LOUS
GID SWING
Figure 13
2
IPNAK..11.25
20
-- APPLICATION OF Ir vs. E
CHARACTERISTICS OF
W IS
-
A VACUUM TUBE
J

::'A%iI
0.
10 11111/211,

31LIA.
IulN.y 7.5
s

o 112
100
3 zoo 3 300 A00 S00

t t PLATE VOLTS (Er)


z K
9 ;
W
K r.1W
VOLT PLATE SWING

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Triode Load Line 85

D.C. SIAS LEVEL (EC)

T -
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
STEADY-STATE
PLATE CURRENT(t )
OF INTERELECTRODE
CAPACITANCE

a drop of 102 volts across RL which is


borne out by the relation 0.01275 X 8000
= 102 volts.
An alternating voltage of 4 volts maxi-
mum swing about the normal bias value of
STEADY-STATE (EP)
PLATE VOLTAGE -4volts is applied now to the grid of the
EP
triode amplifier. This signal swings the grid
in a positive direction to 0 volts, and in a
negative direction to -8 volts, and estab-
lishes the operating region of the tube along
the load line between points A and B. Thus
the maxima and minima of the plate voltage
Figure 14 and plate current are established. By projec-
POLARITY REVERSAL BETWEEN GRID tion from points A and B through the plate -
AND PLATE VOLTAGES current axis the maximum instantaneous
plate current is found to be 18.25 milliam-
peres and the minimum is 7.5 milliamperes.
If the tube is considered to be an open cir- By projections from points A and B through
cuit no plate current will flow, and there is the plate -voltage axis the minimum instan-
no voltage drop across the plate load re- taneous plate- voltage swing is found to be
sistor (RL). The plate voltage on the tube 154 volts and the maximum is 240 volts.
is therefore 300 volts. If, on the other hand, By this graphical application of the I vs.
the tube is considered to be a short circuit, ED characteristic of the 6SN7 triode the
maximum possible plate current flows and operation of the circuit illustrated in figure
the full 300 volt drop appears across RL. 12 becomes apparent. A voltage variation of
The plate voltage is zero, and the plate cur- 8 volts (peak to peak) on the grid produces
rent is 300/1000, or 37.5 milliamperes. a variation of 84 volts at the plate.
These two extreme conditions define the
ends of the load line on the I
vs. ED char- Polarity Inversion When the signal voltage
acteristic curve, figure 13. applied to the grid has its
For this application the grid of the tube maximum positive instantaneous value the
isreturned to a steady biasing voltage of -4 plate current is also maximum. Reference to
volts. The steady or quiescent operation of figure 12 shows that this maximum plate
the tube is determined by the intersection of current flows through plate -load resistor
the load line with the -
4 volt curve at RI,, producing a maximum voltage drop
across it. The lower end of RI, is connected
point Q. By projection from point Q
through the plate- current axis it is found to the plate supply, and is therefore held at
that the value of plate current with no sig- a constant potential of 300 volts. With max-
nal applied to the grid is 12.75 milliamperes. imum voltage drop across the load resistor,
By projection from point Q through the the upper end of RI, is at a minimum in-
plate -voltage axis it is found that the quies- stantaneous voltage. The plate of the tube
cent plate voltage is 198 volts. This leaves is connected to this end of RI, and is there-

www.americanradiohistory.com
86 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
10
TYPE 24 -A
esc so v.

eG

i eG -)
0
O 100 200 300 400 300
VOLTS (Er)

Figure 16 Figure 17
I
TYPICAL vs. E TETRODE I
TYPICAL vs. E,, PENTODE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

fore at the same minimum instantaneous 4 -4 Tetrode or


potential.
This polarity reversal between instantane-
Screen -Grid Tubes
ous grid and plate voltages is further clari- Many desirable characteristics can be ob-
fied by a consideration of Kirchhoff's law as tained in a vacuum tube by the use of more
it applies to series resistance. The sum of the than one grid. The most common multiele-
IR drops around the plate circuit must at all ment tube is the tetrode (four electrodes).
times equal the supply voltage of 300 volts. Other tubes containing as many as eight
Thus when the instantaneous voltage drop electrodes are available for special applica-
across RL is maximum, the voltage drop tions.
across the tube is minimum, and their sum
must equal 300 volts. The variations of grid The Tetrode The quest for a simple and
voltage, plate current and plate voltage easily usable method of elimi-
about their steady -state values is illustrated nating the effects of the grid -to -plate
in figure 14. capacitance of the triode led to the develop-
ment of the screen -grid tube, or tetrode.
Interelectrode Capacitance always exists be- When another grid is added between the
Capacitance tween any two pieces of metal grid and plate of a vacuum tube the tube is
separated by a dielectric. The called a tetrode, and because the new grid
exact amount of capacitance depends on the is called a screen, as a result of its screening
size of the metal pieces, the dielectric be- or shielding action, the tube is often called a
tween them, and the type of dielectric. The screen -grid tube. The interposed screen grid
electrodes of a vacuum tube have a similar acts as an electrostatic shield between the
characteristic known as interelectrode capac- grid and plate, with the consequence that
itance, illustrated in figure 15. These direct the grid -to -plate capacitance is reduced.
capacitances in a triode are: grid -to- cathode Although the screen grid is maintained at a
capacitance, grid -to -plate capacitance, and positive voltage with respect to the cathode
plate -to- cathode capacitance. The interelec- of the tube, it is maintained at ground po-
trode capacitance, though very small, has a tential with respect to r.f. by means of a
coupling effect, and often can cause un- bypass capacitor of very low reactance at
balance in a particular circuit. At very -high the frequency of operation.
frequencies (vhf), interelectrode capaci- In addition to the shielding effect, the
tances become very objectionable and pre- screen grid serves another very useful pur-
vent the use of conventional tubes at these pose. Since the screen is maintained at a
frequencies. Special vhf tubes must be used positive potential, it serves to increase or
which are characterized by very small elec- accelerate the flow of electrons to the plate.
trodes and close internal spacing of the ele- There being large openings in the screen
ments of the tube. mesh, most of the electrons pass through it

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tetrodes and Pentodes 87

and on to the plate. Due also to the screen, ner that the suppressor allows high voltage
the plate current is largely independent of gain, at the same time permitting fairly
plate voltage, thus making for high ampli- high gain at low plate voltage. This holds
fication. When the screen voltage is held at true even if the plate voltage is the same or
a constant value, it is possible to make large slightly lower than the screen voltage.
changes in plate voltage without appreciably
Remote -Cutoff Remote -cutoff tubes (vari-
affecting the plate current, (figure 16).
When the electrons from the cathode ap-
Tubes able -) are screen grid
tubes in which the control
proach the plate with sufficient velocity,
they dislodge electrons on striking the plate. grid structure has been physically modified
so as to cause the plate current of the tube
This effect of bombarding the plate with
high- velocity electrons, with the consequent to drop off gradually, rather than to have a
well-defined cutoff point (figure 18) . A non-
dislodgement of other electrons from the
plate, gives rise to the condition of second- uniform control -grid structure is used, so
ary emission which has been discussed in a that the amplification factor is different for
previous paragraph. This effect can cause no different parts of the control grid.
particular difficulty in a triode because the Remote -cutoff tubes are used in circuits
secondary electrons so emitted are eventually where it is desired to control the amplifica-
attracted back to the plate. In the screen - tion by varying the control -grid bias. The
grid tube, however, the screen is close to the characteristic curve of an ordinary screen -
plate and is maintained at a positive poten- grid tube has considerable curvature near
tial. Thus, the screen will attract these elec- the plate- current cutoff point, while the
trons which have been knocked from the curve of a remote -cutoff tube is much more
plate, particularly when the plate voltage linear (figure 19). The remote -cutoff tube
falls to a lower value than the screen volt- minimizes cross -talk interference that would
age, with the result that the plate current is otherwise be produced. Examples of remote
lowered and the amplification is decreased. cutoff tubes are: 6BD6, 6BA6, 6SG7 and
In the application of tetrodes, it is neces- 6SK7.
sary to operate the plate at a high voltage in Beam -Power A beam -power tube makes use
relation to the screen in order to overcome Tubes of another method of suppres-
these effects of secondary emission. sing secondary emission. In this
The Pentode The undesirable effects of sec- tube there are four electrodes: a cathode, a
ondary emission from the plate grid, a screen, and a plate, so spaced and
can be greatly reduced if yet another ele- placed that secondary emission from the
ment is added between the screen and plate. plate is suppressed without actual power loss.
This additional element is called a suppres- Because of the manner in which the elec-
sor, and tubes in which it is used are called trodes are spaced, the electrons which travel
pentodes. The suppressor grid is sometimes to the plate are slowed down when the plate
connected to the cathode within the tube; voltage is low, almost to zero velocity in a
sometimes it is brought out to a connecting certain region between screen and plate. For
pin on the tube base, but in any case it is this reason the electrons form a stationary
established negative with respect to the cloud, or space charge. The effect of this
minimum plate voltage. The secondary elec- space charge is to repel secondary electrons
trons that would travel to the screen if emitted from the plate and thus cause them
there were no suppressor are diverted back to return to the plate. In this way, secondary
to the plate. The plate current is, therefore, emission is suppressed.
not reduced and the amplification possibili- Another feature of the beam-power tube
ties are increased (figure 17). is the low current drawn by the screen. The
Pentodes for audio applications are de- screen and the grid are spiral wires wound
signed so that the suppressor increases the so that each turn in the screen is shaded
limits to which the plate voltage may swing; from the cathode by a grid turn. This align-
therefore the consequent power output and ment of the screen and the grid causes the
gain can be very great. Pentodes for radio - electrons to travel in sheets between the
frequency service function in such a man- turns of the screen so that very few of them
88 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
GRID

REMOTE CUTOFF SHARP CUTOFF


GRID GRID PLATE MA.
Figure 18 Figure 19
REMOTE -CUTOFF GRID STRUCTURE ACTION OF A REMOTE -CUTOFF
GRID STRUCTURE

strike the screen itself. This formation of or pentode tube. The relationship between
the electron stream into sheets or beams in- control -grid potential and screen potential
creases the charge density in the screen -plate determines the plate current of the tube as
region and assists in the creation of the space well as the screen current since the plate
charge in this region. current is essentially independent of the
Because of the effective suppressor action plate voltage in tubes of this type. In other
provided by the space charge, and because of words, when the tube is operated at cutoff
the low current drawn by the screen, the bias as determined by the screen voltage and
beam -power tube has the advantages of high the grid- screen p. factor (determined in
power output, high power sensitivity, and the same way as with a triode, by dividing
high efficiency. The 6AQ5 is such a beam - the operating voltage by the factor) the
power tube, designed for use in the power - plate current will be substantially at cutoff,
amplifier stages of receivers and speech am- as will be the screen current. The grid- screen
plifiers or modulators. Larger tubes employ- p. factor is numerically equal to the am-
ing the beam -power principle are being made plification factor of the same tetrode or
by various manufacturers for use in the pentode tube when it is triode connected.
radio- frequency stages of transmitters. These
tubes feature extremely high power sensitiv- Current Flow The following equation is the
ity (a very small amount of driving power in Tetrodes expression for total cathode
is required for a large output), good plate and Pentodes current in a triode tube. The
efficiency, and low grid -to -plate capacitance. expression for the total cathode
Examples of these tubes are 813, 4-250A, current of a tetrode and a pentode tube is
4CX2 f 0B, etc. the same, except that the screen -grid voltage
Grid -Screen The grid- screen p. factor (,,.) and the grid- screen factor are used in
Mu Factor is analogous to the amplification place of the plate voltage and of the
factor in a triode, except that triode.
the screen of a pentode or tetrode is sub- //
stituted for the plate of a triode. p,, denotes cathode current = K (Ec + E_c)312
the ratio of a change in grid voltage to 'a sR
change in screen voltage, each of which will Cathode current, of course, is the sum of
produce the same change in screen current. the screen and plate currents plus control -
Expressed as an equation: grid current in the event that the control
grid is positive with respect to the cathode.
- AE,
DEAR
It will be noted that total csthode current
is independent of plate voltage in a tetrode
where,
L, is held constant, or pentode. Also, in the usual tetrode or
.1 equals small increment.
pentode the plate current is substantially
independent of plate voltage over the usual
The grid -screen factor is important in operating range -which means simply that
determining the operating bias of a tetrode the effective plate resistance of such tubes

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Mixer and Converter Tubes 89

is relatively high. However, when the plate OSCILLATOR GRID


SCREEN GRID
voltage falls below the normal operating PLATE
range, the plate current falls sharply, while
the screen current rises to such a value that S
the total cathode current remains substan-
tially constant. Hence, the screen grid in a CATHODE tM SMELL
tetrode or pentode will almost invariably
be damaged by excessive dissipation if the
plate voltage is removed while the screen
voltage is still being applied from a low -
impedance source. FILAMENT --SUPPRESSOR
SIGNAL GRID
AND SHELL

The Effect of The current equations show Figure 20


Grid Current how the total cathode current
in triodes, tetrodes, and pen- GRID STRUCTURE OF 6SA7
todes is a function of the potentials applied CONVERTER TUBE
to the various electrodes. If only one elec-
trode is positive with respect to the cathode calculated through use of the expression:
(such as would be the case in a triode acting
as a class -A amplifier) all the cathode cur- xlp
S
rent goes to the plate. But when both screen ID
AE,
and plate are positive in a tetrode or pentode,
the cathode current divides between the two with E,g and Ep constant.
elements. Hence the screen current is taken The plate resistance of such tubes is of
less importance than in the case of triodes,
from the total cathode current, while the
balance goes to the plate. Further, if the though it is often of value in determining
control grid in a tetrode or pentode is the amount of damping a tube will exert on
operated at a positive potential the total the impedance in its plate circuit. Plate re-
cathode current is divided between all three sistance is calculated from:
elements which have a positive potential. In AEp
a tube which is receiving a large excitation Rp
voltage, it may be said that the control grid
t,I
robs electrons from the output electrode with Eg and Egg constant.
during the period that the grid is positive,
making it always necessary to limit the peak -
positive excursion of the control grid. 4-5 Mixer and
Coefficients of
Converter Tubes
In general it may be stated
Tetrodes and that the amplification factor
Pentodes of tetrode and pentode tubes The superheterodyne receiver always in-
is a coefficient which is not cludes at least one stage for changing the
of much use to the designer. In fact the frequency of the incoming signal to the
amplification factor is seldom given on the fixed frequency of the main intermediate -
design -data sheets of such tubes. Its value frequency amplifier in the receiver. This fre-
is usually very high, due to the relatively quency- changing process is accomplished by
high plate resistance of such tubes, but selecting the beat-note difference frequency
bears little relationship to the stage gain between a locally generated oscillation and
which actually will be obtained with such the incoming signal frequency. If the oscil-
tubes. lator signal is supplied by a separate tube,
On the other hand, the grid -plate trans - the frequency changing tube is called a
conductance is the most important coeffi- mixer. Alternatively, the oscillation may be
cient of pentode and tetrode tubes. Gain per generated by additional elements within the
stage can be computed directly when the frequency- changer tube. In this case the
gn, is known. The grid -plate transconduct- frequency changer is commonly called a
ance of a tetrode or pentode tube can be converter tube.
90 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
Conversion The conversion conductance and pentode mixers will be covered in the
Conductance (g,) is a coefficient of interest Receiver Fundamentals Chapter.
in the case of mixer or con-
verter tubes, or of conventional triodes, 4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very -
tetrodes, or pentodes operating as frequency
changers. The conversion conductance is High Frequencies
the ratio of a change in the signal -grid volt-
age at the input frequency to a change in As the frequency of operation of the usual
the output current at the converted fre- type of electron tube is increased above
quency. Hence g in a mixer is essentially about 20 MHz, certain assumptions which
the same as transconductance in an ampli- are valid for operation at lower frequencies
fier, with the exception that the input signal must be re-examined. First, we find that lead
and the output current are on different fre- inductances from the socket connections to
quencies. The value of g,. in conventional the actual elements within the envelope no
mixer tubes is from 300 to 3000 micromhos. longer are negligible. Second, we find that
The value of ge in an amplifier tube oper- electron transit time no longer may be ig-
ated as a mixer is approximately 0.3 the gm nored; an appreciable fraction of a cycle of
of the tube operated as an amplifier. The input signal may be required for an elec-
voltage gain of a mixer stage is equal to tron to leave the cathode space charge, pass
geZ1, where Z1, is the impedance of the plate through the grid wires, and travel through
load into which the mixer tube operates. the space between grid and plate.

The Diode Mixer Effects of The effect of lead induct -


The simplest mixer tube is
Lead Inductance ance is twofold. First, as
the diode. The noise figure,
or figure of merit, for a mixer of this type shown in figure 21, the
is not as good as that obtained with other
combination of grid -lead inductance, grid -
more complex mixers; however, the diode cathode capacitance, and cathode -lead in-
is useful as a mixer in uhf and vhf equip- ductance tends to reduce the effective grid -
ment where low interelectrode capacities are cathode signal voltage for a constant voltage
vital to circuit operation. Since the diode at the tube terminals as the frequency is in-
impedance is low, the local oscillator must creased. Second, cathode -lead inductance
furnish considerable power to the diode tends to introduce undesired coupling be-
mixer. A good diode mixer has an over-all tween the various elements within the tube.
gain of about 0.5.

The Triode Mixer A triode mixer has better


gain and a better noise fig-
ure than the diode mixer. At low frequencies, Ca :T:
the gain and noise figure of a triode mixer
T
EG
_ _ 1-- to.
closely approaches those figures obtained LK
when the tube is used as an amplifier. In the
uhf and vhf range, the efficiency of the
triode mixer deteriorates rapidly. The opti-
mum local -oscillator voltage for a triode
mixer is about 0.7 as large as the cutoff
bias of the triode. Very little local-oscillator Figure 21
power is required by a triode mixer. SHOWING THE EFFECT OF CATHODE
LEAD INDUCTANCE
Pentode Mixers and A common multigrid
Converter Tubes converter tube for The degenerative action of cathode -lead in-
ductance tends to reduce the effective grid -to-
broadcast or shortwave cathode voltage with respect to the voltage
use is the pentagrid converter, typified by available a he input tuned circuit. Cath-
ode -lead inductance also introduces undesir-
the 6BE6, 6BA7, and 6SA7 tubes (fig- able coupling between the input and the out-
.

ure 20). Operation of these converter tubes put circuits.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Klystron 91

Tubes especially designed for vhf and velocity will be increased. However, due to
uhf use have had their lead inductances the law of electron motion in an electric
minimized. The usual procedures for reduc- field, transit time is increased only as the
ing lead inductance are: (1) using heavy square root of the ratio of operating poten-
lead conductors or several leads in parallel tial increase; therefore this expedient is of
(examples are the 6J4 and 6AK5), (2) limited value due to other limitations on
scaling down the tube in all dimensions to operating voltages of small electron tubes.
reduce both lead inductances and interelec-
trode capacitances (examples are the 6CW4,
6F4, and other nuvistor and miniature
4 -7 Special Microwave
tubes), and (3) the use of very low -in- Electron Tubes
ductance extensions of the elements them-
selves as external connections (examples are Due primarily to the limitation imposed
lighthouse tubes such as the 2C40, planar by transit time, conventional negative-grid
tubes such as the 2C29, and many types of electron tubes are capable of affording
vhf transmitting tubes) .
worthwhile amplification and power output
only up to a definite upper frequency. This
Effect of When an electron tube is op- upper frequency limit varies from perhaps
Transit Time erated at a frequency high
100 MHz for conventional tube types to
enough that electron transit about 4000 MHz for specialized types such
time between cathode and plate is an ap- as the lighthouse tube. Above the limiting
preciable fraction of a cycle at the input frequency, the conventional negative -grid
frequency, several undesirable effects take tube no longer is practicable and recourse
place. First, the grid takes power from the must be taken to totally different types of
input signal even though the grid is negative electron tubes in which electron transit
at all times. This comes about since the grid time is not a limitation to operation. Three
will have changed its potential during the of the most important of such microwave
time required for an electron to pass from tube types are the klystron, the magnetron,
cathode to plate. Due to interaction, and a and the traveling -wave tube.
resulting phase difference between the field
associated with the grid and that associated The Power Klystron The klystron is a type
with a moving electron, the grid presents a of electron tube in which
resistance to an input signal in addition to electron transit time is used to advantage.
its normal "cold" capacitance. Further, as Such tubes comprise, as shown in figure 22,
a result of this action, plate current no a cathode, a focusing electrode, a resonator
longer is in phase with grid voltage. connected to a pair of grids which afford
An amplifier stage operating at a fre- velocity modulation of the electron beam
quency high enough that transit time is (called the "buncher "), a drift space, and
appreciable: another resonator connected to a pair of
(a) Is difficult to excite as a result of grids (called the "catcher "). A collector
grid loss from the equivalent input grid re- for the expended electrons may be included
sistance, at the end of the tube, or the catcher may
(b) Is capable of less output since trans - also perform the function of electron col-
conductance is reduced and plate current is lection.
not in phase with grid voltage. The tube operates in the following man-
The effects of transit time increase with ner: The cathode emits a stream of electrons
the square of the operating frequency, and which is focused into a beam by the focus-
they increase rapidly as frequency is in- ing electrode. The stream passes through the
creased above the value where they become buncher where it is acted upon by any field
just appreciable. These effects may be re- existing between the two grids of the
duced by scaling down tube dimensions; a buncher cavity. When the potential between
procedure which also reduces lead induct- the two grids is zero, the stream passes
ance. Further, transit -time effects may be through without change in velocity. But
reduced by the obvious procedure of in- when the potential between the two grids of
creasing electrode potentials so that electron the buncher is increasingly positive in the
92 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO

Figure 22
" Figure 23
REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR
TWO- CAVITY KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR
A conventional reflex klystron oscillator of
A e tional two-cavity klystron is shown the type commonly used as a local oscillator
with a feedback loop connected between the in superheterodyne receivers operating above
two cavities so that the tube may be used as about 2000 MHz is shown above. Frequency
an oscillator. modulation of the output frequency of the
oscillator, or afc operation in a receiver, may
be obtained by varying the negative voltage
direction of electron motion, the velocity of on the repeller electrode.
the electrons in the beam is increased. Con-
versely, when the field becomes increasingly voltage is rich in harmonics. Klystron oscil-
negative in the direction of the beam (cor- lators of various types afford power outputs
responding to the other half -cycle of the ranging from less than 1 watt to many
exciting voltage from that which produced thousand watts. Operating efficiency varies
electron acceleration) the velocity of the between I and 50 percent. Frequency may
electrons in the beam is decreased.
be shifted to some extent by varying the
When the velocity -modulated electron beam voltage. Tuning is carried on mechan-
beam reaches the drift space where there is
ically in some klystrons by altering (by
no field, those electrons which have been
means of knob settings) the shape of the
sped up on one half -cycle overtake those
resonant cavity.
immediately ahead which were slowed down
on the other half -cycle. In this way, the The Reflex Klystron The multicavity kly-
beam electrons become bunched together. stron as described in the
As the bunched groups pass through the two preceding paragraphs is primarily used as a
grids of the catcher cavity, they impart transmitting device since quite reasonable
pulses of energy to these grids. The catcher - amounts of power are made available in its
grid space is charged to different voltage output circuit. However, for applications

--
levels by the passing electron bunches, and where a much smaller amount of power is
a corresponding oscillating field is set up in required power levels in the milliwatt
the catcher cavity. The catcher is designed range for low -power transmitters, re-
to resonate at the frequency of the velocity - ceiver local oscillators, etc., another type of
modulated beam, or at a harmonic of this klystron having only a single cavity is
frequency. more frequently used.
In the klystron amplifier, energy delivered The theory of operation of the single -
by the buncher to the catcher grids is greater cavity klystron is essential the same as the
than that applied to the buncher cavity by multicavity type with the exception that the
the input signal. In the klystron oscillator a velocity- modulated electron beam, after hav-
feedback loop connects the two cavities. ing left the buncher cavity is reflected
Coupling to either buncher or catcher is back into the area of the buncher again by
provided by small loops which enter the a repeller electrode as illustrated in figure
cavities by way of concentric lines. 23. The potentials on the various electrodes
The klystron is an electron- coupled de- are adjusted to a value sch that proper
vice. 'When used as an oscillator, its output bunching of the electron beam will take

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Magnetron 93

1 MAGNET COIL
GMD ANODE ANODE
TERMINAI TERMINAL GLASS
ANODE
SEAL
CATHODE ANODE
GRID NEATER ANODE
FIL
FILAMENT

ti4,# GLASS ENVELOPE

MAGNET
BATTERY

!i lF

EYELET
GLASS
ErrEEE
40 l FILAMENT PLATE
GETTER
SFAI VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

LEAD
TERMINAI ETELEI TUEULA LION
Figure 25

SIMPLE MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR


Figure 24
An external tank circuit is used with this type
CUTAWAY VIEW OF of magnetron oscillator for operation in the
WESTERN ELECTRIC 416 -816280 lower uhf range.
VHF PLANAR TRIODE TUBE
ation of these radar units was approximately
The 416 -6, designed by the Bell Telephone
Laboratories is intended for amplifier or fre- 1;10 of one percent (the tube operated
quency multiplier service in the 4000 MHz about /1000 of the time and rested for
1
region. Employing grid wires having a diameter
equal to fifteen wavelengths of light, the 416-6 the balance of the operating period) so that
has a transconductance of 50,000. Spacing the average power output of these magne-
between grid and cathode is .000S ", to re- trons was in the vicinity of 1000 watts.
duce transit -time effects. Entire tube is gold
plated. In its simplest form the magnetron tube is
a filament -type diode with two half-cylin-
place just as a particular portion of the drical plates or anodes situated coaxially
velocity -modulated beam re- enters the area with respect to the filament. The construc-
of the resonant cavity. Since this type of tion is illustrated in figure 25A. The anodes
klystron has only one circuit it can be used of the magnetron are connected to a reso-
only as an oscillator and not as an amplifier. nant circuit as illustrated in figure 2$B.
Effective modulation of the frequency of a The tube is surrounded by an electromagnet
single- cavity klystron for f -m work can be coil which, in turn, is connected to a low -
obtained by modulating the repeller elec- voltage d -c energizing source through a
trode voltage. rheostat (R) for controlling the strength of
the magnetic field. The field coil is oriented
The Magnetron The magnetron is an uhf so that the lines of magnetic force it sets up
oscillator tube normally em- are parallel to the axis of the electrodes.
ployed where very-high values of peak power Under the influence of the strong mag-
or moderate amounts of average power are netic field, electrons leaving the filament
required in the range from perhaps 700 are deflected from their normal paths and
MHz to 30,000 MHz. Special magnetrons move in circular orbits within the anode
were developed for wartime use in radar cylinder. This effect results in a negative
equipment which had peak power capabili- resistance which sustains oscillations. The
ties of several million watts (megawatts) oscillation frequency is very nearly the value
output at frequencies in the vicinity of determined by L and C. In other magnetron
3000 MHz. The normal duty cycle of oper- circuits, the frequency may be governed by

www.americanradiohistory.com
94 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
WAVE GUIDE
INPUT

Figure 27
Figure 26 THE TRAVELING -WAVE TUBE
MODERN MULTICAVITY MAGNETRON Operation of this tube is the result of inter-
action between the electron beam and wave
Illustrated is an external -anode strapped traveling along the helix.
magnetron of the type commonly used in
radar equipment for the 10-cm. range. An
integral permanent magnet is shown in the lower. The electrons emitted by the cathode
right hand portion of the drawing, with the
magnetron in place between the pole pieces of gun pass axially through the helix to the
the magnet. collector, located at the output end of the
helix. The average velocity of the electrons
the electron rotation, no external tuned cir- depends on the potential of the collector
cuits being employed. Wavelengths of less with respect to the cathode. When the
than 1 centimeter have been produced with average velocity of the electrons is greater
such circuits. than the velocity of the helix wave, the ele-
More complex magnetron tubes employ no trons become crowded together in the var-
external tuned circuit, but utilize instead ious regions of retarded field, where they im-
one or more resonant cavities which are in- part energy to the helix wave. A power gain
tegral with the anode structure. Figure 26 of 100 or more may be produced by this
shows a magnetron of this type having a tube.
multicellular anode of eight cavities. It will
be noted, also, that alternate cavities (which 4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube
would operate at the same polarity when the The Cathode -Roy Tube The cathode -ray tube
tube is oscillating) are strapped together. type of
is a special
Strapping was found to improve the effi- electron tube which permits the visual obser-
ciency and stability of high -power radar vation of electrical signals. It may be in-
magnetrons. In most radar applications of corporated into an oscilloscope for use as a
magnetron oscillators, a powerful permanent test instrument or it may be the display de-
magnet of controlled characteristics is em- vice for radar equipment or television.
ployed to supply the magnetic field, rather
than the use of an electromagnet. Operation of A cathode -ray tube always in-
the CRT eludes an electron gun for pro-
The Traveling- The Traveling -Wave Tube ducing a stream of electrons, a
Wave Tube (figure 27) consists of a grid for controlling the intensity of the elec-
helix located within an evac- tron beam, and a luminescent screen for con-
uated envelope. Input and output termina- verting the impinging electron beam into
tions are affixed to each end of the helix. An visible light. Such a tube always operates in
electron beam passes through the helix and conjunction with either a built -in or an ex-
interacts with a wave traveling along the ternal means for focusing the electron stream
helix to produce broadband amplification at into a narrow beam, and a means for deflect-
microwave frequencies. ing the electron beam in accordance with an
When the input signal is applied to the electrical signal.
gun end of the helix, it travels along the The main electrical difference between
helix wire at approximately the speed of types of cathode -ray tubes lies in the means
light. However, the signal velocity measured employed for focusing and deflecting the
along the axis of the helix is considerably electron beam. The beam may be focused

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK The Cathode -Ray Tube 95

IIONI EONTAL DEFLECTION


spot in the center of the luminescent screen.
\MSE IMI
Iu
With electrostatic deflection the heavy ions
T<
are deflected equally as well as the electrons
in the beam so that an ion spot is not
formed.
FLUORESCENT SU1[EN
M'
GRID ICI ANODE (A)
CATMGOEIN)
NENTIGL DEFLECTION Construction of The construction of a typ-
PLATES ID)
Electrostatic CRT ical electrostatic- focus,
Figure 28 electrostatic - deflection
cathode -ray tube is illustrated in the pic-
TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC torial diagram of figure 28. The indirectly
CATHODE -RAY TUBE heated cathode (K) releases free electrons
when heated by the enclosed filament. The
and /or deflected either electrostatically or cathode is surrounded by a cylinder (G)
magnetically, since a stream of electrons can which has a small hole in its front for the
be acted on either by an electrostatic or a passage of the electron steam. Although this
magnetic field. In an electrostatic field the element is not a wire mesh as is the usual
electron beam tends to be deflected toward grid, it is known by the same name because
the positive termination of the field (figure its action is similar: it controls the electron
28) . In a magnetic field the stream tends to stream when its negative potential is varied.
be deflected at right angles to the field. Fur- Next in order, is found the first acceler-
ther, an electron beam tends to be deflected ating anode (H) which resembles another
so that it is normal (perpendicular) to the
equipotential lines of an electrostatic field
and it tends to be deflected so that it is par-
- disk or cylinder with a small hole in its
center. This electrode is run at a high or
moderately high positive voltage, to accel-
allel to the lines of force in a magnetic field. erate the electrons toward the far end of
Large cathode -ray tubes used as kinescopes the tube.
in television receivers usually are both The focusing electrode (F) is a sleeve
focused and deflected magnetically. On the which usually contains two small disks, each
other hand, the medium -size CR tubes used with a small hole.
in oscilloscopes and small television receivers After leaving the focusing electrode, the
usually are both focused and deflected elec- electrons pass through another accelerating
trostatically. Cathode -ray tubes for special anode (A) which is operated at a high pos-
applications may be focused magnetically itive potential. In some tubes this electrode
and deflected electrostatically or vice versa. is operated at a higher potential than the
There are advantages and disadvantages to first accelerating electrode (H) while in
both types of focusing and deflection. How- other tubes both accelerating electrodes are
ever, it may be stated that electrostatic operated at the same potential.
deflection is much better than magnetic de- The electrodes which have been described
flection when high- frequency waves are to up to this point constitute the electron gun,
be displayed on the screen; hence the al- which produces the free electrons and fo-
most universal use of this type of deflec- cuses them into a slender, concentrated,
tion for oscillographic work. When a tube rapidly traveling stream for projecting onto
is operated at a high value of accelerating the viewing screen.
potential so as to obtain a bright dis-
play on the face of the tube as for television Electrostatic To make the tube useful, means
or radar work, the use of magnetic deflec- Deflection must be provided for deflecting
tion becomes desirable since it is relatively the electron beam along two
easier to deflect a high- velocity electron axes at right angles to each other. The more
beam magnetically than electrostatically. common tubes employ electrostatic deflec-
An ion trap is required with magnetic de- tion plates, one pair to exert a force on the
flection since the heavy negative ions emitted beam in the vertical plane and one pair to
by the cathode are not materially deflected exert a force in the horizontal plane. These
by the magnetic field and would burn an ion plates are designated as B and C in figure 28.

www.americanradiohistory.com
96 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
plates. This is done for two reasons: First,
FOCUS COIL TERMINAL
RASE FIRST DEFLECTION COILS
the amount of deflection voltage required
ANODE
by the high -voltage tubes is so great that
IECOND ANDO(
(ADUADAG)
a transmitting tube operating from a
high -voltage supply would be required to
attain this voltage without distortion. By
GRID 41
I FLUORESCENT SCREEN
using push-pull deflection with two tubes
CATNODE (R) feeding the deflection plates, the necessary
plate - supply voltage for the deflection am-
Figure 29 plifier is halved. Second, a certain amount of
defocusing of the electron stream is always
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC
present on the extreme excursions in deflec-
CATHODE -RAY TUBE tion voltage when this voltage is applied
only to one deflecting plate. When the de-
Standard oscilloscope practice with small flecting voltage is fed in push -pull to both
cathode -ray tubes calls for connecting one deflecting plates in each plane, there is no
of the B plates and one of the C plates to- defocusing because the average voltage act-
gether and to the high -voltage accelerating ing on the electron stream is zero, even
anode. With the newer three -inch tubes and though the net voltage (which causes the
with five -inch tubes and larger, all four deflection) acting on the stream is twice
deflection plates are commonly used for that on either plate.
deflection. The positive high voltage is The fact that the beam is deflected by a
grounded, instead of the negative as is com- magnetic field is important even in an oscil-
mon practice in amplifiers, etc., in order to loscope which employs a tube using electro-
permit operation of the deflecting plates at static deflection, because it means that pre-
a d -c potential at or near ground. cautions must be taken to protect the tube
An Aquadag coating is applied to the in- from the transformer fields and sometimes
side of the envelope to attract any secondary even the earth's magnetic field. This nor-
electrons emitted by the fluorescent screen. mally is done by incorporating a magnetic
In the average electrostatic- deflection CR shield around the tube and by placing any
tube the spot will be fairly well centered if transformers as far from the tube as pos-
all four deflection plates are returned to the sible, oriented to the position which pro-
potential of the second anode (ground). duces minimum effect on the electron stream.
However, for accurate centering and to
permit moving the entire trace either hori- Construction of Electro- The electromagnetic
zontally or vertically to permit display of a magnetic CRT cathode -ray tube al-
particular waveform, horizontal- and verti- lows greater defini-
cal- centering controls usually are provided tion than does the electrostatic tube. Also,
on the front of the oscilloscope. electromagnetic definition has a number of
After the spot is once centered, it is nec- advantages when a rotating radial sweep is
essary only to apply a positive or negative required to give polar indications.
voltage (with respect to ground) to one of The production of the electron beam in
the ungrounded or "free" deflector plates an electromagnetic tube is essentially the
in order to move the spot. If the voltage is same as in the electrostatic tube. The grid
positive with respect to ground, the beam structure is similar, and controls the electron
will be attracted toward that deflector plate, beam in an identical manner. The elements
If it is negative, the beam and spot will of a typical electromagnetic tube 'are shown
be repulsed. The amount of deflection is in figure 29. The focus coil is wound on an
directly proportional to the voltage (with iron core which may be moved along the
respect to ground) that is applied to the neck of the tube to focus the electron beam.
free electrode. For final adjustment, the current flowing in
With the larger- screen higher -voltage tubes the coil may be varied. A second pair of
it becomes necessary to place deflecting volt- coils, the deflection coils, are mounted at
age on both horizontal and both vertical right angles to each other around the neck

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Gas Tubes 97

of the tube. In some cases, these coils can


rotate around the axis of the tube.
Two anodes are used for accelerating the
electrons from the cathode to the screen.
The second anode is a graphite coating
(Aquadag) on the inside of the glass enve-
lope. The function of this coating is to
attract any secondary electrons emitted by
'=='
ililitfMAi\flfili
ifMNi9Mii0
s.ss. ss:
the fluorescent screen, and also to shield
the electron beam.
Ill
.11
In some types of electromagnetic tubes, a
first, or accelerating anode is also used in
.11'
addition to the Aquadag.
Figure 30
Electromagnetic A magnetic field will deflect
Deflection an electron beam in a direc- Two pairs of coils arranged for electromag-
netic deflection in two directions.
tion which is at right angles
to both the direction of the field and the
direction of motion of the beam. persistence, is used on television viewing
In the general case, two pairs of deflection tubes (Kinescopes). The P -S and P -11 phos-
coils are used (figure 30). One pair is for phors, with blue fluorescence .nd very short
horizontal deflection, and the other pair is persistence, are used primarily in oscilloscopes
for vertical deflection. The two coils in a where photographic recording of the trace
pair are connected in series and are wound is to be obtained. The P -7 phosphor, which
in such directions that the magnetic field has a blue flash and a long- persistence green-
flows from one coil, through the electron ish- yellow persistence, is used primarily for
beam to the other coil. The force exerted radar displays where retention of the image
on the beam by the field moves it to any for several seconds after the initial signal
point on the screen by application of the display is required.
proper currents to these coils.
4 -9 Gas Tubes
The Troce The human eye retains an image
for about one -sixteenth second The space charge of electrons in the vi-
after viewing. In a CRT, the spot can be cinity of the cathode in a diode causes the
moved so quickly that a series of adjacent plate -to- cathode voltage drop to be a func-
spots can be made to appear as a line, if the tion of the current being carried between
beam is swept over the path fast enough. As the cathode and the plate. This voltage drop
long as the electron beam strikes in a given can be rather high when large currents are
place at least sixteen times a second, the being passed, causing a considerable amount
spot will appear to the human eye as a of energy loss which shows up as plate dissi-
source of continuous light with very little pation.
flicker. Action of The negative space charge can
ScreenMaterials- At least five types of Positive Ionsbe neutralized by the presence
"Phosphors" luminescent screen mate- of the proper density of posi-
rials are commonly avail- tive ions in the space between the cathode
able on the various types of CR tubes com- and anode. The positive ions may be ob-
mercially available. These screen materials tained by the introduction of the proper
are called phosphors; each of the five phos- amount of gas or a small amount of mercury
phors is best suited to a particular type of into the envelope of the tube. When the
application. The P -1 phosphor, which has a voltage drop across the tube reaches the ion-
green fluorescence with medium persistence, ization potential of the gas or mercury
is almost invariably used for oscilloscope vapor, the gas molecules will become ionized
tubes for visual observation. The P -4 phos- to form positive ions. The positive ions then
phor, with white fluorescence and medium tend to neutralize the space charge in the
98 Vacuum -Tube Principles THE RADIO
vicinity of the cathode. The voltage drop passing through the tube. This property
across the tube then remains constant at exists because the degree of ionization of
the ionization potential of the gas, up to a the gas in the tube varies with the amount
current drain equal to the maximum emis- of current passing through the tube. When
sion capability of the cathode. The voltage a large current is passed, the gas is highly
drop varies between 10 and 20 volts, depend- ionized and the internal impedance of the
ing on the particular gas employed, up to tube is low. When a small current is passed,
the maximum current rating of the tube. the gas is lightly ionized and the internal
impedance of the tube is high. Over the
Mercury-Vapor Mercury-vapor tubes, al- operating range of the tube, the product
Tubes though very widely used, (IR) of the current through the tube and
have the disadvantage that the internal impedance of the tube is very
they must be operated within a specific nearly constant. Examples of this type of
temperature range (25 to 70 C) in order tube are the OB2, 0C2, and VR -150.
that the mercury -vapor pressure within the
tube shall be within the proper range. If Vacuum -Tube Vacuum tubes are grouped
the temperature is too low, the drop across Classification into three major classifica-
the tube becomes too high causing immediate tions: commercial, rugged -
overheating and possible damage to the ele- ized, and premium (or reliable) Any one
.

ments. If the temperature is too high, the of these three groups may also be further
vapor pressure is too high, and the voltage classified for military duty (MIL spec. or
at which the tube will "flash back" is low- JAN classification). To qualify for MIL
ered to the point where destruction of the classification, sample lots of the particular
tube may take place. Since the ambient tem- tube must have passed special qualification
perature range specified above is within the tests at the factory. It should not be con-
normal room temperature range, no trouble strued that a MIL -type tube is better than
will be encountered under normal operating a commercial tube, since some commercial
conditions. However, by the substitution of tests and specifications are more rigid than
xenon gas for mercury it is possible to pro- the corresponding MIL specifications. The
duce a rectifier with characteristics compar- MIL stamped tube has merely been accepted
able to those of the mercury-vapor tube ex- under a certain set of conditions for mili-
cept that the tube is capable of operating tary service.
over the range from approximately -70 Ruggedized or Radio tubes are being used
to + 90 C. The 3B25 rectifier is an ex- Premium Tubes in increasing numbers for
ample of this type of tube. industrial applications, such
Thyratron If as computing and control machinery, and
a grid is inserted between the
Tubes cathode and plate of a mercury- in aviation and marine equipment. When
a tube fails in a home radio receiver, it is
vapor gaseous- conduction recti-
fier, a negative potential placed on the added merely inconvenient, but a tube failure in
element will increase the plate -to- cathode industrial applications may bring about stop-
voltage drop required before the tube will page of some vital process, resulting in fi-
ionize or "fire." The potential on the control nancial loss, or even danger to life.
grid will have no effect on the plate -to- To meet the demands of these industrial
cathode drop after the tube has ionized. applications, a series of tubes was evolved
However, the grid voltage may be adjusted incorporating many special features designed
to such a value that conduction will take to ensure a long and predetermined operat-
place only over the desired portion of the ing life, and uniform characteristics among
cycle of the a -c voltage being impressed on similar tubes. Such tubes are known as rug -
the plate of the rectifier. gedized or premium tubes. Early attempts to
select reliable specimens of tubes from ordi-
Voltage -Regulator In a glow- discharge gas nary stock tubes proved that in the long run
Tubes tube the voltage drop the selected tubes were no better than tubes
across the electrodes re- picked at random. Long life and ruggedness
mains constant over a wide range of current had to be built into the tubes by means of

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Miscellaneous Tube Types 99

100

TRIODE PLATE - rFLUORESCENT ANODE Ir. 2.SNA.


60
TRIODE GRID RAY CONTROL
ELECTRODE
60
CATHODES

Figure 31 L 40

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
20
OF "MAGIC EYE" TUBE
o
o 10 20 30 40 SO 60
proper choice and 100% inspection of all EP VOLTS)
materials used in the tube, by critical proc-
Figure 32
essing inspection and assembling, and by
conservative ratings of the tube. AMPLIFICATION FACTOR OF TYPICAL
Pure tungsten wire is used for heaters in STANDARD TUBE DROPS RAPIDLY AS
preference to alloys of lower tensile strength. PLATE VOLTAGE IS DECREASED
Nickel tubing is employed around the heater BELOW 20 VOLTS
wires at the junction to the stem wires to
reduce breakage at this point. Element struc-
tures are given extra supports and bracing. or give off light, so that the deflection caused
Finally, all tubes are given a 50 -hour test by the ray -control electrode, which prevents
run under full operating conditions to elimi- electrons from striking part of the anode,
nate early failures. When operated within produces a wedge- shaped electrical shadow
their ratings, ruggedized or premium tubes on the fluorescent anode. The size of this
should provide a life well in excess of 10,000 shadow is determined by the voltage on
hours. the ray electrode. When this electrode is at
Ruggedized tubes will withstand severe the same potential as the fluorescent anode,
impact shocks for short periods, and wil! the shadow disappears; if the ray electrode
is less positive than the anode, a shadow ap-
operate under conditions of vibration for
many hours. The tubes may be identified in pears the width of which is proportional to
many cases by the fact that their nomen- the voltage on the ray electrode.
clature includes a "W" in the type number, Controlled Series heater strings are employed
as in 807W, 5U4W, etc. Some ruggedized Warmup in a -c /d -c radio receivers and
tubes are included in the "5000" series Tubes television sets to reduce the cost,
nomenclature. The 5654 is a ruggedized size, and weight of the equip-
version of the 6AK5, the 5692 is a rugged - ment. Voltage surges of great magnitude
ized version of the 6SN7, etc.
occur in series -operated filaments because
4 -10 Miscellaneous of variations in the rate of warm -up of the
various tubes. As the tubes warm up, the
Tube Types heater resistance changes. This change is not
Electron- The electron -ray tube or magic the same between tubes of various types, or
Ray Tubes eye contains two sets of ele- even between tubes of the same type made
ments, one of which is a triode by different manufacturers. Some 6 -volt
amplifier and the other a cathode -ray indi- tubes show an initial surge as high as 9 volts
cator. The plate of the triode section is during warm -up, while slow- heating tubes
internally connected to the ray -control elec- such as the 25BQ6 are underheated during
trode (figure 31) , so that as the plate volt- the voltage surge on the 6 -volt tubes.
ge varies in accordance with the applied Standardization of heater characteristics
signal the voltage on the ray -control elec- in a new group of tubes designed for series
trode also varies. The ray- control electrode heater strings has eliminated this trouble.
is a metal cylinder so placed relative to the The new tubes have either 600 ma or 400
cathode that it deflects some of the electrons ma heaters, with a controlled warm -up time
emitted from the cathode. The electrons of approximately 11 seconds. The 5U8,
which strike the anode cause it to fluoresce, 6CG7, and 12BH7 -A are examples.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER FIVE

Semiconductor Devices

One of the earliest detection devices used formed on a pure copper disk. This film offers
in radio was the galena crystal, a crude ex- low resistance for positive voltages, and high
ample of a semiconductor. More modern ex- resistance for negative voltages. The same
amples of semiconductors are the copper - action is observed in selenium rectifiers,
oxide rectifier, the selenium and silicon recti- where a film of selenium is deposited on an
fiers, and the germanium diode. All of these iron surface.
devices offer the interesting property of
greater resistance to the flow of electrical 5 -1 Atomic Structure of
current in one direction than in the opposite Germanium and Silicon
direction. Typical conduction curves for
these semiconductors are shown in figure 1. It has been previously stated that the
The copper -oxide rectifier action results from electrons in an element having a large atom-
the function of a thin film of cuprous oxide ic number are grouped into rings, each ring
having a definite number of electrons. Atoms
in which these rings are completely filled
are called Merl gases, of which helium and
30
argon are examples. All other elements have
1N34 one or more incomplete rings of electrons.
40
CIIYiT4L MOOT
If the incomplete ring is loosely bound, the
electrons may be easily removed, the element
TYPICAL STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
is called metallic, and is a conductor of
.o
electric current. If the incomplete ring is
.0
tightly bound, with only a few missing elec-
trons, the element is called nonmetallic and
is an insulator to electric current. Ger-
lo
manium and silicon fall between these two
sharply defined groups, and exhibit both
o
0.1- metallic and nonmetallic characteristics.
es
es
o.
Pure germanium or silicon may be consid-
-so -30 -TO -0 s s ered to be a good insulator. The addition of
VOLTS certain impurities in carefully controlled
Figure 1
amounts to the pure germanium will alter
the conductivity of the material. In addi-
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVE tion, the choice of the impurity can change
OF A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE the direction of conductivity through the

www.americanradiohistory.com
Mechanism of Conduction 101

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
field with a velocity which is proportional
to the field itself:
Vdh = hE
where,
Van equals drift velocity of hole,
E equals magnitude of electric field,
h equals mobility of hole
In an electric field the holes will drift in a
direction opposite to that of the electron
and with about one -half the velocity, since
the hole mobility is about one-half the elec-
ANODES CATHODES tron mobility. A sample of a semiconductor,
such as germanium or silicon, which is both
chemically pure and mechanically perfect
will contain in it approximately equal num-
bers of holes and electrons and is called an
intrinsic semiconductor. The intrinsic resis-
tivity of the semiconductor depends strongly
e- Color Bua"." on the temperature, being about 50 ohm /cm
for germanium at room temperature. The
intrinsic resistivity of silicon is about 65,000
ohm /cm at the same temperature.
If, in the growing of the semiconductor
crystal, a small amount of an impurity, such
as phosphorous, arsenic, or antimony is in-
TUBE. GEPMANIUM. SILICON cluded in the crystal, each atom of the im-
AND SELENIUM DIODES
purity contributes one free electron. This
Figure 2 electron is available for conduction. The
COMMON DIODE COLOR CODES crystal is said to be doped and has become
AND MARKINGS electron -conducting in nature and is called
N (negative) -type germanium. The impuri-
ties which contribute electrons are called
crystal, some impurities increasing conduc- donors. N -type germanium has better con-
tivity to positive voltages, and others in- ductivity than pure germanium in one di-
creasing conductivity to negative voltages. rection, and a continuous stream of electrons
will flow through the crystal in this direc-
5 -2 Mechanism of tion as long as an external potential of the
Conduction correct polarity is applied across the crystal.
Other impurities, such as aluminum, gal -
As indicated by their name, semiconduc- lium,or indium add one hole to the semi-
tors are substances which have a conduc- conducting crystal by accepting one electron
tivity intermediate between the high values for each atom of impurity, thus creating ad-
observed for metals and the low values ob- ditional holes in the semiconducting crystal.
served for insulating materials. The mech- The material is now said to be hole- conduct-
anism of conduction in semiconductors is ing, or P (positive) -type germanium. The
different from that observed in metallic impurities which create holes are called ac-
conductors. There exist in semiconductors ceptors. P -type germanium has better con-
both negatively charged electrons and posi- ductivity than pure germanium in one di-
tively charged particles, called holes, which rection. This direction is opposite to that of
behave as though they had a positive electri- the N -type material. Either the N -type or
cal charge equal in magnitude to the nega- the P-type germanium is called extrinsic
tive electrical charge on the electron. These conducting type. The doped materials have
holes and electrons drift in an electrical lower resistivities than the pure materials,

www.americanradiohistory.com
102 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
and doped semiconductors in the resistivity 10

range of .01 to 10 ohm /cm are normally


used in the production of transistors.

5 -3 The PN Junction Diode 9

The semiconductor diode is a PN junc-


tion, or junction diode having the general
electrical characteristics of figure 1 and the e

physical configuration illustrated in figure 2.


The anode of the junction diode is always
positive -type (P) material while the cathode
is always negative -type (N) material. Cur- >

rent conduction occurs when the P -anode is 0 Io 12 14


2
positive with respect to the N- cathode. This REVERSE BIAS
state is termed forward bias. Blocking occurs
Figure 3
when the P -anode is negative with respect
to the N- cathode. This is termed reverse JUNCTION CAPACITANCE VARIATION
bias. WITH RESPECT TO REVERSE VOLTAGE
Junction diodes are rated in terms of
average and peak -inverse voltage in a given The Tunnel Diode The tunnel diode is a two-
environment, much in the same manner as terminal junction that ex-
thermionic rectifiers. Unlike the latter, how- hibits pronounced negative-resistance char-
ever, a small leakage current will flow in acteristics over a portion of the operating
the reverse -biased junction diode because of range. The proper combination of impuri-
a few hole -electron pairs thermally gener- ties in the semiconductor material in this
ated in the junction. As the applied inverse device allows the diode to rest in a reverse -
voltage is increased, a potential will be breakdown condition at a slight forward -bias
reached at which the leakage current rises point. Thus, over a small voltage range, the
abruptly at an avalanche voltage point. An tunnel diode conducts heavily as the voltage
increase in inverse voltage above this value becomes more negative. The negative con-
can result in the flow of a large reverse cur- ductance generates energy, and this action is
rent and the possible destruction of the
diode.
Maximum permissible forward current in
the junction diode is limited by the voltage
drop across the diode and the heat- dissipa-
tion capability of the diode structure. Power .001
diodes are often attached to the chassis of
the equipment by means of a heat -sink to
remove excess heat from the small junction.

Junction Capocity The junction possesses ca-


pacitance as a result of the VARICAP .001
opposite charges existing on the sides of
the junction barrier. Junction capacitance
changes with applied voltage. Figure 3 shows
+90 V.
the typical change in junction capacitance = 0.1 M
with reverse voltage. Reverse- biased diodes REMOTE FREQUENCY
CONTROL
(varicaps) may be used as d -c voltage -con-
trolled variable capacitors for frequency Figure 4
control of remote resonant circuits. A typi- VOLTAGE VARIABLE JUNCTION DIODE
cal frequency -control circuit employing a MAY BE USED FOR REMOTE FREQUENCY
varicap junction is shown in figure 4. CONTROL OF VARIABLE OSCILLATOR

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The PN Junction Diode 103

+ 1.5 V. well suited for harmonic generation. Special


diodes called varactors may be used as r -f
multiplication devices. Frequency multipli-
300
2-a
cation in the vhf and uhf regions makes use
1N2939
of varactors because high conversion effi-
ciency and relatively large power- handling
.001
R F OUT
capability may be achieved at moderate cost
with minimum complexity.
Basic varactor circuits which can be used
Figue 5 for doubling, tripling, and quadrupling are
shown in figure 6. The doubler consists of
TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR FOR 50 -MHz. a varactor coupled to two high -Q, series -
MODULATION MAY BE APPLIED AT "M" tuned circuits. The input circuit is resonant
at the fundamental (driving) frequency
the basis of the resistance amplifier (or oscil- and the other is resonant at the harmonic
lator) circuit making use of the tunnel (output) frequency.
diode (figure 5). The tripler and quadrupler circuits are
similar to the doubler configuration with
The Voractor The nonlinear characteristic the exception that an additional idler loop,
of a junction diode makes it resonant with the varactor capacitance at

72 MHz 72 MHz. TRAP 144 MHz 144 MHz


12T.* 22, 3/1322.__A___
35 0.7511 H. 144
72MHzt MHz
15 W.
20 W. 20 8 T. 7116 20 20 8T. #16
3/8" D. 3/8"
47 K RCA 2
T. it 16
1 W. V -501 60 1/4" D.

144 MHz TRAP


4T. *22, 1/4" D. 432 MHz 432 MHz

3T. *20, 1/4" D.

E432 MHz, 8W.


13

MA-4060A
m.10

288 MHz
IDLER LOOP

Figure 6

BASIC VARACTOR DOUBLING AND TRIPLING CIRCUITS


A is a doubler for 144 MHz. B is used as a tripler to 432 MHz.
104 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO

I IS

- -j
,
FORWARD
CHARACTERISTIC 10

illlCy
REVERSE VOLTAGE
20 10
/20 20
I 2ENER KNEE O S 1 1 S
If AT S MA. VI (VOLTS)
OSI-
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE 2
PLATEAU

-t< 1.0V REVERSE


CHARACTERISTIC
MAX. ZENER U
CURRENT
X1.5
ICI
Figure 8
BETWEEN "ZENER KNEE" AND POINT OF
MAXIMUM ZENER CURRENT, THE ZENER
VOLTAGE IS ESSENTIALLY CONSTANT
Figure 7 AT 30 VOLTS
THE SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
The Zener Diode The zener diode is a semi-
This three -terminal semiconductor is an open
switch until it is triggered in the forward conductor device that can
direction by the gate element. Conduction be used as a constant voltage reference, or as
will continue until anode current is reduced a control element. Zener diodes are available
below a critical value.
in ratings to SO watts, with zener voltages
of approximately 4 volts to 200 volts.
the second- harmonic frequency, is added in The zener diode has electrical character-
shunt with the varactor. The idler loop istics that are derived from a rectifying
boosts conversion efficiency by producing junction which operates at a reverse -bias
additional harmonic output from the beat- condition not normally used. The zener knee
ing action between the fundamental and (figure 8) and constant - voltage plateau are
second harmonics. Doubling or tripling effi- obtained when this rectifying junction is
ciency of a typical vhf varactor multiplier back- biased above the junction breakdown
may run from 50 to 70 percent. voltage. The break from nonconductance to
conductance is very sharp. At applied volt-
SCR Devices The silicon controlled recti- ages greater than the breakdown point, the
fier (SCR) is a three-terminal, voltage drop across the diode junction be-
three- junction semiconductor, which could comes essentially constant for a relatively
be thought of as a solid -state thyratron. It wide range of currents. This is the zener
will conduct high current in the forward control region.
direction with low forward voltage drop, Thermal dissipation is obtained by mount -
presenting a high impedance in the reverse ing the zener diode to a heat sink composed
direction. The three terminals (figure 7) of a large area of metal having free access
of a SCR device are anode, cathode, and to ambient air.
gate. Without gate current the SCR is an
open switch in either direction. Sufficient Zener Diode The zener diode may be em-
gate current will close the switch in the Applications ployed as a shunt regulator
forward direction only. Forward conduction (figure 9A) in the manner of
will continue even with gate current re- a typical "VR- tube." Two zener diodes may
moved until anode current is reduced below be employed in the circuit of figure 9B to
a critical value. At this point the SCR supply very low values of regulated voltage.
again blocks open. The SCR is therefore a Two opposed zener diodes can be used to
high -speed unidirectional switch capable of provide a -c clipping of both halves of the
being latched on in the forward direction. cycle (figure 9C). Zener diodes may also be

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistors 105

IOV
DIODE materials, including the compounds indium,
f antimony, and lead sulfide have been used
2 VOLT
UNREG.
VOLT
REG.
VOLT. experimentally in the production of transis-
tors.
Types of Transistors There are two basic
FIGURE 9 types of transistors, the
A -ZENER DIODE FUNCTIONS AS
VOLTAGE REGULATOR OVER
point- contact type and the junction type
RANGE OF CONSTANT VOLTAGE
PLATEAU.
(figure 10). Typical construction detail of a
5 -TWO ZENER DIODES OF DIFFER - point- contact transistor is shown in figure
'N ti y OUT ENT VOLTAGE CAN PROVIDE
SMALL REGULATED VOLTAGE.
11, and the electrical symbol is shown in fig-
C- OPPOSED ZENER DIODES CLIP ure 12. The emitter and collector electrodes
BOTH HALVES OF CYCLE OF A -C
WAVE. make contact with a small block of germani-
um, called the base. The base may be either
Figure 9 N -type or P-type germanium, and is ap-
proximately .05" long and .03" thick. The
ZENER DIODES USED AS
emitter and collector electrodes are fine
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
wires, and are spaced about .005" apart on
AND CLIPPERS
the germanium base. The complete assembly
is usually encapsulated in a small, plastic
used to protect meter movements since they case to provide ruggedness and to avoid
provide a very- low -resistance shunt across contaminating effects of the atmosphere.
the movement when the applied voltage ex- The polarity of emitter and collector volt-
ceeds a certain critical level. ages depends on the type of germanium em-
ployed in the base, as illustrated in figure 12.
5 -4 The Transistor The junction transistor consists of a piece
of either N -type or P -type germanium be-
In the past few years an entire new tech- tween two wafers of germanium of the op-
nology has been developed for the applica- posite type. Either NPN or PNP transistors
tion of certain semiconducting materials in may be made. In one construction called the
production of devices having gain properties. grown -crystal process, the original crystal,
These gain properties were previously found grown from molten germanium or silicon,
only in vacuum tubes. The elements ger- is created in such a way as to have the two
manium and silicon are the principal ma- closely spaced junctions imbedded in it. In
terials which exhibit the proper semicon- the other construction called the fusion
ducting properties permitting their applica- process, the crystals are grown so as to make
tion in the new amplifying devices called them a single- conductivity type. The junc-
transistors. However, other semiconducting tions are then produced by fusing small

PLASTIC CASE

N- TYPE
GERMANIUM
CRYSTAL LAYER

SASE CONNECTION

SMALL 3-PIN
RASE
P - TYPE GERMANIUM
CRYSTAL LAYER
COLLECTOR

LOW Z
-
PE - Nb JUNCTION

Pe
le
e
N b-Pc JUNCTION

PC-
NIGH Z

ASE CONNECTION 1- t
COLLECTOR

Figure 10

CUTAWAY VIEW OF JUNCTION PICTORIAL EQUIVALENT OF


TRANSISTOR SHOWING PHYSICAL PNP JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
ARRANGEMENT

www.americanradiohistory.com
106 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
EMITTER COLLECTOR
EMITTER COLLECTOR EMITTER COLLECTOR
MEE
N TYPE
OERUANIYU

w EcNtcT SASE SASE +j


PPP TRANSISTOR OR NPN TRANSISTOR
s'"iAsrn POINT-CONTACT TRANSISTOR

us--.I
Figure 12
wlrra - SASE
COLLECTOR
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
FOR TRANSISTORS
Figure 11

CONSTRUCTION DETAIL OF A base region towards the collector, attracting


POINT- CONTACT TRANSISTOR neighboring electrons, finally increasing the
available supply of conducting electrons in
pellets of special metal alloys into minute the collector loop. As a result, the collector
plates cut from the original crystal. Typical loop possesses lower resistance whenever the
construction detail of a junction transistor emitter circuit is in operation. In junction
is shown in figure 10A.
transistors this charge transport is by means
The electrical schematic for the PNP of diffusion wherein the charges move from
a region of high concentration to a region
junction transistor is the same as for the
point- contact type, as is shown in figure 12. of lower concentration at the collector. The
collector, biased in the opposite direction,
Transistor Action Presently available types of acts as a sink for these holes, and is said to
transistors have three es- collect them.
sential actions which collectively are called It is known that any rectifier biased in the
transistor action. These are: minority carrier forward direction has a very low internal
injection, transport, and collection. Figure impedance, whereas one biased in the back
10B shows a simplified drawing of a PNP direction has a very high internal impedance.
junction -type transistor, which can illustrate Thus, current flows into the transistor in a
this collective action. The PNP transistor low- impedance circuit, and appears at the
consists of a piece of N -type germanium on output as current flowing in a high -im-
opposite sides of which a layer of P -type pedance circuit. The ratio of a change in
material has been grown by the fusion proc- collector current to a change in emitter cur-
ess. Terminals are connected to the two P- rent is called the current amplification, or
sections and to the N -type base. The tran- alpha:
sistor may be considered as two PN junction
rectifiers placed in close juxtaposition with a
semiconduction crystal coupling the two
a = -
i,.
le

rectifiers together. The left -hand terminal where;


is biased in the forward (or conducting)
a equals current amplification,
direction and is called the emitter. The
right -hand terminal is biased in the back (or
iequals change in collector current,
i equals change in emitter current.
reverse) direction and is called the collector.
The operating potentials are chosen with Values of alpha up to 3 or so may be ob-
respect to the base terminal, which may or tained in commercially available point -con-
may not be grounded. If an NPN transistor tact transistors, and values of alpha up to
is used in place of the PNP, the operating about 0.95 are obtainable in junction tran-
potentials are reversed. sistors.
The Pr -Nb junction on the left is biased The ratio of change in collector current
in the forward direction and holes from the to a change in base current is a measure of
P region are injected into the Nb region, pro- amplification, or beta:
ducing therein a concentration of holes sub-
stantially greater than normally present in a
the material. These holes travel across the = 1 -a

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistors 107

Values of beta run to 100 or so in inex- The Transition Region A useful rule common
pensive junction transistors. The static d -c to both PNP and NPN
forward current gain of a transistor in the transistors is: moving the base potential to-
common -emitter mode is termed the d -c wards the collector voltage point turns the
beta and may be designated F or hFE. transistor on, while moving the base poten-
tial away from the collector voltage point
Cutoff Frequencies The alpha cutoff frequen- turns the transistor off. When fully on, the
cy (fun) of a transistor transistor is said to be saturated. When fully
is that frequency at which the grounded - off, the transistor is said to be cutoff. The
base current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the region between these two extremes is termed
gain obtainable at 1kHz. For audio transis- the transition region. A transistor may be
tors the alpha cutoff frequency is about 1 used as a switch by simply biasing the base -
MHz. For r -f and switching transistors the emitter circuit on and off. Adjusting the
alpha cutoff frequency may be 50 MHz or base -emitter bias to some point in the tran-
higher. The upper frequency limit of opera- sition region will permit the transistor to
tion of the transistor is determined by the act as a signal amplifier. For such operation,
small but finite time it takes the majority base- emitter d -c bias will be about 0.3 volt
carriers to move from one electrode to the for many common germanium transistors,
other. and about 0.6 volt for many common sili-
The beta cutoff frequency (fhre) is that con transistors.
frequency at which the grounded- emitter
current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the Transistor Transistors are usually classi-
gain obtainable at 1 kHz. Transconductance Classifications fled according to the manu-
cutoff frequency (f g,,,) is that frequency at facturing techniques used to
which the transconductance falls to 0.7 of construct the two junctions. Figure 14
that value obtainable at 1 kHz. The maxi- lists some of the many classifications of
mum frequency of oscillation (f,,, x) is that junction transistors. Manufacturing tech-
frequency at which the maximum power niques, transistor end -use and patent restric-
gain of the transistor drops to unity. tions result in a multitude of transistor
Various internal time constants and tran- types, most of which fall in these general
sit times limit the high- frequency response classifications. Transistors, moreover, may
of the transistor and these limitations are be grouped in families where each member
summarized in the gain- bandwidth product
(f e) , which is identified by the frequency at PROCESS
COMMERCIAL TYPICAL
which the beta current gain drops to unity. DESIGNATION CETYPE5S1 TRANSISTOR
These various cutoff frequencies and the
IRATE GROWN NPN - 2N167 Z
gain- bandwidth products are shown in fig-
-

s
ure 13. MELT -BACK NPN 2NI 289 0
M
GROWN NPN 2N335

-
DIFFUSED PNP
I..
M111111111111111110 ff - fhfe xhf< NPN 2N1149

I0M11
DOUBLE-DOPED
10IBI11IBIBIIEIB
II1l11eimem' 6 oar R OCTA% C

"iMr-____ll\1
iiaaEscs
SLOPC
NNE ALLOY PNP
NPN
PNP

--
NPN 2N525

ao

MIuMIIii
111111V E\NIM\
f0llllll1lllllIeIII aum. hfb
imurnammomo max
DRIFT
MESA
PNP

PNP

-
2N247
2N695
z
O
J1
o

lo
'1l`!'1N
001
0y//,,I
0.1 1 0
F (M141
10 100 1000
SURFACE
BARRIER
MICRO -ALLOY

MA DT
PNP

PNP

PNP
PNP

NPN
2N344

2N393
2N501
n
11.

Figure 13 Figure 14

GAIN -BANDWIDTH CHART FOR JUNCTION PROCESSES AND CLASSIFICA-


TYPICAL H -F TRANSISTOR TIONS OF TRANSISTOR TYPES

www.americanradiohistory.com
108 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
of the family is a unique type, but subtle input resistance. The input resistance of a
differences exist between members in the typical transistor is low, in the neighbor-
matter of end -use, gain, capacitance, mount-

..
hood of 300 ohms, while the output resist-

i M
ing, case, leads, breakdown voltage charac- ance is relatively high, usually over 20,000
teristics, etc. The differences are important ohms. For a point- contact transistor, the
enough to warrant individual type identifi- resistance gain is usually over 60.

__.
cation of each member. In addition, the
state of the art permits transistor parameters
to be economically designed to fit the var-

\
ious equipments, rather than designing the
equipment around available transistor types.

1/.Mi_
s
This situation results in a great many tran- J

I%ET
sistor types having nearly identical general
characteristics. Finally, improved manufac-

I/n -
turing techniques may "obsolete" a whole J '
family of transistors with a newer, less -ex- ,

.I
pensive family. It is recommended, therefore,

.
that the reader refer to one of the various 10 20 30 40 so
COLLECTOR VOLTS
transistor substitution manuals for up -to-
OA
date guidance in transistor classification and
substitution.
5 -5 Transistor
so El I

0
Characteristics
,
The transistor produces results that may
be comparable to a vacuum tube, but there o 20 ,'_A
is a basic difference between the two devices.
._1.
The vacuum tube is a voltage- controlled
device whereas the transistor is a current -
controlled device. A vacuum tube normally
+

ABER
25 50 75 100
PLATE VOLTS
123 uo 175 200

operates with its grid biased in the negative,


or high- resistance, direction, and its plate Figure 15
biased in the positive, or low- resistance, di-
rection. The tube conducts only by means COMPARISON OF POINT -CONTACT
of electrons, and has its conducting counter- TRANSISTOR AND VACUUM -TUBE
part in the form of the NPN transistor, CHARACTERISTICS
whose majority carriers are also electrons.
There is no vacuum -tube equivalent of the The voltage gain of a transistor is the
PNP transistor, whose majority carriers are product of alpha times the resistance gain,
holes. and for a point- contact transistor is of the
The biasing conditions stated above pro- order of 3 X 60 = 180. A junction tran-
vide the high input impedance and low out- sistor which has a value of alpha less than
put impedance of the vacuum tube. The unity nevertheless has a resistance gain of
transistor is biased in the positive, or low - the order of 2000 because of its extremely
resistance, direction in the emitter circuit, high output resistance, and the resulting
and in the negative, or high- resistance, di- voltage gain is about 1800 or so. For both
rection in the collector circuit resulting in a types of transistors the power gain is the
low input impedance and a high output product of alpha squared times the resistance
impedance, opposite from the vacuum tube. gain and is of the order of 400 to 500.
A comparison of point- contact transistor The output characteristics of the junction
characteristics and vacuum -tube character- transistor are of great interest. A typical
istics is made in figure 15. example is shown in figure 16. It is seen
The resistance gain of a transistor is ex- that the junction transistor has the charac-
pressed as the ratio of output resistance to teristics of an ideal pentode vacuum tube.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Transistor Characteristics 109

short -circuited, or nearly short -circuited in-


T
put, as shown in figure 17. It is this point -
contact transistor characteristic of having a
44. EMI TTCI MILL IAN PS.
region of negative impedance that lends
s the unit to use in switching circuits. The
transistor circuit may be made to have two,
one,or zero stable operating points, depend-
ing on the bias voltages and the load im-
pedance used.
o
-I 0 -0.5 0 +5 +0 +5 +20 +25
Equivalent Circuit As is known from net -
COLLECTOR VOLTS
of o Transistor work theory, the small
Figure 16 signal performance of
any device in any network can be represented
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF
by means of an equivalent circuit. The most
TYPICAL JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
convenient equivalent circuit for the low -
frequency small -signal performance of both
The collector current is practically inde- point- contact and junction transistors is
pendent of the collector voltage. The range shown in figure 18. re, rb, and r,. are dy-
of linear operation extends from a minimum namic resistances which can be associated
voltage of about 0.2 volts up to the maxi- with the emitter, base, and collector regions
mum rated collector voltage. A typical load of the transistor. The current generator
line is shown, which illustrates the very high ale, represents the transport of charge from
load impedance that would be required for emitter to collector. Typical values of the
maximum power transfer. A grounded -emit- equivalent circuit are shown in figure 18.
ter circuit is usually used, since the output
impedance is not as high as when a grounded - Transistor There are three basic transis-
base circuit is used. Configurations tor configurations: grounded -
The output characteristics of a typical base connection, grounded -
point -contact transistor are shown in figure emitter connection, and grounded- collector
1 T. The pentode characteristics are less evi- connection. These correspond roughly to
dent, and the output impedance is much grounded -grid, grounded -cathode, and
lower, with the range of linear operation
extending down to a collector voltage of d te
2 or 3. Of greater practical interest, how-
ever, is the input characteristic curve with
EMITTER COLLECTOR

BASE

VALUES OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT


POINT- CONTACT JUNCTION
ISTOR TRANSISTOR
EMITTER MILLIA Wt. 1 MA, VC,5 V . ) (i t MA .,
re- EMITTER
RESISTANCE
100 A. 30A
REGION II
rb -eAse
RESISTANCE
3000. soon
R[SCOLLCEOR 0000A Iu loou
N

-R- CURRENT
AMPLIFICATION
.0 0.7
Figure 18
Figure 17
LOW- FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT
EMITTER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (Common Base) CIRCUIT FOR POINT -
FOR TYPICAL POINT-CONTACT CONTACT AND JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR

www.americanradiohistory.com
110 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO

GROUNDED -BASE GROUNDED-EMITTER GROUNDED COLLECTOR


CONNECTION CONNECTION CONNECTION

Figure 19
COMPARISON OF BASIC VACUUM -TUBE AND TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

grounded -plate circuits in vacuum -tube ter- low output impedance, and no phase reversal
minology (figure 19). of signal from input to output circuit.
The grounded -base circuit has a low input Power and voltage gain are both low.
impedance and high output impedance, and Figure 20 illustrates some practical vac-
no phase reversal of signal occurs from input uum -tube circuits, as applied to transistors.
to output circuit. The grounded-emitter cir-
cuit has a higher input impedance and a 5 -6 Transistor Circuitry
lower output impedance than the grounded -
base circuit, and a reversal of phase be- To establish the correct operating para-
tween the input and output signal occurs. meters of the transistor, a bias voltage must
This usually provides maximum voltage gain be established between the emitter and the
from a transistor. The grounded -collector base. Since transistors are temperature- sensi-
circuit has relatively high input impedance. tive devices, and since some variation in

FLIP -FLOP COUNTER R-F OSCILLATOR


ONE -STAGE RECEIVER

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR BLOCKING OSCILLATOR AUDIO AMPLIFIER

DIRECT -COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Figure 20

TYPICAL TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 111

-E
E
LOAD BIAS LOAO LOAD
BIAS RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR
RESISTOR RESISTOR
Rz= to Re
Re = soo-+000 n
2
LT
t so (REVERSE
FOR NPN
POLARITY
TRANS /STR)

O O
Figure 21

BIAS CONFIGURATIONS FOR TRANSISTORS

The voltage divider system of C is recommended for general transistor use. Ratio of RI /RI
establishes base bias, and emitter bias is provided by voltage drop
a R. Battery polarity is reversed for NPN transistors.

characteristics usually exists between tran- is low, the operating point moves upward
sistors of a given type, attention must be along the load line, thus providing auto-
given to the bias system to overcome these matic control of the base bias voltage. This
difficulties. The simple self -bias system is circuit is sensitive to changes in ambient
shown in figure 21A. The base is simply temperature, and may permit transistor fail-
connected to the power supply through a ure when the transistor is operated near
large resistance which supplies a fixed value maximum dissipation ratings.
of base current to the transistor. This bias A better bias system is shown in figure
system is extremely sensitive to the current - 21C, where the base bias is obtained from a
transfer ratio of the transistor, and must be voltage divider, (R1, R2), and the emitter
adjusted for optimum results with each -
is forward biased. To prevent signal degen-
transistor. eration, the emitter bias resistor is bypassed
When the supply voltage is fairly high with a large capacitance. A high degree of
and wide variations in ambient temperature circuit stability is provided by this form of
do not occur, the bias system of figure 21B bias, providing the emitter capacitance is of
may be used, with the bias resistor connected the order of IO td for audio -frequency
from base to collector. When the collector applications.
voltage is high, the base current is increased,
moving the operating point of the transistor Audio Circuitry A simple voltage amplifier
down the load line. If the collector voltage is shown in figure 22. Di-

-12V

VOLTAGE GAIN 00 VOLTAGE GAIN - O. RT


INPUT IMPEDANCE IA 1200 /L INPUT IMPEDANCE IL 300 N A

Figure 22

PNP TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

A resistance -coupled amplifier employing an inexpensive transistor is shown in A.


For use with a high-impedance crystal microphone, a stepdown transformer
matches the low input impedance of the transistor, as shown in B.
The grounded collector configuration of C provides an input
impedance of about 300,000 ohms.
112 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO

Figure 23
TWO-STAGE TRANSISTOR AUDIO AMPLIFIER
Tho feedback loop of A may be added to the RC amplifier to reduce distortion, or to control
the audio response. A direct-coupled amplifier is shown in C.

rect- current stabilization is employed in the in figure 23B. A direct- coupled version of
emitter circuit. Operating parameters for the resistance -coupled amplifier is shown in
the amplifier are given in the drawing. figure 23C. The input impedance is of the
In this case, the input impedance of the order of 15,000 ohms, and an over -all voltage
amplifier is quite low. When used with a gain of 80 may be obtained with a supply
high- impedance driving source such as a potential of 12 volts.
crystal microphone a step -down input trans- It is possible to employ NPN and PNP
former should be employed as shown in transistors in complementary- symmetry cir-
figure 22B. The grounded- collector circuit cuits which have no equivalent in vacuum-
of figure 22C provides a high input im- tube design. Figure 24A illustrates such a
pedance and a low output impedance, much circuit. A symmetrical push-pull circuit is
as in the manner of a vacuum -tube cathode shown in figure 24B. This circuit may be
follower. used to directly drive a high- impedance
The circuit of a two-stage resistance- speaker, eliminating the output transformer.
coupled amplifier is shown in figure 23A. A direct -coupled three -stage amplifier hav-
The input impedance is approximately 1100 ing a gain figure of 80 db is shown in figure
ohms. Feedback may be placed around this 24C.
amplifier from the emitter of the second The transistor may also be used as a class -
stage to the base of the first stage, as shown A power amplifier, as shown in figure 25A.

2NI69 21069 2N324


NPN PNP NPN NPN PNP
tE 16v
275

S
101JF

5.6N 1.6M 1.61t 50


500.0 f LF
SPEAKER

Figure 24
COMPLEMENTARY - SYMMETRY AMPLIFIERS
NPN and PNP transistors may be combined in circuits which have no equivalent in
vacuum-tube design. Direst coupling between cascaded stages using a single
power-supply source may be employed, as in C. impedance of power
supply should be extremely low.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 113

Figure 25 2N404
I MAX
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR
TYPICAL CLASS -A DISSIPATION (Ic X Ec)

AUDIO POWER
OPERATING POINT
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
The correct operating point
is chosen so that output
signal can swing equally in Ec 2Ec
a positive or negative di- COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
rection, without exceeding
maximum collector dissipa-
tion.

Commercial transistors are available that point is thus approximately one -half the
will provide five or six watts of audio power supply voltage.
when operating from a 12 -volt supply. The The circuit of a typical push -pull class -B
smaller units provide power levels of a few transistor amplifier is shown in figure 26A.
milliwatts. The correct operating point is Push -pull operation is desirable for transistor
chosen so that the output signal can swing operation, since the even -order harmonics
equally in the positive and negative direc- are largely eliminated. This permits transis-
tions, as shown in the collector curves of tors to be driven into high collector current
figure 25B. regions without distortion normally caused
The proper primary impedance of the out- by nonlinearity of the collector. Crossover
put transformer depends on the amount of distortion is reduced to a minimum by pro-
power to be delivered to the load: viding a slight forward base bias in addition
E,'
E
to the normal emitter bias. The base bias
is usually less than 0.5 volt in most cases.
R" 2P Excessive base bias will boost the quiescent
The collector current bias is: collector current and thereby lower the
2P over -all efficiency of the stage.
I,. _ E,
The operating point of the class -B ampli-
fier is set on the Ie =O axis at the point
In a class -A output stage, the maximum where the collector voltage equals the sup-
a -c power output obtainable is limited to ply voltage. The collector-to- collector im-
0.5 the allowable dissipation of the transistor. pedance of the output transformer is:
The product ICE,. determines the maximum 2E,2
collector dissipation, and a plot of these R,_,. = P
values is shown in figure 25B. The load line
should always lie under the dissipation curve, In the class -B circuit, the maximum a -c
and should encompass the maximum possible power input is approximately equal to three
area between the axes of the graph for max- times the allowable collector dissipation of
imum output condition. In general, the load each transistor. Power transistors, such as the
line is tangent to the dissipation curve and 2N514 have collector dissipation ratings of
passes through the supply voltage point at 80 watts and operate with class -B efficiency
zero collector current. The d -c operating of about 67%. To achieve this level of

.7N
12 V

ZS'3000C.T Z P- S00 a C.T.

Figure 26

CLASS -B AUDIO AMPLIFIER


E 00MW
u
R:
LOAD LINE

NO S/GNAL
OPERATING
CIRCUITRY J
POINT
O
2N109
COLLECTOR VOLTAGE Ec

www.americanradiohistory.com
114 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
2N242 2N44I P.P. the alpha cutoff frequency of the units is
T
sufficiently higher than the operating fre-
PROM
quency. Shown in figure 28A is a typical i -f
SPEECH AMP amplifier employing an NPN transistor. The
collector current is determined by a voltage
divider on the base circuit and by a bias re-
sistor in the emitter leg. Input and output
are coupled by means of tuned i -f trans-
formers. Bypass capacitors are placed across
Figuro 27 the bias resistors to prevent signal- frequency
35-WATT MODULATOR degeneration. The base is connected to a
low- impedance untuned winding of the in-
T,-48 -ohm CT to 3/8/16 sec. use 3 -ohm tap put transformer, and the collector is con-
as CT (Thordarson TR -61). T,-6-ohm CT to 6k
(Triad TT -66A), Transistors mounted on heat nected to a tap on the output transformer
sink with mica washers. to provide proper matching, and also to
make the performance of the stage relative-
operation the heavy -duty transistor relies on ly independent of variations between tran-
efficient heat transfer from the transistor sistors of the same type. With a rate -grown
case to the chassis, using the large thermal NPN transistor such as the G.E. 2N293, it
capacity of the chassis as a heal sink. An in- is unnecessary to use neutralization to obtain
finite heat sink may be approximated by circuit stability. When PNP 'alloy tran-
mounting the transistor in the center of a sistors are used, it is necessary to neutralize
6" X 6" copper or aluminum sheet. This the circuit to obtain stability (figure 28B).
area may be part of a larger chassis. The gain of a transistor i -f amplifier will
The collector of most power transistors is decrease as the emitter current is decreased.
electrically connected to the case. For appli- This transistor property can be used to
cations where the collector is not grounded control the gain of an i -f amplifier so that
a thin sheet of mica may be used between weak and strong signals will produce the
the case of the transistor and the chassis. same audio output. A special i-f strip incor-
Large, inexpensive power transistors such porating this automatic volume control ac-
as the 2N441 may be used as modulators tion is shown in figure 29.
for medium power a -m mobile equipment. R -f transistors may be used as mixers or
Such a modulator is shown in figure 27. It autodyne converters much in the same man-
is capable of a power output of about 35 ner as vacuum tubes. The autodyne circuit
watts and is capable of plate modulating a is shown in figure 30. Transformer T1 feeds
70 -watt transmitter. back a signal from the collector to the
emitter causing oscillation. Capacitor C,
R-F Circuitry Transistors may be used for tunes the oscillator circuit to a frequency
radio-frequency work provided 45 5 kHz higher than that of the incoming

2N293
NPN y
TO
MIXER
OR
CONVERTER
-
bOVT.
MIXER
TO

OR
CONVERTER

ION !21{
+9V

Figurg 28

TRANSISTOR I -F AMPLIFIERS
Typical PNP transistor must be neutralized because of high collector capacitance.
Rate -grown NPN transistor does not usually require external neutralising
cirealt.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 115

1ST I -F STAGE 2ND -F STAGE


I

1N295 2N169 1 1 N295

~ 2N292 T-71
- 10 .0T
1 10
K

TO MIXER I
.05 .02=
.01 R1
\I-1(
.05 .05 R2 2.2 10
470 30 4.7K K K 50 470 '1.51(

A VC

62K
AUDIO OUT

-9 V.
Figure 29

AUTOMATIC -VOLUME -CONTROL CIRCUIT


An auxiliary diode AVC circuit is used to shunt a portion of the signal to ground at high
signal levels. Diode is back- biased by resistors R1 and R,.

signal. The local -oscillator signal is induc- currents of 0.6 ma to 0.8 ma are common,
tively coupled into the emitter circuit of and the local-oscillator injection voltage at
the transistor. The incoming signal is reso- the emitter is in the range of 0.15 to 0.25
nated in T2 and coupled via a low- imped- volt, rms.
ance winding to the base circuit. Notice that A receiver "front end" capable of opera-
the base is biased by a voltage- divider cir- tion through the 10 -meter band is shown
cuit much the same as is used in audio -fre- in figure 31. The inexpensive RCA type
quency operation. The two signals are mixed 2N1177 or 2N1180 transistors are used. If
in this stage and the desired beat frequency proper shielding is employed between the
of 455 kHz is selected by i -f transformer tuned circuits of the r -f stage and the
T, and passed to the next stage. Collector mixer, no neutralization of the r-f stage is
required. The complete assembly obtains
power from a 3 -volt battery. The base of
the r-f transistor is link- coupled to the r -f
coil to achieve proper impedance match.
The oscillator operates on its third harmonic
to produce an intermediate frequency of 1.6
MHz.
The epitaxial planar transistors of the
silicon NPN family have characteristics
TOI -F
which make them useful as general -purpose
AMPLIFIER
r-f amplifiers at frequencies up to 450 MHz
Ta or so. These characteristics include low noise
figure, low leakage current and a high gain -

bandwidth product. Shown in figure 32 is


a 220- or 432 -MHz r -f amplifier using the
Figure 30 2N3478. The amplifier requires no neutral-
ization and has a stage gain of over 15 db
THE AUTODYNE CONVERTER CIRCUIT with a noise figure (NF) of 4.5 db at 220
USING A 2N168A AS A MIXER MHz and 5 db at 432 MHz.

www.americanradiohistory.com
116 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
14 MHz 2N1177 (R-F) 14 MHz 2N1177 (MIX.) 1.6 MHz

2N1177 (osc.)
50

22

2.7K 1470 (5.1 -5.4 MHz) X 3

47 K Too1
_ _ +3V.
Figure 31

RECEIVER "FRONT END" FOR USE UP TO 30 MHz

Transistor Sufficient coupling of the proper transistor oscillators are shown in figure 33.
Oscillators phase between input and output A simple grounded-emitter Hartley oscil-
circuits of the transistor will per- lator having positive feedback between the
mit oscillation up to and slightly above the base and the collector (33A) is compared
alpha cutoff frequency. Various forms of to a grounded -base Hartley oscillator (33B).
In each case the resonant tank circuit is
common to the input and output circuits of
2N3478
the transistor. Self -bias of the transistor is
employed in both these circuits.
ANT.
A typical transistor crystal oscillator and
frequency -multiplier circuit are shown in
figure 34. The 2N707 NPN transistor op-
erates at 25 MHz, driving a 2N2218 doubler
to 50 MHz and a 2N2786 amplifier. Crystal
CR1 is for bias stabilization.
The point- contact transistor exhibits neg-
K T .001 ative input and output resistances over part
6 V.
of its operating range, due to its unique
Figure 32 ability to multiply the input current. Th;s
characteristic affords the use of oscillator
VHF LOW -NOISE TRANSISTOR PREAMPLIFIER circuitry having no external feedback paths
Collector voltage and base bias are adjusted for (figure 35). A high- impedance resonant
best noise fleure. circuit in the base lead produces circuit in-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 117

RFC
1-3 K

RFC

O O
Figure 33

TYPICAL TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS


A- Grounded -emitter Hartley. B- Grounded -base Hartley. C -2N247 oscillator suitable for
50 -MHz operation.

2N707 2N2218 50 MHz 2N2786 S0 M/4

/ WATT
1-2F
R OUTPUT

12 v

Figure 34

50 -MHz TRANSISTORIZED EXCITER

2N33 POINT -CONTACT


POINT -CONTACT TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR
RFC
2

30
-9V.

270

O O
Figure 35 Figure 36

NEGATIVE RESISTANCE OF RELAXATION OSCILLATOR USING


POINT- CONTACT TRANSISTOR POINT -CONTACT OR SURFACE -
PERMITS HIGH -FREQUENCY BARRIER TRANSISTOR
OSCILLATION (50 MHZ) WITHOUT
NECESSITY OF EXTERNAL FEEDBACK Relaxation Transistors have almost unlim-
PATH Oscillators ited use in relaxation and RC
oscillator service. The negative -
stability and oscillation at the resonant fre- resistance characteristic of the point -contact
quency of the LC circuit. Positive emitter transistor makes it well suited to such ap-
bias is used to ensure thermal circuit stabil- plication. Surface -barrier transistors are also
ity. widely used in this service, as they have the

www.americanradiohistory.com
118 Semiconductor Devices THE RADIO
-E
+E
z
POSITIVE
TRIGGER
PULSE

II IOR 10
OuT

NPN
10R
__ e PNP P NP
0 10 R

Figuro 37

TRANSISTOR BLOCKING OSCILLATOR (A)


AND ECCLES -JORDAN BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR (B)
High-alpha transistors must be employed in counting circuits to reduce effects of storage
time caused by transit lag in transistor base.

highest alpha cutoff frequency among the ploying surface -barrier transistors may be
group of "alpha -less- than -unity" transistors. driven between `off" and "on" positions by
Relaxation oscillators used for high -speed an exciting pulse as shown in figure 37B.
counting require transistors capable of op- The first pulse drives the "on" transistor into
eration at repetition rates off to 10 MHz. saturation. This transistor remains in a
A simple emitter -controlled relaxation os- highly conductive state until the second
cillator is shown in figure 36, together with exciting pulse arrives. The transistor does
its operating characteristic. The emitter of not immediately return to the cutoff state,
the transistor is biased to cutoff at the start since a time lapse occurs before the output
of the cycle (point 1). The charge on the waveform starts to decrease, This storage
emitter capacitor slowly leaks to ground time is caused by the transit lag of the
through emitter resistor R,. Discharge time minority carriers in the base of the transis-
is determined by the time constant of R,C,. tor. Proper circuit design and the use of
When the emitter voltage drops sufficiently high -alpha transistors can reduce the effects
low to permit the transistor to reach the of storage time to a minimum. Driving
negative- resistance region (point 2) the pulses may be coupled to the multivibrator
emitter and collector resistances drop to a through steering diodes as shown in the
low value, and the collector current is lim-
illustration.
ited only by collector resistor R2. The col-
lector current is abruptly reduced by the
charging action of emitter capacitor C, 5 -7 The Field
(point 3) , bringing the circuit back to the Effect Transistor
original operating point. The "spike" of
collector current is produced during the The Field Effect Transistor (FET) , or
charging period of C1. The duration of the unipolar transistor, is an N- or P- channel
pulse and the pulse- repetition frequency amplifying device that modulates the flow
(p.r.f.) are controlled by the values of C,, of current in a semiconductor channel by
R1, R2, and R3.
Transistors may also be used as blocking establishing regions of depletion (lack of
oscillators (figure 37A). The oscillator may current carriers: holes or electrons) between
be synchronized by coupling the locking the electron source and the drain. Depletion
signal to the base circuit of the transistor. control is exercised by a gate consisting of
An oscillator of this type may be used to a junction of opposite intrinsic material sand-

drive a flip -flop circuit as a counter. An wiching part of the conducting path (fig-
Eccles- Jordan bistable flip -flop circuit em- ure 38).

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Field Effect Transistor 119

bias, the depletion region is nearly com-


plete and the channel is pinched -off, or re-
SOURCE GATE DRAIN
CHANNEL
duced. In effect, the conductive cross -section
of the channel is controlled by the bias sig-
nal. This action is analogous to that of the
vacuum tube, where a potential on the grid
affects the plate current, but the charge
+ DEPLETION
REG ION
carrying the signal does not flow in the
region between cathode and plate to any
significant extent.
The input resistance of the FET is ex-
N- CHANNEL P- CHANNEL
tremely high -of the order of several meg-
ohms. The output impedance is somewhat
D
lower and is proportional to the ratio of
G
s
change in drain voltage to change in drain
currents at a fixed value of gate-bias voltage.
Figure 38 This change may be compared to transcon-
Depletion control is exercised by a "gate" of ductance in the vacuum -tube sense. Electri-
opposite intrinsic material across the cally, the FET is comparable to a pentode
conducting path. tube having high input and output imped-
ances. The Field Effect Transistor exhibits
When external reverse bias is applied, the good immunity to cross- modulation and is
region of depletion extends into the con- well suited for use as an hf or vhf r -f
ducting path, thus restricting the carrier amplifier in receivers. Typical FET r -f am-
flow through the channel. At maximum gate plifier circuits are shown in figure 39.

2N3823

ANT.

+9V. +9V.

Figure 39
TYPICAL FET R -F AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

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CHAPTER SIX

Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers

6 -1 Vacuum -Tube
Parameters Ebb - Electrode Potentials
d -c plate-supply voltage (a positive
quantity)
The ability of the control grid of a vacu- E -d -c grid- supply voltage (a negative
um tube to control large amounts of plate
power with a small amount of grid energy -
Eg,,,
quantity)
peak grid excitation voltage (V2 total
allows the vacuum tube to be used as an
amplifier. It is this ability of vacuum tubes
to amplify an extremely small amount of
Epm -
peak -to -peak grid swing)
peak plate voltage (V2 total peak -to-
peak plate swing)
e,-
energy up to almost any level, without
change in anything except amplitude, which
makes the vacuum tube such an extremely
e5--
epmi
instantaneous plate potential
instantaneous grid potential
minimum instantaneous plate volt-

p-
valuable adjunct to modern electronics and age
communication. eg, maximum positive instantaneous grid
voltage
As an assistance in simplify - E,-
Symbols for
Vacuum -Tube ing and shortening expressions
Parameters involving vacuum -tube pa-
Eg
Et.
-- static plate voltage
static grid voltage
cutoff bais
rameters, the following sym-
bols will be used throughout this book: Electrode Currents
lb-
-- Tube Constants
amplification factor -- average plate current
1 average grid current
RP
-- plate resistance
g, transconductance
Ipm
max -peak fundamental plate current
maximum instantaneous plate cur-

- -- -
ag grid- screen mu factor rent
ge conversion transconductance (mixer igmax maximum instantaneous grid current
tube) Ip static plate current

Cgi,-- Interelectrode Capacitances


grid -cathode capacitance
Ig static grid current

C59
-- grid -plate capacitance
Co plate -cathode capacitance
Ci input capacitance (tetrode or pen-
Pi
P.-
- Other Symbols
plate power input
plate power output
P,-
C t- tode)

tode)
output capacitance (tetrode or pen- Pit- plate dissipation
grid- driving power (grid plus bias
losses)

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CoP:T:
r--
1

TRIODE
CPK
Ciw
---
Cw,-

:
-
r--1

L._ _
.

- -,
PENTODE OR TETRODE
I

`
i
CouT
Vacuum -Tube Parameters

the Cgv feedback capacitance. The total


value for an audio-amplifier stage can be
expressed in the following equation:

Cgkldynamic)

where,
Cgk is the
- Cgk(static) + (A +

grid -to- cathode capacitance,


1)
121

Co

Cgv is the grid -to -plate capacitance,


Figure 1
A is the stage gain.
STATIC INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES
This expression assumes that the vacuum
WITHIN A TRIODE, PENTODE, OR
tube is operating into a resistive load such
TETRODE
as would be the case with an audio stage

--
working into a resistance plate load in the
Pg, grid dissipation middle audio range.
plate efficiency (expressed as a deci- The more complete expression for the in-

Bp --
mal)
one -half angle of plate- current flow
put admittance (vector sum of capacitance
and resistance) of an amplifier operating into

--
19g one -half angle of grid-current flow any type of plate load is as follows:
RL load resistance
ZL load impedance input capacitance = Cgk+ (1 + A cos B) Cgp

Vacuum -Tube The relationships between cer-


Constants tain of the electrode potentials
input resistance = Cgv /
and currents within a vacuum A sin O
tube are reasonably constant under specified
conditions of operation. These relationships where,
are called vacuum -tube constants and are Cgk equalsgrid -to- cathode capacitance,
listed in the data published by the manufac- Cgv equalsgrid -to-plate capacitance,
turers of vacuum tubes. The defining equa- A equals voltage amplification of the tube
tions for the basic vacuum -tube constants alone,
are given in Chapter Four. B of the plate -load impedance,
equals angle
positive for inductive loads, negative for
Interelectrode The values of interelectrode capacitive.
Capacitances and capacitance published in
Miller Effect vacuum -tube tables are the It can be seen from the above that if the
static values measured, in plate -load impedance of the stage is capaci-
the case of triodes for example, as shown in tive or inductive, there will be a resistive
figure 1. The static capacitances are simply component in the input admittance of the
as shown in the drawing, but when a tube stage. The resistive component of the input
is operating as amplifier there is another con- admittance will be positive (tending to load
sideration known as Miller Effect which the circuit feeding the grid) if the load
causes the dynamic input capacitance to be impedance of the plate is capacitive, or it
different from the static value. The output will be negative (tending to make the stage
capacitance of an amplifier is essentially the oscillate) if the load impedance of the plate
same as the static value given in the pub- is inductive.
lished tube tables. The grid -to-plate capaci-
tance is also the same as the published static Neutralization Neutralization of the effects
value, but since Cgv acts as a small ca- of Interelectrode of interelectrode capacitance
pacitance coupling energy back from the Capacitance is employed most frequently
plate circuit to the grid circuit, the dynamic in the case of radio -fre-
input capacitance is equal to the static value quency power amplifiers. Before the intro-
plus an amount (frequently much greater in duction of the tetrode and pentode tube,
the case of a triode) determined by the gain triodes were employed as neutralized class-A
of the stage, the plate load impedance, and amplifiers in receivers. Except for vhf opera-

www.americanradiohistory.com
122 Vacuum -tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

tion of low -noise triodes, this practice has linear r -f amplifiers. Gain is lower and dis-
been largely superseded through the use of tortion higher than for class -A amplifiers.
tetrode and pentode tubes in which the Cr;, Class -AB,A class -AB2 amplifier is operated
or feedback capacitance has been reduced to Amplifier under essentially the same condi-
such a low value that neutralization of its
tions of grid bias as the class-AB,
effects is not necessary to prevent oscillation
amplifier mentioned above, but the exciting
and instability.
voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur-
rent flows over an appreciable portion of
6 -2 Classes and Types of the input wave cycle.
Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers
Class -B A class -B amplifier is biased sub -
Vacuum -tube amplifiers are grouped into Amplifier stantially to cutoff of plate cur-
various classes and subclasses according to rent (without exciting voltage) so
the type of work they are intended to per- that plate current flows essentially over one -
form. The difference between the various half the input voltage cycle. The operating
classes is determined primarily by the angle angle of plate- current flow is 180 . The
of plate- current flow, of average grid bias class -B amplifier is usually excited to the
employed, and the maximum value of the extent that grid current flows.
exciting signal to be impressed on the grid.
Class -C A class -C amplifier is biased to a
Class -A A class -A amplifier is an amplifier Amplifier value greater than the value re-
Amplifier biased and supplied with excitation quired for plate-current cutoff
of such amplitude that plate cur- and is excited with a signal of such ampli-
rent flows continuously (360 of the excit- tude that grid current flows over an appreci-
ing voltage waveshape) and grid current able period of the input -voltage waveshape.
does not flow at any time. Such an amplifier The angle of plate- current flow in a class -C
is normally operated in the center of the amplifier is appreciably less than 180 , or
grid- voltage plate -current transfer charac- in other words, plate current flows appreci-
teristic and gives an output waveshape which ably less than one -half the time. Class -C
is a substantial replica of the input wave- amplifiers are not capable of linear amplifica-
shape. tion as their output waveform is not a rep-
lica of the input voltage for all signal ampli-
Class -A operation is employed in most tudes.
small -signal applications such as in receivers
and exciters. This mode of operation is char- Types of There are three general types of
acterized by high gain, low distortion, and Amplifiers amplifier circuits in use. These
low efficiency. Class -A mode may be further types are classified on the basis
subdivided into A, and A2 operation signify- of the return for the input and output cir-
ing the degree of grid drive on the stage, cuits. Conventional amplifiers are called
with the A2 mode signifying grid drive ap- grid-driven amplifiers, with the cathode ac-
proaching the class -AB, mode. ting as the common return for both the in-
put and output circuits. The second type is
Class -AB, This is an amplifier operated known as a plate- return amplifier or cathode
Amplifier under such conditions of grid
bias and exciting voltage that
plate current flows for more than one -half
the input voltage cycle but for less than
the complete cycle. In other words the
operating angle of plate current flow is ap-
preciably greater than 180 but less than
360 . The suffix , indicates that grid current Figure 2
does not flow over any portion of the input
TYPES OF BIAS SYSTEMS
cycle.
A - Grid bias
Class-AB,operation is utilized in most high - Cathode Has
quality, medium -power audio amplifiers and C - Grid-leak bias

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Classes of Amplifiers 123

follower since the plate circuit is effectively drops from an infinite value to a very low
at ground for the input and output signai value (on the order of 1000 ohms or so)
voltages and the output voltage or power is making the charging time constant of the
taken between cathode and plate. The third capacitor very short. This enables Cg to
type is called a cathode -driven or grounded - charge up to essentially the full value of the
grid amplifier since the grid is effectively at positive input voltage and results in the grid
ground potential for input and output sig- (which is connected to the low -potential
nals and output is taken between grid and plate of the capacitor) being held essentially
plate. at ground potential. During the negative
swing of the input signal no grid current
6 -3 Biasing Methods flows and the discharge path of Cg is through
the grid resistance which has a value of
The difference in potential between grid 500,000 ohms or so. The discharge time con-
and cathode is called the grid bias of a vacu- stant for Cg is, therefore, very long in com-
um tube. There are three general methods parison to the period of the input signal and
of providing this bias voltage. In each of only a small part of the charge on Cg is lost.
these methods the purpose is to establish the Thus, the bias voltage developed by the dis-
grid at a potential with respect to the cath- charge of Cg is substantially constant and
ode which will place the tube in the desired the grid is not permitted to follow the posi-
operating condition as determined by its tive portions of the input signal.
characteristics.
Grid bias may be obtained from a source
of voltage specially provided for this pur-
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers
pose, such as a battery or other d -c power
supply. This method is illustrated in figure There are three main types of distortion
2A, and is known as fixed bias. that may occur in amplifiers: frequency dis-
A second biasing method is illustrated in tortion, phase distortion and amplitude dis-
figure 2B which utilizes a cathode resistor tortion.
across which an IR drop is developed as a Frequency Frequency distortion may occur
result of plate current flowing through it. Distortion when some frequency compo-
The cathode of the tube is held at a positive nents of a signal are amplified
potential with respect to ground by the more than others. Frequency distortion oc-
amount of the IR drop because the grid is curs at low frequencies if coupling capaci-
at ground potential. Since the biasing volt- tors between stages are too small, or it may
age depends on the flow of plate current the
occur at high frequencies as a result of the
tube cannot be held in a cutoff condition shunting effects of the distributed capacities
by means of the cathode bias voltage devel- in the circuit.
oped across the cathode resistor. The value
of this resistor is determined by the bias Phase In figure an input signal con-
3
required and the plate current which flows Distortion sisting of a fundamental and a
at this value of bias, as found from the third harmonic is passed through
tube characteristic curves. A capacitor is a two -stage amplifier. Although the ampli-
shunted across the bias resistor to provide a tudes of both components are amplified by
low -impedance path to ground for the a -c identical ratios, the output waveshape is
component of the plate current which re- considerably different from the input signal
sults from an a -c input signal on the grid. because the phase of the third -harmonic
The third method of providing a biasing signal has been shifted with respect to the
voltage is shown in figure 2C, and is called fundamental signal. This phase shift is
grid-leak bias. During the portion of the known as phase distortion, and is caused
input cycle which causes the grid to be posi- principally by the coupling circuits between
tive with respect to the cathode, grid cur- the stages of the amplifier. Most coupling
rent flows from cathode to grid, charging circuits shift the phase of a sine wave, but
capacitor Cg. When the grid draws current, this has no effect on the shape of the out-
the grid -to- cathode resistance of the tube put wave. However, when a complex wave

www.americanradiohistory.com
124 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

INPUT
SIGNAL

Figure 4
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE -
CAPACITANCE COUPLED TRIODE
Figure 3 AMPLIFIER STAGE

illustration of the effect of phase distortion on


input wave containing a third- harmonic signal Amplitude If a signal is passed through a
Distortion vacuum tube that is operating
is passedthrough the same coupling circuit on any nonlinear part of its
each component frequency of the wave characteristic, amplitude distortion will oc-
shape may be shifted in phase by a differen, cur. In such a region, a change in grid
amount so that the output wave is not a voltage does not result in a change in plate
faithful reproduction of the input wave - current which is directly proportional to the
shape. change in grid voltage. For example, if an

RL RG
G A=
Re (RL+RG)+RL RG
E 11EG

MID -FREQUENCY RANGE

A HIGH FRED.
COK
(DYNAMIC. A WO FRED.
11--LEG NEXT STAGE) (I+ (REQ /XS)2

Ri.
REP-
RL RL
HIGH- FREQUENCY RANGE 1t
RG Re

Xs -
277r (CPK +CGK (DYNAMIC)

A LOW FRED. I
G
A MID FRED.
E=-JJEG J 1 +(XC /R)2
Xc = I
2 nrcc
LOW- FREQUENCY RANGE
RL RP
R = RG+ RL+ RP

Figure 5
Equivalent circuits and gain equations for a triode RC- coupled amplifier stage. In using these
equations, be sure the values of and Rp are proper for the static and voltages with
which the tube will operate. These values may be obtained from curves published in the RCA
Receiving Tube Manual (series RC).

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK RC- Coupled Amplifiers 125

amplifier is excited with a signal that over- that is low with respect to the cathode re-
drives the tubes, the resultant signal is dis- sistor at the lowest frequency to be passed
torted in amplitude, since the tubes are then by the amplifier stage.
operating over a nonlinear portion of their
characteristic.

6 -5 Resistance -
Capacitance Coupled
Audio- Frequency Amplifiers
Present practice in the design of audio -
frequency voltage amplifiers is almost ex- Figure 6
clusively to use resistance-capacitance
coupling between the low -level stages. Both STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE -
CAPACITANCE COUPLED PENTODE
triodes and pentodes are used; triode ampli-
fier stages will be discussed first. AMPLIFIER STAGE

RC- Coupled Figure 4 illustrates the stand -


Triode Stages and circuit for a resistance - RC-Coupled Figure 6 illustrates the stand -
capacitance coupled amplifier Pentode Stages and circuit for a resistance -
stage utilizing a triode tube with cathode capacitance coupled pentode
bias. In conventional audio- frequency ampli- amplifier stage. Cathode bias is used and the
fier design such stages are used at medium screen voltage is supplied through a drop-
voltage levels (from 0.01 to 5 volts peak on ping resistor from the plate -voltage supply.
the grid of the tube) and use medium -p. In conventional audio-frequency amplifier
triodes such as the 6C4 or high-/z triodes design such stages are normally used at low
such as the 6B4 or 12AT7. Normal volt- voltage levels (from 0.00001 to 0.1 volts
age gain for a single stage of this type is peak on the grid of the tube) and use mode -
from 10 to 70, depending on the tube chosen rate -g,,, pentodes such as the 6AU6. Normal
and its operating conditions. Triode tubes voltage gain for a stage of this type is from
are normally used in the last voltage- ampli- 60 to 250, depending on the tube chosen and
fier stage of an RC amplifier since their its operating conditions. Pentode tubes are
harmonic distortion with large output volt- ordinarily used in the first stage of an RC
age (25 to 75 volts) is less than with a amplifier, where the high gain which they
pentode tube. afford is of greatest advantage, and where
only a small voltage output is required from
Voltage Gain The voltage gain per stage of the stage.
per Stage a resistance -capacitance cou- The voltage gain per stage of a resistance -
pled triode amplifier can be capacitance coupled pentode amplifier can be
calculated with the aid of the equivalent calculated with the aid of the equivalent cir-
circuits and expressions for the mid -fre- cuits and expressions for the mid -frequency,
quency, high- frequency, and low- frequency high- frequency, and low- frequency ranges
ranges given in figure 5. given in figure 7.
A triode RC- coupled amplifier stage is To assist the designer of such stages, data
normally operated with values of cathode re- on operating conditions for commonly used
sistor and plate -load resistor such that the types of tubes is published in the RCA Re-
actual voltage on the tube is approximately ceiving Tube Manual, RC- series. It is as-
one -half the d -c plate -supply voltage. To sumed, in the case of the gain equations of
assist the designer of such stages, data on figure 7, that cathode bypass capacitor CI,
operating conditions for commonly used his a reactance that is low with respect to
tubes is published in the RCA Receiving the cathode resistor at the lowest frequency
Tube Manual. It is assumed, in the case of to be passed by the stage. It is additionally
the gain equations of figure 5, that the cath- assumed that the reactance of screen bypass
ode bypass capacitor (Ck) has a reactance capacitor Cd is low with respect to screen

www.americanradiohistory.com
126 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
dropping resistor Rd at the lowest frequency
to be passed by the amplifier stage. 100 1. RL= 500000 OHMS

2_RL= 100000 OHMS


3. RL= so 000 OHMS
4 RL= 20000 OHMS
Cascaded Voltage -When voltage- amplifier
Amplifier Stages stages are operated in such
manner that the output
a zSO
voltage of the firstis fed to the grid of the
second, and so forth, such stages are said to
be cascaded. The total voltage gain of cas-
caded amplifier stages is obtained by taking
the product of the voltage gains of each of 0 100 '000 10000 ,00000
the successive stages. FREQUENCY (H:)
Sometimes the voltage gain of an amplifier
stage is rated in decibels. Voltage gain is con-
verted into decibel gain through the use of Figure 8
the following expression: db = 20 log, A,
Thevariation of stage gain with frequency in
where A is the voltage gain of the stage. Thk an RC- coupled pentode amplifier for various
total gain of cascaded voltage -amplifier values of plate load resistance.
stages can be obtained by adding the number
of db gain in each of the cascaded stages.
attenuate the lower voice frequencies for
communication purposes. For high -fidelity
RC Amplifier Atypical frequency- response work the product of the grid resistor in
Response curve for an RC- coupled audio ohms times the coupling capacitor in micro -
amplifier is shown in figure 8. farads should equal 25,000 (i.e.: 500,000
It is seen that the amplification is poor for ohms X 0.05 ofd = 25,000).
the extreme high and low frequencies. The The amplification of high frequencies falls
reduced gain at the low frequencies is caused off because of the Miller effect of the sub-
by the loss of voltage across the coupling sequent stage, and the shunting effect of
capacitor. In some cases, a low -value cou- residual circuit capacities. Both of these ef-
pling capacitor is deliberately chosen to re- fects may be minimized by the use of a low -
duce the response of the stage to hum, or to value plate -load resistor.

I= -GMEc

A = GM Rep

y
G
RED = RC
+R+
e Re
Figure 7
MID -FREQUENCY RANGE
Equivalent circuits and
gain equations for a
pentode RC- coupled am- I= -GMEG
plifier stage. In using A HIGH FRED
these equations be sure A MID reED +(REQ /X5)2
to select the values of r 1

g R which are
proper for the static REQ=
+ HL
currents and voltages 1
RD + Re
with which the tube will HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE
operate. These values Xs - 1

27rr (CRH+CGH (DYNAMIC)


may be obtained from
curves published in the
RCA Receiving Tube
A LOw rREQ. _
Manual RC- series. A mie FREQ. 1/ 1 +()(C/ R )2

XC -
27rr Cc
LOW -FREQUENCY RANGE RR
R = RG + RL
RL+Rv

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HANDBOOK Video -Frequency Amplifiers 127

Grid -Leak Bias The correct operating uniform amplification for frequencies in the
for High -Mu Triodes bias for a high -mu tri- audio range of about 100 to 20,000 Hz.
ode such as the 12AT7, Changes in the values of coupling capacitors
is fairly critical, and will be found to be and load resistors can extend this frequency
highly variable from tube to tube because range to cover the very wide range required
of minute variations in contact potential for video service. However, extension of the
within the tube itself. A satisfactory bias range can only be obtained at the cost of
method is to use grid -leak bias, with a grid reduced over -all amplification. Thus RC cou-
resistor of one to ten megohms connected pling allows good frequency response with
directly between grid and cathode of the minimum distortion, but low amplification.
tube with the cathode grounded. Grid cur- Phase distortion is less with RC coupling
rent flows at all times, and the effective in- than with other types, except direct coup-
put resistance is about one -half the resis- ling. The RC amplifier may exhibit tenden-
tance value of the grid leak. This circuit is cies to motorboat or oscillate if it is used
particularly well suited as a high -gain amp- with a high- impedance plate supply.
lifier following low- output devices, such as
crystal, or dynamic microphones. 6 -6 Video -Frequency
RC Amplifier A resistance - capaci- Amplifiers
General Characteristicstance coupled ampli-
fier can be designed A video- frequency amplifier is one which
to provide a good frequency response for has been designed to pass frequencies from
almost any desired range. For instance, such the lower audio range (lower limit perhaps
SO Hz) to the middle r -f range (upper
an amplifier can be built to provide a fairly
limit perhaps 4 to 6 MHz) . Such amplifiers,
in addition to passing such an extremely
wide frequency range, must be capable of
amplifying this range with a minimum of
amplitude, phase, and frequency distortion.
Video amplifiers are commonly used in tele-
vision, pulse communication, and radar
work.
Tubes used in video amplifiers must have
a high ratio of g,0 to capacitance if a usable
MIO-rNtOUtNCT GAIN GMVI RL
gain per stage is to be obtained. Commonly
NIGH-rNCDUCNCTGAIN Gm TI ICOUALINGNCTWONH
available tubes which have been designed
C CouTVI.C,NV?.CDISTRIBUTED for or are suitable for use in video amplifiers
FOR c0rPRorlst HIG.rI1COUtNC. cowLl:wTION are: 6AU6, 6AGS, 6AKS, 6CB6, 6BC5,
XL,.. 0 AL AT rc
6DE6, and 6AH6. Since, at the upper fre-
RL xc rc
AT
quency limits of a video amplifier the input
WHORL rc CuTOrr.RCDUCHCT Or AMPLIFIER
and output shunting capacitances of the
LL REARING INDUCTOR
amplifier tubes have rather low values of re-
FOR COMPROMISE LOW[wCOUCNCT EQUALIZATION
actance, low values of coupling resistance,
R, RN (Grvl RL)
along with peaking coils or other special in-
RO C. RR Ce
terstage coupling impedances, are usually
CR if TO 50 LID IN WITH 001 NOCA

Cg CAAUTANCC wwvt WITH


used to flatten out the gain /frequency and
FROM DOI MICA IN
hence the phase /frequency characteristic of
Figure 9 the amplifier. Recommended operating con-
ditions along with expressions for calcula-
SIMPLE COMPENSATED VIDEO
tion of gain and circuit values are given in
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
figure 9. Only a simple two -terminal inter -
Resistor R, In contunelon with coil L, servos stage coupling network is shown in this
to flatten the high -frequency response of the figure.
stage, while C0 and R8 to equalize the
low -frequency response of this simple video The performance and gain per stage of a
amplifier stage. video amplifier can be improved by the use

www.americanradiohistory.com
128 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

of increasingly complex two-terminal inter - Push -Pull Transformer Push-pull transformer


stage coupling networks or through the use Interstage Coupling coupling between two
of four -terminal coupling networks or filters stages is illustrated in
between successive stages. The reader is re- figure IOC. This interstage coupling arrange-
ferred to Terman's "Radio Engineer's Hand- ment is fairly commonly used. The system
book" for design data on such interstage is particularly effective when it is desired, as
coupling networks. in the system just described, to obtain a
rather high voltage to excite the grids of a
high -power audio stage. The arrangement is
6 -7 Other Interstage also very good when it is desired to apply
Coupling Methods feedback to the grids of the push-pull stage
by applying the feedback voltage to the low -
potential sides of the two push -pull second-
Figure 10 illustrates, in addition to resist- aries.
ance- capacitance interstage coupling, seven
additional methods in which coupling be- Impedance Impedance coupling between two
tween two successive stages of an audio - Coupling stages is shown in figure 10D.
frequency amplifier may be accomplished. This circuit arrangement is sel-
Although RC coupling is most commonly dom used, but it offers one strong advantage
used, there are certain circuit conditions over RC interstage coupling. This advantage
wherein coupling methods other than RC is the fact that the operating voltage on the
are more effective. tube with the impedance in the plate circuit
is equal to the plate -supply voltage, and it is

Transformer possible to obtain approximately twice the


Transformer coupling, as illus-
Coupling peak voltage output that is possible to ob-
trated in figure 10B, is seldom tain with RC coupling. This is because, as
used at the present time be- has been mentioned before, the d -c plate
tween two successive single -ended stages of
voltage on an RC stage is approximately one -
an audio amplifier. There are several reasons
half the plate supply voltage.
why resistance coupling is favored over
transformer coupling between two successive Impedance-Transformer These two circuit gr-
single -ended stages. These are: (1) a trans- and Resistance-Trans- rangements, illus-
former having frequency characteristics former Coupling trated in figures 10E
comparable with a properly designed RC and 10F, are em-
stage is very expensive; (2) transformers, ployed when it is desired to use transformer
unless they are very well shielded, will pick coupling for the reasons cited above, but
up inductive hum from nearby power and where it is desired that the d -c plate current
filament transformers; (3) the phase charac- of the amplifier stage be isolated from the
teristics of step -up interstage transformers primary of the coupling transformer. With
are poor, making very difficult the inclusion most types of high -permeability wide re-
of a transformer of this type within a feed- sponse transformers it is necessary that there
back loop; and (4) transformers are heavy. be no d -c flow through the windings of the
However, there is one circuit application transformer. The impedance-transformer ar-
where a step -up interstage transformer is of rangement of figure 10E will give a higher
considerable assistance to the designer; this voltage output from the stage but is not
is the case where it is desired to obtain a often used since the plate coupling imped-
large amount of voltage to excite the grid of ance (choke) must have very high induc-
a cathode follower or of a high -power class - tance and very low distributed capacitance
A amplifier from a tube operating at a in order not to restrict the range of the
moderate plate voltage. Under these condi- transformer which it and its associated tube
tions it is possible to obtain a peak voltage feed. The resistance- transformer arrange-
on the secondary of the transformer of a ment of figure 10F is ordinarily satis-
value somewhat greater than the d -c plate - factory where it is desired to feed a trans-
supply voltage of the tube supplying the former from a voltage -amplifier stage with
primary of the transformer. no direct current in the transformer primary.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I nterstage Coupling Methods 129

O RESISTANCE- CAPACITANCE COUPLING pB TRANSFORMER COUPLING

+e
PUSH -PULL TRANSFORMER COUPLING QD IMPEDANCE COUPLING

+8 +8
IMPEDANCE- TRANSFORMER COUPLING FO RESISTANCE- TRANSFORMER COUPLING

113

O CATHODE COUPLING OH D RECT COUPLING

Figure 10

INTERSTAGE COUPLING METHODS FOR AUDIO -FREQUENCY VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Cathode The cathode -coupling arrangement aient triode obtained through the use of a
Coupling of figure 10G has been widely used pair of similar triodes connected in the cath-
only comparatively recently. One ode- coupled circuit shown. With these equiv-
outstanding characteristic of such a circuit alent triode factors it is possible to use the
is that there is no phase reversal between the expressions shown in figure 5 to determine
grid and the plate circuit. All other common the gain of the stage at different frequencies.
types of interstage coupling are accompanied The input capacitance of such a stage is less
Dy a 180 phase reversal between the grid than that of one of the triodes, the effective
circuit and the plate circuit of the tube. grid -to -plate capacitance is very much less
Figure 11 gives the expressions for deter- (it is so much less that such a stage may be
mining the appropriate factors for an equiv- used as an r-f amplifier without neutraliza-

www.americanradiohistory.com
130 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

the fact that the grid of an amplifier stage


must be operated at an average negative po-
tential with respect to the cathode of that
stage. However, if the cathode of the sec-
ond amplifier stage can be operated at a po-
tential more positive than the plate of the
preceding stage by the amount of the grid
Gw - -
2-5 G
RK
RK Gm (1+L )
CATHODE RESISTOR
bias on the second amplifier stage, this direct
connection between the plate of one stage
and the grid of the succeeding stage can be
RP'= RP GM Gu or EACH TUBE
G+1
L L OP EACH TUSE
used. Figure 10H illustrates an application
LP -L RP RP Of EACH TUSE of this principle in the coupling of a pen-
tode amplifier stage to the grid of a hot -
EQUIVALENT /ACTORS INDICATED ABOVE BY (')
ARC
THOSE OBTAINED ST USING AN AMPLI FIER WITH A PAIR
OF SIMILAR TUBE TYPES IN CIRCUIT SHOWN ABOVE.
cathode phase inverter. In this arrangement
the values of cathode, screen, and plate re-
sistors in the pentode stage are chosen so
Figure 11
that the plate of the pentode is at approxi-
Equivaled factors for a pair of sf lI r triodes mately one -third of the plate supply poten-
operating asa cathode- coupled audio - tial. The succeeding phase- inverter stage then
frequency voltage amplifior.
operates with conventional values of cathode
and plate resistor (same value of resistance)
tion), and the output capacitance is approxi- in its normal manner. This type of phase in-
mately equal to the grid -to -plate capacitance verter is described in more detail in the sec-
of one of the triode sections. This circuit is tion to follow.
particularly effective with tubes such as the
6J6, 12A7, and 12AT7, which have two 6 -8 Phase Inverters
similar triodes in one envelope. An appropri-
ate value of cathode resistor to use for such
In order to excite the grids of a push -pull
a stage is the value which would be used for
the cathode resistor of a conventional ampli- stage it is necessary that voltages equal in
fier using one of the same type tubes with amplitude and opposite in polarity be applied
the values of plate voltage and load resist- to the two grids. These voltages may be ob-
ance to be used for the cathode -coupled tained through the use of a push -pull input
stage.
transformer such as is shown in figure IOC.
Inspection of the equations in figure 11 It is possible also, without the attendant
shows that as the cathode resistor is made bulk and expense of a push -pull input trans-
smaller to approach zero, the g,,, approaches former, to obtain voltages of the proper po-
zero, the plate resistance approaches the RP larity and phase through the use of a so-
called phase-inverter stage. There are a large
of one tube, and the approaches zero.
Since the cathode resistor is made very large
number of phase -inversion circuits which
have been developed and applied but the
the g,,, approaches one -half that of a single
three shown in figure 12 have been found
tube of the same type, the plate resistance
approaches twice that of one tube, and the over a period of time to be the most satis-
approaches the same value as one tube. factory from the point of view of the num-
But since the gm of each tube decreases as ber of components required and from the
standpoint of the accuracy with which the
the cathode resistor is made larger (the plate
current will decrease on each tube) the two out -of -phase voltages are held to the
same amplitude with variations in supply
optimum value of cathode resistor will be
voltage and changes in tubes.
found to be in the vicinity of the value
All of these vacuum -tube phase inverters
mentioned in the previous paragraph.
are based on the fact that a 180 phase
Direct Coupling Direct coupling between suc- shift occurs within a vacuum tube between
cessive amplifier stages (plate the grid input voltage and the plate output
of first stage connected directly to the grid voltage. In certain circuits, the fact that the
of the succeeding stage) is complicated by grid input voltage and the voltage appearing

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Phase Inverters 131

across the cathode bias resistor are in phase,


is used for phase- inversion purposes.

"Hot-Cathode" Figure 12A illustrates the


Phase Inverter hot- cathode type of phase
inverter. This phase inverter
is the simplest of the three types since it
requires only one tube and a minimum of
circuit components. It is particularly sim- OA "HOT- CATHODE " PHASE INVERTER
ple when directly coupled from the plate
of a pentode amplifier stage as shown in
figure 10H. The circuit does, however, pos-
sess the following two disadvantages: (1)
the cathode of the tube must run at a po-
tential of approximately one -third the plate
supply voltage above the heater when a
grounded common heater winding is used
for this tube as well as the other heater - "FLOAT NG PARAPHASE" PHASE INVERTER
cathode tubes in a receiver or amplifier; (2)
the circuit actually has a loss in voltage
from its input to either of the output grids
-about 0.9 times the input voltage will be RL
47H
Cc .o2 RG
22oK
applied to each of these grids. This does
represent a voltage gain of about 1.8 in total G-
.oa 220K
voltage output with respect to input (grid -
to-grid output voltage) but it is still small
with respect to the other two phase- inverter
circuits shown. CATHODE- COUPLED PHASE INVERTER
Recommended component values for use
with a 6C4 tube in this circuit are shown in
Figure 12
figure 12A. If it is desired to use another
tube in this circuit, appropriate values for THREE TYPICAL PHASE- INVERTER CIR-
the operation of that tube as a conventional CUITS WITH RECOMMENDED VALUES
amplifier can be obtained from manufactur- FOR CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
er's tube data. The designated value of RI,
should be divided by two, and this new
The circuit inherently has a small unbal-
value of resistance placed in the circuit as
ance in output voltage. This unbalance can
RL. The value of Rk from tube- manual
be eliminated, if it is required for some
tables should then be used as Rkl in this cir-
special application, by making the resistor
cuit, and the total of Rk1 and Rk2 should be
Rg1 a few percent lower in resistance value
equal to RL.
than Rg3.
"Floating'Paraphas" An alternate type of Cathode-Coupled The circuit shown in fig -
Phase Inverter phase inverter some- Phase Inverter ure 12C gives approxi-
times called the float- mately one half the voltage
ing paraphase is illustrated in figure 12B. gain from the input grid to either of the
This circuit is quite often used with a grids of the succeeding stage that would be
I2AU7 tube, and appropriate values for this obtained from a single tube of the same type
tube in a typical inverter circuit are shown. operating as a conventional RC amplifier
Using the component values given will pro- stage. Thus, with a 12AU7 tube as shown
vide a voltage gain of approximately 12 (two 6C4's in one envelope) the voltage
from the input grid to each of the grids of gain from the input grid to either of the
the succeeding stage. It is capable of approx- output grids will be approximately 7 -the
imately 70 volts peak output to each grid. gain is, of course, 14 from the input to both

www.americanradiohistory.com
132 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

.01 Rs Re

Figure 14

DIRECT-COUPLED D -C AMPLIFIER

Figure 13
then of the same amplitude as the output of
VOLTAGE -DIVIDER PHASE Vi, but of opposite phase.
INVERTER
6 -9 D -C Amplifiers
output grids. The phase characteristics are
such that the circuit is commonly used in Direct -current amplifiers are special types
deriving push -pull deflection voltage for a used where amplification of very slow varia-
cathode -ray tube from a single -ended input tions in voltage, or of d -c voltages is desired.
signal. A simple d -c amplifier consists of a single
The first section of the 12AU7 is used as tube with a grid resistor across the input
an amplifier to increase the amplitude of the terminals, and the load in the plate circuit.
applied signal to the desired level. The sec-
ond section of the 12AU7 is used as an in- Basic D -C A simple d -c amplifier cir-
verter and amplifier to produce a signal of Amplifier Circuit cuit is shown in figure 14,
the same amplitude but of opposite polarity. wherein the grid of one
Since the common cathode resistor (R11) is tube is connected directly to the plate of the
not bypassed the voltage across it is the alge- preceding tube in such a manner that volt-
braic sum of the two plate currents and has age changes on the grid of the first tube will
the same shape and polarity as the voltage ap- be amplified by the system. The voltage drop
plied to the input grid of the first half of across the plate coupling resistor is impressed
the 12AU7. When a signal (e) is applied to directly on the grid of the second tube,
the input circuit, the effective grid -cathode which is provided with enough negative grid
voltage of the first section is Ae /2, when A bias to balance out the excessive voltage drop
is the gain of the first section. Since the grid across the coupling resistor. The grid of the
of the second section of the 12AU7 is second tube is thus maintained in a slightly
grounded, the effect of the signal voltage negative position.
across Rk (equal to e/2 if Rk is the proper The d -c amplifier will provide good low -
value) is the same as though a signal of the frequency response, with negligible phase
same amplitude but of opposite polarity were distortion. High- frequency response is lim-
applied to the grid. The output of the sec- ited by the shunting effect of the tube ca-
ond section is equal to -Ae /2 if the plate pacitances, as in the normal resistance -
load resistors are the same for both tube coupled amplifier.
sections. A common fault with d -c amplifiers of all
types is static instability. Small changes in
Voltage- Divider A commonly used phase in- the filament, plate, or grid voltages cannot
Phase Inverter verter is shown in figure 13. be distinguished from the exciting voltage.
The input section (V,) is Regulated power supplies and special balanc-
connected as a conventional amplifier. The ing circuits have been devised to reduce the
output voltage from V, is impressed on the effects of supply variations on these ampli-
voltage divider R5 -R6. The values of R and fiers. A successful system is to apply the
R,; are in such a ratio that the voltage im- plate potential in phase to two tubes, and to
pressed on the grid of V2 is 1 /A times the apply the exciting signal to a push -pull grid -
output voltage of V1, where A is the ampli - circuit configuration. If the two tubes are
fication factor of V,. The output of V2 is identical, any change in electrode voltage is

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK D -C Amplifiers 133

Figure 15
Figure 16
LOFTIN -WHITE D-C AMPLIFIER
PUSH -PULL D -C AMPLIFIER
balanced out. The use of negative feedback WITH EITHER SINGLE -ENDED
can also greatly reduce drift problems. OR PUSH -PULL INPUT

The "Loftin -White" Two d -c amplifier stages


Circuit may be arranged, so that Through the use of class -A2 operation it is
their plate supplies are possible to increase this plate - circuit effi-
effectively in series, as illustrated in figure ciency to approximately 38 to 45 percent.
15. This is known as a Lof tin -White ampli- However, such operation requires careful
fier. All plate and grid voltages may be ob- choice of the value of plate load impedance,
tained from one master power supply instead a grid -bias supply with good regulation
of separate grid and plate supplies. A push - (since the tube draws grid current on peaks
pull version of this amplifier (figure 16) can although the plate current does not change
be used to balance out the effects of slow with signal), and a driver tube with moder-
variations in the supply voltage. ate power capability to excite the grid of the
class A2 tube.
6 -10 Single -Ended Triode Figures 17D and 17E illustrate two meth-
ods of connection for such stages. Tubes
Amplifiers such as the 845, 450TL, and 304TL are
Figure 17 illustrates five circuits for the suitable for these circuits. In each case the
operation of class -A triode amplifier stages. grid bias is approximately the same as would
Since the cathode current of a triode class - be used for a class -A amplifier using the
A (no grid current) amplifier stage is con- same tube, and as mentioned before, fixed
stant with and without excitation, it is com- bias must be used along with an audio driver
mon practice to operate the tube with cath- of good regulation -preferably a triode stage
ode bias. Recommended operating conditions with a 1:1 or step -down driver transformer.
in regard to plate voltage, grid bias, and load In each case it will be found that the cor-
impedance for conventional triode amplifier rect value of plate load impedance will be
stages are given in the RCA Receiving Tube increased about 40 percent over the value
Manuals. recommended by the tube manufacturer for
class -A operation of the tube.
Extended Class-A It is possible, under certain
Operation conditions, to operate sin- Operation Character- A class -A power am-
gle-ended triode amplifier istics of a Triode plifier operates in such
stages (and pentode and tetrode stages as Power Amplifier a way as to amplify as
well) with grid excitation of sufficient faithfully as possible
amplitude that grid current is taken by the the waveform applied to the grid of the
tube on peaks. This type of operation is tube. Large power output is of more im-
called class -A2 and is characterized by in- portance than high voltage amplification,
creased plate- circuit efficiency over straight consequently gain characteristics may be sac-
class -A amplification without grid current. rificed in power -tube design to obtain more
The normal class -A amplifier power stage important power -handling capabilities. Class -
will operate with a plate- circuit efficiency of A power tubes, such as the 12BY4A, 2A3,
from 20 percent to perhaps 35 percent. and 6AS7G, are characterized by a low
134 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

power output. Remember this fact for


a quick check on calculations.
2. Calculate the zero -signal bias voltage
(Eg).

Q IMPEDANCE COUPLING
Eg
-
(0.68 X Ebb)
=
where,
P
Ebb is the actual plate voltage of the
class -A stage,
'is the amplification factor of the
K
tube.
+B 3. Locate the Eg bias point on the I
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
versus E graph where the Eg bias line
crosses the plate -voltage line, as shown
in figure 18. Call this point P.
4. Locate on the plate family of curves
the value of zero -signal plate current,
(1 )
corresponding to operating point
P.
+2 S. Locate 2 X 1 (twice the value of 1 )
IMPEDANCE -TRANSFORMER COUPLING on the plate- current axis (Y axis).
This point corresponds to the value of
maximum- signal plate current (i,,,nx)
6. Locate point x on the d -c bias curve
at zero volts (Es = 0), corresponding
to the value of im,x
-BIAS= +S
7. Draw a straight line (x -
y) through
TRANSFORMER COUPLING FOR A2 OPERATION
points x and P. This line is the load -
resistance line. Its slope corresponds to
the value of the load resistance.
AUTO- 8. Load resistance, (in ohms) equals:
TKANSrOPAKA

L - e,,,nx emIn
In
BIAS + TO CLASS-C
LOAD
where,
CLASS Ag MODULATOR
FORMER COUPLING
WITH AUTOTRANS-
e isin volts,
Figure 17 i isin amperes,
Output coupling arrangements for single -ended
R,, is in ohms.
class -A triode audio -free y power 9. Check: Multiply the zero -signal plate
amplifiers. current (1) by the operating plate
voltage, (E ).
If the plate dissipation
amplification factor, high plate dissipation, rating of the tube is exceeded, it is
and relatively high filament emission. necessary to increase the bias (Eg) on
The operating characteristics of a class -A the tube so that the plate dissipation
triode amplifier employing an output- trans- falls within the maximum rating of
former coupled load may be calculated from the tube. If this step is taken, opera-
the plate family of curves for the particular tions 2 through 8 must be repeated
tube in question by employing the following with the new value of Eg.
steps: 10. For maximum power output, the peak
a -c grid voltage on the tube should
1. The load resistance should be approxi- swing to 2E, on the negative cycle,
mately twice the plate resistance of and to zero -bias on the positive cycle.
the tube for maximum undistorted At the peak of the negative swing,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK
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Pentode Amplifiers

the fundamental output signal is:


% 2nd harmonic =
(imax -
2

max
%min)

- imIn
135

amplifier, expressed as a percentage of

X 100

Figure 18 illustrates the above steps as ap-

N/I .
MM. IN ' plied to a single class -A 2A3 amplifier stage.

i.' IhvIY
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LI
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Figure 19 illustrates the conventional cir-
cuit for a single -ended tetrode or pentode
.

AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS - 2A3


J1 =4.2 R. = 800 OHMS amplifier stage. Tubes of this type have
PLATE DISSIPATION =1S WATTS largely replaced triodes in the output stage
of receivers and amplifiers due to the higher
LOAD RESISTANCE plate efficiency (30%o-407) at which
EWA-- EMIN.
they operate. Tetrode and pentode tubes do,
RL OHMS
t NAx. - I YIN. however, introduce a considerably greater
amount of harmonic distortion in their out-
POWER OUTPUT put circuit, particularly odd harmonics.
In addition, their plate- circuit impedance
(Eoma-EMIN.) WATTS
P
Po
e (which acts in an amplifier to damp speaker
overshoot and ringing, and acts in a driver
SECOND- HARMONIC DISTORTION stage to provide good regulation) is many
(t MAX + I,,,IN.) -I. times higher than that of an equivalent tri-
D2 2 X 100 PERCENT ode. The application of negative feedback
=
WAIL - MIN. acts both to reduce distortion and to reduce
Figure 18 the effective plate- circuit impedance of these
formulas for determining the operating con-
tubes.
ditions of a class -A triode single -ended audio -
frequency power output stage. A typical load Operating Character- The operating charac-
line has been drawn on the average plate
characteristics of a type 2A3 tube to illustrate istics of a Pentode teristics of pentode pow -
the procedure. Power Amplifier er amplifiers may be
obtained from the plate
the plate voltage reaches ema,, and the family of curves, much as in the manner
applied to triode tubes. A typical family of
plate current drops to iman. On the
positive swing of the grid signal, the pentode plate curves is shown in figure 20.
plate voltage drops to emin and the
plate current reaches imn,, The power
output of the tube in watts is:

Po - (imnx - i,1 n) X (emax - emin)


8

where,
i is in amperes,
e is in volts. Figure 19
11. The second -harmonic distortion gen- C fional single -ended pentode or beam
erated in a single-ended class -A triode tetrode audio-frequency power -output stage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
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THE RADIO
pentode amplifiers, the following steps are
taken:

The max point is chosen so as to fall


on the zero-bias curve, just above the
"knee" of the curve (point A, figure
20).
A preliminary operating point (P) is
determined by the intersection of the
plate -voltage line (Er) and the line
of imax /2. The grid- voltage curve that
this point falls on should be one that is
about Va the value of Eg required to
cut the plate current to a very low
value (point B). Point B represents
min on the plate -current axis (y axis).
Figure 20
The line in,../2 should be located half-
GRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF OPERAT- way between imax and mIn
ING CHARACTERISTICS OF A PENTODE 3. A trial load line is constructed about
POWER AMPLIFIER point P and point A in such a way
that the lengths AP and PB are ap-
"V" is the negativo control grid voltage at the proximately equal.
operating point P.
4. When the most satisfactory load line
has been determined, the load resist-
The plate current of the pentode tube is ance may be calculated:
relatively independent of the applied plate
voltage, but is sensitive to screen voltage. In
general, the correct pentode load resistance is
- emit: emIn
max -%min
about 5. The operating bias (Eg) is the bias at
0.9 Er point P.
6. The power output is:
1p

and the power output is somewhat less than


(max -imIn) +1.41(1. -I,)2 X R,,
32
E, XI, where,
2
1g is the plate current at the point on
These formulas may be used for a quick the load line where the grid volt-
check on more precise calculations. To ob- age (eg) is equal to: Eg- 0.7 Eg,
tain the operating parameters for class -A 1, is the plate current at the point

PUSH -PULL TRIODE AND TETRODE

Figure 21

CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL CIRCUITS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Push -Pull Amplifiers 137

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PLATE VOLTS (EP) GRID VOLTS (Es)

Figure 22

DETERMINATION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR PUSH -PULL CLASS -A


TRIODE TUBES

where, eg is equal to: E,, + 0.7 E,. output transformer; (2) even harmonics of
7. The percentage harmonic distortion is: the input signal (second and fourth harmon-
'% 2nd harmonic distortion = ics primarily) generated in the push -pull
stage are cancelled when the tubes are bal-
imax mIn -219 X 100 anced.
max -rmin+ 1.41 (I. -ly) The cancellation of even harmonics gener-
where, ated in the stage allows the tubes to be oper-
11, is the static plate current of the ated class AB-in other words the tubes may
tube. be operated with bias and input signals of
3rd harmonic distortion = such amplitude that the plate current of
1r:1ax -1min -1.41 -1y) X (1x
alternate tubes may be cut off during a por-
100 tion of the input voltage cycle. If a tube
Jmnx- Jn, 1, +1.41,(1. -1y)
were operated in such a manner in a single -
ended amplifier the second -harmonic ampli-
tude generated would be prohibitively high.
6 -12 Push -Pull Audio Push -pull class -AB operation allows a
Amplifiers plate circuit efficiency of from 45 to 60
percent to be obtained in an amplifier stage
A number of advantages are obtained depending on whether or not the exciting
through the use of the push -pull connection voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur-
of two or four tubes in an audio- frequency rent is drawn by the tubes. If grid current
power amplifier. Two conventional circuits is taken on input voltage peaks the amplifier
for the use of triode and tetrode tubes in the is said to be operating class -AB2 and the
push -pull connection are shown in figure 21. plate- circuit efficiency can be as high as the
The two main advantages of the push -pull upper value just mentioned. If grid current
circuit arrangement are: (1) the magnetiz- is not taken by the stage it is said to be
ing effect of the plate currents of the output operating class -AB, and the plate- circuit
tubes is cancelled in the windings of the efficiency will be toward the lower end of
138 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
the range just quoted. In all class-AB ampli- output should be subtracted from this
fiers the plate current will increase from 40 value to obtain the total operating
to 150 percent over the no- signal value plate dissipation of the two tubes. If
when full excitation voltage is applied. the plate dissipation is excessive, a
Operating Characteristics The operating char - slightly higher value of RL should be
of Push -Pull Class -A chosen to limit the plate dissipation.
acteristics of push - The correct value of operating bias,
Triode Power Amplifier 5.
pull class-A ampli-
and the static plate current for the
fiers may also be
push -pull tubes may be determined
determined from the plate family of curves
from the Eg versus Ip curves, which
for a particular triode tube by the following
are a derivation of the Ep versus I,
steps:
curves for various values of Eg.
1. Erect a vertical line from the plate - 6. The Eg versus Ip curve may be con-
voltage axis (x -axis) at 0.6 E (figure structed in this manner: Values of
22) , which intersects the Eg = O grid bias are read from the intersection
curve. This point of intersection (P), of each grid -bias curve with the load
interpolated to the plate current axis line. These points are transferred to
(y- axis), may be taken as 1, ax. It is as- the Eg versus Ip graph to produce a
sumed for simplification that i,,,ax oc- curved line, A -B. If the grid bias
curs at the point of the zero -bias curves of the Ep versus I, graph were

2.
curve corresponding to 0.6 E
The power output obtainable from the
. straight lines, the lines of the Eg versus
I, graph would also be straight. This
two tubes is: is usually not the case. A tangent to
this curve is therefore drawn, starting
power output (P ) = max X Ep
f
at point A', and intersecting the grid -
voltage abscissa (x- axis). This inter-
section (C) is the operating -bias point
where,
for fixed -bias operation.
P is expressed in watts, 7. This operating -bias point may now be
i,,,ax in amperes, plotted on the original Eg versus Ip
E is the applied plate voltage. family of curves (C'), and the zero -
3. Draw a preliminary load line through signal current produced by this bias is
point P to the Ep point located on the determined. This operating bias point
x -axis (the zero plate- current line). (C'), does not fall on the operating
This load line represents %4 of the load line, as in the case of a single -
actual plate -to-plate load of the class - ended amplifier.
A tubes. Therefore: 8. Under conditions of maximum power
XEp -0.6 Ep
output, the exciting signal voltage
RL (plate -to- plate) =4 swings from zero -bias voltage to zero -
max
bias voltage for each of the tubes on
1.6 Ep
each half of the signal cycle. Second-
max harmonic distortion is largely cancelled
where, out.
RL is expressed in ohms,
Ep is expressed in volts, 6 -13 Class -B Audio -
imax is expressed in amperes.
Frequency Power
Figure 22 illustrates the above steps ap- Amplifiers
plied to a push -pull class -A amplifier using
two 2A3 tubes.
The class -B audio -frequency power ampli-
4. The average plate current is 0.636 imax, fier (figure 23) operates at a higher plate -
and multiplied by plate voltage E9, circuit efficiency than any of the previously
will give the average watts input to described types of audio power amplifiers.
the plates of the two tubes. The power Full- signal plate -circuit efficiencies of 60 to

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Class -B Audio Amplifiers 139

the fact that the grid current of the stage


is zero over most of the cycle but rises to
value as high as one -third of the peak plate
current at the peak of the exciting voltage
cycle. Special regulated bias supplies have
been used for this application, or B batteries
can be used. However, a number of tubes
S+ DRIVER - BIAS 5+ MOD. especially designed for class -B audio ampli-
(GROUND FOR
ZERO BIAS fiers have been developed which require zero
OPERATING
CONDITION) average grid bias for their operation. The
811A, 805, 3 -400Z, and 3 -10002 are ex-
Figure 23 amples of this type of tube. All these so-
called zero -bias tubes have rated operating
CLASS -B AUDIO- FREQUENCY conditions up to moderate plate voltages
POWER AMPLIFIER wherein they can be operated without grid
bias. As the plate voltage is increased to
the maximum ratings, however, a small
70 percent are readily obtainable with the amount of grid bias, such as could be ob-
tube types presently available for this mode tained from a regulated bias supply, is re-
of operation. Since the plate- circuit efficiency quired. (3), A class -B audio- frequency pow-
is higher, smaller tubes of lower plate dissipa- er amplifier or modulator requires a source of
tion may be used in a class -B power ampli- plate- supply voltage having reasonably good
fier of a given power output than can be regulation. This requirement led to the de-
used in any other conventional type of audio velopment of the Twinging choke. The
amplifier. An additional factor in favor of swinging choke is essentially a conventional
the class -B audio amplifier is the fact that filter choke in which the core air gap has
the power input to the stage is relatively been reduced. This reduction in the air gap
low under no- signal conditions. It is for allows the choke to have a much greater
these reasons that this type of amplifier has value of inductance with low- current values
largely superseded other types for the genera- such as are encountered with no signal or
tion of audio- frequency levels from perhaps small signal being applied to the class -B
100 watts on up to levels of approximately stage.
150,000 watts as required for large short- With a higher value of current such
wave broadcast stations. as would be taken by a class -B stage with
Disadvantages of There are attendant dis-
full signal applied, the inductance of the
Class-B Amplifier advantageous features to
choke drops to a much lower value. With
a swinging choke of this type, having ade-
Operation the operation of a power
quate current rating, as the input inductor
amplifier of this type; but in the filter system for a rectifier power sup-
all these disadvantages can be overcome by
ply, the regulation will be improved to a
proper design of the circuits associated with point which is normally adequate for a pow-
the power -amplifier stage. These disadvan- er supply for a class -B amplifier or modu-
tages are: (1) The class -B audio amplifier lator stage.
requires driving power in its grid circuit;
this requirement can be overcome by the Calculation of Operating The following pro -
use of an oversize power stage preceding the Conditions of Class -B cedure can be used
class -B stage with a step -down transformer Power Amplifiers for the calculation
between the driver stage and the class -B of the operating
grids. Degenerative feedback is sometimes conditions of class -B power amplifiers when
employed to reduce the plate impedance of they are to operate into a resistive load such
the driver stage and thus to improve the as presented by a class -C power amplifier.
voltage regulation under the varying load This procedure will be found quite satisfac-
presented by the class -B grids. (2) The tory for the application of vacuum tubes as
class -B stage requires a constant value of class -B modulators when it is desired to
average grid bias to be supplied in spite of operate the tubes under conditions which are
140 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

not specified in the tube operating charac- other words, when nonsinusoidal waves such
teristics published by the tube manufacturer. as plain speech or speech that has passed
The same procedure can be used with equal through a clipper are concerned, we are no
effectiveness for the calculation of the oper- longer concerned with average power output
ating conditions of beam tetrodes as class- of the modulator as far as its capability of
AB., amplifiers or modulators when the rest- modulating a class -C amplifier is concerned;
ing plate current of the tubes (no- signal con- we are concerned with its peak power out-
dition) is less than 25 or 30 percent of the put capability.
maximum -signal plate current. Under these conditions we call on other,
more general relationships. The first of these
1. With the average plate characteristics is: it requires a peak power output equal to
of the tube as published by the manu- the class -C stage input to modulate that in-
facturer before you, select a point on put fully.
the Ep = ER (diode bend) line at The second relationship is: the average
about twice the plate current you ex- power output required of the modulator is
pect the tubes to draw under modu- equal to the shape factor of the modulating
lation peaks. If beam tetrode tubes are wave multiplied by the input to the class -C
concerned, select a point at about the stage. The shape factor of unclipped speech
same amount of plate current men- is approximately 0.25. The shape factor of
tioned above, just to the right of the a sine wave is 0.5. The shape factor of a
region where the 1,, line takes a sharp speech wave that has been passed through a
curve downward. This will be the first clipper -filter arrangement is somewhere be-
trial point, and the plate voltage at tween 0.25 and 0.9 depending on the amount
the point chosen should be not more of clipping that has taken place. With 15 or
than about 20 percent of the d -c volt- 20 db of clipping the shape factor may be as
age applied to the tubes if good plate - high as the figure of 0.9 mentioned above.
circuit efficiency is desired. This means that the audio power output of
2. Note down the value of i, x and , the modulator will be 90% of the input to
ep min at this point.
the class -C stage. Thus with a kilowatt input
3. Subtract the value of ep from the ,I we would be putting 900 watts of audio
d -c plate voltage on the tubes. into the class -C stage for 100 percent modu-
4. Substitute the values obtained in the lation as contrasted to perhaps 250 watts for
following equations: unclipped speech modulation of 100 percent.

PO (2 tubes) - tp max (Ebb - ep min)


Sample Calculation Figure 24 shows a set of
2
for 811A Tubes plate characteristics for a

RI, (2 tubes) = 4
(Ebb - ep min) type 811A tube with a
load line for class -B operation. Figure 25
ip max
lists a sample calculation for determining the
Full signal efficiency (Np) = proper operating conditions for obtaining
approximately 185 watts output from a pair
(ep min) of the tubes with 1000 volts d -c plate po-
78.5 I 1
Ebb tential. Also shown in figure 25 is the meth-
od of determining the proper ratio for the
Effects of Speech All the above equations are modulation transformer to couple between
Clipping true for sine -wave operating the 811's or 811A's and the anticipated final
condition of the tubes con- amplifier which is to operate at 2000 plate
cerned. However, if a speech clipper is being volts and 175 ma plate current.
used in the speech amplifier, or if it is de-
sired to calculate the operating conditions Modulation Transformer The method illus-
on the basis of the fact that the ratio of Calculation trated in figure 25
peak power to average power in a speech can be used in general
wave is approximately 4 to 1 as contrasted
to the ratio of 2 to 1 in a sine wave in - for the determination of the proper trans-
former ratio to couple between the modula-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Parameters 141

800

EF' 8.3 VOLTS D.C.

Figure 24 +W
s Ec
Typical class -8 a -f ampli-
fier load fine. Tho load lino
has Mon drawn on the
average characteristics of a
type 811 tube.

skiars
0 400 800 1200 1800
E c' o
2000 2400
PLATE VOLTS (Est.)
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS TYPE 811 AND 811 -A

tor tube and the amplifier to be modulated. for this condition is that the ratio between
The procedure can be stated as follows: (1) the total primary voltage and the d -c plate -
Determine the proper plate -to -plate load im- supply voltage on the modulated stage is
pedance for the modulator tubes either by equal to the turns ratio of the transformer,
the use of the type of calculation shown in since a peak secondary voltage equal to the
figure 25, or by reference to the published plate voltage on the modulated stage is re-
characteristics on the tubes to be used. (2) quired to modulate this stage 100 percent.
Determine the load impedance which will be
presented by the class-C amplifier stage to SAMPLE CALCULATION
be modulated by dividing the operating CONDITION 2 TYPE 811 TUBES. Eco... I0Oo
plate voltage on that stage by the operating INPUT TO FINAL STAGE, 350 W.
PEAR POWER OUTPUT NEEDED = 350 +5%' 370 W
value of plate current in amperes. (3) Di- FINAL AMPLIFIER Ebb 2000 V.
'' .175 A. 1140011
vide the class -C load impedance determined
in (2) above by the plate -to -place load im-
FINAL AMPLIFIER Ib
FINAL AMPLIFIER ZL 2_
.175
'
pedance for the modulator tubes determined EXAMPLE. CHOSE POINT ON 211 CHARACTERISTICS JUST
Ebb= Ecc (POINT X, FIG.24)
TO RIGHT OF
in (1) above. The ratio determined in this
.

IPMAX.'.410 A. EP MIN.. +100


way is the secondary-to- primary impedance IG MAX. ".100 A. EG MAX. ' + 80

ratio. (4) Take the square root of this ratio PEAK PO ' .410 X (1000 -100) ' .10 X 800' 388 W.
to determine the secondary-to- primary turns RL' 4X ' 88000.
ratio. If the turns ratio is greater than unity,
the use of a step -up transformer is required. NP = 78.5 (1 - 1000 )' 78.5 (s)'pp770

-
l
.55 mi,,,,
I184SW
WO (AVERAGE WITH SINE WAVE)
If the turns ratio as determined in this way
is less than unity, a step -down transformer is
WIN = AR-
Lb (MAXIMUM WITH SINE WAVE) ' 260 MA
called for. WG PEAK ' . 100 X '
80 S W.
If the procedure shown in figure 25 has DRIVING POWER ' WZ PK
- 4 W.

been used to calculate the operating condi- TRANSFORMER:


tions for the modulator tubes, the trans- 7- = 80 1.29
former ratio calculation can be checked in TURNS RATIO ' 1.29 ' 1.14 STEP UP
the following manner: Divide the plate volt- ZP

age on the modulated amplifier by the total Figure 25


voltage swing on the modulator tubes (2 X
[Em,- e11,111)). This ratio should be quite Typical calculation of operating conditions for
a class -8 a -f power amplifier using a pair of
close numerically to the transformer turns type 811 or 811A tubes. Plate characterlstics
ratio as previously determined. The reason and load line are shown in figure 24.

www.americanradiohistory.com
142 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

Use of Clipper Speech When a clipper speech the maximum drive requirements of the
Amplifier with Tetrode amplifier is used in class -B stage. If the step -down ratio of the
Modulator Tubes conjunction with a driver transformer is too large, the driver
class -B modulator plate load will be so high that the power re-
stage, the plate current on that stage will quired to drive the class-B stage to full out-
rise to a higher value with modulation (due put cannot be developed. If the step -down
to the greater average power output and ratio is too small the regulation of the driver
input) but the plate dissipation on the tubes stage will be impaired.
will ordinarily be less than with sine -wave Driver -Stage The parameters for the driver
modulation. However, when tetrode tubes Calculations stage may be calculated from
are used as modulators, the screen dissipation
the plate characteristic curve,
will bemuch greater than with sine -wave
a sample of which is shown in figure 24.
modulation. Care must be taken to ensure
The required positive grid voltage (eg max)
that the screen dissipation rating on the
modulator tubes is not exceeded under full
for the 811A tubes used in the sample cal-
culation is found at point X, the intersection
modulation conditions with a clipper speech
of the load line and the peak plate current
amplifier. The screen dissipation is equal to
as found on the y -axis. This is + 80 volts.
screen voltage times screen current.
If a vertical line is dropped from point X
Practical Aspects of As stated previously, a
to intersect the dotted grid- current curves,
Class -B Modulators class -B audio amplifier it will be found that the grid current for a
requires the driving single 811A at this value of grid voltage is
stage to supply well -regulated audio power 100 milliamperes (point Y). The peak grid -
to the grid circuit of the class -B stage. Since driving power is therefore 80 X 0.100 8 =
the performance of a class -B modulator may watts. The approximate average driving
easily be impaired by an improperly designed power is 4 watts. This is an approximate
driver stage, it is well to study the problems figure because the grid impedance is not
incurred in the design of the driver stage. constant over the entire audio cycle.
The grid circuit of a class -B modulator A pair of 2A3 tubes will be used as
may be compared to a variable resistance drivers, operating class -A, with the maxi-
which decreases in value as the exciting grid mum excitation to the drivers occurring just
voltage is increased. This variable resistance below the point of grid- current flow in the
appears across the secondary terminals of the 2A3 tubes. The driver plate voltage is 300
driver transformer so that the driver stage is volts, and the grid bias is -62 volts. The
called on to deliver power to a varying load. peak power (Pr) developed in the primary
For best operation of the class -B stage, the winding of the driver transformer is:
grid excitation voltage should not drop as
the power taken by the grid circuit increases. (Pr) = 2RI .
E
Rv+R / l 2

These opposing conditions call for a high


order of voltage regulation in the driver - where,
stage plate circuit. In order to enhance the is the amplification factor of the driver
voltage regulation of this circuit, the driver tubes (4.2 for 2A3),
tubes must have low plate resistance, the EF is the peak grid swing of the driver
driver transformer must have as large a stage (62 volts),
step -down ratio as possible, and the d -c re- R,, is the plate resistance of one driver
sistance of both primary and secondary tube (800 ohms),
windings of the driver transformer should R,, is %2 the plate -to-plate load of the
be low. driver stage,
The driver transformer should reflect into Pr (peak power in watts) is 8 watts.
the plate circuit of the driver tubes a load
of such value that the required driving Solving the above equation for RT,, we
power is just developed with full excitation obtain a value of 14,500 ohms load, plate to
applied to the driver grid circuit. If this is plate for the 2A3 driver tubes.
done, the driver transformer will have as The peak primary voltage (epri) is then
high a step -down ratio as is consistent with found from the formula:

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Cathode -Follower Amplifiers 143

former may result if the plate load imped-


epri = 2R,. X
RP .L
= 493 volts ance of the modulator stage is too low.
D
When the modulator load impedance is
and the turns ratio of the driver trans- too high, the maximum power capability of
former (primary to %z secondary) is: the stage is reduced. An attempt to increase
493
the output by increasing grid excitation to
epr)
6.15:1 the stage will result in peak clipping of the
eg (max) 80 audio wave. In addition, high peak voltages
Plate Circuit One of the most common causes may be built up in the plate circuit that
may damage the modulation transformer.
Impedance of distortion in a class -B mod-
Matching ulator is incorrect load imped-
ance in the plate circuit. The 6 -14 Cathode -Follower
purpose of the class -B modulation trans- Power Amplifiers
former is to take the power developed by the
modulator (which has a certain operating The cathode follower is essentially a power
impedance) and transform it to the oper- output stage in which the exciting signal is
ating impedance imposed by the modulated applied between grid and ground. The plate
amplifier stage. is maintained at ground potential with re-
If the transformer in question has the spect to input and output signals, and the
same number of turns on the primary wind- output signal is taken between cathode and
ing as it has on the secondary winding, the ground.
turns ratio is 1:1, and the impedance ratio
is also 1:1. If a 10,000 -ohm resistor is placed
Types of Cathode- Figure 26 illustrates
Follower Amplifiers four types of cathode -
across the secondary terminals of the trans-
former, a reflected load of 10,000 ohms follower power ampli-
would appear across the primary terminals. fiers in common usage and figure 27 shows
If the resistor is changed to one of 2376 the output impedance (R.), and stage gain
ohms, the reflected primary impedance would (A) of both triode and pentode (or tetrode)
also be 2376 ohms. cathode- follower stages. It will be seen by
If the transformer has twice as many inspection of the equations that the stage
turns on the secondary as on the primary, voltage gain is always less than unity, and
the turns ratio is 2:1. The impedance ratio that the output impedance of the stage is
is the square of the turns ratio, or 4:1. If a much less than the same stage operated as a
10,000 -ohm resistor is now placed across the conventional cathode- return amplifier. The
secondary winding, a reflected load of 2500 output impedance for conventional tubes
ohms will appear across the primary wind- will be somewhere between 100 and 1000
ing. ohms, depending primarily on the transcon-
ductance of the tube.
Effects of Plate It can be seen from the This reduction in gain and output imped-
Circuit Mismatch above paragraphs that the ance for the cathode follower comes about
class -B modulator plate since the stage operates as though it has 100
load is entirely dependent on the load placed percent degenerative feedback applied be-
on the secondary terminals of the class -B tween its output and input circuit. Even
modulation transformer. If the secondary though the voltage gain of the stage is
load is incorrect, certain changes will take reduced to a value less than unity by the ac-
place in the operation of the class -B modu- tion of the degenerative feedback, the power
lator stage. gain of the stage (if it is operating class -A)
When the modulator load impedance is too is not reduced. Although more voltage is
low, the efficiency of the class -B stage is required to excite a cathode - follower ampli-
reduced and the plate dissipation of the fier than appears across the load circuit
tubes is increased. Peak plate current of the (since the cathode "follows" along with the
modulator stage is increased, and saturation grid) the relative grid -to- cathode voltage is
of the modulation transformer core may re- essentially the same as in a conventional am-
sult. "Talk- back" of the modulation trans- plifier.
144 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
TRIODE
Lcr =
L .11 RL
A= RL(L+1)
11+1 +Ro

ROQCwrwoOt)=
RL (RKt+R,u) R[
11 RK, +R2+

PENTODE:
RomArHoot)= Rp R
Gtr 1+RL G,,,

A = G, Rep

Figure 27
Equivalent faders fer pentode (or tetrode)
cathode- follower power amplifiers

The circuit of figure 26A is the type of


amplifier, either single -ended or push -pull,
which may be used as a driver for a class -B
modulator or which may be used for other
applications such as feeding a speaker where
unusually good damping of the speaker is
desired. If the d -c resistance of the primary
of the transformer (T2) is approximately the
correct value for the cathode bias resistor
for the amplifier tube, the components Rk
and Ck need not be used. Figure 26B shows
an arrangement which may be used to feed
directly a value of load impedance which is
equal to or higher than the cathode imped-
ance of the amplifier tube. The value of Cc
must be quite high, somewhat higher than
would be used in a conventional circuit, if
the frequency response of the circuit when
operating into a low- impedance load is to be
preserved.
Figures 26C and 26D show cathode -
follower circuits for use with tetrode or
pentode tubes. Figure 26C is a circuit sim-
ilar to that shown in 26A and essentially
Figure 26 the same comments apply in regard to com-
CATHODE-FOLLOWER OUTPUT ponents Rk and Ck and the primary resist-
CIRCUITS FOR AUDIO OR ance of transformer T2. Notice also that the
VIDEO AMPLIFIERS screen of the tube is maintained at the same
signal potential as the cathode by means of
coupling capacitor Cd. This capacitance
Use of Cathode- Although the cathode fol- should be large enough so that at the lowest
Follower Amplifiers lower gives no voltage frequency it is desired to pass through the
gain, it is an effective stage, its reactance will be low with respect
power amplifier where it is desired to feed a tu the dynamic screen -to- cathode resistance
low- impedance load, or where it is desired to in parallel with Rd. T2 in this stage as well
feed a load of varying impedance with a as in the circuit of figure 26A should have
signal having good regulation. This latter the proper turns (or impedance) ratio to
capability makes the cathode follower par- give the desired step -down or step -up from
ticularly effective as a driver for the grids the cathode circuit to the load. Figure 26D
of a class -B modulator stage. is an arrangement frequently used in video

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Feedback Amplifiers 145

systems for feeding a coaxial cable of rela- point where the feedback is taken off and
tively low impedance from a vacuum -tube the point where the feedback energy is in-
amplifier. A pentode or tetrode tube with a serted are said to be included within the
cathode impedance as a cathode follower feedback loop. An amplifier containing a
(1 /g,,,) of approximately the same impe- feedback loop is said to be a feedback ampli-
dance as the cable should be chosen. The fier. One stage or any number of stages may
12BY7A and 6CL6 have cathode impedances be included within the feedback loop. How-
of the same order as the surge impedances of ever, the difficulty of obtaining proper oper-
certain types of low- capacitance coaxial ation of a feedback amplifier increases with
cable. An arrangement such as 26D is also the bandwidth of the amplifier, and with the
usable for feeding coaxial cable with audio or number of stages and circuit elements in-
r -f energy where it is desired to transmit the cluded within the feedback loop.
output signal over moderate distances. The Gain and Phase Shift The gain and phase
resistor Rk is added to the circuit as shown in Feedback Amplifiers shift of any amplifier
if the cathode impedance of the tube used is are functions of fre-
lower than the characteristic impedance of quency. For any amplifier containing a feed-
the cable. If the output impedance of the back loop to be completely stable, the gain of
stage is higher than the cable impedance, a such an amplifier, as measured from the in-
resistance of appropriate value is sometimes put back to the point where the feedback
placed in parallel with the input end of the circuit connects to the input, must be less
cable. The values of Cd and R,, should be than unity at the frequency where the feed-
chosen with the same considerations in mind back voltage is in phase with the input volt-
as mentioned in the discussion of the circuit
age of the amplifier. If the gain is equal to
of figure 26C. or more than unity at the frequency where
The Cathode Follower The cathode follower the feedback voltage is in phase with the in-
in R -F Stages may conveniently be put, the amplifier will oscillate. This fact im-
used as a method of poses a limitation on the amount of feedback
coupling r -f or i -f energy between two which may be employed in an amplifier
units separated a considerable distance. In which is to remain stable. If the reader is
such an application a coaxial cable should be
used to carry the r -f or i -f energy. One such
application would be for carrying the out-
put of a vfo to a transmitter located a con-
siderable distance from the operating posi-
e
INPUT SIGNAL ES AMPLIFIER
GAINA
OUTPUT E

/ECDBACK OR E PATH
tion. Another application would be where it
is desired to feed a single -sideband demodu- VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION WITH FEEDBACK A
1 -A L
lator, an f -m adaptor, or another accessory FEEDBACK
A GAIN IN ABSENCE OF
with an intermediate -frequency signal from
a communications receiver. A tube such as a E FRACTION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE FED BACK

6CB6 connected in a manner such as is e IS NEGATIVE FOR NEGATIVE FEEDBACK


shown in figure 26D would be adequate for FEEDBACK IN DECIBELS 20 LOG (1 -A E)
the i -f amplifier coupler, while a 6AQ5 or a LOG
MID FRED. GAIN WITHOUT FEEDBACK
MID -FRED. GAIN WITH FEEDBACK
6CL6 could be used in the output stage of a
vfo as a cathode follower to feed the coaxial DISTORTION WITH FEEDBACK
DISTORTION WITHOUT FEEDBACK
(1 -Ae)
line which carries the vfo signal from the
RN
control unit to the transmitter proper. RO
1-AE (1+ T- )
L
WHERE.

6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers RD OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK

RN- OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITHOUT FEEDBACK

RL LOAD IMPEDANCE INTO WHICH AMPLIFI


It is possible to modify the characteristics
of an amplifier by feeding back a portion of Figure 28
the output to the input. All components,
circuits, and tubes included between the FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS
146 Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers

tional to output voltage. Figure 28 gives the


general operating conditions for feedback
RL f amplifiers. Note that the reduction in distor-
tion is proportional to the reduction in gain
of the amplifier, and also that the reduction
in the output impedance of the amplifier is
somewhat greater than the reduction in the
gain by an amount which is a function of
Ra+RA(Gr2 the ratio of the output impedance of the

-
OR I[[DOACM 00 LOG I RO) 1
Il R2 J amplifier without feedback to the load im-
Ra +RAIYOL7AG[GAIMOrVi)1
10 LOG I

I. Ra 1
pedance. The reduction in noise and hum in
R RA
those stages included within the feedback
GAM OF .OTM STAGES ( GYV, ( )) [ (Goya Ro)
Re+RA loop is proportional to the reduction in gain.
GM[AG
RA -R + However, due to the reduction in gain of
R
a
the output section of the amplifier some-
Re
Grva RD what increased gain is required of the stages
Ro a[rL[CT[D LOAD iY0/10AMC[ OM Va preceding the stages included within the
Ra r[[DGACO 000i[TO0 (USUALLY AsauT 00M) feedback loop. Therefore the noise and hum
OuTPUT irnDAMC[ R. Ra output of the entire amplifier may or may
lt R a + RA (G v Ya RO)/X(1+
1 -rit- ) not be reduced dependent on the relative
O

R. PLAT[ ifs/MD/WC( 00 Va contributions of the first part and the latter


part of the amplifier to hum and noise. If
Figure 29 most of the noise and hum is coming from
the stages included within the feedback loop
SHUNT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT the undesired signals will be reduced in the
FOR PENTODES OR TETRODES
output from the complete amplifier. It is
This circuit requires only the addition of ono most frequently true in conventional ampli-
resistor (R,) fo the normal circuit for such an fiers that the hum and distortion come from
application. The plate Impedance and distor-
tion Introduced by the output stage are the latter stages, hence these will be reduced
materially reduced. by feedback, but thermal agitation and mic-
rophonic noise come from the first stage and
desirous of designing amplifiers in which a will not be reduced but may be increased by
large amount of feedback is to be employed feedback unless the feedback loop includes
he is referred to a book on the subject by H. the first stage of the amplifier.
W. Bode. Figure 29 illustrates a very simple and ef-
fective application of negative -voltage feed-
Types of Feedback may be either negative back to an output pentode or tetrode ampli-
Feedback or positive, and the feedback volt- fier stage. The reduction in hum and distor-
age may be proportional either to tion may amount to 15 to 20 db. The re-
output voltage or output current. The most duction in the effective plate impedance of
commonly used type of feedback with a -f or the stage will be by a factor of 20 to 100
video amplifiers is negative feedback propor- depending on the operating conditions. The
H. W. Bode, Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier
circuit is commonly used in commercial
Design. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Princeton, New equipment with tubes such as the 6AU6
Jersey. for V, and the 6AQ5 for V_.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER SEVEN

Radio -Frequency
Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers

TUNED R -F VACUUM -TUBE AMPLIFIERS

Tuned r -f voltage amplifiers are used in First Tuned It is obvious that the highest
receivers for the amplification of the incom- Circuit ratio of signal to noise be im-
ing r -f signal and for the amplification of pressed on the grid of the first
intermediate- frequency signals after the in- r -f amplifier tube. Attaining the optimum
coming frequency has been converted to the ratio is a complex problem since noise will
intermediate frequency by the mixer stage. be generated in the antenna due to its equiv-
Signal- frequency stages are normally called alent radiation resistance (this noise is in
tuned r-f amplifiers and intermediate-fre - addition to any noise of atmospheric origin)
quency stages are called i -f amplifiers. Both and in the first tuned circuit due to its
tuned r -f and i -f amplifiers are operated equivalent coupled resistance at resonance.
class A and normally operate at signal levels The noise voltage generated due to antenna
from a fraction of a microvolt to amplitudes radiation resistance and to equivalent tuned
as high as 10 to 50 volts at the plate of the circuit resistance is similar to that generated
last i -f stage in a receiver. in a resistor due to thermal agitation and is
expressed by the following equation:
E.2 = 4kTRof
7 -1 Grid Circuit where,
Considerations E. = rms value of noise voltage over the
interval Of,
Since the full amplification of a receiver k = Boltzman's constant (1.380 X 10 -23
follows the first tuned circuit, the operating joule per K),
conditions existing in that circuit and in its T = Absolute temperature K,
coupling to the antenna on one side and to R = Resistive component of impedance
the grid of the first amplifier stage on the across which thermal noise is devel-
other are of greater importance in determin- oped,
ing the signal -to -noise ratio of the receiver Af = Frequency band across which volt-
on weak signals. age is measured.
148 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

In the above equation At is essentially the the frequency in question over conventional
frequency band passed by the intermediate - types.
frequency amplifier of the receiver under Noise Factor The limiting condition for sen-
consideration. This equation can be greatly sitivity in any receiver is the
simplified for the conditions normally en- thermal noise generated in the antenna and
countered in communications work. If we in the first tuned circuit. However, with
assume the following conditions: T = 300 proper coupling between the antenna and
K or 27 C or 80J F, room temperature; the grid of the tube, through the first tuned
Of = 8000 Hertz (the average passband of circuit, the noise contribution of the first
a communications receiver or speech ampli- tuned circuit can be made quite small. Un-
fier) , the equation reduces to: E = fortunately, though, the major noise contri-
0.0115 \TA microvolts. Accordingly, the bution in a properly designed receiver is that
thermal- agitation voltage appearing in the of the first tube. The noise contribution due
center of a half -wave antenna (assuming to electron flow and due to losses in the tube
effective temperature to be 300 K) having can be lumped into an equivalent value of
a radiation resistance of 73 ohms is approxi- resistance which, if placed in the grid circuit
mately 0.096 microvolts. Also, the thermal - of a perfect tube having the same gain but
agitation voltage appearing across a 500,- no noise would give the same noise voltage
000 -ohm grid resistor in the first stage of a output in the plate load. The equivalent
speech amplifier is approximately 8 micro- noise resistance of tubes such as the 6B6,
volts under the conditions cited above. 6DC6, etc., runs from 500 to 1000 ohms.
Further, the voltage due to thermal agitation Very high gin tubes such as the 6BZ6 and
being impressed on the grid of the first 6EH7 have equivalent noise resistances as
r -f stage in a receiver by a first tuned circuit low as 300 to 700 ohms. The lower the
whose resonant resistance is 50,000 ohms is value of equivalent noise resistance, the
approximately 2J microvolts. Suffice to say, lower will be the noise output under a fixed
however, that the value of thermal- agita- set of conditions.
tion voltage appearing across the first tuned The equivalent noise resistance of a tube
circuit when the antenna is properly coupled must not be confused with the actual input
to this circuit will be very much less than loading resistance of a tube. For highest sig-
this value. nal -to -noise ratio in an amplifier the input
It is common practice to match the im- loading resistance should be as high as pos-
pedance of the antenna transmission line to sible so that the amount of voltage that can
the input impedance of the grid of the first be developed from grid to ground by the
r -f amplifier stage in a receiver. This is the antenna energy will be as high as possible.
condition of antenna coupling which gives The equivalent noise resistance should be as
maximum gain in the receiver. However, low as possible so that the noise generated
when vhf tubes such as nuvistors and minia- by this resistance will be lower than that
tures are used at frequencies somewhat less attributable to the antenna and first tuned
than their maximum capabilities, a signifi- circuit, and the losses in the first tuned cir-
cant improvement in signal -to-noise ratio cuit should be as low as possible.
can be attained by increasing the coupling The absolute sensitivity of receivers has
between the antenna and first tuned circuit been designated in recent years in government
to a value greater than that which gives and commercial work by an arbitrary dimen-
greatest signal amplitude out of the receiver. sionless number known as "noise factor" or
In other words, in the 10 -, 6 -, and 2 -meter N. The noise factor is the ratio of noise
bands it is possible to attain somewhat im- output of a "perfect" receiver having a
proved signal- to-noise ratio by increasing given amount of gain with a dummy anten-
antenna coupling to the point where the na matched to its input, to the noise output
gain of the receiver is slightly reduced. of the receiver having the same amount of
It is always possible, in addition, to obtain gain with an injected signal, and the dummy
improved signal -to-noise ratio in a vhf re- antenna matched to its input. Although a
ceiver through the use of tubes which have perfect receiver is not a physically realizable
improved input impedance characteristics at thing, the noise factor of a receiver under

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Circuit Considerations 149

measurement can be determined by calcula- ages. Transit time varies inversely as the
tion from the amount of additional noise square root of the applied plate voltage.
(from a temperature -limited diode or other Cathode lead inductance is an additional
calibrated noise generator) required to in- cause of reduced input resistance at high
crease the noise -power output of a receiver frequencies. This effect has been reduced in
by a predetermined amount. certain tubes such as the 6EAS and the
6BCS by providing two cathode leads on
Tube Input As has been mentioned in a pre -
the tube base. One cathode lead should be
Loading vious paragraph, greatest gain connected to the input circuit of the tube
in a receiver is obtained when and the other lead should be connected to
the antenna is matched, through the r -f the bypass capacitor for the plate return of
coupling transformer, to the input resistance the tube.
of the r -f tube. However, the higher the The reader is referred to the Radiation
ratio of tube input resistance to equivalent Laboratory Series, Volume 23: Microwave
noise resistance of the tube the higher will
be the signal -to -noise ratio of the stage
and of course, the better will be the noise
- Receivers (McGraw -Hill, publishers) for ad-
ditional information on noise factor and in-
put loading of vacuum tubes.
factor of the over -all receiver. The input re-
sistance of a tube is very high at frequencies
in the broadcast band and gradually decreases 7 -2 Plate- Circuit
as the frequency increases. Tube input re- Considerations
sistance of conventional tube types begins to
become an important factor at frequencies of Noise is generated in a vacuum tube by
about 25 MHz and above. At frequencies the fact that the current flow within the
above about 100 MHz the use of conven- tube is not a smooth flow but rather is made
tional tube types becomes impractical up of the continuous arrival of particles
since the input resistance of the tube has (electrons) at a very high rate. This shot
become so much lower than the equivalent effect is a source of noise in the tube, but
noise resistance that it is impossible to attain its effect is referred back to the grid circuit
reasonable signal-to -noise ratio on any but of the tube since it is included in the equiv-
very strong signals. Hence, special vhf tube alent noise resistance discussed in the preced-
types such as the 6BCS, 6CW4, and 6EH7 ing paragraphs.
must be used.
Plate- Circuit For the purpose of this section,
The lowering of the effective input re-
sistance of a vacuum tube at higher fre- Coupling it will be considered that the
quencies is brought about by a number of function of the plate load cir-
factors. The first, and most obvious, is the cuit of a tuned vacuum -tube amplifier is to
fact that the dielectric loss in the internal deliver energy to the next stage with the
insulators, and in the base and press of the greatest efficiency over the required band of
tube increases with frequency. The second frequencies. Figure 1 shows three methods
factor is due to the fact that a finite time is of interstage coupling for tuned r -f voltage
required for an electron to move from the amplifiers. In figure lA omega (w) is 27r
space charge in the vicinity of the cathode, times the resonant frequency of the circuit
pass between the grid wires, and travel on in the plate of the amplifier tube, and L and
to the plate. The fact that the electrostatic Q are the inductance and Q of the inductor
effect of the grid on the moving electron L. In figure 1B the notation is the same and
acts over an appreciable portion of a Cycle M is the mutual inductance between the
at these high frequencies causes a current primary coil and the secondary coil. In fig-
flow in the grid circuit which appears to the ure 1C the notation is again the same and k
input circuit feeding the grid as a resistance. is the coefficient of coupling between the
The decrease in input resistance of a tube two tuned circuits. As the coefficient of
due to electron transit time varies as the coupling between the circuits is increased
square of the frequency. The undesirable the bandwidth becomes greater but the re-
effect of transit time can be reduced in sponse over the band becomes progressively
certain cases by the use of higher plate volt- more double- humped. The response over the
150 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

band is the flattest when the Q's of pri- a large number of spurious signals in the
mary and secondary are approximately the output of the receiver -in most cases these
same and the value of each Q is equal to signals will carry the modulation of both the
1.75/k. carriers which have been cross -modulated to
Variable- Tubes
produce the spurious signal.
It
is common practice
The undesirable effect of cross- modulation
in R -F Stages to control the gain of a can be eliminated in most cases and greatly
succession of r -f or i -f reduced in the balance through the use
amplifier stages by varying the average bias of a variable -p. tube in all stages which
on their control grids. However, as the bias have avc voltage or other large negative
is raised above the operating value on a
bias applied to their grids. The variable -p.
conventional sharp -cutoff tube the tube be- tube has a characteristic which causes the
comes increasingly nonlinear in operation as
cutoff of plate current is approached. The cutoff of plate current to be gradual with
an increase in grid bias, and the reduction in
effect of such nonlinearity is to cause cross -
modulation between strong signals which plate current is accompanied by a decrease
appear on the grid of the tube. When a tube in the effective amplification factor of the
operating in such a manner is in one of the tube. Variable -p. tubes ordinarily have some-
first stages of a receiver a number of signals what reduced gm as compared to a sharp -
are appearing on its grid simultaneously and cutoff tube of the same group. Hence the
cross -modulation between them will take sharp -cutoff tube will perform best in stages
place. The result of this effect is to produce to which avc voltage is not applied.

RADIO -FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS

All modern transmitters in the medium - power output. Nevertheless, the class -C am-
frequency range and an increasing percent- plifier gives less power gain than either a
age of those in the vhf and uhf ranges con- class -A or class -B amplifier under similar
sist of a comparatively low -level source of conditions since the grid of a class -C stage
radio- frequency energy which is multiplied must be driven highly positive over the por-
in frequency and successively amplified to tion of the cycle of the exciting wave when
the desired power level. Microwave trans- the plate voltage on the amplifier is low, and
mitters may be of the self -excited oscil- must be at a large negative potential over a
lator type, but when it is possible to use large portion of the cycle so that no plate
r -f amplifiers in uhf transmitters the flex- current will flow except when plate voltage
ibility of their application is increased. is very low. This, in fact, is the fundamental
The following portion of this chapter will
be devoted, however, to the method of
operation and calculation of operating char-
class -C amplifier stage can be made high
plate current is cut off at all times except
-
reason why the plate- circuit efficiency of a

acteristics of r -f power amplifiers for op- when the plate -to- cathode voltage drop
eration in the range of approximately 3.5 to across the tube is at its lowest value. Class -
500 MHz. C amplifiers almost invariably operate into
a tuned tank circuit as a load, and as a result
7 -3 Class -C R -F are used as amplifiers of a single frequency
or of a comparatively narrow band of fre-
Power Amplifiers quencies.

The majority of r-f power amplifiers fall Relationships in Figure2 shows the relation -
in the class -B and -C modes since such stages Class-C Stage shipsbetween the various
can be made to give the best plate -circuit voltages and currents over
efficiency of any present type of vacuum - one cycle of the exciting grid voltage for a
tube amplifier. Hence, the cost of tubes for class -C amplifier stage. The notation given
such a stage and the cost of the power to in figure 2 and in the discussion to follow
supply that stage is least for any given is the same as given at the first of Chapter

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Class -C R -F Amplifiers 151

pA AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.) =GMIJLQ PLATE


VOLTAGE

EPM
La EBB

o
ePMIN
I
--t--L.--I--1------r
I
I

I I I

AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.) GMU)MQ


1

I I
I
PEAK
I 1
I I PLATE
IPMAX. 1
I I
CURRENT

If--I
-
---L-I. --1--
I IeP-4.6-e1.-01 I
I
f-
II 1 I

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
OF PLATE CURRENT

AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE(APPROIkGMK
QP s
1

WHORE, I. PRI. ANO SEC. RESONANT AT SAME FREQUENCY


2. K is COEFFICIENT Of COUPLING
II I
THE SAME.
IF PRI. ANO SEC. Q ARE APPROXIMATELY
TOTAL BANDWIDTH GRID I

CENTER FREQUENCY
a K FI- CURRENT
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE OCCURS AT CRITICAL COUPLING -
WNEN K
-i -I 111 I
-- t`
QP Qs
111 I

Figura I III I I

Gain equations for pentodo r-I amplifier III GRID I

stages operating info a tuned load III VOLTAGE

Six under "Symbols for Vacuum -Tube Pa-


rameters."
The various manufacturers of vacuum
tubes publish booklets listing in adequate
detail alternative class-C operating condi-
tions for the tubes which they manufacture. Figure 2
In addition, operating -condition sheets for
Instantaneous electrode and tank-circa t volt-
any particular type of vacuum tube are ages and currents for a class -C r -I power
available for the asking from the different amplifier
vacuum -tube manufacturers. It is, neverthe-
less, often desirable to determine optimum are devoted to a method of calculating class -
operating conditions for a tube under a par- C operating conditions which is moderately
ticular set of circumstances. To assist in simple and yet sufficiently accurate for all
such calculations the following paragraphs practical purposes.
152 R -F Vacuum -Tube Ampl ifiers THE RADIO
7.0
for these factors will depend on the demands
of a particular application of the tube.
The plate and grid currents of a class -C
amplifier tube are periodic pulses, the dura-
.0
tions of which are always less than 180 de-
grees. For this reason the average grid cur-
rent, average plate current, power output,
driving power, etc., cannot be directly cal-
O !q
culated but must be determined by a Fourier
analysis from points selected at proper in-
tervals along the line of operation as plotted
on the constant -current characteristics. This
4.0
may be done either analytically or graphical-
ly. While the Fourier analysis has the ad-
vantage of accuracy, it also has the dis-
advantage of being tedious and involved.
, 11 1 , The approximate analysis which follows
RATIO has proved to be sufficiently accurate for
Ls
most applications. This type of analysis also
has the advantage of giving the desired in-
Figure 3 formation at the first trial. The system is
Relationship between the peak value of the direct in giving the desired information since
fundamental component of the tube plate Mr. the important factors, power output, plate
rent, and average plate nt; as compared efficiency, and plate voltage are arbitrarily
to the ratio of the instantaneous peak value
of tuba plate nt, and average plate cur- selected at the beginning.
rant value.
Method of The first step in the method to
A Tube Performance Calculator for class - Calculation be described is to determine the
AB,, class -B, and class -C service may be power which must be delivered
obtained at no cost by writing: Application by the class-C amplifier. In making this de-
Engineering Dept.; Eimac, a Division of termination it is well to remember that
Varian; San Carlos, California. ordinarily from f to 10 percent of the power
delivered by the amplifier tube or tubes will
Calculation of Class- Although class -C op- be lost in well -designed tank and coupling
C Amplifier Operating erating conditions can circuits at frequencies below 20 MHz.
Choracterisics be determined with Above 20 MHz the tank and circuit losses
the aid of the more are ordinarily somewhat above 10 percent.
conventional grid - voltage /plate - current The plate power input necessary to pro-
operating curves, the calculation is consider- duce the desired output is determined by the
ably simplified if the alternative constant- =
plate efficiency: P,o Pou, /Np.
current curve of the tube in question is For most applications it is desirable to op-
used. This is true since the operating line of erate at the highest practicable efficiency.
a class -C amplifier is a straight line on a set
High -efficiency operation usually requires
of constant -current curves. A set of con- less -expensive tubes and power supplies, and
stant- current curves for the 2 f 0 -TH tube the amount of external cooling required is
with a sample load line drawn thereon is frequently less than for low -efficiency opera-
shown in figure S. tion. On the other hand, high -efficiency op-
In calculating and predicting the opera- eration usually requires more driving power
tion of a vacuum tube as a class -C radio - and involves the use of higher plate voltages
frequency amplifier, the considerations which and higher peak tube voltages. The better
determine the operating conditions are plate types of triodes will ordinarily operate at a
efficiency, power output required, maximum plate efficiency of 75 to 85 percent at the
allowable plate and grid dissipation, maxi- highest rated plate voltage, and at a plate
mum allowable plate voltage, and maximum efficiency of 65 to 75 percent at intermediate
allowable plate current. The values chosen values of plate voltage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Class -C Operating Characteristics 153
0
The first determining factor in selecting
a tube or tubes for a particular application
is the amount of plate dissipation which will
0 be required of the stage. The total plate dis-
sipation rating for the tube or tubes to be
used in the stage must be equal to or greater
than that calculated from: Pp = P10 Pout. -
O 1.0
After selecting a tube or tubes to meet
the power output and plate dissipation re-
quirements it becomes necessary to determine
from the tube characteristics whether the
0 tube selected is capable of the desired opera-
tion and, if so, to determine the driving
power, grid bias, and grid dissipation.
The complete procedure necessary to de-
30
termine a set of class-C amplifier operating
-t 0 -t s -20 -30
conditions is given in the following steps:
RATIO
rg-
Fiyun 4 1. Select the plate voltage, power output,
Relationship between the ratio of the peak
value of the fundamental component of the
grid excitation voltage, and the average grid
2.
and efficiency.
Determine plate input from: P;,, -
U t /NP

'
bias; as compared to the ratio between in- 3. Determine plate dissipation from:
stantaneous peak grid
grid current
and average
Pp = Pt -
Pout. Pp must not exceed

FIRST TRIAL POINT

E MAC 250TH
CONSTANT CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS

LOAD LINE PLATE VOLTAGE -VOLTS


Figure 5
CONSTANT CURRENT CURVES FOR 250 -TH
Active portion of the operating load lino for an Eimac 250TH class -C r -f power amplifier, showing
first trial point and the final operating point
154 R -F Vacuum-Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

maximum rated plate dissipation for Eco = 1


tube or tubes selected.
4. Determine average plate current from:
1 - cos Op
X

r
5.
Ib
Determine approximate
= Pin /Ebb
ip max from: L
- egmp cos 0 - Ezl12J
ip max = 4.9 1b for Np = 0.85
for tetrodes, where p.12 is the grid -
ip max = 4.5 1b for Np = 0.80
= screen amplification factor, and E,.2 is
ip max = 4.0 lb for Np 0.75
for Np = the d -c screen voltage.
ip max = 3.5 Ib 0.70
14. Calculate the peak fundamental grid
6. Locate the point on constant- current
characteristics where the constant excitation voltage from:
plate -current line corresponding to the Egm = egmp - Ecc
appropriate ip max determined in step 5 15. Calculate the ratio Egm/E, for the
crosses the line of equal plate and grid values of E,.,, and Egm found in steps
voltages (diode line). Read ep min at 13 and 14.
this point. In a few cases the lines of 16. Read ig max/Ic from figure 4 for the
constant plate current will inflect ratio Egm /ECC found in step 15.
sharply upward before reaching the 17. Calculate the average grid current
diode line. In these cases ep min should from the ratio found in step 16, and
not be read at the diode line but at the value of ig max found in step 11:
the point where the plate current line
ig max
intersects a line drawn from the ori-
gin through these points of inflection. Ratio from step 16
7. Calculate Epm from: 18. Calculate approximate grid driving
Epm = Ebb - ep min power from:
8. Calculate the ratio Ipm /li, from: Pa = 0.9 Egmlc
19. Calculate grid dissipation from:
fpm 2 Np Ebb
Ih Epm
Pg = Pa + Eccic
Pg must not exceed the maximum
9. From the ratio of /p./lb calculated in rated grid dissipation for the tube se-
step 8 determine the ratio ip mx /li,
lected.
from figure 3. Sample A typical example of class -C
10. Calculate a new value for ip max from
Calculation amplifier calculation is shown in
the ratio found in step 9.
the example below. Reference is
ip max = (ratio from step 9) 1,,
made to figures 3, 4 and 5 in the calcula-
11. Read egmp and ig max from the constant -
tion.
current characteristics for the values
1. Desired power output -800 watts.
of ep min and ip max determined in steps
2. Desired plate voltage-3500 volts.
6 and 10.
Desired plate efficiency -80 percent
12. Calculate the cosine of one -half the
angle of plate -current flow from:
(Np = 0.80)
Pin= 800/0.80 = 1000 watts
3. Pp = 1000 - 800 = 200 watts
cos Op = 2.32 j" - 1.57
J 4.
Use 250TH; max Pp = 250w; = 37.
Ib = 1000/3500 = 0.285 ampere
13. Calculate the grid bias voltage from:
(285 ma) Max. lb for 250TH is 350
ma.
1 5. Approximate ip max = 0.285 X 4.5
1 - cos Bp
=1.28 ampere
6. ep min =
260 volts (see figure 5 first
trial point)
cos Bp

egmp
Ebb 1
7. Epm =
3500 260 -
3240 volts =
8. Ipm /Ib =
2 X 0.80 X 3500/3240 =
for triodes. 5600/3240 1.73 =

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Class -C Operating Characteristics 155

9. iv max /In =
4.1 (from figure 3) ing compromise values of Q for class -C am-
10. 1p max =
0.285 X 4.1 1.17 = plifiers are given in the chapter, Generation
11. egmp =
240 volts of R -F Energy. However, the amount of in-
ig max =
0.430 amperes ductance required for a special tank -circuit
(Both above from final point on Q under specified operating conditions can
figure 5 ) be calculated from the following expression:
12. cos Bp = 2.32 (1.73 1.57) = 0.37 -

,
(Op = 68.3 ) ,L =
Q
1
13. Ecc=
1 - 0.37 where,
0, equals 2 7r X operating frequency,
[ ( L equals tank inductance,
0.37 3370 -240 I - 33OJ RL equals required tube load impedance,
Q equals effective tank circuit Q.

\\
= -240 volts A tank circuit Q of 12 to 20 is recom-
14. Eg,,, = 240 -
( -240) = 480 volts mended for all normal conditions. However,
if a balanced push -pull amplifier is employed
grid swing
15. Egm /Ecc = 480/ 240 = - -2 the tank receives two impulses per cycle and
16. ig O,ax /Ic = 5.75 (from figure 4) the circuit Q may be lowered somewhat

m,
17. le = 0.430/5.75 = 0.075 amp (75 from the above values.
ma) grid current Quick Method of The plate- circuit effi-
18. Pa = 0.9 X 480 X 0.075 = 32.5 Calculating Amplifierciency of a class -B or
watts driving power
19. Pg = 32.5 -(
-240 X 0.75) =
Plate Efficiency class -C r -f amplifier
can be determined
14.5 watts grid dissipation
from the following facts. The plate- circuit
Max Pg for 250TH is 40 watts
efficiency of such an amplifier is equal to
The power output of any type of r -f am-
the product of two factors: F1, which is

NWI
plifier is equal to: equal to the ratio of Epm to Ebb (F1 =
IpmEpm /2 =P
.,-'i.......
N,
Ip, can be determined, of course, from
the ratio determined in step 8 above (in this o.
type of calculation) by multiplying this
ratio times In.
It is frequently of importance to know
the value of load impedance into which a
class -C amplifier operating under a certain
set of conditions should operate. This is
Fz
ON
o.w
o.

I ku 0E.. ,...llllll1l,,llllll1..
simply RL = /I pm. In the case of the
operating conditions just determined for a
250TH amplifier stage the value of load
impedance is:
,-.lllll,.
082
a7s
0.711 1El
lllll'.
0.74
0.72
Ip11I = II111
In 0.70 NI
0 10 20 30 40 50 N 70 90 90 100 1)0 1 o
n I I o-... ri cercles, nraorre 1 I I

3240 oN O.W 1.1N . ONO04 Wi-LW


I I

Er,,,
I
I

O.W

RI' /pm .495


= 6600 ohms cos ee

of Amplifier Figure 6
Q In order to obtain proper plate
Tank Circuit tank -circuit tuning and low Relationship between factor F, and the half -
radiation of harmonics from angle of plate -carrent Row in an amplifier
with sine-wave Input and output voltage,
an amplifier it is necessary that the plate operating at a grid -bias voltage greater than
tank circuit have the correct Q. Charts giv- cutoff
156 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RA D I O

Er,,, /Ebb), and F2,which is proportional to 7 -4 Class -B Radio -


the one -half angle of plate current flow Op.
A graph of F, against both 0, and cos Op is
Frequency Power Amplifiers
given in figure 6. Either O, or cos BP may
be used to determine F2. Cos Op may be deter- Radio- frequency power amplifiers operat-
mined either from the procedure previously ing under class -B conditions of grid bias
given for making class -C amplifier computa- and excitation voltage are used in various
tions or it may be determined from the fol- types of applications in transmitters. The
lowing expression: first general application is as a buffer- ampli-
fier stage where it is desired to obtain a high
cos Op = -

E" +
Egm -
Ebb
Epa,
value of power amplification in a particular
stage. A particular tube type operated with
a given plate voltage will be capable of
Example of It is desired to know the one - somewhat greater output for a certain
Method half angle of plate- current flow amount of excitation power when operated
and the plate- circuit efficiency as a class -B amplifier than when operated as
for an 812 tube operating under the follow- a class -C amplifier.
ing conditions which have been assumed
from inspection of the data and curves Calculation of Calculation of the operating
given in the RCA Transmitting Tube Hand- Operating conditions for this type of
book: Characteristics class -B r -f amplifier can be
carried out in a manner simi-
1. E,,,, = 1100 volts lar to that described in the previous para-
E,. _ -40 volts graphs, except that the grid -bias voltage is
= 29 set on the tube before calculation at the
Een,
Ep ,
= 120 volts
= 1000 volts
value: E, = - Ebb /. Since the grid bias
is set at cutoff the one -half angle of plate -
2. F1 = Epm/Ebb = 0.91 current flow is 90 ; hence cos 0,, is fixed at
3. cos Op = -29 X 40 + 1100
29 X 120 - 1000 - 0.00. The plate- circuit efficiency for a class -
B r -f amplifier operated in this manner can
60 be determined in the following manner:
0.025
2480
Np = 78.5 E"'"'
Em,
4. F2 0.79 (by reference to
figure 6) The "Class -B The second type of class -B r -f
5. Np = F,XF2 =0.91 X0.79= Linear" amplifier is the so- called class -
0.72 (72 percent efficiency) B linear amplifier which is of-
ten used in transmitters for the amplifica-
F, could be called the plate -voltage-swing tion of a single -sideband signal or a conven-
efficiency factor, and F, can be called the tional amplitude -modulated wave. Calcula-
operating -angle efficiency factor or the maxi- tion of operating conditions may be carried
mum possible efficiency of any stage running out in a manner similar to that previously
with that value of half -angle of plate cur- described with the following exceptions: The
rent flow. first trial operating point is chosen on the
N,, is, of course, only the ratio between basis of the 100 percent positive modulation
power output and power input. If it is de- peak (or PEP condition) of the exciting
sired to determine the power input, exciting wave. The plate- circuit and grid -peak volt-
power, and grid current of the stage, these ages and currents can then be determined
can be obtained through the use of steps 7, and the power input and output calculated.
8, 9, and 10 of the previously given method Then, with the exciting voltage reduced to
for determining power input and output; and one -half for the no- modulation condition of
knowing that la max is 0.095 ampere, the the exciting wave, and with the same value
grid- circuit conditions can be determined of load resistance reflected on the tube, the
through the use of steps 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. a -m plate input

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK
1.0

.7

.s

.3

.2
IMO
NNE
L'c
WWI=
e
,
100
_
200
=cz,E=+ol

300
'
-,

=+100 l

rr-+
400 500
--
e00 700 600 900
Class-B R -F Amplifiers

Ecz= +400
Eca=0v.

1000 1100
V.

1200 1300
Eu

Eu=+60

1400
=

Eco. +4e

Eci

1
M1
r eo

lem 171
157

PLATE VOLTS
Figure 7

AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS OF 813 TUBE

and plate efficiency will drop to approxi- 21 milliamperes willproduce this fig-
mately one -half the values at the 100 per- ure. Referring to figure 7, a grid bias
cent positive modulation peak and the power of -45 volts is approximately cor-
output of the stage will drop to one - fourth rect.
the peak -modulation value. On the negative 2. A practical class -B linear r -f amplifier
modulation peak the input, efficiency, and runs at an efficiency of about 66% at
output all drop to zero. full ouput, the carrier efficiency drop-
In general, the proper plate voltage, bias ping to about 33% with a modulated
voltage, load resistance, and power output exciting signal. In the case of single -
listed in the tube tables for class -B audio sideband suppressed -carrier excitation,
work will also apply to class -B linear r -f ap- the linear amplifier runs at the resting
plication. or quiescent input of 42 watts with
no exciting signal. The peak allow-
Calculation of Oper- Figure 7 illustrates able power input to the 813 is:
ating Parameters for o the characteristic
Clau -B Linear Amplifier curves for an 813 Input peak power (WO =
tube. Assume the plate dissipation X 100
plate supply to be 2000 volts, and the screen
supply to be 400 volts. To determine the
(100 -%
plate efficiency)
operating parameters of this tube as a class- -125
33
X 100 = 379 watts
B linear SSB r -f amplifier, the following
steps should be taken: 3. The maximum d -c signal plate current
is:
1. The grid bias is chosen so that the
resting plate current will produce ap-
proximately 1/3 of the maximum 1p max - Wp
Ep 2000
379

plate dissipation of the tube. The max- = 0.189 ampere


imum dissipation of the 813 is 125
watts, so the bias is set to allow one - 4. The plate current flow of the linear
third of this value, or 42 watts of amplifier is 180 , and the plate cur-
resting dissipation. At a plate poten- rent pulses have a peak of 3.14 times
tial of 2000 volts, a plate current of the maximum signal current:
158 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
WO
10. For an operating frequency of 4.0
MHz, the effective resonant capacity
.o
is:
Ect.+400 V.

s
4
so

Ecu=+ioov.
Ec2=ov.
C
-inductance
106
6.28 X 4.0 X 445 - 90 pf
140
11. The required to resonate at
c1=4110
LEcu 440 V.
4.0 MHz with this value of capacity
3
+ zo 06
'Illt
u
E=+4ov is:
445
Eu +xo L = 6.28 X 4.0
0 00 200 300 400
PLATE VOLTS En
= 17.8 microhenries
Figure 8
Grid -Circuit The maximum positive
1.
E,, VERSUS E, CHARACTERISTICS OF 813 Considerations grid potential is 60
TUBE volts, and the peak r-f
grid voltage is 105 volts. Required
ip ,,,ax =3.14 X 0.189 = 0.595 ampere driving power is 0.525 watt. The
5. Referring to figure 7, a current of equivalent grid resistance of this stage
about 0.595 ampere (Point A) will is:
flow at a positive grid potential of 60 (eg)2 1052
volts and a minimum plate potential Rg = 2 X Pg 2 X 0.525
of 420 volts. The grid is biased at
-45 volts, so a peak r -f grid voltage 10,000 ohms
of 60 + 45 volts, or 105 volts, swing
2. As in the case of the class -B audio am-
is required.
plifier the grid resistance of the linear
6. The grid driving power required for
amplifier varies from infinity to a low
the class -B linear stage may be found
value when maximum grid current is
by the aid of figure 8. It is one-third
the product of the peak grid current drawn. To decrease the effect of this
times the peak grid swing. resistance excursion, a swamping resis-
tor should be placed across the grid -
0.015 X 105 tank circuit. The value of the resistor
Pp = 3
= 0.525 watt
should be dropped until a shortage of
7. The single-tone power output of the driving power begins to be noticed.
813 stage is: For this example, a resistor of 3000
Pp = 78.5 (E1, -ep a) X Ip ohms is used. The grid circuit load for
Pp = 78.5 (2000 -420) X .189 = no grid current is now 3000 ohms in-
235 watts stead of infinity, and drops to 2300
8. The plate load resistance is: ohms when maximum grid current is
Ep - ep mio1580
3.
drawn.
A circuit Q of 15 is chosen for the
R''- O.5tpmax 0.5 X .595 grid tank. The capacitive reactance
= 5320 ohms required is:
9. If a loaded plate tank circuit Q of 12
is desired, the reactance of the plate
Xo = 2100 = 154 ohms
tank capacitor at the resonant fre-
quency should be:
4. At 4.0 MHz the effective capacitance
R,,
reactance (ohms) = is:
Q
108
5320 C
6.28 X 4.0 X 154
= 259 pf
12
= 445 ohms 5. The inductive reactance required to

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Special R-F Amplifiers 159

resonate the grid circuit at 4.0 MHz cathode leads of the tube and in the leads to
is: the neutralizing capacitor. In other words
the bandwidth of neutralization decreases as
= 154 = 6.1 microhenries the presence of the neutralizing capacitor
6.28 X 4.0 adds additional undesirable capacitive load-
6. By substituting the loaded -grid resist- ing to the grid and plate tank circuits of
the tube or tubes. To look at the problem in
ance figure in the formula in the first
paragraph, the grid driving power is another way, an amplifier that may be per-
now found to be approximately 2.4
fectly neutralized at a frequency of 30 MHz
watts. may be completely out of neutralization at a
frequency of 120 MHz. Therefore, if there
Screen -Circuit By reference to the plate are circuits in both the grid and plate cir-
Considerations characteristic curve of the cuits which offer appreciable impedance at
813 tube, it can be seen that
this high frequency it is quite possible that
at a minimum plate potential of 420 volts, the stage may develop a parasitic oscilla-
and a maximum plate current of 0.6 ampere, tion in the vicinity of 120 MHz.
the screen current will be approximately 30 Grounded -Grid This condition of restricted -
milliamperes, dropping to one or two milli- R-F Amplifiers range neutralization of r -f
amperes in the quiescent state. It is necessary power amplifiers can be great-
to use a well - regulated screen supply to hold ly alleviated through the use of a cathode -
the screen voltage at the correct potential driven or grounded -grid r -f stage. The
over this range of current excursion. The use grounded -grid amplifier has the following
of an electronically regulated screen supply advantages:
is recommended.
1. The output capacitance of a stage is
reduced to approximately one -half the
7-5 Special R -F Power value which would be obtained if the
Amplifier Circuits same tube or tubes were operated as a
conventional neutralized amplifier.
The r -f power amplifier discussions of 2. The tendency toward parasitic oscilla-
Sections 7 -3 and 7 -4 have been based on the tions in such a stage is greatly reduced
assumption that a conventional grounded - since the shielding effect of the control
cathode or cathode- return type of amplifier grid between the filament and the
was in question. It is possible, however, as in plate is effective over a broad range of
the case of a -f and low -level r -f amplifiers frequencies.
3. The feedback capacitance within the
to use circuits in which electrodes other than
the cathode are returned to ground insofar stage is the plate -to- cathode capaci-
as the signal potential is concerned. Both the
tance which is ordinarily very much
less than the grid -to -plate capacitance.
plate- return or cathode- follower amplifier
and the grid- return or grounded -grid am- Hence neutralization is ordinarily not
plifier are effective in certain circuit applica- required. If neutralization is required
tions as tuned r -f power amplifiers. the neutralizing capacitors are very
small in value and are cross -connected
Disadvantages of An undesirable aspect of between plates and cathodes in a push -
Grounded -Cathode the operation of cathode - pull stage, or between the opposite end
Amplifiers return r -f power ampli- of a split plate tank and the cathode
fiers using triode tubes is in a single -ended stage.
that such amplifiers must be neutralized. The disadvantages of a grounded -grid am-
Principles and methods of neutralizing r -f plifier are:
power amplifiers are discussed in the chapter
Generation of R -F Energy. As the frequency 1. A large amount of excitation energy
of operation of an amplifier is increased the is required. However, only the normal
stage becomes more and more difficult to amount of energy is lost in the grid
neutralize due to inductance in the grid and circuit of the amplifier tube; all addi-
160 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
tional energy over this amount is de-
livered to the load circuit as useful
output. LOAD

2. The cathode of a grounded -grid am-


plifier stage is above r -f ground. This
means that the cathode must be fed DRIVER

through a suitable impedance from the


filament supply, or the filament trans- C-

former must be of the low capacitance PoWER OUTPUT TO LOOM (E'Elw) Ew a, EwElw EGr [...
type and adequately insulated for the
POWER DELIVERED ST OUTPUT TY4E 1112Pr
r -f voltage which will be present.
rPO.. DRIVER Ew IPu
3. A grounded -grid r -f amplifier cannot
POWER TO LOAD
,
be plate modulated 100 percent unless TOTAL POWER DEIIVERED 4, OR VCR
EGr (=M+ IVA)
the output of the exciting stage is .olE4ric
modulated also. Approximately 70 per- POWER RuoRUO RT OUTPUT TUDE GRID .n0 SIPS /uPPL
cent modulation of the exciter stage, EON 14r o.l EGr Ic
while the final stage is modulated oR

100 percent, is recommended. How- 2. (.PPnonr.TEV) EGr


IC
ever the grounded -grid r -f amplifier
is quite satisfactory as a class -B linear Figure 9
r-f amplifier for single -sideband or
conventional amplitude -modulated GROUNDED -GRID CLASS -B OR CLASS -C
waves or as an amplifier for a straight AMPLIFIER
c -w or f -m signal. The equations in the above figure give the
relationships between the fundamental com-
p is of grid and plate potential and cur-
Figure 9 shows a simplified representation rent, and the power input and power output
of a grounded -grid triode r-f power ampli- of the stage. An expression for the approxi-
fier stage. The relationships between input mate cathode impedance is given.
and output power and the peak fundamental
components of electrode voltages and cur- is to determine the plate- circuit and grid -
rents are given below the drawing. The cal- circuit operating conditions of the tube as
culation of the complete operating condi- though it were to operate as a conventional
tions for a grounded -grid amplifier stage is cathode -return amplifier stage. The second
somewhat more complex than that for a step is then to add in the additional condi-
conventional amplifier because the input cir- tions imposed on the operating conditions by
cuit of the tube is in series with the output the fact that the stage is to operate as a
circuit as far as the load is concerned. The grounded -grid amplifier.
primary result of this effect is, as stated be- For the first step in the calculation the
fore, that considerably more power is re- procedure given in Section 7 -3 is quite satis-
quired from the driver stage. The normal factory and will be used in the example to
power gain for a g -g stage is from 3 to 15 follow. Suppose we take for our example the
depending on the grid- circuit conditions case of a type 304TL tube operating at 2700
chosen for the output stage. The higher the plate volts at a kilowatt input in class -C
grid bias and grid swing required on the service. Following through the procedure
output stage, the higher will be the require- previously given:
ment from the driver.
1. desired power output-850 watts
desired plate voltage -2700 volts
Calculation of Operating It is most conven- desired plate efficiency-85 percent
Conditions of Grounded - ient to determine (Np = 0.85).
Grid R -F Amplifiers the operating con- 2. P) = 850/0.85 = 1000 watts.
ditions for a class - 3. Pp = 1000 - 850 = 150 watts.
B or class -C grounded -grid r -f power am- Type 304TL chosen; max. P, = 300
plifier in a two -step process. The first step watts; p. = 12.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 161

4. Ib 1000/2700 = 0.370 ampere


= Pd which is 27.5 watts from 18 above. The
(370 ma). total is:
5. Approximate 1 max = 4.9 X 0.370 =
525 X 0.660
1.81 ampere. total drive =
6. ep min =
140 volts (from 304TL con- 2
stant current curves). = + 27.5 watts or
172.5 watts
7. Epn, = 2700 - 140 = 2560 volts. 200 watts
8. Ipm /Ib = 2 X 0.85 X 2700/2560 = Therefore the total power output of the
1.79. stage is equal to 850 watts (contributed by
9. ip max /lb = 4.65 (from figure 3) the 304TL) plus 172.5 watts (contributed
10. ip max = 4.65 X 0.370 = 1.72 amperes by the driver) or 1022.5 watts. The cathode
11. egmp = 140 volts driving impedance of the 304TL (again re-
ig max = 0.480 amperes ferring to figure 7) is approximately:
12. Cos =2.32 (1.79 -1.57) = 0.51
9p
9p = 590 Zk = 525/(0.660 + 0.116) =
approximately 675 ohms
13. Ecc - 1
1

-0.51 X
Plate- Return or
Cathode- Follower R -F
Circuit diagram, elec-
trode potentials and
Power Amplifier currents, and operat-
0.51 (2560_140 - 20 ing conditions for a
12
- volts
= 385
cathode- follower r -f power amplifier are
given in figure 10. This circuit can be used,
14. Egm = 140- -385) = ( volts 525 in addition to the grounded -grid circuit just
15. Egm /Ecc = - 1.36
/Ic = approx. 8.25 (extrapolated
IPM
16. ig max
from figure 4)
17. le = 0.480/8.25 = 0.058 (58 ma d -c
grid current)
18. Pd = 0.9 X 525 X 0.058 = 27.5
watts
19. Pg= 27.5 -( -385 X 0.058) = 5.2
watts
Max. Pg for 304TL is 50 watts
( PM+ IGM)
We can check the operating plate efficien- POwes Output TO LOAD -
Epa.
2

cy of the stage by the method described in E M IPM


POWER DELIVERED ST Output TUBI
Section 7 -4 as follows:
E.M IGM
F1= Epn, /Ebl, = 2560/2700 = 0.95 POWER FROM DRIVER TO LOAD
a
F2for Bp of 59 (from figure 6) = 0.90 TOTAL POWER FROM DRIVea
EGM=IGH + (EPM+ =GMp) IGM

Np = Fi X F2 = 0.95 X 0.90 = Approx.


a

APPROa. (Epa.+ eGMP) , B IC


0.85 (85 percent plate efficiency)
F

ASSUMING IGM7 1.5 lc


Now, to determine the operating condi-
tions as a grounded -grid amplifier we must POWER ADSORBED ST OUTPUT TUBE GRIO AND BIAS SUPPLY
- APPROS o s (EEC + e.M.) lc
also know the peak value of the fundamental
components of plate current. This is simply G i EGM
.ApPROx. (EPM +eGMP)
t a l c
equal to (Ipm /Ib) Ib, or: l GM

Figure 10
Ipn, = 1.79 X 0.370 = 0.660 amperes
(from 4 and 8 above) CATHODE -FOLLOWER R -F POWER
AMPLIFIER
The total average power required of the
driver (from figure 9) is equal to Exmlpm /2 Showing the relationships between the tube
potentials and e is and the input and out-
(since the grid is grounded and the grid put power of the stage. The approximate grid
swing appears also as cathode swing) plus impedance also is given.

www.americanradiohistory.com
162 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
2504,4- 400A,ETC
discussed, as an r -f amplifier with a triode 4-

tube and no additional neutralization cir-


cuit. However, the circuit will oscillate if
the impedance from cathode to ground is
DRIVE
allowed to become capacitive rather than
inductive or resistive with respect to the
operating frequency. The circuit is not rec-
ommended except for vhf or uhf work with
coaxial lines as tuned circuits since the peak
grid swing required on the r -f amplifier
stage is approximately equal to the plate
voltage on the amplifier tube if high -effi-
ciency operation is desired. This means, of
course, that the grid tank must be able to
withstand slightly more peak voltage than
the plate tank. Such a stage may not be
plate modulated unless the driver stage is
modulated the same percentage as the final
amplifier. However, such a stage may be Figure 11
used as an amplifier of modulated waves
(class -B linear) or as a c -w or f -m amplifier. TAPPED INPUT CIRCUIT REDUCES
The design of such an amplifier stage is EXCESSIVE GRID DISSIPATION
essentially the same as the design of a IN G-G CRCUIT
grounded -grid amplifier stage as far as the C = 20 pt por meter wavelength
first step is concerned. Then, for the second RFC = Dual-winding on V2 -inch diameter,
step the operating conditions given in figure 31/2-inch long ferrite rod. (Lafayette
Radio, N.Y.C. #MS -333).
10 are applied to the data obtained in the first
step. As an example, take the 304TL stage
previously described. The total power re- two r -f chokes of special design to feed the
quired of the driver will be (from figure 10) filament current to the tubes, with a con-
approximately (2700 X 0.058 X 1.8) /2 or ventional tank circuit between filament and
141 watts. Of this 141 watts 27.5 watts (as ground. Coaxial lines also may be used to
before) will be lost as grid dissipation and serve both as cathode tank and filament feed
bias loss and the balance of 113.5 watts will to the tubes for vhf and uhf work.
appear as output. The total output of the
Control -Grid Dissipation Tetrode tubes may be
stage will then be approximately 963 watts. in Grounded -Grid Stages operated as grounded -
grid (cathode- driven)
Cathode Tank of The cathode tank circuit amplifiers by tying the grid and screen
G -G or C-F for either a grounded -grid together and operating the tube as high-p,
Power Amplifier or cathode-follower r -f triode (figure 11) . Combined grid and
power amplifier may be a screen current, however, is a function of
conventional tank circuit if the filament tube geometry and may reach destructive
transformer for the stage is of the low - values under conditions of full excitation.
capacitance high- voltage type. Conventional Proper division of excitation between grid
filament transformers, however, will not op- and screen should be as the ratio of the
erate with the high values of r -f voltage screen -to -grid amplification, which is ap-
present in such a circuit. If a conventional proximately 5 for tubes such as the 4 -250A,
filament transformer is to be used, the cath- 4 -400A, etc. The proper ratio of grid /screen
ode tank coil may consist of two parallel excitation may be achieved by tapping the
heavy conductors (to carry the high fila- grid at some point on the input circuit, as
ment current) bypassed at both the ground shown. Grid dissipation is reduced, but the
end and at the tube socket. The tuning ca- overall level of excitation is increased about
pacitor is then placed between filament and 30% over the value required for simple
ground. It is possible in certain cases to use grounded -grid operation.

www.americanradiohistory.com
N
HANDBOOK Class -A131 R -F Power Amplifiers 163

M
M1-
7 -6 Class -AIL Radio-

WE
MENEN.i,
Frequency Power Amplifiers M MOST LINEAN
:PORTION
I,GG!=!!GG!!lGGG

ME
IR//NENN
13
EWEE
Class-AB' r -f amplifiers operate under

611
such conditions of bias and excitation that !!lGI:.S!=IG:GCIGGG!=GGG
grid current does not flow over any portion 1111111-41111111111111111111111111111113

NEMNaq
of the input cycle. This is desirable, since
distortion caused by grid -current loading is [fBZRiE.J
absent, and also because the stage is capable
of high power gain. Stage efficiency is about
58 percent when a plate current operating
angle of 210 is chosen, as compared to 62
Figure 12
percent for class -B operation.
The level of static (quiescent) plate cur- Er -1 CURVE
rent for lowest distortion is quite critical for
Amplifier operation is confined to the mod
class -AB, tetrode operation. This value is linear portion of the characteristic curve.
determined by the tube characteristics, and
is not greatly affected by the circuit para-
meters or operating voltages. The maximum is usually of exponential shape, and the sig-
d -c plate potential is therefore limited by the nal distortion is held to a small value by
static dissipation of the tube, since the rest- operating the tube well below its maximum
ing plate current figure is fixed. The static output, and centering operation over the
plate current of a tetrode tube varies as the most linear portion of the characteristic
3/2 power of the screen voltage. For ex- curve.
ample, raising the screen voltage from 300 The relationship between exciting voltage
to 500 volts will double the plate current. in a class -AB, amplifier and the r -f plate
The optimum static plate current for mini- circuit voltage is shown in figure 13. With a
mum distortion is also doubled, since the small value of static plate current the lower
shape of the Eg -1p curve does not change. portion of the line is curved. Maximum un-
In actual practice, somewhat lower static distorted output is limited by the point on
plate current than optimum may be em- the line (A) where the instantaneous plate
ployed without raising the distortion appre- voltage drops down to the screen voltage.
ciably, and values of static plate current of This "hook" in the line is caused by current
0.6 to 0.8 of optimum may be safely used, diverted from the plate to the grid and screen
depending on the amount of nonlinearity elements of the tube. The characteristic plot
that can be tolerated. of the usual linear amplifier takes the shape
As with the class -B linear stage, the mini- of an S -curve. The lower portion of the
mum plate voltage swing of the class -AB, curve is straightened out by using the proper
amplifier must be kept above the d -c screen value of static plate current, and the upper
potential to prevent operation in the non- portion of the curve is avoided by limiting
linear portion of the characteristic curve. minimum plate voltage swing to a point
A low value of screen voltage allows greater substantially above the value of the screen
r -f plate voltage swing, resulting in im- voltage.
provement in plate efficiency of the tube. A
balance between plate dissipation, plate effi- Operating Parameters The approximate oper-
ciency, and plate -voltage swing must be for the Class-AB, ating parameters may
achieved for best linearity of the amplifier. Linear Amplifier be obtained from the
constant - current
The S -Curve The perfect linear amplifier de- curves (Eg -E) or the Eg Ip curves of the
livers a signal that is a replica tube in question. An operating load line is
of the input signal. Inspection of the plate - first approximated. One end of the load line
characteristic curve of a typical tube will is determined by the d -c operating voltage
disclose the tube linearity under class -AB, of the tube, and the required static plate
operating conditions (figure 12) The curve
. current. As a starting point, let the product
164 R -F Vacuum-Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

load line will fall on point A (figure 14).


Plate power dissipation is 360 watts (3000V
at 120 ma) . The opposite end of the load line
will fall on a point determined by the mini-
mum instantaneous plate voltage, and by
RF. the maximum instantaneous plate current.
E OUT The minimum plate voltage, for best lineari-
ty should be considerably higher than the
screen voltage. In this case, the screen volt-
age is 500, so the minimum plate voltage
excursion should be limited to 600 volts.
R.F. E
Class -AB, operation implies no grid current,
therefore the load line cannot cross the
Figure 13 Eg = 0 line. At the point EP = 600, E, =
LINEARITY CURVE OF 0, the maximum instantaneous plate current
TYPICAL TETRODE AMPLIFIER is 580 ma (Point B) .
Each point at which the load line crosses
At point A the instant s plate voltage is a grid- voltage axis may be taken as a point
swinging down to the value of the screen
voltage. At point B it is swinging well below for construction of the Eg-ID curve, just as
the screen and is approaching the point where was done in figure 22, chapter 6. A con-
saturation, or plate -current limiting takes structed curve shows that the approximate
place.
static bias voltage is -74 volts, which
checks closely with point A of figure 14. In
of the plate voltage and current approximate actual practice, the bias voltage is set to
the plate dissipation of the tube. Assuming hold the actual dissipation slightly below the
we have a 4 -400A tetrode, this end of the maximum figure of the tube.

VVI 4-400A rues


ElCR S00 VOLTS
7!
I

!0{

2sPOINT B
1000 40
...... 2000
E
I

3000

0
V
W

2! `_ -
.k
.4
M1115\

-
!O
LOAO LINE
.2
POINT
A

I0 (
o
I I

123 li
VALUE OF VALUE OF
EP MIN. SOOV.. MAX.
ISO ilO.SeA DISSIPATION
0000 Y. X 0.12 A .340 N'4r77)
173

1001 I 1 1

Figure 14

OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TETRODE LINEAR AMPLIFIER


ARE OBTAINED FROM CONSTANT -CURRENT CURVES.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 165

The single tone power output is: 3 -4002

(Ea- ep min) X 1p max PC

4
(3000-600) X .58
348 watts
or,
' 4
RFC
The plate current -angle efficiency factor C20 PF RFC vv
for this class of operation is 0.73, and the PER
METER
88W
NO 800
.001
aV
actual plate-circuit efficiency is: 8+
2000V
EP-ep min X0.73
Emax 01 .01

(3000 - 600)
X 0.73 = 58.4% 8-
3000
The power input to the stage is therefore
Figure 15
348
P X 100 or, 595 watts SIMPLE GROUNDED -GRID
Np 5 8.4
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
The plate dissipation is: Tuned cathode (L-C) is required to pr
distortion of driving -signal wave form
595 -348 = 247 watts.
It can be seen that the limiting factor for voltage, or cause excessive screen dissipation.
this class of operation is the static plate dis- Good regulation of the screen supply is there-
sipation, which is quite a bit higher than the fore required. Screen dissipation is highly re-
operating dissipation level. It is possible, at sponsive to plate loading conditions and the
the expense of a higher level of distortion, to plate circuit should always be adjusted so as
drop the static plate dissipation and to in- to keep the screen current below the maxi-
crease the screen voltage to obtain greater mum dissipation level as established by the
power output. If the screen voltage is set at applied voltage.
800, and the bias increased sufficiently to
drop the static plate current to 90 ma, the 7 -7 Grounded -Grid
single -tone d -c plate current may rise to 300
ma, for a power input of 900 watts. The Linear Amplifiers
plate circuit efficiency is 55.6 percent, and
the power output is 500 watts. Static plate A typical grounded -grid amplifier is shown
dissipation is 270 watts. in figure 15. The driving signal is applied
At a screen potential of 500 volts, the between the grid and the cathode, with the
maximum screen current is less than 1 ma, grid held at r -f ground potential. The con-
and under certain loading conditions may be trol grid serves as a shield between the
negative. When the screen potential is raised cathode and the plate, thus making neutral-
to 800 volts maximum screen current is 18 ization unnecessary at medium and high
ma. The performance of the tube depends on frequencies. High -p. triodes and triode -
the voltage fields set up in the tube by the connected tetrodes may be used in this con-
cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate. figuration. Care must be taken to monitor
The quantity of current flowing in the the #1 -grid current of the tetrode tubes as
screen circuit is only incidental to the fact it may run abnormally high in some types
that the screen is maintained at a positive (4X150A family) and damage to the tube
potential with respect to the electron stream may possibly result unless a protective cir-
surrounding it. cuit of the form shown in figure 11 is used.
The tube will perform as expected as long "Zero- bias" triodes (811 -A, 3-400Z and
as the screen current, in either direction, does 3- 1000Z) and certain triode-connected te-
not create undesirable changes in the screen trodes (813 and 4 -400A, for example) re-
166 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO

quire no bias supply and good linearity 304TH, CATHODE-DRIVEN,


may be achieved with a minimum of circuit CLASS-AB, LINEAR AMPLIFIER
components. An improvement of the order D-C Plate Voltage 1500 2000 3000 volts
of T to 10 decibels in intermodulation dis- D-C Grid Voltage* -65 -90 -145 volts
Zero-Signal D-C Plate
tortion may be gained by operating such Current 130 100 75 ma
tubes in the grounded -grid mode in contrast Single -Tone Max.
to the same tubes operated in class -AB,, D-C Plate Current 480 380 320 ma
grid- driven mode. The improvement in the Max. D-C Input 720 760 960 watts
Max. Drive Power 70 55 60 watts
distortion figure varies from tube type to Cathode Input
tube type, but all so- called "grounded- grid" Impedance ** 195 260 385 ohms
triodes and triode -connected tetrodes show Plate Load Impedance 1850 3000 5500 ohms
some degree of improvement in distortion Max. Output 510 530 715 watts
figure when cathode driven as opposed to 450TH, CATHODE-DRIVEN,
grid- driven service. CLASS-AB, LINEAR AMPLIFIER
D-C Plate Voltage 1500 3000 4000 volts
Cathode- Driven High - triode tubes may D-C Grid Voltage* 0 -50 -85 volts
High -s Triodes be used to advantage in Zero Signal D-C
cathode- driven (grounded - Plate Current 50 200 150 ma
grid) service. The inherent shielding of a Single -Tone Max.
D-C Plate Current 400 450 335 ma
high - tube is better than that of a low- Max. D-C Input 600 1350 1340 watts
tube and the former provides better Max. Drive Power 70 105 70 watts
gain per stage and requires less drive than Cathode Input
the latter because of less feedthrough power. Impedance ** 262 322 350 ohms
Plate Load Impedance 2200 4100 6400 ohms
Resistive loading of the input or driving cir- Max. Output 416 992 1000 watts
cuit is not required because of the constant NOTE: 1500 -volt operation is zero-bias service
feedthrough power load on the exciter as *Adjust to give stated zero-signal plate current.
long as sufficient Q exists in the cathode * *Fundamental frequency component. High -C tuned
tank circuit. Low - triodes, on the other cathode tank should be employed to obtain lowest
hand, require extremely large driving signals intermodulation distortion.
when operated in the cathode-driven config- Figure 16
uration, and stage gain is relatively small. In
addition, shielding between the input and
output circuits is poor compared to that be used for linear service, but the stated d -c
existing in high - triodes. currents should be divided by two for a
single tube, since the audio data is usually
Bias Supplies for Medium - triode tubes
G-G Amplifiers
given for two tubes. Grounded-grid oper-
that require grid bias may ating data for two popular triode tubes is
be used in cathode -driven
given in figure 16.
service if the grid is suitably bypassed to
ground and placed at the proper negative The Tuned Input waveform distortion
d -c potential. Bias supplies for such circuits, Cathode Circuit may be observed at the cath-
however, must be capable of good voltage ode of a grounded -grid linear
regulation under conditions of grid current amplifier 'as the result of grid- and plate -
so that the d -c bias value does not vary with current loading of the input circuit on al-
the amplitude of the grid current of the ternate half -cycles by the single -ended stage
stage. Suitable bias supplies for this mode of (figure 17). The driving source thus "sees"
operation are shown in the Power Supply a very low value of load impedance over a
chapter of this Handbook. Approximate portion of the r -f cycle and an extremely
values of bias voltage for linear amplifier high impedance over the remaining portion
service data may be obtained from the of the cycle. Unless the output voltage reg-
audio data found in most tube manuals, ulation of the r -f source is very good, the
usually stated for push -pull class -AB, or AB2 portion of the wave on the loaded part of
operation. As the tube "doesn't know" the cycle will be degraded. This waveform
whether it is being driven by an audio signal distortion contributes to intermodulation
or an r -f signal, the audio parameters may distortion and also may cause TVI difficul-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Linears 167

W4

Figure 17
Waveform distortion caused by half -cycle loading at cathode of grounded -grid amplifier may be
observed (right whereas undistorted waveform is observed with tuned cathode circuit (left).
Two -tone tests at 2.0 MHz proved the necessity of using a cathode tank circuit for lowest inter -
modulation distortion.

A B

INPUT

01
(-INPUT

01

ti x V X X 'L X

Figure 18
Tuned cathode network for cathode -driven circuit may take form of bifilar coil (A), pi- network (B),
or shunt LC circuit (C). Circuit Q of at least 2 is recommended. Capacitor C, may be a 3 -gang
broadcast -type unit. Coils L,, L,, or L. are adjusted to resonate to the operating frequency with
C, set to approximately 13 pf -per meter wavelength. Capacitor C. is approximately 1.5 times the
value of C,. The input taps on coils L. and L, or the capacitance of C. are adjusted for minimum
SWR on coaxial line to the exciter.
168 R -F Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers

RANDOM LENGTH
SSB EXCITER -e" COAXIAL LINE
G G LINEAR AMPLIFIER

OUTPUT

B+ CATHODE RETURN PATH

Figure 19
Untuned cathode circuit of grounded-grid amplifier offers high- impedance path to the r -f current
flowing between plate and cathode of the amplifier tube. The alternative path Is via the inter-
connecting coaxial line and tank circuit of the exciter. Waveform distortion of the driving signal
and high intermodulation distortion may result from use of alternative input circuit.

ties as a result of the harmonic content of a complex signal having more than one
the wave. Use of a tuned cathode circuit in frequency. A voice signal (made up of a
the grounded -grid stage will preserve the multiplicity of tones) will become blurred
waveform as shown in the photographs. The or distorted by IMD when amplified by a
tuned cathode circuit need have only a Q of nonlinear device. As practical linear ampli-
2 or more to do the job, and should be fiers have some degree of IMD (depending
resonated to the operating frequency of the on design and operating parameters) this
amplifier. Various versions of cathode tank disagreeable form of distortion exists to a
circuits are shown in figure 18. greater or lesser extent on most SSB signals.
In addition to reduction of waveform A standard test to determine the degree
distortion, the tuned cathode circuit pro- of IMD is the two -tone test, wherein two
vides a short r -f return path for plate cur- radio- frequency signals of equal amplitude
rent pulses from plate to cathode (figure are applied to the linear equipment, and the
19). When the tuned circuit is not used, resulting output signal is examined for spuri-
the r -f return path is via the outer shield of ous signals, or unwanted products. These
the coaxial line, through the output capaci- unwanted signals fall in the fundamental -
tor of the exciter plate -tank circuit and signal region and in the various harmonic
back to the cathode of the linear amplifier regions of the amplifier. Signals falling out-
tube via the center conductor of the coaxial side the fundamental- frequency region are
line. This random, uncontrolled path varies termed even -order products, and may be at-
with the length of interconnecting coaxial tenuated by high -Q tuned circuits in the
line, and permits the outer shield of the line amplifier. The spurious products falling close
to be "hot" compared to r -f ground. to the fundamental -frequency region are
termed odd -order products. These unwanted
7 -8 Intermodulation products cannot be removed from the
wanted signal by tuned circuits and show
Distortion up on the signal as "splatter," which can
If the output signal of a linear amplifier cause severe interference to communication
is an exact replica of the exciting signal there in an adjacent channel. Nonlinear operation
will be no distortion of the original signal of a so- called "linear" amplifier will generate
and no distortion products will be generated these unwanted products. Amateur practice
in the amplifier. Amplitude distortion of the calls for suppression of these spurious prod-
signal exists when the output signal is not ucts to better than 30 decibels below peak
strictly proportional to the driving signal power level of one tone of a two -tone test
and such a change in magnitude may result signal. Commercial practice demands sup-
in intermodulation distortion (IMD). IMD pression to be better than 40 decibels below
occurs in any nonlinear device driven by this peak level.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER EIGHT

The Oscilloscope

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (also called which can be converted into electrical po-
oscillograph) is an instrument which permits tentials. This conversion is made possible by
visual examination of various electrical phe- the use of some type of transducer, such as a
nomena of interest to the electronic engineer. vibration pickup unit, pressure pickup unit,
Instantaneous changes in voltage, current photoelectric cell, microphone, or a variable
and phase are observable if they take place impedance. The use of such a transducer
slowly enough for the eye to follow, or if makes the oscilloscope a valuable tool in
they are periodic for a long enough time so fields other than electronics.
that the eye can obtain an impression from
the screen of the cathode -ray tube. In addi- 8 -1 A Modern Oscilloscope
tion, the cathode -ray oscilloscope may be
used to study any variable (within the limits For the purpose of analysis, the operation
of its frequency- response characteristic) of a modern oscilloscope will be described.

N/-LO GAIN
VIDEO
Y -AXIS INPUT 0 CATHODE
SIGNAL O-- ATTENU- FOLLOWER -
INPUT I ATORI
VIDEO AMP.
_ye- V2 VERTICAL
AMPLIFIER -Lo CATHODE
RAY TUBE
-
VERTICAL
VI GAIN V3 V4
1rVS

INPUT

TRIGGER BLANKING
o AMPLIFIER

--
AMPLIFIER
Vet VT VIS

MULTI- SWEEP SWEEP


VIBRATOR O.'#NERATOR AMPLIFIE R

ve ve VIO. VII V123/13.V14

4
POWER
SUPPLIES

Figure 1

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A MODERN OSCILLOSCOPE


This simplified block diagram of a Tektronix oscilloscope features triggered sweep and a
blanking circuit that permit observation of single pulses as short as 0.1 microsecond.
170 The Osc i loscope
I THE RADIO

INPUT

- -i
ATTENUATOP
i

TO
DEFLECTION
PLATES

=001
. 7 n
0.1

VERTICAL
GAIN
300

- BIAS +SCREEN
REG.

Figure 2

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER
The vertical amplifier is capable of passing sine waves from 10 Hz to 10 MHz. Compensated
input attenuator and peaking circuits provide gain that is essentially independent of
frequency. Deflection amplifier serves as phase inverter to provide push -pull signal to
deflection plates of cathode-ray tube. Deflection polarity switch permits greater upward or
downward deflection of pattern to accommodate reversed polarity of input wave.

The simplified block diagram of the instru- preamplifier depending on the amount of
ment is shown in figure 1. This oscilloscope amplification needed. The preamplifier is de-
is capable of reproducing sine waves from signed to pass the wide frequency band
10 Hz to 10 MHz and pulses as short as 0.1 desired by the use of peaking coils in the
microsecond may be observed. The sweep plate circuit, which enhance the high -fre-
speed is continuously variable, and the elec- quency response, in addition to large value
tron beam of the cathode -ray tube can be coupling capacitors which ensure good low -
moved vertically or horizontally, or the frequency response (see chapter 6, section 6
movements may be combined to produce Video Frequency Amplifiers). The signal
composite patterns on the screen. As shown then passes through a cathode -follower stage
in the diagram, the cathode-ray tube re- (V2) to the vertical amplifier. The cathode
ceives signals from two sources: the vertical follower serves as an impedance transformer
(Y -axis) the sweep (X -axis) amplifiers, and so that a low- impedance vertical gain con-
also receives blanking pulses that remove un- trol may be used. It is necessary that the po-
wanted return -trace signals from the screen. tentiometer have a low value so that stray
The operation of the cathode -ray tube has capacitances do not appreciably affect the
been covered in an earlier chapter and the frequency response as the control is rotated.
auxiliary circuits pertaining to signal pre- The original deflection polarity of the signal
sentation will be discussed here. is reversed when two stages of amplification
are used, resulting in a downward deflection
The Vertical The incoming signal to be dis- of the oscilloscope pattern for positive input
Amplifier played is applied to the vertical polarity. A deflection polarity switch is used
amplifier (figure 2) . An input to change the operating bias and screen volt-
attenuator (compensated to provide attenu- age on the cathode- coupled push -pull vertical
ation that is essentially independent of signal amplifier tubes (V3, V4) permitting greater
frequency) permits the gain of the amplifier undistorted upward or downward deflection.
to be adjusted in calibrated steps. The signal The amplified signal is coupled from the
is then amplified by the wideband (video) plate circuit of the vertical amplifier through
preamplifier (V1), or is shunted around the a peaking circuit that affords optimum

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A Modern Oscilloscope 171

transient response rather than best frequency in synchronism with the trigger impulse. A
response, which has been previously deter- trigger amplifier (V6, V7) enhances the
mined in the preamplifier stages. trigger pulse and selects the proper polarity
of the pulse. To convert the various shapes
The Time -Base Investigation of electrical of trigger impulses into square waves of
Circuitry waveforms by the use of a controllable duration suitable for operating
cathode-ray tube requires the sweep generator and unblanking the
that some means be readily available to de- cathode -ray tube, a flip-flop multivibrator
termine the variation in these waveforms type of pulse generator is used (figure 3) .
with respect to time. An X -axis time base on The frequency of pulse generation of the
the screen of the cathode -ray tube shows the multivibrator is controlled by the external
variation in amplitude of the input signal negative trigger signal. The multivibrator
with respect to time. This display is made consists of two tubes (V0, V9) with one
possible by a time -base generator (sweep gen- tube in a conducting state and the other
erator) which moves the spot across the nonconducting. When a trigger impulse is
screen at a constant rate from left to right received, the negative pulse lowers the plate
between selected points, returns the spot al- potential of the nonconducting tube (V8)
most instantaneously to its original position, and also decreases the grid bias of V9 via
and repeats this procedure at a specified rate the switchable coupling capacitor (sweep -
(referred to as the sweep frequency). speed control). The first tube conducts and
The Sweep -Trigger Circuit -An external the second tube is driven toward cutoff by
synchronizing impulse (which may be the the buildup of voltage in the coupling ca-
presented signal) initiates the horizontal pacitor between the two tubes. This condi-
sweep circuits of the oscilloscope, deflecting tion is maintained until the switchable sweep -
the beam of the cathode -ray tube across the speed capacitor is discharged, thus raising the
screen at uniform rate, starting each sweep grid voltage of V9 to such a point that the
tube starts to conduct. This lowers the plate
potential of V,,, carrying with it the direct -
coupled grid of Vs and starting a regenera-
tive cycle which ends with V9 conducting
NEGATIVE and Vs cut off -the condition which existed
PULSE FROM
TRIGGER before the trigger pulse occurred. Thus the
AMPL IF /ER
plate of Vs produces a square negative pulse
and simultaneously the plate of V9 produces
a square positive pulse. The negative pulse is
used to control the operation of the sweep
generator and the unblanking circuit of the
cathode -ray tube. The positive pulse may be
used to furnish gate voltage available at the
panel of the instrument to trigger auxiliary
POSITIVE
UNLLANK-
circuits.
ING PULSE
TOCRT The Blanking Circuit -During the wait -
B+
period between trigger pulses, the bias on the
SWEEP SPEED
cathode -ray tube is such that the tube is
NEGATIVE TRIGGER PULSE
completely cut off. As soon as a trigger ap-
TO SWEEP GENERATOR pears and the sweep starts, it is necessary to
Figure 3 provide a positive pulse on the grid of the
TRIGGER AND UNBLANKING CIRCUIT
cathode -ray tube and thus turn on the elec-
tron beam. This pulse must have extremely
Flip -flop multivibrator (V,, V) is triggered rapid rise time and a very flat top so that the
externally and generates negative trigger
pulse to start sweep generator. Impulse rate brightness of the image is uniform. To se-
is controlled by switchable sweep speed ca- cure a pulse of this nature, the negative
pacitor bank. Positive trigger pubis unblanks pulse from the multivibrator is passed
cathode -ray tube by reducing cutoff bias on
the grid of the cathode toy tube through a cathode- follower blanking ampli-
172 The Osc i loscope l THE RADIO
B+ REG
270 K
the beam returns to the left of the screen to
V1 wait another trigger signal. It is this vari-
VOL TAGE
NEGATIVE
REGULATOR SWEEP SPEED able waiting period which makes the sweep
TRIGGER ADJUSTMENT
PULSE FROM time independent of the signal period, per-
MOLT/VIBRATOR
SWEEP SPEED
820 mitting the oscilloscope to view pulses and
PAUL T /PL /ER
B+ REG. TO CLAMP CIRCUITS other short duration signals where the length
N-I ANO SWEEP AMPL /F /ER of the pulse is very short compared to the
10K
i b n space between the pulses.
+SCR
SWEEP SPEED
TIMING CAPACITORS Some inexpensive oscilloscopes employ a
W 7 120K recurrent or sawtooth sweep such as that
which is generated by a gas tube or other
00 K VII
SWEEP GENERATOR similar device that synchronizes the sweep
-BIAS with the input signal. The sweep time is
thus equal to, or a multiple of, the signal
Figure 4
period. The circuit of figure 4 may be modi-
SWEEP GENERATOR fied to produce a sawtooth sweep by the
Each swoop of this triggered swoop circuit is omission of the trigger signal and adjustment
started independently of the preceding sweep of the multivibrator frequency to synchro-
by a trigger pulse received from the multi - nize with the period of the observed signal.
vibrator circuit. Sweep -speed timing capacitors
are ganged with sweep-speed circuit of mul- The sweep voltage necessary to produce the
tivibrator. Timing voltage is derived from sawtooth sweep is shown in figure S. The
voltage regulator to ensure sweep accuracy.
sweep occurs as the voltage varies from A to
B, and the return trace as the voltage varies
fier (V15) which provides a pulse of proper from B to C. At high sweep frequencies, the
amplitude and rise time. return trace is an appreciable portion of the
sweep time.
The Sweep The voltage necessary to obtain Operation of the Sweep Generator-The
Generator a linear time base may be gen- sweep generator (V11, figure 4) is held in
erated by the circuit of figure 4. a conducting state by the positive grid bias
In this representative triggered sweep cir- derived from the voltage divider in the grid
cuit each sweep is started independently of circuit. The plate voltage of the sweep gen-
the preceding sweep by a trigger, or syn- erator is low, and the switchable sweep -speed
chronizing, pulse received from the mul- timing capacitor is essentially uncharged.
tivibrator circuit. When no trigger is The negative trigger pulse from the multi -
received the cathode -ray tube potentials vibrator rapidly cuts off V11 allowing the
position the beam at the left end of the timing capacitor to charge exponentially
horizontal trace. When the trigger signal through the 1- megohm sweep -speed multi-
arrives, the beam goes linearly to the right in plier control, approaching the voltage at the
a time interval determined by the length of
cathode of regulator tube V1o. This voltage
the trigger pulse. At the end of each sweep, is adjusted by the sweep -speed control in the
grid circuit of the regulator tube. The tim-
ing capacitor is charged from a constant
voltage supply having a low impedance to
ensure sweep -speed accuracy. Sweep linearity
is enhanced by using only 10 percent or less
of the charging voltage. The linear sweep
voltage is taken from the plate of the sweep
Figure 5 generator, clamped and impressed on the
following sweep amplifier.
SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM When the multivibrator trigger pulse
Recurrent or sawtooth sweep waveform is ends, the grid of the sweep generator tube
used in inexpensive oscilloscopes. Sawtooth returns to a positive potential and the heavy
may be generated by gas swoop tube, such as
the 884, and is usually synchronized with plate current reduces the plate voltage of
input signal. V,1 to near zero, discharging the timing

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Waveform Displays 173

B+
2S K
To achieve proper focus on the screen of
the cathode -ray tube it is necessary that the
SIGNAL CLAMP
final anode and both pairs of deflection
plates have approximately the same average
.001 potential. Since it is necessary to have the
V13
1.0 22
SWEEP vertical deflection plates at ground potential
AMPLIFIER
-BIAS so a direct connection may be made if de-
0+
sired, the average potential of the horizontal
200
660K
plates must also be near ground. The mean
SWEEP
potential of the sweep amplifier plate circuit
AMPLIFIER is about +250 volts. This is moved down
120K V14
100 K to ground by means of the groups of neon
HORIZON.
POSITION
glow lamps (N1 -N,0) which produce a
CONTROL, - 1500 V. constant voltage drop. A steady current of
about 200 microamperes keeps the lamps
2SK ionized so that any change in plate potential
B+ of the sweep amplifier tubes (such as caused
by signals) appears on the deflection plates
Figure 6 unchanged in amplitude, but moved down
SWEEP AMPLIFIER
in potential about 250 volts. The ionizing
current is obtained from the -1500 volt
Cathode- coupled swoop amplifier provides bal-
anced push -pull signal to deflection plates of cathode -ray tube power supply through a
cathode-ray tube. Two groups of neon glow high- resistance network. Since the imped-
lamps pass sweep signal but move average ance of the neon glow lamps is rather high
signal potential close to ground by virtue of
constant voltage drop across lamps. Ionising at frequencies involving the faster sweeps,
voltage for glow lamps is taken from high - small capacitors are shunted across the lamps
voltage cathode -ray tube power supply.
to pass these frequencies.
capacitor and leaving it ready to receive the The Power The low- voltage power supply
next sweep pulse from the multivibrator. Supply provides positive and negative
regulated voltages for the var-
The Sweep Since the amplitude of the sweep ious stages of the oscilloscope. The accel-
Amplifier waveform at the output of the erating potential for the cathode -ray tube
sweep generator is not large is obtained from an oscillator operating from
enough to drive the horizontal deflection the low -voltage supply (figure 7). The os-
plates of the cathode -ray tube, further am- cillator is a conventional Hartley circuit,
plification is needed. The signal from the with a high- voltage secondary winding on
sweep amplitude is impressed on the grid of the oscillator transformer which supplies
a cathode -coupled sweep amplifier (V1,, about 1200 volts rms to the rectifier tubes.
V14, figure 6) which inverts the phase and Filament voltages for these tubes are also
operates as a push -pull stage. Balanced sweep obtained from windings on the oscillator
voltage is necessary to maintain the average transformer. The frequency of oscillation is
potential of the deflection plates constant about 2000 Hertz.
over the entire sweep to prevent defocussing.
The horizontal position control varies the
bias on one amplifier tube and thus deter- 8 -2 Display of Waveforms
mines the position from which the sweep
starts. To ensure that the sweep will always Together with a working knowledge of
start at the same position on the screen each the controls of the oscilloscope, an under-
time (for a given setting of the position standing of how the patterns are traced on
control) a diode clamp (V12) is placed be- the screen must be obtained for a thorough
tween the grid of the opposite amplifier knowledge of oscilloscope operation. With
tube and ground to remove any charge that this in mind a careful analysis of two funda-
the input coupling capacitor may have mental waveform patterns is discussed under
gained during the previous sweep cycle. the following headings:
174 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO

SABP1
Br

.05-r 20.5
FROM SWEEP UNBLANN /NC
C/RCU /r PULSE

Figure 7

CATHODE -RAY TUBE POWER SUPPLY


Accelerating potential for CRT is derived from a 2 -kHz oscillator working from the low -
voltage supply. A high -voltage secondary winding on the oscillator transformer provides
about 1200 volts rms which is rectified to provide -1500 volts and +1800 volts. Sum of two
voltages (3300 volts) is applied to cathode -ray tube.

1. Patterns plotted against time (using wave is amplified by the vertical amplifier
the sweep generator for horizontal de- and impressed on the vertical (Y -axis) de-
flection) . flection plates of the cathode-ray tube. Si-
2. Lissajous figures (using a sine wave for multaneously the sawtooth wave from the
horizontal deflection). time -base generator is amplified and im-
Patterns Plotted
pressed on the horizontal (X -axis) deflection
A sine wave is typical of
Against Time plates.
such a pattern and is con-
venient for this study. This

TIME

Figure 8
PROJECTION DRAWING OF A SINE
Figure 9
WAVE APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL
AXIS AND 1 SAWTOOTH WAVE OF THE PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE
SAME FREQUENCY APPLIED SIMUL- RESULTANT PATTERN WHEN THE FRE-
TANEOUSL'" ON THE HORIZONTAL QUENCY OF THE SAWTOOTH IS ONE -
AXIS HALF OF THAT EMPLOYED IN FIGURE 8

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Lissajous Figures 175

The electron beam moves in accordance form plotted against time can be displayed
with the resultant of the sine and sawtooth and analyzed by the same procedure as used
signals. The effect is shown in figure 8 where in these examples.
the sine and sawtooth waves are graphically The sine -wave problem just illustrated is
represented on time and voltage axes. Points typical of the method by which any wave-
on the two waves that occur simultaneously form can be displayed on the screen of the
are numbered similarly. For example, point 2 cathode -ray tube. Such waveforms as square
on the sine wave and point 2 on the saw - wave, sawtooth wave, and many more ir-
tooth wave occur at the same instant. There- regular recurrent waveforms can be observed
fore the position of the beam at instant 2 is by the same method explained in the preced-
the resultant of the voltages on the hori- ing paragraphs.
zontal and vertical deflection plates at in-
stant 2. Referring to figure 8, by projecting 8 -3 Lissajous Figures
lines from the two point -2 positions, the
position of the electron beam at instant 2
can be located. If projections were drawn Another fundamental pattern is the Lissa -
from every other instantaneous position of jous figures, named after the 19th- century
each wave to intersect on the circle repre- French scientist. This type of pattern is of
senting the tube screen, the intersections of particular use in determining the frequency
similarly timed projects would trace out a ratio between two sine -wave signals. If one
sine wave. of these signals is known, the other can be
In summation, figure 8 illustrates the easily calculated from the pattern made by
principles involved in producing a sine - the two signals on the screen of the cathode -
wave trace on the screen of a cathode -ray ray tube. Common practice is to connect the
tube. Each intersection of similarly timed known signal to the horizontal channel and
projections represents the position of the the unknown signal to the vertical channel.
electron beam acting under the influence of The presentation of Lissajous figures can
be analyzed by the same method as previ-
the varying voltage waveforms on each pair
of deflection plates. Figure 9 shows the effect ously used for sine -wave presentation. A
simple example is shown in figure 10. The
on the pattern of decreasing the frequency
of the sawtooth wave. Any recurrent wave- frequency ratio of the signal on the hori-
zontal axis to the signal on the vertical axis
is 3 to 1. If the known signal on the hori-
zontal axis is 180 Hertz, the signal on the
vertical axis is 60 Hertz.
Obtaining a Lissajous 1. The horizontal am-
Pattern on the Screen; plifier should be dis -
Oscilloscope Settings connected from the
sweep oscillator. The
signal to be examined should be connected to
the horizontal amplifier of the oscilloscope.

Figure 10

PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE


RESULTANT LISSAJOUS PATTERN WHEN
Figure 11
A SINE WAVE APPLIED TO THE HORI-
ZONTAL AXIS IS THREE TIMES THAT METHOD OF CALCULATING FREQUENCY
APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS RATIO OF LISSAJOUS FIGURES
176 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO
figure 11. The ratio of the number of loops
which intersect AB is to the number of loops
which intersect BC as the frequency of the
horizontal signal is to the frequency of the
vertical signal.
O RATIO I:1 RATIO 2.1
Figure 12 shows other examples of Lissa -
jous figures. In each case the frequency ratio
shown is the frequency ratio of the signal on
the horizontal axis to that on the vertical
axis.
O RATIO 1:5
RATIO 10: I

Phase Differ - Coming under the heading of


ence Patterns Lissajous figures is the method
used to determine the phase
difference between signals of the same fre-
quency. The patterns involved take on the
RATIO 5:5
form of ellipses with different degrees of ec-
Figure 12
centricity.
The following steps should be taken to ob-
OTHER LISSAJOUS PATTERNS tain a phase -difference pattern:
1. With no signal input to the oscillo-
2. An audio oscillator signal should be scope, the spot should be centered on
connected to the vertical amplifier of the the screen of the tube.
oscilloscope. 2. Connect one signal to the vertical am-
3. By adjusting the frequency of the plifier of the oscilloscope, and the
audio oscillator a stationary pattern should other signal to the horizontal ampli-
be obtained on the screen of the oscilloscope. fier.
It is not necessary to stop the pattern, but 3. Connect a common ground between
merely to slow it up enough to count the the two frequencies under investiga-
loops at the side of the pattern. tion and the oscilloscope.
4. Count the number of loops which in- 4. Adjust the vertical amplifier gain so
tersect an imaginary vertical line AB and as to give about 3 inches of deflection
the number of loops which intersect the on a 3 -inch tube, and adjust the cali-
imaginary horizontal line BC as shown in brated scale of the oscilloscope so that

PHASE DIFFERENCE =0 PHASE DIFFERENCE =4S PHASE DIFFERENCE .90. PHASE DIFFERENCE=133

PHASE DIFFERENCE 150 PHASE DIFFERENCE =223 PHASE DIFFERENCE 270 PHASE DIFFERENCE 315

Figure 13

LISSAJOUS PATTERNS OBTAINED FROM THE MAJOR PHASE DIFFERENCE ANGLES

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Lissajous Figures 177

the vertical axis of the scale coincides


precisely with the vertical deflection
of the spot.
5. Remove the signal from the vertical
amplifier, being careful not to change
the setting of the vertical gain control.
6. Increase the gain of the horizontal am-
TIME
plifier to give a deflection exactly the
same as that to which the vertical am-
plifier control is adjusted (3 inches).
Reconnect the signal to the vertical
amplifier.

The resulting pattern will give an accu-


rate picture of the exact phase difference Figure 14
between the two waves. If these two pat-
terns are exactly the same frequency but PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE
different in phase and maintain that differ- RESULTANT PHASE -DIFFERENCE PAT-
ence, the pattern on the screen will remain TERN OF TWO SINE WAVES 45 OUT
stationary. If, however, one of these fre- OF PHASE
quencies is drifting slightly, the pattern will
drift slowly through 360 . The phase angles
of 0 , 45 , 90 , 135 , 180 , 225 , 270 , (3) that the calibrated scale be originally set
and 315 are shown in figure 13. to coincide with the displacement of the sig-
Each of the eight patterns in figure 13 can nal along the vertical axis. If the amplifiers
be analyzed separately by the previously used of the oscilloscope are not used for convey-
projection method. Figure 14 shows two sine ing the signal to the deflection plates of the
waves which differ in phase being projected cathode -ray tube, the coarse frequency
on to the screen of the cathode -ray tube. switch should be set to horizontal input
These signals represent a phase difference of direct and the vertical input switch to direct
45. It is extremely important that (1) the and the outputs of the two signals must be
spot has been centered on the screen of the adjusted to result in exactly the same verti-
cathode -ray tube, (2) that both the hori- cal deflection as horizontal deflection. Once
zontal and vertical amplifiers have been ad- this deflection has been set by either the
justed to give exactly the same gain, and oscillator output controls or the amplifier

Y MAXIMUM' I Y MAXIMUM'I
Y INTERCEPT '.7

''
Y INTERCEPT Y INTERCEPT ..5

SINE .T SINE +
. 0 45

MAXIMUM.'

Figure 15

EXAMPLES SHOWING THE USE OF THE INTERCEPT FORMULA FOR DETERMINATION


OF PHASE DIFFERENCE
178 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO

Figure 16
TRAPEZOIDAL MODULATION PATTERN

Figure 18
Figure 17 PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING TRAPE-
MODULATED CARRIER -WAVE PATTERN ZOIDAL PATTERN

gain controls in the oscillograph, it should cal channel of the oscilloscope, and follow
not be changed for the duration of the meas- the procedure set forth in this discussion to
urement. observe the various phase -shift patterns.

Determinination of The relation commonly


the Phase Angle
8 -4 Monitoring
used in determining the
phase angle between sig-
Transmitter Performance
nais is: with the Oscilloscope
Y intercept The oscilloscope may be used as an aid for
Sine 8 = Y maximum the proper operation of an a -m transmitter,
where, and may be used as an indicator of the over-
O equals phase angle between signals, all performance of the transmitter output
Y intercept equals point where ellipse signal, and as a modulation monitor.
crosses vertical axis measured in tenths of
Waveforms There are two types of patterns
inches (calibrations on the calibrated
that can serve as indicators, the
screen) ,
trapezoidal pattern (figure 16) and the
Y maximum equals highest vertical point
modulated -wave pattern (figure 17). The
on ellipse in tenths of inches.
trapezoidal pattern is presented on the screen
Several examples of the use of the formula by impressing a modulated carrier -wave sig-
are given in figure 15. In each case the Y nal on the vertical deflection plates and
intercept and Y maximum are indicated to- the signal that modulates the carrier -wave
gether with the sine of the angle and the signal (the modulating signal) on the hori-
angle itself. For the operator to observe these zontal deflection plates. The trapezoidal pat-
various patterns with a single signal source tern can be analyzed by the method used
such as the test signal, there are many types previously in analyzing waveforms. Figure
of phase shifters which can be used. Circuits 18 shows how the signals cause the electron
can be obtained from a number of radio beam to trace out the pattern.
textbooks. The procedure is to connect the The modulated -wave pattern is accom-
original signal to the horizontal channel of plished by presenting a modulated carrier
the oscilloscope and the signal which has wave on the vertical deflection plates and by
passed through the phase shiftet to the verti- using the time -base generator for horizontal

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I -F Al ignment 179

R -F POWER AMPLIFIER
MODULATED
CARRIER

TO ANTENNA

TIME

MODULATOR 500PF IM
STAGE 10,000 - VOLT
TV CAPACITOR
SAW 700TH
SWEEP

LC TUNES TO OP-
ERATING FREQUENCY

Figure 19
C L
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING s+ NOTE' IF R-F PICKUP /S INSUFFICIENT,
A TUNEO CIRCUIT MAY RE USED
MODULATED- CARRIER WAVE PATTERN As THE OSCILLOSCOPE AS SHOWN.

Figure 20
deflection. The modulated -wave pattern also MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR TRAPEZOIDAL
can be used for analyzing waveforms. Figure MODULATION PATTERN
19 shows how the two signals cause the elec-
tron beam to trace out the pattern.
where,
The Trapezoidal The oscilloscope connections
and Eln n are defined as in figure 21.
Emax
Pattern for obtaining a trapezoidal 1

An overmodulated signal is shown in fig-


pattern are shown in figure
ure 23.
20. A portion of the audio output of the
transmitter modulator is applied to the hori- The Modulated- The oscilloscope connections
zontal input of the oscilloscope. The vertical Wave Pattern for obtaining a modulated -
amplifier of the oscilloscope is disconnected, wave pattern are shown in
and a small amount of modulated r -f energy figure 24. The internal sweep circuit of the
is coupled directly to the vertical deflection oscilloscope is applied to the horizontal
plates of the oscilloscope. A small pickup plates, and the modulated r -f signal is ap-
loop, loosely coupled to the final amplifier plied to the vertical plates, as described be-
tank circuit and connected to the vertical fore. If desired, the internal sweep circuit
deflection plates by a short length of coaxial may be synchronized with the modulating
line will suffice. The amount of excitation to signal of the transmitter by applying a small
the plates of the oscilloscope may be ad- portion of the modulator output signal to
justed to provide a pattern of convenient the external sync post of the oscilloscope.
size. On modulation of the transmitter, the The percentage of modulation may be deter-
trapezoidal pattern will appear. By changing mined in the same fashion as with a trape-
the degree of modulation of the carrier wave zoidal pattern. Figures 25, 26, and 27 show
the shape of the pattern will change. Figures the modulated -wave pattern for various de-
21 and 22 show the trapezoidal pattern for grees of modulation.
various degrees of modulation. The percent-
age of modulation may be determined by the
following formula:
8 -5 Receiver -F Alignment
1

with an Oscilloscope
Modulation percentage =
Emax - Em1n
X 100
The alignment of the i -f amplifiers of a
receiver consists of adjusting all the tuned
Emax + Emin
circuits to resonance at the intermediate fre-
180 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO

TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERNS

T T
E MIN EIMAN

J-
_i
Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23

(LESS THAN 100% MODULATION) (100% MODULATION) (OVERMODULATION)

quency and at the same time permitting pas- As a rule medium- and low- priced receiv-
sage of a predetermined number of side- ers use i -f transformers whose bandwidth is
bands. The best indication of this adjustment about 5 kHz on each side of the funda-
is a resonance curve representing the response mental frequency. The response curve of
of the i -f circuit to its particular range of these i -f transformers is shown in figure 28.
frequencies. High- fidelity receivers usually contain i -f
transformers which have a broader band-
width which is usually 10 kHz on each side
R -F POWER AMPLIFIER CRO of the fundamental. The response curve for
this type transformer is shown in figure 29.
TO ANTENNA Resonance curves such as these can be dis-
USE INTERNAL
played on the screen of an oscilloscope. For
SWEE
a complete understanding of the procedure
it is important to know how the resonance
curve is traced.
!r FROM
MODULATOR The Resonance To present a resonance curve
LC TUNES TO OP-
ERATING FREQUENCY
Curve on the on the screen, .a frequency -
Screen modulated signal source must
Figure 24 be available. This signal
source is a signal generator whose output is
MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR the fundamental i -f frequency which is fre-
MODULATED-WAVE PATTERN quency- modulated S to 10 kHz each side of

CARRIER -WAVE PATTERN

EMAIL
NAin
IAA
Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27

(LESS THAN 100% MODULATION) (100% MODULATION) (OVERMODULATION)

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I -F Alignment 181

8kHz4kHt 4kHz 8kH=


Figure 31
Figure 28 DOUBLE- RESONANCE CURVE
I -F FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE OF
A LOW PRICED RECEIVER
detectors of figure 30 (between point A and
ground) and the time -base generator output
to the horizontal channel. In this way the
d -c voltage across the detector load varies
with the frequencies which are passed by the
i -f system. Thus, if the time -base generator
is set at the frequency of rotation of the
motor -driven capacitor, or the reactance
tube, a pattern resembling figure 31 (a
double resonance curve) appears on the
OkH! ekH: screen.
Figure 29 Figure 31 is explained by considering fig-
ure 32. In half a rotation of the motor -
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF driven capacitor the frequency increases
HIGH -FIDELITY I -F SYSTEM from 445 kHz to 46S kHz, more than cov-
ering the range of frequencies passed by the
i -f system. Therefore, a full resonance curve
i'TOV010 is presented on the screen during this half
AMG.
rotation since only half a cycle of the volt-
T age producing horizontal deflection has
transpired. In the second half of the rotation
e+
the motor -driven capacitor takes the fre-
quency of the signal in the reverse order
through the range of frequencies passed by
the i -f system. In this interval the time -base
' RIODE DETECTOR DIODE DETECTOR
generator sawtooth waveform completes its
cycle, drawing the electron beam further
Figure 30 across the screen and then returning it to
CONNECTION OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE the starting point. Subsequent cycles of the
ACROSS THE DETECTOR LOAD
motor- driven capacitor and the sawtooth
voltage merely retrace the same pattern.
Since the signal being viewed is applied
the fundamental frequency. A signal genera - through the vertical amplifier, the sweep can
:or of this type generally takes the form of be synchronized internally.
an ordinary signal generator with a rotating Some signal generators, particularly those
motor- driven tuned -circuit capacitor, called employing a reactance tube, provide a sweep
a urobbulator, or its electronic equivalent, output in the form of a sine wave which is
which is a reactance tube. synchronized to the frequency with which
The method of presenting a resonance the reactance tube is swinging the funda-
curve on the screen is to connect the vertical mental frequency through its limits, (usually
channel of the oscilloscope across the de- 60 hertz) . If such a signal is used for hori-
tector load of the receiver as shown in the zontal deflection, it is already synchronized.
182 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO

445kHz 455kHz 465kH0 455kHE 445kHz


O
Figure 32 Figure 34
DOUBLE- RESONANCE ACHIEVED BY SINGLE -TONE PRESENTATION
COMPLETE ROTATION OF THE Oscilloscope trace of SS! signal 'modulated by
MOTOR -DRIVEN CAPACITOR single tone (A). Incomplete carrier svpression
or spurious products will show modulated en-
velope of (I). The ratio of svpression is:
A-111
S = 20 log
A -1

two curves coincide, it is evident that the i -f


system responds equally to signals higher and
lower than the fundamental i -f frequency.
Figure 33
8 -6 Single -Sideband
SUPERPOSITION OF RESONANCE CURVES
Applications
Since this signal is a sine wave, the response Measurement of power output and distor-
curve is observed as it sweeps the spot across tion are of particular importance in SSB
the screen from left to right; and it is ob- transmitter adjustment. These measurements
served again as the sine wave sweeps the spot are related to the extent that distortion rises
back again from right to left. Under these rapidly when the power amplifier is over-
conditions the two response curves are super- loaded. The usable power output of an SSB
imposed on each other and the high -fre- transmitter is often defined as the maximum
quency responses of both curves are at one peak envelope power obtainable with a spec-
end and the low- frequency response of both ified signal -to- distortion ratio. The oscillo-
curves is at the other end. The i -f trimmer scope is a useful instrument for measuring
capacitors are adjusted to produce a response and studying distortion of all types that may
curve which is symmetrical on each side of be generated in single -sideband equipment.

--
the fundamental frequency.
When using sawtooth sweep, the two re-
sponse curves can also be superimposed. If
the sawtooth signal is generated at exactly R -i INPUT ._,,,___IPOWER AMPLIFIER
UNDER TEST
TO LOAD

twice the frequency of rotation of the


motor -driven capacitor, the two resonance
INPUT OUTPUT
curves will be superimposed (figure 33) if ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
the i -f transformers are properly tuned. If
the two curves do not coincide the i -f trim-
mer capacitors should be adjusted. At the
point of coincidence the tuning is correct. It
--4,O D4-
OSCILLOSCOPE
should be pointed out that rarely do the two
curves agree perfectly. As a result, optimum Figure 35
adjustment is made by making the peaks
coincide. This latter procedure is the one BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
generally used in i -f adjustment. When the LINEARITY TRACER

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK SSB Applications 183

Single -Tone When an SSB transmitter is GERMANIUM 2.5 MN


Observations modulated with a single audio R-F 555 INPUT
F. OM VOLTAGE
DIODE RFC
AUDIO OUTPUT
tone, the r -f output should be DIVIDER OR
PICKUP COIL
TO OSCILLOSCOPE

a single radio frequency. If the vertical


plates of the oscilloscope are coupled to the
output of the transmitter, and the hori-
zontal amplifier sweep is set to a slow rate,
the scope presentation will be as shown in Figure 36
figure 34. If unwanted distortion products
or carrier are present, the top and bottom of SCHEMATIC OF
ENVELOPE DETECTOR
the pattern will develop a "ripple" propor-
tional to the degree of spurious products.
The Linearity The linearity tracer is an aux- the oscilloscope trace is cancelled. The ef-
Tracer iliary detector to be used with fect of diode differences is minimized by
an oscilloscope for quick ob- using a diode load of 5000 to 10,000 ohms,
servation of amplifier adjustments and para- as shown. It is important that both detectors
meter variations. This instrument consists of operate at approximately the same signal
two SSB envelope detectors the outputs of level so that their differences will cancel
which connect to the horizontal and vertical more exactly. The operating level should be
inputs of an oscilloscope. Figure 35 shows a 1 volt or higher.

block diagram of a typical linearity test set- It is convenient to build the detector in a
up. A two -tone test signal is normally em- small shielded enclosure such as an i -f trans-
ployed to supply an SSB modulation envelope, former can fitted with coaxial input and
but any modulating signal that provides an output connectors. Voltage dividers can be
envelope that varies from zero to full ampli- similarly constructed so that it is easy to in-
tude may be used. Speech modulation gives a sert the desired amount of voltage attenua-
satisfactory trace, so that this instrument tion from the various sources. In some cases
may be used as a visual monitor of transmit- it is convenient to use a pickup loop on the
ter linearity. It is particularly useful for end of a short length of coaxial cable.
monitoring the signal level and clearly shows The phase shift of the amplifiers in the os-
when the amplifier under observation is over- cilloscope should be the same and their fre-
loaded. The linearity trace will be a straight quency response should be flat out to at least
line regardless of the envelope shape if the twenty times the frequency difference of the
amplifier has no distortion. Overloading two test tones. Excellent high- frequency
causes a sharp break in the linearity curve. characteristics are necessary because the
Distortion due to too much bias is also easily rectified SSB envelope contains harmonics
observed and the adjustment for low dis- extending to the limit of the envelope de-
tortion can easily be made. tector's response. Inadequate frequency re-
Another feature of the linearity detector sponse of the vertical amplifier may cause a
is that the distortion of each individual little "foot" to appear on the lower end of
stage can be observed. This is helpful in the trace, as shown in figure 37. If it is
troubleshooting. By connecting the input small, it may be safely neglected.
envelope detector to the output of the SSB Another spurious effect often encountered
generator, the over-all distortion of the en- is a double trace, as shown in figure 38. This
tire r -f circuit beyond this point is observed. can usually be corrected with an RC net-
The unit can also serve as a voltage indicator work placed between one detector and the
which is useful in making tuning adjust- oscilloscope. The best method of testing the
ments. detectors and the amplifiers is to connect the
The circuit of a typical envelope detector input of the envelope detectors in parallel.
is shown in figure 36. Two matched ger- A perfectly straight line trace will result
manium diodes are used as detectors. The when everything is working properly. One
detectors are not linear at low signal levels, detector is then connected to the other r -f
but if the nonlinearity of the two detectors source through a voltage divider adjusted so
:s matched, the effect of their nonlinearity on that no appreciable change in the setting of
184 The Oscilloscope

es

ourPUT
SIGNAL
LEVEL
i

Figure 37

EFFECT OF INADEQUATE
RESPONSE OF VERTICAL INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL
AMPLIFIER
Figure 40

ORDINATES ON LINEARITY CURVE FOR


3RD -ORDER DISTORTION EQUATION

nonlinear plate characteristics of the ampli-


fier tube at large plate swings. More grid
swamping should be used, or th exciting
signal should be reduced. A combination of
the effects of A and B are shown in Trace
C. Trace D illustrates amplifier overloading.
The exciting signal should be reduced.
Figure 38 A means of estimating the distortion level
DOUBLE TRACE CAUSED observed is quite useful. The first- and third -
BY PHASE SHIFT order distortion components may be derived
by an equation that will give the approxi-
mate signal -to- distortion level ratio of a
the oscilloscope amplifier controls is required. two -tone test signal, operating on a given
Figure 39 illustrates some typical linearity linearity curve. Figure 40 shows a linearity
traces. Trace A is caused by inadequate curve with two ordinates erected at half and
static plate current in class -A or class -B full peak input signal level. The length of
amplifiers or a mixer stage. To regain linear- the ordinates e, and e: may be scaled and
ity, the grid bias of the stage should be re- used in the following equation:
duced, the screen voltage should be raised,
or the signal level should be decreased. Trace
Signal -to- distortion ratio in db -
B is a result of poor grid- circuit regulation 3 e, - e`
e, -
20 log
when grid current is drawn, or a result of 2 e2


Figure 39

TYPICAL LINEARITY TRACES

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CHAPTER NINE

Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits

A whole new concept of vacuum -tube ap- positive potential may be placed on the cath-
plications has been developed in recent years. ode, but the tube will not conduct until the
No longer are vacuum tubes chained to the voltage on the plate rises above an equally
field of communication. This chapter is de- positive value. As the plate becomes more
voted to some of the more common circuits positive with respect to the cathode, the
encountered in industrial and military appli- diode conducts and passes that portion of the
cations of the vacuum tube. wave which is more positive than the cath-
ode voltage. Diodes may be used as either
9 -1 Limiting Circuits series or parallel limiters, as shown in figure
1. A diode may be so biased that only a cer-
tain portion of the positive or negative cycle
The term limiting refers to the removal or is removed.
suppression, by electronic means, of the ex-
tremities of an electronic signal. Circuits Audio Peak
which perform this function are referred to An audio peak clipper consist -
Limiting ing of two diode limiters may
as limiters or clippers. Limiters are useful in
waveshaping circuits where it is desirable to be used to limit the amplitude
square off the extremities of the applied sig- of an audio signal to a predetermined value
nal. A sine wave may be applied to a limiter
to provide a high average level of modula-
tion without danger of overmodulation. An
circuit to produce a rectangular wave. A
peaked wave may be applied to a limiter cir- effective limiter for this service is the series -
diode gate clipper. A circuit of this clipper
cuit to eliminate either the positive or nega-
is shown in figure 2. The audio signal to be
tive peaks from the output. Limiter circuits
are employed in f -m receivers where it is clipped is coupled to the clipper through C1.
necessary to limit the amplitude of the signal R, and R2 are the clipper input and output
load resistors. The clipper plates are tied
applied to the detector. Limiters may be
used to reduce automobile ignition noise in
together and are connected to the clipping
level control (R,) through series resistor Rg.
short -wave receivers, or to maintain a high
average level of modulation in a transmitter.
R, acts as a voltage divider between the
high -voltage supply and ground. The exact
They may also be used as protective devices
to limit input signals to special circuits. point at which clipping will occur is set by
R which controls the positive potential ap-
Diode LimitersThe characteristics of a diode plied to the diode plates.
tube are such that the tube Under static conditions, a d -c voltage is
conducts only when the plate is at a positive obtained from R, and applied through R3
potential with respect to the cathode. A to both plates of the 6AL5 tube. Current
186 Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits THE RADIO

e OUT

eiN

1\1\
eour

E=VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E

_e our
nn nn

E= VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E11

e IN

end

Figure 1

VARIOUS DIODE LIMITING CIRCUITS


Series diodes limiting positivo and negativo peaks aro shown in A and I. Parallel diodes
limiting positive and negative peaks oro shown in C and D. Parallel diodes limiting above
and below ground are shown in E and F. Parallel -diodo limiters which pass negative and
positive peaks are shown in G and H.

flows through R,, R3, and divides through is lessthan 4 volts, both halves of the tube
the the two diode sections of the 6AL5 and conduct at all times. As long as the tube
the two load resistors (R1 and R2). All parts conducts, its resistance is very low compared
of the clipper circuit are maintained at a with plate resistor R3. Whenever a voltage
positive potential above ground. The voltage change occurs across input resistor R1, the
drop between the plate and cathode f each voltage at all of the tube elements increases
diode is very small compared to the drop or decreases by the same amount as the input
across the 300,000 -ohm resistor (R3) in voltage changes, and the voltage drop across
series with the diode plates. The plate and R3 changes by an equal amount. As long as
cathode of each diode are therefore main- the peak input voltage is less than 4 volts,
tained at approximately equal potentials as the 6AL5 acts merely as a conductor, and
long as there is plate- current flow. Clipping the output cathode is permitted to follow
does not occur until the peak audio -input all voltage changes at the input cathode.
voltage reaches a value greater than the If, under static conditions, 4 volts appear
static voltages at the plates of the diode. at the diode plates, then twice this voltage (8
Assume that R, has been set to a point volts) will appear if one of the diode circuits
that will give 4 volts at the plates of the is opened, thus removing its d -c load from
6AL5. When the peak audio -input voltage the circuit. As long as only one of the diodes

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HANDBOOK Limiting Circuits 187

GALS R3
CLIPPING
BOOK LEVEL
CONTROL IM
e1N
CI C2
o.I 0.1 R4
100
e Dur 11
eIN
Bf
R2
20011 EGRIDCArHOOE RESISTANCE
WHEN GRID IS DRIVEN MIME

Figure 2 Figure 3

THE SERIES-DIODE GATE CLIPPER FOR GRID LIMITING CIRCUIT


AUDIO PEAK LIMITING

continues to conduct, the voltage at the potential at the output cathode will follow
diode plates cannot rise above twice the the input cathode voltage and decrease from
voltage selected by R*. In this example, the its normal value of 4 volts until it reaches
voltage cannot rise above 8 volts. Now, if zero potential. As the input cathode voltage
the input audio voltage applied through C, decreases to less than zero, the plates will
is increased to any peak value between zero follow. However, the output cathode,
and + 4 volts, the first cathode of the grounded through R2, will stop at zero
6AL5 will increase in voltage by the same potential as the plate becomes negative. Con-
amount to the proper value between 4 and duction through the second diode is impos-
8 volts. The other tube elements will assume sible under these conditions. The output
the same potential as the first cathode. How- cathode remains at zero potential until the
ever, the 6AL5 plates cannot increase more voltage at the input cathode swings back to
than 4 volts above their original 4 -volt static zero.
level. When the input voltage to the first The voltage developed across output resis-
cathode of the 6AL5 increases to more than tor R_ follows the input voltage variations
+ 4 volts, the cathode potential increases as long as the input voltage does not swing
to more than 8 volts. Since the plate circuit to a peak value greater than the static volt-
potential remains at 8 volts, the first diode age at the diode plates, which is determined
section ceases to conduct until the input by R,. Effective clipping may thus be ob-
voltage across R, drops below 4 volts. tained at any desired level.
When the input voltage swings in a nega- The square- topped audio waves generated
tive direction, it will subtract from the 4- by this clipper are high in harmonic content,
volt drop across R, and decrease the voltage but these higher -order harmonics may be
on the input cathode by an amount equal greatly reduced by a low -level speech filter.
to the input voltage. The plates and the out-
put cathode will follow the voltage level at Grid Limiters A triode grid limiter is shown
the input cathode as long as the input volt- in figure 3. On positive peaks
age does not swing below 4 volts. If - of the input signal, the triode grid attempts
to swing positive, and the grid -cathode re-
the input voltage does not change more than
4 volts in a negative direction, the plates of sistance drops to about 1000 ohms or so. The
the 6AL5 will also become negative. The voltage drop across the series grid resistor

e1N eour
o

DIODE CONDUCTS

pA POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT

Figure 4

SIMPLE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUITS


188 Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits THE RADIO

elw--- i iDCrLECTION
COIL
L _

:
1 1
-100v. CI CHARGE PATH Cz DISCHARGE PATH

Figure 5 Figure 7

NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGE PATHS


EMPLOYED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC IN THE FREE- RUNNING MULTIVIBRA-
SWEEP SYSTEM TOR OF FIGURE 6

or a d -c restorer. Clamping circuits are used


B+
after RC- coupling circuits where the wave-
form swing is required to be either above or
below the reference voltage, instead of alter-
nating on both sides of it (figure 4). Clamp-
ing circuits are usually encountered in oscil-
loscope sweep circuits. If the sweep voltage
does not always start from the same refer-
Figure 6 ence point, the trace on the screen does not
begin at the same point on the screen each
BASIC MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS time the sweep is repeated and therefore is
"jittery." If a clamping circuit is placed
(usually of the order of 1 megohm) is large between the sweep amplifier and the deflec-
compared to the grid -cathode drop, and the tion element, the start of the sweep can be
resulting limiting action removes the top regulated by adjusting the d -c voltage ap-
part of the positive input wave. plied to the clamping tube (figure 5) .

9 -2 Clamping Circuits 9-3 Multivibrators


A circuit which holds either amplitude ex- The multivibrator, or relaxation oscillator,
treme of a waveform to a given reference isused for the generation of nonsinusoidal
level of potential is called a clamping circuit waveforms. The output is rich in harmonics,

1+ s+ 5+

SY AONIZING
SIGNAL
O
DIRECT-COUPLED CATHODE ELECTRON - COUPLED MULTI VIBRATOR WITH SINE -WAVE
MULTI VIBRATOR MULTIVIBRATOR SYNCHRONIZING SIGNAL APPLIED
TO ONE TUBE

Figure 8

VARIOUS TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Multivibrators 189

e+ I+

0
BASIC ECCLES-JORDAN TRIGGER ONE -SHOT MULTIVIBRATOR
CIRCUIT

Figure 9

ECCLES -JORDAN MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

but the inherent frequency stability is poor. The Eccles- Jordan The Eccles- Jordan trigger
The multivibrator may be stabilized by the Circuit circuit is shown in figure
introduction of synchronizing voltages of 9A. This is not a true
harmonic or subharmonic frequency. multivibrator, but rather a circuit that pos-
In its simplest form, the multivibrator is sesses two conditions of stable equilibrium.
a simple two -stage RC- coupled amplifier One condition is when V, is conducting and
with the output of the second stage coupled V2 is cutoff; the other when V2 is conduct-
through a capacitor to the grid of the first ing and V, is cutoff. The circuit remains in
tube, as shown in figure 6. Since the output one or the other of these two stable condi-
of the second stage is of the proper polarity tions with no change in operating potentials
to reinforce the input signal applied to the until some external action occurs which
first tube, oscillations can readily take place, causes the nonconducting tube to conduct.
started by thermal- agitation and miscellane- The tubes then reverse their functions and re-
ous tube noise. Oscillation is maintained by main in the new condition as long as no
the process of building up and discharging plate current flows in the cut -off tube. This
the store of energy in the grid -coupling type of circuit is known as a flip-flop circuit.
capacitors of the two tubes. The charging Figure 9B illustrates a modified Eccles -
and discharging paths are shown in figure 7. Jordan circuit which accomplishes a com-
Various types of multivibrators are shown in plete cycle when triggered by a positive
figure 8. pulse. Such a circuit is called a one -shot
The output of a multivibrator may be used multivibrator. For initial action, V, is cut
as a source of square waves, as an electronic off and V2 is conducting. A large positive
switch, or as a means of obtaining frequency
division. Submultiple frequencies as low as
one -tenth of the injected synchronizing fre- R -F
PULSE
R -F
PULSE
R -F
PULSE
quency may easily be obtained.
Intl I Nil

I.--I
CUTOFF
I---I
CUTOFF
TIME TIM[
eouT

II u

TIM[ Figure 11

Figure 10 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR USED AS BLOCK-


ING OSCILLATOR BY PROPER CHOICE
SINGLE -SWING BLOCKING OSCILLATOR OFR1C1

www.americanradiohistory.com
190 Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits THE RADIO

!IN ems Pout

POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT WITH
METER INDICATION

Figure 12

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUITS

pulse applied to the grid of V1 causes this currence is determined by the RC time con-
tube to conduct, and the voltage at its plate stant of the grid circuit. A single -swing
decreases by virtue of the IR drop through blocking oscillator is shown in figure 10,
R3. Capacitor C2 is charged rapidly by this wherein the tube is cut off before the comple-
abrupt change in V1 plate voltage, and V2 tion of one cycle. The tube produces single
becomes cut off while V1 conducts. This con- pulses of energy, the time between the
dition exists until C2 discharges, allowing V2 pulses being regulated by the discharge time
to conduct, raising the cathode bias of V1 of the grid RC network. The self - pulsing
until it is once again cut off. blocking oscillator is shown in figure 11, and
-
A direct cathode- coupled multivibrator is used to produce pulses of r -f energy, the
is shown in figure SA. RR is a common number of pulses being determined by the
cathode resistor for the two tubes, and cou- timing network in the grid circuit of the
pling takes place across this resistor. It is oscillator. The rate at which these pulses
impossible for a tube in this circuit to com- occur is know as the pulse- repetition fre-
pletely cut off the other tube, and a circuit quency, or p.r.f.
of this type is called a free-running multi -
vibrator in which the condition of one tube
temporarily cuts off the other.
9 -5 Counting Circuits
A counting circuit, or frequency divider,
9 -4 The Blocking Oscillator isone which receives uniform pulses (repre-
senting units to be counted) and produces a
A blocking oscillator is any oscillator voltage that is proportional to the frequency
which cuts itself off after one or more cycles of the pulses. A counting circuit may be
caused by the accumulation of a negative
charge on the grid capacitor. This negative v:
charge may gradually be drained off through eIN
the grid resistor of the tube, allowing the
circuit to oscillate once again. The process
is repeated and the tube becomes an inter-
mittent oscillator. The rate of such an oc-
Vx

7e 1N

Figure 14

THE STEP -BY -STEP COUNTER USED TO


TRIGGER A BLOCKING OSCILLATOR.
Figure 13
THE BLOCKING OSCILLATOR SERVES AS
STEP-BY -STEP COUNTING CIRCUIT A FREQUENCY DIVIDER.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Resistance -Capacitance Oscillators 191

Re

Rs 7

L. R WAR. 110 V. LAMP BULB B+


RiXCIR2XC2

Figure 15 Figure 16
THE WIEN- BRIDGE AUDIO OSCILLATOR THE PHASE -SHIFT OSCILLATOR

used in conjunction with a blocking oscilla- 9 -6 Resistance -Capacitance


tor to produce a trigger pulse which is a
submultiple of the frequency of the applied Oscillators
pulse. Either positive or negative pulses may
be counted. A positive counting circuit is In an RC oscillator, the frequency is de-
shown in figure 12A, and a negative count- termined by a resistance capacitance network
ing circuit is shown in figure 12B. The pos- that provides regenerative coupling between
itive counter allows a certain amount of the output and input of a feedback ampli-
current to flow through RI each time a fier. No use is made of a tank circuit con-
pulse is applied to C1. sisting of inductance and capacitance to
The positive pulse charges C1, and makes control the frequency of oscillation.
the plate of V2 positive with respect to its The Wien- Bridge oscillator employs a Wien
cathode. V2 conducts until the exciting pulse network in the RC feedback circuit and is
passes. C1 is then discharged by V,, and the shown in figure 15. Tube V, is the oscillator
circuit is ready to accept another pulse. The tube, and tube V2 is an amplifier and phase-
average current flowing through R, increases inverter tube. Since the feedback voltage
as the pulse-repetition frequency increases, through C, produced by V2 is in phase with
and decreases as the p.r.f. decreases. the input circuit of V, at all frequencies,
By reversing the diode connections, as oscillation is maintained by voltages of any
shown in figure 12B, the circuit is made to frequency that exist in the circuit. The
respond to negative pulses. In this circuit, bridge circuit is used, then, to eliminate
an increase in the p.r.f. causes a decrease in feedback voltages of all frequencies except
the average current flowing through R1, the single frequency desired at the output of
which is opposite to the effect in the positive the oscillator. The bridge allows a voltage of
counter. only one frequency to be effective in the
A step-counter is similar to the circuits circuit because of the degeneration and phase
discussed, except that a capacitor which is shift provided by this circuit. The frequency
large compared to C, replaces the diode load at which oscillation occurs is:
resistor. The charge of this capacitor is in-
creased during the time of each pulse, ,pro-
ducing a step voltage across the output (fig-
f- 277-
1

R,C,
when,
ure 13) . A blocking oscillator may be con-
nected to a step counter, as shown in figure
R, X C, equals R2 X C2
14. The oscillator is triggered into operation A lamp (Lu) is used for the cathode resistor
when the voltage across C2 reaches a point of VI as a thermal stabilizer of the oscillator
sufficiently positive to raise the grid of V, amplitude. The variation of the resistance
above cutoff. Circuit parameters may be with respect to the current of the lamp
chosen so that a count division up to 1/20 bulb holds the oscillator output voltage at a
may be obtained with reliability. nearly constant amplitude.

www.americanradiohistory.com
192 Special Vacuum -Tube Circuits THE RADIO
+
TK CISOK

6AU6 S
6CL6 G

-..+ IGL/

330
LOOP I
I
-11+
R3 LP, 2010 K
GOO iW Ca

I
Figure 17

THE BRIDGE -TYPE PHASE -SHIFT


car
ti
OUT
OSCILLATOR K

..5,10.

The phase -shift oscillator shown in figure


16 is a single -tube oscillator using a three -
\ O2
LOOPP 2

section phase -shift network. Each section of Figure 18


the network produces a phase shift in pro-
THE NBS BRIDGE -T OSCILLATOR
portion to the frequency of the signal that
CIRCUIT EMPLOYS TWO FEEDBACK
passes through it. For oscillations to be pro-
LOOPS. LOOP 1 IS REGENERATIVE,
duced, the signal from the plate of the tube
LOOP 2 IS DEGENERATIVE
must be shifted 180 . Three successive phase
shifts of 60 accomplish this, and the fre-
quency of oscillation is determined by this
phase shift. 9 -7 Feedback
A high-IL triode or a pentode must be used
in this circuit. In order to increase the fre- Feedback amplifiers have been discussed
quency of oscillation, either the resistance or in Chapter 6, section 15 of this Handbook.
the capacitance must be decreased by an ap- A more general use of feedback is in auto-
propriate amount. matic control and regulating systems.
A bridge -type phase -shift oscillator is
shown in figure 17. The bridge is so propor- 1-FREO. OF OSCILLATION

tioned that only at one frequency is the NEG F/B'POS F/S


phase shift through the bridge equal to 180 . -NOTCH - FREOUENCT
Voltages of other frequencies are fed back to F-
2R' RC
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
the grid of the tube out of phase with the (LOOP 21

existing grid signal, and are cancelled by be- C 1/E, POSITIVE


FEEDBACK
ing amplified out of phase. (LOOP?)

The Bridge-T oscillator developed by r-.


1vvFRE0. OF OSCILLATION
the National Bureau of Standards consists of
a two -stage amplifier having two feedback
loops, as shown in figure 18. Loop 1 consists
of a regenerative cathode -to- cathode loop,
consisting of Lp1 and C3. The bulb regulates
the positive feedback, and tends to stabilize
NOTCH NETWORK
the output of the oscillator, much as in the
manner of the Wien circuit. Loop 2 consists Figure 19
of a grid -cathode degenerative circuit, con-
taining the Bridge -T. BRIDGE -T FEEDBACK
Oscillation will occur at the null fre- LOOP CIRCUITS
quency of the bridge, at which frequency
Oscillation will occur at the null frequency of
the bridge allows minimum degeneration in the bridge, at which frequency the bridge
loop 2 (figure 19). allows minimum degeneration in loop 2.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Feedback 193

ROOM
FURNACE TEMPERATURE PHASE SHIFT INPUT SIGNAL
OF SYSTEM ,OUTPUT SIGNAL
(F) (T1

THERMOSTAT
..TH) /
FEEDBACK
TIME-.
(ERROR S!CNAL ) FEEDBACK SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL
NO PHASE SHIFT
FUEL
SUPPLY

3
II,k 2. A FEEDBACK
SIGNAL
Figure 20 I
WITH 1/10.
PHASE
a SHIFT
SIMPLE CLOSED -LOOP
TIME-.
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Room temperature (T) controls fuel supply to Figure 21
furnace (F) by feedback loop through thermo-
stat (TH) control. PHASE SHIFT OF ERROR
SIGNAL MAY CAUSE OSCILLA-
Mechanical feedback has been used for many TION IN CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
years in such forms as engine-speed gover- To p t oscillation, the gain of the feed-
nors and servo steering engines on ships. back loop must be less than unity when the
phase shift of the system reaches 180 degrees.
A simple feedback system for temperature
control is shown in figure 20. This is a cause-
and- effect system. The furnace (F) raises cause the feedback control to overcorrect in
the room temperature (T) to a predeter- the opposite direction, resulting in hunting
mined value at which point the sensing or oscillation of the closed -loop system about
thermostat (TH) reduces the fuel flow to the correct operating point.
the furnace. When the room temperature Negative- feedback control would tend to
drops below the predetermined value the damp out spurious system oscillation if it
fuel flow is increased by the thermostat con- were not for the time lag or phase shift in the
trol. An interdependent control system is system. If the over -all phase shift is equal to
created by this arrangement: the room tem- one -half cycle of the operating frequency of
perature depends on the thermostat action, the system, the feedback will maintain a
and the thermostat action depends on the steady state of oscillation when the circuit
room temperature. This sequence of events gain is sufficiently high (figure 21) . In
may be termed a closed -loop feedback system. order to prevent oscillation, the gain figure
of the feedback loop must be less than unity
Error Cancellation A feedback control sys- when the phase shift of the system reaches
tem is dependent on a de- 180 degrees. In an ideal control system the
gree of error in the output signal, since this gain of the loop would be constant through-
error component is used to bring about the out the operating range of the device, and
correction. This component is called the would drop rapidly outside the range to
error signal. The error, or deviation from the reduce the bandwidth of the control system
desired signal is passed through the feedback to a minimum.
loop to cause an adjustment to reduce the The time lag in a closed -loop system may
value of the error signal. Care must be taken be reduced by using electronic circuits in
in the design of the feedback loop to reduce place of mechanical devices, or by the use of
over- control tendencies wherein the correc- special circuit elements having a phase -lead
tion signal would carry the system past the characteristic. Such devices make use of the
point of correct operation. Under certain properties of a capacitor, wherein the current
circumstances the new error signal would leads the voltage applied to it.
CHAPTER TEN

Radio Receiver Fundamentals

A conventional reproducing device such detecting the intelligence carried by an in-


as a speaker or a pair of earphones is in- coming radio wave.
capable of receiving directly the intelligence
carried by the carrier wave of a radio trans- Radiotelephony Figure 1 illustrates an ele-
mitting station. It is necessary that an addi- Demodulation mentary form of a radiotele-
tional device, called a radio receiver, be phone receiver employing a
placed between the receiving antenna and diode detector. Energy from a passing radio
the speaker or headphones. wave will induce a voltage in the antenna
Radio receivers vary widely in their com- and cause a radio -frequency current to flow
plexity and basic design, depending on the from antenna to ground through coil L,.
intended application and upon economic fac- The alternating magnetic field set up around
tors. A simple radio receiver for reception of L, links with the turns of L2 and causes an
radiotelephone signals can consist of an ear- r -f current to flow through the parallel -
phone, a silicon or germanium crystal as a tuned circuit, (L2-C1). When variable ca-
carrier rectifier or demodulator, and a length pacitor C, is adjusted so that the tuned cir-
of wire as an antenna. However, such a re- cuit is resonant at the frequency of the ap-
ceiver is highly insensitive, and offers no plied signal, the r -f voltage is maximum.
significant discrimination between two sig- This r-f voltage is applied to the diode de-
nals in the same portion of the spectrum. tector where it is rectified into a varying
On the other hand, a dual-diversity re- direct current, which is passed through the
ceiver designed for single-sideband reception earphones. The variations in this current cor-
and employing double or triple detection respond to the voice modulation placed on
might occupy several relay racks and would the signal at the transmitter. As the ear-
cost many thousands of dollars. However, phone diaphragms vibrate back and forth in
conventional communications receivers are accord with the pulsating current they aud-
intermediate in complexity and performance ibly reproduce the modulation which was
between the two extremes. This chapter is placed on the carrier wave.
devoted to the principles underlying the oper- The operation of the detector circuit is
ation of such conventional communications shown graphically above the detector circuit
receivers. in figure 1. The modulated carrier is shown
at A, as it is applied to the antenna. B repre-
10 -1 Detection or sents the same carrier, increased in ampli-
Demodulation tude, as it appears across the tuned circuit.
A detector, or demodulator, is a device for In C the varying d -c output from the de-
removing the modulation (demodulating) or tector is seen.

www.americanradiohistory.com
Detection or Demodulation 195

1-
Lt L2 PLATE- TICKLER REGENERATION WITH 'THROTTLE"
GROUND
CAPACITOR REGENERATION CONTROL.

PENTODE AUDIO OUTPUT


Figure 1

ELEMENTARY FORM OF RECEIVER


This is the basis of the "crystal set" type of
receiver, although a vacuum diode may be
used in place of the crystal diode. The tank
circuit (L, -C,) is tuned to the frequency it is
desired to receive. The bypass capacitor across
the phones should have a low reactance to the WITH SCREEN- VOLTAGE
carrier frequency being received, but a high REGENERATION CONTROL.

reactance to the modulation on the received Figure 2


radio signal.
REGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUITS
Radiotelegraphy Since a c -w telegraphy sig- Regenerative detectors are seldom used at the
Reception nal consists of an unmodu- present time due to their poor selectivity.
However, they do illustrate the simplest type
lated carrier which is inter- of receiver which may be used either for
rupted to form dots and dashes, it is appar- radiophone or radiotelegraph reception.
ent that such a signal would not be made
audible by detection alone. While the keying
made to self -oscillate, and thus serve the
is a form of modulation, it is composed of
dual purpose of detector and oscillator. A
such low- frequency components that the
detector which self -oscillates to provide a
keying envelope itself is below the audible
beat note is known as an autodyne detector,
range at hand -keying speeds. Some means
and the process of obtaining feedback be-
must be provided whereby an audible tone is tween the detector plate and grid is called
heard while the unmodulated carrier is being
regeneration.
received, the tone stopping immediately when
An autodyne detector is most sensitive
the carrier is interrupted.
when it is barely oscillating, and for this
The most simple means of accomplishing reason a regeneration control is always in-
this is to feed a locally generated carrier of
cluded in the circuit to adjust the feedback
a slightly different frequency into the same
to the proper amount. The regeneration con-
detector, so that the incoming signal will trol may be either a variable capacitor or a
mix with it to form an audible beat note.
variable resistor, as shown in figure 2.
The difference frequency, or heterodyne as With the detector regenerative but not
the beat note is known, will of course stop
oscillating, it is also quite sensitive. When
and start in accord with the incoming the circuit is adjusted to operate in this
c -w radiotelegraph signal, because the audible
manner, modulated signals may be received
heterodyne can exist only when both the with considerably greater strength than with
incoming and the locally generated carriers a nonregenerative detector.
are present.
10 -2 Superregenerative
The Autodyne The local signal which is used
Detector
Receivers
to beat with the desired c -w
signal in the detector may be At ultrahigh frequencies, when it is de-
supplied by a separate low -power oscillator sired to keep weight and cost at a minimum,
in the receiver itself, or the detector may be a special form of the regenerative receiver
196 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO

known as the superregenerator is often used


for radiotelephony reception. The superre-
generator is essentially a regenerative receiver
with a means provided to throw the detector TO AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
rapidly in and out of oscillation. The fre-
quency at which the detector is made to go
in and out of oscillation varies with the fre-
quency to be received, but is usually between
20,000 and 500,000 times a second. This su- Figure 3
perregenerative action considerably increases
the sensitivity of the oscillating detector so SUPERREGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUIT
that the usual background hiss is greatly A self-quenched superregenerative detector
amplified when no signal is being received. such as Illustrated above Is capable of giving
good sensitivity in the vhf range. However,
This hiss diminishes in proportion to the the circuit has the disadvantage that its se-
strength of the received signal, loud signals lectivity is relatively poor. Also, such a circuit
eliminating the hiss entirely. should be preceded by an r-f stage to sup-
press the radiation of o signal by the oscil-
lating detector.
Quench There are two systems in common
Methods use for causing the detector to cuits are useful when it is possible to make a
break in and out of oscillation certain tube oscillate on a very high fre-
rapidly. In one, a separate interruption-fre - quency but it is impossible to obtain enough
quency oscillator is arranged so as to vary regeneration for self -quenching action.
the voltage rapidly on one of the detector - The optimum quenching frequency is a
tube elements (usually the plate, sometimes function of the signal frequency. As the
the screen) at the high rate necessary. The operating frequency goes up, so does the op-
interruption- frequency oscillator commonly timum quenching frequency. When the
uses a conventional tickler- feedback circuit quench frequency is too low, maximum
with coils appropriate for its operating fre- sensitivity is not obtained. When it is too
quency. high, both sensitivity and selectivity suffer.
The second, and simplest, type of super - In fact, the optimum quench frequency for
regenerative detector circuit is arranged so an operating frequency below 15 MHz is
as to produce its own interruption frequency in the audible range. This makes the super -
oscillation, without the aid of a separate regenerator impractical for use on the
tube. The detector tube damps (or quenches) lower frequencies.
itself out of signal -frequency oscillation at a The high background noise or hiss which
high rate by virtue of the use of a high is heard on a properly designed superregener-
value of grid resistor and proper size plate - ator when no signal is being received is not
blocking and grid capacitors, in conjunction the quench- frequency component; it is tube
with an excess of feedback. In this type of and tuned -circuit fluctuation noise, indicat-
self -quectched detector, the grid resistor is ing that the receiver is extremely sensitive.
quite often returned to the positive side of A moderately strong signal will cause the
the power supply (through the coil) rather background noise to disappear completely,
than to the cathode. A representative self - because the superregenerator has an inherent
quenched superregenerative detector circuit and instantaneous automatic -volume- control
is shown in figure 3. characteristic. This same avc characteristic
Except where it is impossible to secure makes the receiver comparatively insensitive
sufficient regenerative feedback to permit to impulse noise such as ignition pulses -a
superregeneration, the self -quenching circuit highly desirable feature. This characteristic
is to be preferred; it is simpler, is self- adjust- also results in appreciable distortion of a re-
ing as regards quenching amplitude, and can ceived radiotelephone signal, but not enough
have good quenching wave form. To obtain to affect the intelligibility.
as good results with a separately quenched The selectivity of a superregenerator is
superregenerator, very careful design is re- rather poor compared to a superheterodyne,
quired. However, separately quenched cir- but is suprisingly good for so simple a re-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Superheterodyne Receivers 197

TANTENNA AUDIO
12AT7 OUTPUT

I RP
r----
IINTCRMCD SECOND
r -
I
AUDIO
-T

REWENCT 1

----i
AMPLIr1ER DETECTOR IAMPLIrICRI
1
AMPLIFIER

_ ---
I

L _ -- ` -'
r 1
IPREOUENCTI
OSCILLATORI
! (roRCw)I

Figure 5

ESSENTIAL UNITS OF A
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
The basic portions of the receiver are shown
in solid blocks Practicable receivers employ
the dotted blocks and also usually include such
additional circuits as a noise limiter, an ave
circuit, and a crystal Alter in the i-1 amplifier.

f -m detector. The detector action is accom-


Figure 4 plished by slope detection tuning on the
THE FREMODYNE SUPERREGENERATIVE side of the i -f selectivity curve.
SUPERHETERODYNE DETECTOR FOR This circuit greatly reduces the radiated
FREQUENCY -MODULATED SIGNALS signal, characteristic of the superregenerative
detector, yet provides many of the desirable
features of the superregenerator. The pass -
ceiver when figured on a percentage basis band of the Fremodyne detector is about
rather than absolute kHz bandwidth. 400 kHz.
F -M Reception A superregenerative receiver
will receive frequency -modu- 10 -3 Superheterodyne
lated signals with results comparing favor- Receivers
ably with amplitude modulation if the
frequency swing of the f -m transmitter is Because of its superiority and nearly uni-
sufficiently high. For such reception, the versal use in all fields of radio reception, the
receiver is detuned slightly to either side of theory of operation of the superheterodyne
resonance. should be familiar to every radio student and
Superregenerative receivers radiate a strong, experimenter. The following discussion con-
broad, and rough signal. For this reason, it is cerns superheterodynes for a -m and SSB re-
necessary in most applications to employ a ception. It is, however, applicable in part to
radio -frequency amplifier stage ahead of the receivers for frequency modulation.
detector, with thorough shielding through-
Principle of In the superheterodyne, the in-
out the receiver.
Operation coming signal is applied to a
The Fremodyne The Hazeltine -Fremodyne mixer consisting of a nonlinear
Detector superregenerative circuit is impedance such as a vacuum tube or a diode.
expressly designed for re- The signal is mixed with a steady signal gen-
ception of f -m signals. This versatile circuit erated locally in an oscillator stage, with the
combines the action of the superregenerative result that a signal bearing all the modula-
receiver with the superheterodyne, convert- tion applied to the original signal but of a
ing f -m signals directly into audio signals in frequency equal to the difference between
one double - triode tube (figure 4). One sec- the local oscillator and incoming signal fre-
tion of the triode serves as a superregenera- quencies appears in the mixer output circuit.
tive mixer, producing an intermediate fre- The output from the mixer stage is fed into
quency of 22 MHz, an i -f amplifier, and an a fixed -tuned intermediate-frequency am pli-
198 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
VARIABLE-1.1
PENTODE ,OUTPUT
oscillators, all of which occupy a rather wide
band of frequencies, making a broad selec-
tivity characteristic desirable. Images are a
peculiarity common to all superheterodyne
receivers, and for this reason they are given
+5
a detailed discussion later in this chapter.
1 MEG BYPASS CAPACITORS OS TO 0.111/10. While intermediate frequencies as low as
TO AVC
50 kHz are used where extreme selectivity is
Figure 6 a requirement, and frequencies of 60 MHz
and above are used in some specialized forms
TYPICAL I -F AMPLIFIER STAGE of receivers, most present -day communica-
tions superheterodynes use intermediate fre-
fier, where it is amplified and detected in the quencies around either 455 or 1600 kHz.
usual manner, and passed on to the audio Home -type broadcast receivers almost al-
amplifier. Figure 5 shows a block diagram of ways use an intermediate frequency in the
the fundamental superheterodyne arrange- vicinity of 455 kHz, while auto receivers
ment. The basic components are shown in usually use a frequency of about 262 kHz.
heavy lines, the simplest superheterodyne The standard frequency for the i -f channel
consisting simply of these three units. How- of f -m receivers is 10.7 MHz. Television re-
ever, a good communications receiver will ceivers use an intermediate frequency which
comprise all of the elements shown, both covers the band between about 21.5 and 27
heavy and dotted blocks. MHz, or a band between 41 and 46 MHz.
Advantages of the The advantages of super - Arithmetical Aside from allowing the use of
Superheterodyne heterodyne reception are Selectivity fixed -tuned bandpass amplifier
directly attributable to the stages, the superheterodyne has
use of the fixed -tuned intermediate-frequen- an overwhelming advantage over the tuned
cy (i -f) amplifier. Since all signals are con- radio frequency (trf) type of receiver be-
verted to the intermediate frequency, this cause of what is commonly known as arith-
section of the receiver may be designed for metical selectivity.
optimum selectivity and high amplification. This can best be illustrated by considering
High amplification is easily obtained in the two receivers, one of the trf type and one of
intermediate- frequency amplifier, since it the superheterodyne type, both attempting
operates at a relatively low frequency, where to receive a desired signal at 10,000 kHz and
conventional pentode -type tubes give ade- eliminate a strong interfering signal at 10,-
quate voltage gain. A typical i -f amplifier is 010 kHz. In the trf receiver, separating these
shown in figure 6. two signals in the tuning circuits is practical-
From the diagram it may be seen that both ly impossible, since they differ in frequency
the grid and plate circuits are tuned. The by only 0.1 percent. However, in a super-
tuned circuits used for coupling between i -f heterodyne with an intermediate frequency
stages are known as i -f transformers. These of, for example, 1000 kHz, the desired signal
will be more fully discussed later in this will be converted to a frequency of 1000
chapter. kHz and the interfering signal will be con-
verted to a frequency of 1010 kHz, both
Choice of Inter- The choice of a frequency
mediate Frequency
signals appearing at the input of the i -f am-
for the i -f amplifier in- plifier. In this case, the two signals may be
volves several considera-
separated much more readily, since they dif-
tions. One of these considerations concerns fer by 1 percent, or 10 times as much as
selectivity -the lower the intermediate fre- in the first case.
quency the greater the obtainable selectivity.
On the other hand, a rather high intermedi- The Converter The converter stage, or mixer,
ate frequency is desirable from the stand- Stage of a superheterodyne receiver
point of image elimination, and also for the can be either one of two types:
reception of signals from television and f -m (1) it may use a single envelope converter
transmitters and modulated self -controlled tube, such as a6BA7 or 6BE6, or (2) it may

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Superheterodyne Receivers 199

6S7, 65B7-Y,
TO 1./
6BE6. 6BA7 AMP.

2!O V.

1!O V.

Figure 7

TYPICAL FREQUENCY -CONVERTER (MIXER) STAGES


The relativ advantages
of the diffe circuits are di d in the text

use two tubes, or two sets of elements in ever, the equivalent input noise resistance of
the same envelope, in an oscillator -mixer ar- such tubes is of the order of 200,000 ohms,
rangement. Figure 7 shows a group of cir- which is a rather high value indeed; so such
cuits of both types to illustrate present prac- tubes are not suited for operation without an
tice with regard to types of converter stages. r -f stage in the high- frequency range if
Converter -tube combinations such as shown weak -signal reception is desired.
in figures 7A and 7B are relatively simple The 6L7 mixer circuit shown in figure 7C,
and inexpensive, and they do an adequate and the 6BA7 circuit of figure 7D, also are
job for most applications. With a converter characterized by an equivalent input noise
tube such as the 6SB7 -Y or the 6BA7 quite resistance of several hundred thousand ohms,
satisfactory performance may be obtained so that these also must be preceded by one or
for the reception of relatively strong signals more r -f stages with a fairly high gain per
(as for example f -m broadcast reception) up stage if a low noise factor is desired of the
to frequencies in excess of 100 MHz. How- complete receiver.

www.americanradiohistory.com
200 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
However, the circuit arrangements shown having a high signal -to -noise ratio ahead of
at figures 7E and 7F are capable of low - the mixer. This remedy causes the signal out-
noise operation within themselves, so that put from the mixer to be large in proportion
these circuits may be fed directly from the to the noise generated in the mixer stage. In-
antenna without an r -f stage and still pro- creasing the gain after the mixer will be of
vide a fair noise factor to the complete re- no advantage in eliminating mixer noise dif-
ceiver. Note that both these circuits use ficulties; greater selectivity after the mixer
control-grid injection of both the incoming will help to a certain extent, but cannot be
signal and the local- oscillator voltage. Hence. carried too far, since this type of selectivity
paradoxically, circuits such as these should decreases the i -f bandpass and if carried too
be preceded by an r -f stage if local- oscillator far will not pass the sidebands that are an
radiation is to be held to any reasonable essential part of a voice -modulated signal.
value of field intensity.
Triode Mixers A triode having a high trans -
Diode Mixers As the frequency of operation conductance is the quietest
of a superheterodyne receiver is mixer tube, exhibiting somewhat less gain
increased above a few hundred megahertz but a better signal -to-noise ratio than a
the signal-to -noise ratio appearing in the comparable multigrid mixer tube. However,
plate circuit of the mixer tube when triodes below 30 MHz it is possible to construct a
or pentodes are employed drops to a prohibi- receiver that will get down to the atmos-
tively low value. At frequencies above the pheric noise level without resorting to a
upper frequency limit for conventional mix- triode mixer. The additional difficulties ex-
er stages, mixers of the diode type are most perienced in avoiding pulling, undesirable
commonly employed. The diode may be feedback, etc., when using a triode with
either a vacuum -tube heater diode of a spe- control -grid injection tend to make multi -
cial uhf design such as the 9005, or it may grid tubes the popular choice for this ap-
be a crystal diode of the general type of the plication on the lower frequencies.
1N21 through 1N28 series. On very-high frequencies, where set noise
rather than atmospheric noise limits the
10 -4 Mixer Noise weak -signal response, triode mixers are more
and Images widely used. A 6J6 miniature twin triode
with grids in push -pull and plates in parallel
makes an excellent mixer up to about 150
The effects of mixer noise and images are
MHz.
troubles common to all superheterodynes.
Since both these effects can largely be ob- Injection The amplitude of the injection
viated by the same remedy, they will be con- Voltage voltage will affect the conversion
sidered together. transconductance of the mixer.
and therefore should be made optimum if
Mixer Noise Mixer noise of the shot -effect maximum signal -to -noise ratio is desired. If
type, which is evidenced by a fixed bias is employed on the injection grid,
hiss in the audio output of the receiver, is the optimum injection voltage is quite criti-
caused by small irregularities in the plate cal. If cathode bias is used, the optimum
current in the mixer stage and will mask voltage is not so critical; and if grid -leak
weak signals. Noise of an identical nature is bias is employed, the optimum injection volt-
generated in an amplifier stage, but due to age is not at all critical -just so it is ade-
the fact that the conductance in the mixer quate. Typical optimum injection voltages
stage is considerably lower than in an amp- will run from 1 to 3 volts for control -grid
lifier stage using the same tube, the propor- injection, and 20 volts or so for screen- or
tion of inherent noise present in a mixer suppressor -grid injection.
usually is considerably greater than in an
amplifier stage using a comparable tube. Images There always are two signal fre-
Although this noise cannot be eliminated, quencies which will combine with a
its effects can be greatly minimized by plac- given frequency to produce the same differ-
ing sufficient signal- frequency amplification ence frequency. For example: assume a super-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Mixer Noise and Images 201
PEN root
frequency, greater selectivity in the mixer
grid circuit through the use of additional
tuned circuits between the mixer and the
antenna is necessary if a good image ratio is
to be maintained.

10 -5 R -F Stages
Figure 8

TYPICAL PENTODE R -F AMPLIFIER STAGE Since the necessary tuned circuits between
the mixer and the antenna can be combined
with tubes to form r -f amplifier stages, the
heterodyne with its oscillator operating on a reduction of the effects of mixer noise and
higher frequency than the signal (which is the increasing of the image ratio can be ac-
common practice in many superhetero- complished in a single section of the receiver.
dynes) tuned to receive a signal at 14,100 When incorporated in the receiver, this sec-
kHz. Assuming an i-f amplifier frequency of tion is known simply as an r -f amplifier;
450 kHz, the mixer input circuit will be when it is a separate unit with a separate
tuned to 14,100 kHz, and the oscillator to tuning control it is often known as a pre -
14,100 plus 450, or 14,550 kHz. Now, a selector. Either one or two stages are com-
strong signal at the oscillator frequency plus monly used in the preselector or r -f ampli-
the intermediate frequency (14,550 plus fier. Some preselectors use regeneration to
450, or 15,000 kHz) will also give a differ- obtain still greater amplification and selec-
ence frequency of 450 kHz in the mixer tivity. An r -f amplifier or preselector em-
output and will be heard also. Note that the bodying more than two stages rarely ever is
image is always twice the intermediate fre- employed since two stages will ordinarily
quency away from the desired signal. Images give adequate gain to override mixer noise.
cause repeat points on the tuning dial.
The only way that the image could be R -FStages in Generally speaking, atmos-
eliminated in this particular case would be to the VHF Range pheric noise in the frequency
make the selectivity of the mixer input cir- range above 30 MHz is
cuit, and any circuits preceding it, great quite low-so low, in fact, that the noise
enough so that the 15,000 -kHz signal never generated within the receiver itself is greater
reaches the mixer grid in sufficient amplitude than the noise received on the antenna.
to produce interference. Hence it is of the greatest importance that
For any particular intermediate frequency, internally generated noise be held to a mini-
image interference troubles become increas- mum in a receiver. At frequencies above 500
ingly greater as the frequency (to which the MHz there is not much that can be done
signal-frequency portion of the receiver is in the direction of reducing receiver noise
tuned) is increased. This is due to the fact below that generated in the converter stage,
that the percentage difference between the aside from the use of specialized parametric
desired frequency and the image frequency amplifiers. But in the vhf range, between 30
decreases as the receiver is tuned to a higher and 500 MHz, the receiver noise factor in a
frequency. The ratio of strength between a well- designed unit is determined by the char-
signal at the image frequency and a signal at acteristics of the first r -f stage.
the frequency to which the receiver is tuned The usual vhf receiver, whether for com-
producing equal output is known as the munications or for f -m or TV reception,
image ratio. The higher this ratio is, the uses a miniature pentode or triode for the
better the receiver will be in regard to image first r -f amplifier stage. The nuvistors
interference troubles . (6CW4 and 6DS4) are the best of presently
With but a single tuned circuit between available types, with the 6EH7 (pentode)
the mixer grid and the antenna, and with and the cascode -style amplifier approaching
400- to 500 -kHz i -f a?1 plifiers, image ratios nuvistor performance in the lower vhf
of 60 db and over are easily obtainable up to region. However, when gain in the first r -f
frequencies around 2000 kHz. Above this stage is not so important, and the best noise
202 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
DA GROUNDED GRID factory when the first r -f stage is to be fed
6CW4 directly from a low- impedance coaxial trans-
.001
mission line. Figure 9 (B) gives somewhat
more gain than (A), but requires an input
matching circuit. The effective gain of this
circuit is somewhat reduced when it is being
used to amplify a broad band of frequencies
since the effective gm of the cathode -cou-
pled dual tube is somewhat less than half the
g,,, of either of the two tubes taken alone.
The CascadeThe Cascode r-f amplifier, de-
Amplifier veloped at the MIT Radiation
Laboratory during World War
II, is a low -noise circuit employing a
grounded -cathode triode driving a grounded -
grid triode, as shown in figure 9C. The stage
CATHODE COUPLED gain of such a circuit is about equal to that
of a pentode tube, while the noise figure re-
mains at the low level of a triode tube. Neu-
+150v tralization of the first triode tube is usually
unnecessary below SO MHz. Above this fre-
001 LN 6CW4
6CW4
quency, a definite improvement in the noise
figure may be obtained through the use of
neutralization. The neutralizing coil (LN)
should resonate at the operating frequency
with the grid -plate capacity of the first tri-
ode tube.
b0 Ool
The TV -type double triodes such as the
c
-I- LOW-NOISE 00 6DJ8 (and older style 6BQ7 and 6BZ7) may
NUVISTOR be used to good advantage up to 144 MHz
CASCODE
or so. At 2 meters and above, however, the
0 DUAL- TRIODE
CASCODE LN
+120V
6CW4 nuvistor family is recommended for
use.
60.16,6807, Etc
Double Conversion As previously mentioned,
the use of a higher inter-
mediate frequency will also improve the
100
001
image ratio, at the expense of i -f selectivity,
1001 by placing the desired signal and the image
Figure 9 J +250V farther apart. To give both good image
ratio at the higher frequencies and good
TYPICAL TRIODE VHF selectivity in the i -f amplifier, a system
AMPLIFIER STAGES
R -F known as double conversion is sometimes
Triode r -f stages contribute the least amount employed. In this system, the incoming signal
of noise output for a given signal level, hence is first converted to a rather high intermed-
their frequent use in the vhf range.
iate frequency, and then amplified and again
converted, this time to a much lower fre-
factor must be obtained, the first r -f stage quency. The first intermediate frequency
usually uses a triode or a low -noise transistor. supplies the necessary wide separation be-
Shown in figure 9 are four commonly used tween the image and the desired signal,
types of triode r -f stages for use in the vhf while the second one supplies the bulk of the
range. The circuit at (A) uses few com- i-f selectivity.
ponents and gives a moderate amount of The double-conversion system, as illus-
gain with very low noise. It is most satis- trated in figure 10, is receiving two general

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK R-F Stages 203

t 14 MHz

TUNABLE
114
AMPLIFIER
MIXER
4 MHz

I
TUNABLE

AMPLIFIER
MIXER
455 kHz
ILUSLQ
1I
AMPLIFIER
DEMODULATOR
ANO
AUDIO

CRYSTAL VARIARLE
10MHZ
OSCILLATOR
3545 kHz
OSCILLATOR

r-
I 14 MHz 455 kHz
-11-
SO kHz
1 I

I
TUNABLE FIXED I I
FIXED OEMOOULATOR
I
R.F --1 MIXER MIXER AND
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER I I
AMPLIFIER AUDIO
1

IQ I

I I

VARIABLE I! 1X
14.445kHz 505 kHz
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
I!

I I

CONVENTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS II HIGHLY SELECTIVE ACCESSORY I-F


RECEIVER II AMPLIFIER AND DEMODULATOR (QS'ER)I
L JL _J

Figure 10

TYPICAL DOUBLE-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS


Illustrated at A is the bask circuit of a commercial double-conversion superheterodyne receiver.
At 11 is illustrated the application of an a y sharp -f channel for obtaining improved
1

selectivity from a c tional communications receiver through the use of the double-conversion
superheterodyne principle.

types of application at the present time. The usually is in the 450- to 915 -kHz range) in-
first application is for the purpose of attain- stead of being fed to a demodulator and
ing extremely good stability in a communi- then to the audio system, is alternatively fed
cations receiver through the use of crystal to a fixed -tuned mixer stage and then into a
control of the first oscillator. In such an much lower intermediate- frequency ampli-
arrangement, as used in several types of Col- fier before the signal is demodulated and fed
lins receivers, the first oscillator is crystal to the audio system. The accessory i -f amp-
controlled and is followed by a tunable i -f lifier system (sometimes called a Q5'er)
amplifier which then is followed by a mixer normally is operated on a frequency of 175
stage and a fixed -tuned i -f amplifier on a kHz, 85 kHz, or 50 kHz.
much lower frequency. Through such a cir-
cuit arrangement the stability of the com-
plete receiver is equal to the stability of the
10-6 Signal- Frequency
oscillator which feeds the second mixer, Tuned Circuits
while the selectivity is determined by the
bandwidth of the second fixed i -f amplifier. The signal- frequency tuned circuits in
The second common application of the high- frequency superheterodynes and tuned -
double -conversion principle is for the pur- radio- frequency types of receivers consist of
pose of obtaining a very high degree of se- coils of either the solenoid or universal-
lectivity in the complete communications wound types shunted by variable capacitors.
receiver. In this type of application, as illus- It is in these tuned circuits that the causes
trated in figure 10 B, a conventional com- of success or failure of a receiver often lie.
munications receiver is modified in such a The universal -wound type coils usually are
manner that its normal i -f amplifier (which used at frequencies below 2000 kHz; above
204 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO

tuned circuits is the input resistance of the


tubes placed across these circuits. At broad-
cast frequencies, the input resistance of most

R -r INPUT C
Ec conventional r -f amplifier tubes is high
enough so that it is not bothersome. But as
the frequency is increased, the input resist-
ance becomes lower and lower, until it ulti-
mately reaches a value so low that no ampli-
fication can be obtained from the r -f stage.
Figure 11
The two contributing factors to the de-
crease in input resistance with increasing
ILLUSTRATING "COMMON- POINT" frequency are the transit time required by
BYPASSING an electron traveling between the cathode
To reduce the detrimental effects of cathode and grid, and the inductance of the cathode
circuit inductance In vhf stages, all bypass lead common to both the plate and grid cir-
capacitors should be returned to the cathode
terminal at the socket. Tubes with two cathode cuits. As the frequency becomes higher, the
leads can give improved performance if the transit time can become an appreciable por-
grid return is made to one cathode terminal tion of the time required by an r-f cycle of
while the plate and screen bypass returns are
made to the cathode terminal which is con- the signal voltage, and current will actually
nected to the suppressor within the tube. flow into the grid. The result of this effect
is similar to that which would be obtained
this frequency the single-layer solenoid type by placing a resistance between the grid and
of coil is more satisfactory. cathode of the tube.
Impedance The two factors of greatest sig- Superheterodyne Because the oscillator in a
and Q nificance in determining the Tracking superheterodyne operates
gain -per-stage and selectivity, re- "offset" from the other
spectively, of a tuned amplifier are tuned- front -end circuits, it is
circuit impedance and tuned -circuit Q. Since necessary to make special provisions to allow
the resistance of modern capacitors is low at the oscillator to track when similar tuning
ordinary frequencies, the resistance usually capacitor sections are ganged. The usual
can be considered to be concentrated in the
coil. The resistance to be considered in mak-
ing Q determinations is the r -f resistance, MIXER
not the d -c resistance of the wire in the coil.
The latter ordinarily is low enough that it PADDING CAPACITOR
may be neglected. The increase in r -f resist- TUNING CAPACITOR
ance over d -c resistance primarily is due to
skin effect and is influenced by such factors
as wire size and type, and the proximity of OSCILLATOR

metallic objects or poor insulators, such as


coil forms with high losses. Higher values of
SERIES TRACKING CAPACITOR
Q lead to better selectivity and increased r -f
voltage across the tuned circuit. The increase
in voltage is due to an increase in the cir-
Figure 12
cuit impedance with the higher values of Q.
Frequently it is possible to secure an in- SERIES TRACKING EMPLOYED
crease in impedance in a resonant circuit IN THE H F OSCILLATOR OF A
(and consequently an increase in gain from SUPERHETERODYNE
an amplifier stage) by increasing the react- The series tracking capacitor permits the use
ance through the use of larger coils and of identical gangs in a ganged capacitor, since
smaller tuning capacitors (higher LC ratio) .
the tracking capacitor slows down the rate of
frequency change in the oscillator so that a
Input Resistance constant difference in frequency between the
Another factor which in- oscillator and the r -f stage (equal to the I -f
fluences the operation of amplifier frequency) may be maintained.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 205

method of obtaining good tracking is to ceivers a combination of both methods is


operate the oscillator on the high- frequency usually employed, the coils being changed
side of the mixer and use a series tracking from one band to another, and variable ca-
capacitor to slow down the tuning rate of pacitors being used to tune the receiver
the oscillator. The oscillator tuning rate across each band. In practical receivers, coils
must be slower because it covers a smaller may be changed by one of two methods: a
range than does the mixer when both are switch, controllable from the panel, may be
expressed as a percentage of frequency. At used to switch coils of different sizes into the
frequencies above 7000 kHz and with ordi- tuning circuits or, alternatively, coils of dif-
nary intermediate frequencies, the difference ferent sizes may be plugged manually into
in percentage between the two tuning ranges the receiver, the connection into the tuning
is so small that it may be disregarded in re- circuits being made by suitable plugs on the
ceivers designed to cover only a small range, coils. Where there are several plug -in coils
such as an amateur band. for each band, they are sometimes arranged
A mixer- and oscillator- tuning arrange- on a single mounting strip, allowing them all
ment in which a series tracking capacitor is to be plugged in simultaneously.
provided is shown in figure 12. The value of
the tracking capacitor varies considerably Bandspread In receivers using large tuning
Tuning capacitors to cover the short-
with different intermediate frequencies and
tuning ranges, capacitances as low as .0001 wave spectrum with a minimum
pfd being used at the lower tuning -range of coils, tuning is likely to be quite difficult,
frequencies, and values up to .01 pfd being owing to the large frequency range covered
used at the higher frequencies. by a small rotation of the variable capaci-
Superheterodyne receivers designed to tors. To alleviate this condition, some
cover only a single frequency range, such as method of slowing down the tuning rate, or
the standard broadcast band, sometimes ob- bandspreading, must be used.
tain tracking between the oscillator and the Quantitatively, bandspread is usually de-
r -f circuits by cutting the variable plates of signated as being inversely proportional to
the oscillator tuning section to a different the range covered. Thus, a large amount of
shape than those used to tune the r -f stages. bandspread indicates that a small frequency
range is covered by the bandspread control.
Frequency Ronge The frequency to which a Conversely, a small amount of bandspread is
Selection receiver responds may be taken to mean that a large frequency range
varied by changing the size is covered by the bandspread dial.
of either the coils or the capacitors in the
Types of Bandspreading systems are of
tuning circuits, or both. In short -wave re- Bandspread two general types: electrical and
mechanical. Mechanical systems
are exemplified by high -ratio dials in which
the tuning capacitors rotate much more
slowly than the dial knob. In this system,
there is often a separate scale or pointer
either connected or geared to the dial knob
to facilitate accurate dial readings. However,
there is a practical limit to the amount of
mechanical bandspread which can be ob-
tained in a dial and capacitor before the
speed- reduction unit and capacitor bearings
become prohibitively expensive. Hence, most
receivers employ a combination of electrical
Figure 13 and mechanical bandspread. In such a sys-
BANDSPREAD CIRCUITS tem, a moderate reduction in the tuning rate
is obtained in the dial, and the rest of the
Parallel bandspread is illustrated at (A) and
(I), series bandspread at (C), and tapped-coil reduction obtained by electrical bandspread-
band-spread at (D). ing.
206 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
Stray Circuit In this book and in other radio
Capacitance literature, mention is sometimes
actly what the name implies -a circuit for
passing a band of frequencies. Bandpass ar-
made of stray or circuit capaci- rangements can be designed for almost any
tance. This capacitance is in the usual sense degree of selectivity, the type used in any
defined as the capacitance remaining across particular case depending on the ultimate
a coil when all the tuning, bandspread, and application of the amplifier.
padding capacitors across the circuit are at
I-F Intermediate -frequency trans-
their minimum capacitance setting.
Transformers formers ordinarily consist of
Circuit capacitance can be attributed to
two general sources. One source is that due two or more tuned circuits
to the input and output capacitance of the and some method of coupling the tuned cir-
tube when its cathode is heated. The input cuits together. Some representative arrange-
capacitance varies somewhat from the static ments are shown in figure 14. The circuit
value when the tube is in actual operation. shown at A is the conventional i -f trans-
Such factors as plate load impedance, grid former, with the coupling (M) between the
bias, and frequency will cause a change in tuned circuits being provided by inductive
input capacitance. However, in all except coupling from one coil to the other. As the
the extremely high -transconductance tubes, coupling is increased, the selectivity curve
the published measured input capacitance is becomes less peaked, and when a condition
reasonably close to the effective value when known as critical coupling is reached, the
the tube is used within its recommended fre- top of the curve begins to flatten out. When
quency range. But in the high- transconduct- the coupling is increased still more, a dip
ance types the effective capacitance will occurs in the top of the curve.
vary considerably from the published figures The windings for this type of i -f trans-
as operating conditions are changed. former, as well as most others, nearly always
The second source of circuit capacitance, consist of small, flat universal -wound pies
and that which is more easily controllable, is mounted either on a piece of dowel to pro-
that contributed by the minimum capacit- vide an air core or on powdered ironfor iron -
ance of the variable capacitors across the cir- core i -f transformers. The iron -core trans-
cuit and that due to capacitance between formers generally have somewhat more gain
the wiring and ground. In well- designed and better selectivity than equivalent air -
high- frequency receivers, every effort is core units.
made to keep this portion of the circuit ca- The circuits shown at figure 14 -B and C
are quite similar. Their only difference is the
pacitance at a minimum since a large capac-
itance reduces the tuning range available type of mutual coupling used, an inductance
with a given coil and prevents a good LC being used at B and a capacitance at C. The
ratio, and consequently a high- impedance operation of both circuits is similar. Three
tund circuit, from being obtained. resonant circuits are formed by the com-
A good percentage of stray circuit ca- ponents. In B, for example, one resonant cir-
pacitance is due also to distributed capac- cuit is formed by L1, C1, C2, and L_ all in
itance of the coil and capacitance between series. The frequency of this resonant circuit
is just the same as that of a single one of the
wiring points and chassis.
Typical values of circuit capacitance may coils and capacitors, since the coils and ca-
run from 10 to 75 pf in high- frequency re- pacitors are similar in both sides of the cir-
ceivers, the first figure representing concen- cuit, and the resonant frequency of the two
tric -line receivers with nuvistor or miniature capacitors and the two coils all in series is
tubes and extremely small tuning capacitors, the same as that of a single coil and capaci-
and the latter representing all -wave sets with tor. The second resonant frequency of the
bandswitching, large tuning capacitors, and complete circuit is determined by the char-
conventional tubes. acteristics of each half of the circuit con-
taining the mutual coupling device. In B,
10-7 I -F Tuned Circuits this second frequency will be lower than the
first, since the resonant frequency of L1, C1,
I -f amplifiers usually employ bandpass cir- and inductance M; or L2, C2, and M is lower
cuits of some sort. A bandpass circuit is ex- than that of a single coil and capacitor, due

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I -F Tuned Circuits 207

to the inductance of M being added to the


circuit.
The opposite effect takes place at figure
14 -C, where the common coupling imped-
ance is a capacitor. Thus, at C the second
resonant frequency is higher than the first.
In either case, however, the circuit has two
resonant frequencies, resulting in a flat top-
ped selectivity curve. The width of the top
of the curve is controlled by the reactance of
the mutual coupling component. As this re-
actance is increased (inductance made great-
er, capacitance made smaller) , the two res-
onant frequencies become further apart and
the curve is broadened.
In the circuit of figure 14 -D, there is in-
ductive coupling between the center coil and
each of the outer coils. The result of this ar-
rangement is that the center coil acts as a
sharply tuned coupler between the other
two. A signal somewhat off the resonant
frequency of the transformer will not induce
as much current in the center coil as will a
signal of the correct frequency. When a
smaller current is induced in the center coil,
it in turn transfers a still smaller current to
the output coil. The effective coupling be-
tween the outer coils increases as the reso-
nant frequency is approached, and remains
nearly constant over a small range and then
decreases again as the resonant band is
passed.
Another very satisfactory bandpass ar-
rangement, which gives a very straight -
sided, flat - topped curve, is the negative mu-
tual arrangement shown at figure 14 -E.
Figure 14
Energy is transferred between the input and
output circuits in this arrangement by both I -F AMPLIFIER COUPLING
the negative mutual coils (M) and the com- ARRANGEMENTS
mon capacitive reactance (C). The negative The 1 n ago coupling arrangements illus-
mutual coils are interwound on the same trated above give a better shape factor (more
form, and connected backward. straight-sided selectivity curve) than would
the same number of tuned circuits coupled by
Transformers usually are made tunable means of tubes.
over a small range to permit accurate align-
ment in the circuit in which they are em-
iron core on a threaded rod to vary the in-
ployed. This is accomplished either by means
ductance, and are known as "permeability -
of a variable capacitor across a fixed in-
tuned."
ductance, or by means of a fixed capacitor
across a variable inductance. The former Shape Factor It
is obvious that to pass mod-
usually employ either a mica -compression ulation sidebands and to allow
capacitor (designated "mica- tuned "), or a for slight drifting of the transmitter carrier
small air -dielectric variable capacitor (des- frequency and the receiver local oscillator,
ignated "air- tuned ") Those which use a
. the i -f amplifier must pass not a single fre-
fixed capacitor usually employ a powdered- quency but a band of frequencies. The width
208 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
L C R

Figure 16
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF
QUARTZ FILTER CRYSTAL
The crystal is equivalent fo a very largo value
of inductance in series with small values of
capacitance and resistance across the whole
circuit (rep ing holder capacitance plus
stray capacitances).

Q is lowered, closer coupling will be required


Figure 15
for critical coupling.
I -F PASSBAND OF TYPICAL Conversely if the passband is too broad,
COMMUNICATIONS coils of higher Q should be employed, the
coupling being maintained at critical. If the
passband is made more narrow by using
of this passband, usually 5 to 8 kHz at looser coupling instead of raising the Q and
maximum width in a good communications maintaining critical coupling, the shape
receiver, is known as the passband, and is factor will not be as good.
arbitrarily taken as the width between the The passband will not be much narrower
two frequencies at which the response is at- for several pairs of identical, critically cou-
tenuated 6 db, or is "6 db down." How- pled tuned circuits than for a single pair.
ever, it is apparent that to discriminate However, the shape factor will be greatly
against an interfering signal which is strong- improved as each additional pair is added, up
er than the desired signal, much more than to about f pairs, beyond which the improve-
6 db attenuation is required. The attenua-
ment for each additional pair is not signifi-
tion commonly chosen to indicate adequate
cant. Commercially available communica-
discrimination against an interfering signal tions receivers of good quality normally em-
is 60 db. ploy 3 or 4 double -tuned transformers with
It is apparent that it is desirable to have coupling adjusted to critical or slightly less.
the bandwidth at 60 db down as narrow as The passband of a typical communication
possible, but it must be done without mak-
receiver having a 455 -kHz i -f amplifier is
ing the passband (6 -db points) too narrow
shown in figure 15.
for -satisfactory reception of the desired sig-
nal. The figure of merit used to show the Miller As mentioned previously, the dynam-
ratio of bandwidth at 6 db down to that at Effect is input capacitance of a tube var-
60 db down is designated as shape factor. The ies slightly with bias. As avc voltage
ideal i -f curve (a rectangle), would have normally is applied to i -f tubes for radiotele-
a shape factor of 1.0. The i -f shape factor in phone reception, the effective grid -cathode
typical communications receivers runs from capacitance varies as the signal strength
2.0 to 5.5. varies, which produces the same effect as
The most practical method of obtaining slight detuning of the i -f transformer. This
a low shape factor for a given number of effect is known as Miller effect, and can
tuned circuits is to employ them in pairs, as be minimized to the extent that it is not
in figure 14 -A, adjusted to critical coupling troublesome either by using a fairly low LC
(the value at which two resonance points just ratio in the transformers or by incorporating
begin to become apparent) . If this gives a small amount of degenerative feedback,
too sharp a nose or passband, then coils of the latter being most easily accomplished
lower Q should be employed, with the cou- by leaving part of the cathode resistor un-
pling maintained at the critical value. As the bypassed for radio frequencies.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I -F Filters 209

CRYSTAL
O -
7 SELECTIVITY
CONTROL

PH SIING
CONTROL

Figure 17 Figure 18

EQUIVALENT OF CRYSTAL TYPICAL CRYSTAL FILTER CIRCUIT


FILTER CIRCUIT
For a given voltage out of the generator, the ance of X, which has a very sharp resonance
voltage developed across Z depends on the curve.
the impedances of i
ratio of the impedance of X to the sum of
and Z,. B of the
high Q of the crystal, its impedance changes
If the impedance of Z plus Z1 is made
high compared to the resonant impedance of
rapidly with changes in frequency. X, then there will be no appreciable drop in
voltage across Z1 as the frequency departs
Crystal Filters The passband of an interme- from the resonant frequency of X until the
diate- frequency amplifier may point is reached where the impedance of X
be made very narrow through the use of a approaches that of Z plus Z1. This has the
piezoelectric crystal filter employed as a effect of broadening out the curve of fre-
series- resonant circuit in a bridge arrange- quency versus voltage developed across Z,,
ment known as a crystal filter. The shape which is another way of saying that the se-
factor is quite poor, as would be expected lectivity of the crystal filter (but not the
when the selectivity is obtained from the crystal proper) has been reduced.
equivalent of a single tuned circuit, but the In practical filter circuits the imped-
very narrow passband obtainable as a result ances Z and Z, usually are represented by
of the extremely high Q of the crystal makes some form of tuned circuit, but the basic
the crystal filter useful for c -w telegraphy principle of operation is the same.
reception. The passband of a 455 -kHz crys- Practical Filters It is necessary to balance out
tal filter may be made as narrow as 50 Hz the capacitance across the
while the narrowest passband that can be ob- crystal holder (C1 in figure 16) to prevent
tained with a 455-kHz tuned circuit of bypassing around the crystal undesired sig-
practical dimensions is about S kHz. nals off the crystal resonant frequency. The
The electrical equivalent of a filter crystal balancing is done by a phasing circuit which
is shown in figure 16. For a given frequency, takes out -of -phase voltage from a balanced
L is very high, C very low, and R (assuming input circuit and passes it to the output side
a good crystal of high Q) is very low. Ca- of the crystal in proper phase to neutralize
pacitance C, represents the shunt capaci- that passed through the holder capacitance.
tance of the electrodes, plus the crystal A representative practical filter arrangement
holder and wiring, and is many times the is shown in figure 18. The balanced input
capacitance of C. This makes the crystal act circuit may be obtained either through the
as a parallel- resonant circuit with a frequen- use of a split- stator capacitor as shown, or
cy only slightly higher than that of its fre- by the use of a center -tapped input coil.
quency of series resonance. For crystal filter
use it is the series- resonant characteristic Variable -Selec- In the circuit of figure 18,
that we are primarily interested in. tivity Filters the selectivity is minimum
The electrical equivalent of the basic crys- with the crystal input cir-
tal filter circuit is shown in figure 17. If the cuit tuned to resonance, since at resonance
impedance of Z plus Z, is low compared to the impedance of the tuned circuit is maxi-
the impedance of the crystal (X) at reso- mum. As the input circuit is detuned from
nance, then the current flowing through Z,, resonance, however, the impedance decreases,
and the voltage developed across it, will be and the selectivity becomes greater. In this
almost in inverse proportion to the imped- circuit, the output from the crystal filter is
210 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO

SELECTIVITY

Figure 19
CONTROL

r CRYSTAL NOTCH

VARIABLE SELECTIVITY
CRYSTAL FILTER 8
J
40

This circuit permits o greater control of 4


selectivity than does the circuit of figure 18, u
and does not require o split- stator variable
capacitor.
-4 -3 -2 -I 455 +1 +2 +S +4
kHz

tapped down on the i -f stage grid winding Figure 20


to provide a low value of series impedance in
the output circuit. It will be recalled that I -F PASSBAND OF TYPICAL
for maximum selectivity, the total imped- CRYSTAL FILTER
ance in series with the crystal (both input COMMUNICATION RECEIVER
and output circuits) must be low. If one is
made low and the other is made variable, Rejection As previously discussed, a filter
then the selectivity may be varied at will Notch crystal has both a resonant (series -
from sharp to broad. resonant) and an antiresonant
The circuit shown in figure 19 also achieves (parallel-resonant) frequency -the imped-
variable selectivity by adding a variable im- ance of the crystal being quite low at the
pedance in series with the crystal circuit. In former frequency, and quite high at the
this case, the variable impedance is in series latter frequency. The antiresonant frequency
with the crystal output circuit. The imped- is just slightly higher than the resonant fre-
ance of the output circuit is varied by vary- quency, the difference depending on the ef-
ing the Q. As the Q is reduced (by adding fective shunt capacitance of the filter crystal
resistance in series with the coil), the im- and holder. As adjustment of the phasing ca-
pedance decreases and the selectivity becomes pacitor controls the effective shunt capaci-
greater. The input circuit impedance is made tance of the crystal, it is possible to vary the
low by using a nonresonant secondary on the antiresonant frequency of the crystal slightly
input transformer. without unbalancing the circuit sufficiently
A variation of the circuit shown at figure to let undesired signals leak through the
19 consists of placing the variable resistance shunt capacitance in appreciable amplitude.
across the coil and capacitor, rather than in At the exact antiresonant frequency of the
series with them. The result of adding the crystal the attenuation is exceedingly high
resistor is a reduction of the output imped- because of the high impedance of the crystal
ance, and an increase in selectivity. The cir- at this frequency. This is called the rejection
cuit behaves oppositely to that of figure 19, notch, and can be utilized to virtually elimi-
however; as the resistance is lowered the nate the heterodyne image or repeat tuning
selectivity becomes greater. Still another of c -w signals. The beat -frequency oscillator
variation of figure 19 is to use the tuning can be so adjusted and the phasing capacitor
capacitor across the output coil to vary the so adjusted that the desired beat note is of
output impedance. As the output circuit is such a pitch that the image (the same audio
detuned from resonance, its impedance is note on the other side of zero beat) falls in
lowered, and the selectivity increases. Some- the rejection notch and is inaudible. The re-
times a set of fixed capacitors and a multi - ceiver then is said to be adjusted for single-
point switch are used to give step -by -step signal operation.
variation of the output circuit tuning, and The rejection notch sometimes can be em-
thus of the crystal filter selectivity. ployed to reduce interference from an un-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK I -F Filters 211

desired phone signal which is very close in ical vibration travels through the resonant
frequency to a desired phone signal. The mechanical section to the output transducer,
filter is adjusted to "broad" so as to permit where it is converted by magnetostriction to
telephone reception, and the receiver tuned an electrical signal which appears at the out-
so that the carrier frequency of the un- put terminals.
desired signal falls in the rejection notch. In order to provide the most efficient elec-
The modulation sidebands of the undesired tromechanical coupling, a small magnet in
signal still will come through, but the car- the mounting above each transducer applies
rier heterodyne will be effectively eliminated a magnetic bias to the nickel transducer core.
and interference greatly reduced. The electrical impulses then add to or sub-
A typical crystal selectivity curve for a tract from this magnetic bias, causing vibra-
communications receiver is shown in fig- tion of the filter elements which corresponds
ure 20. to the exciting signal. There is no mechani-
cal motion except for the imperceptible
Crystal Filter A crystal filter, especially vibration of the metal discs.
Considerations when adjusted for single - Magnetostrictively driven mechanical fil-
signal reception, greatly re- ters have several advantages over electrical
duces interference and background noise, the equivalents. In the region from 100 kHz to
latter feature permitting signals to be copied 500 kHz, the mechanical elements are ex-
that would ordinarily be too weak to be heard tremely small, and a mechanical filter having
above the background hiss. However, when better selectivity than the best of conven-
the filter is adjusted for maximum selectiv- tional i -f systems may be enclosed in a
ity, the passband is so narrow that the re- package smaller than one i -f transformer.
ceived signal must have a high order of sta- Since mechanical elements with Q's of
bility in order to stay within the passband. 5000 or more are readily obtainable, mechan-
Likewise, the local oscillator in the receiver ical filters may be designed in accord with
must be highly stable, or constant retuning the theory for lossless elements. This permits
will be required. Another effect that will be characteristics to be achieved that are unob-
noticed with the filter adjusted too "sharp" tainable with electrical circuits because of
is a tendency for code characters to produce the relatively high losses in electrical ele-
a ringing sound, and have a hangover or
"tails." This effect limits the code speed that
can be copied satisfactorily when the filter
is adjusted for extreme selectivity.
The Mechanical The Collins Mechanical Fil-
Filter ter (figure 21) is a new con-
cept in the field of selectivi-
ty. It is an electromechanical bandpass filter
about half the size of a cigarette package.
As shown in figure 22, it consists of an input
transducer, a resonant mechanical section
comprised of a number of metal discs, and y
an output transducer.
The frequency characteristics of the reso-
nant mechanical section provide the almost
rectangular selectivity curves shown in figure
23. The input and output transducers serve
`'/, G$/m/'%9v ,"

Figure 21
S'''"
0.., ,
only as electrical -to- mechanical coupling de- COLLINS MECHANICAL FILTERS
vices and do not affect the selectivity char-
The Collins Mechanical filter is an electro-
acteristics which are determined by the mechanical bandpass Alter which surpasses, In
metal discs. An electrical signal applied to one small unit, the selectivity of conventional,
the input terminals is converted into a me- space-consuming Alters. At the loft is the
miniaturized Alter, less than 21/4" long. A
chanical vibration at the input transducer vertical design is next, and two horizontal
by means of magnetostriction. This mechan- mounting types are at right.
212

DISC AT
EACH END

Adiek.L,

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
DRIVING ROD

ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
(INPUT OR OUTPUT)
r
Radio Receiver Fundamentals

ONE SUPPORTING

RESONANT MECHANICAL SECTION


(! RESONANT DISCS)

AT/AV/WANWW1'
1
/

COIL
COUPLING RODS

RIAS MAGNET

RANSDUCER

ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
(INPUT OR OUTPUT)
THE RADIO

Figure 24

VARIABLE-OUTPUT BFO CIRCUIT


A beat -frequency oscillator whose output is
Figure 22 controllable is of considerable assistance in
copying c -w signals ever a wide range of
MECHANICAL FILTER levels, and such a control is often employed
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM for satisfactory copying of single-sideband
signals.

ments compared to the loss of mechanical


elements used in the filters. spurious modes of transmission through the
The frequency characteristics of the me- filter and produce minor passbands at fre-
chanical filter are permanent, and no ad- quencies outside the primary passband. De-
justment is required or is possible. The filter sign of the filter reduces these subbands to a
is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case.
low level and removes them from the im-
In order to realize full benefit from the mediate area of the major passband. Two
mechanical filter's selectivity characteristics, conventional i-f transformers supply in-
it is necessary to provide shielding between creased attenuation to these spurious re-
the external input and output circuits, ca- sponses, and are sufficient to reduce them to
pable of reducing transfer of energy external an insignificant level.
to the filter by a minimum value of 100 db. Boat-Frequency The beat-frequency oscilla-
If the input circuit is allowed to couple Oscillators tor, usually called the bfo,
energy into the output circuit external to is a necessary adjunct for re-
the filter, the excellent skirt selectivity will ception of c -w or SSB signals on super -
deteriorate and the passband characteristics heterodynes which have no other provision
will be distorted. for obtaining modulation of an incoming
As with almost any mechanically resonant c -w or SSB signal. The oscillator is cou-
circuit, elements of the mechanical filter pled into or just ahead of the second detector
have multiple resonances. These result in circuit and supplies a signal of nearly the
same frequency as that of the desired signal
from the i -f amplifier. If the i -f amplifier is
tuned to 455 kHz, for example, the bfo is
tuned to approximately 454 or 456 kHz to
produce an audible (1000 -Hz) beat note in
the output of the second detector of the re-
ceiver. The carrier signal itself is, of course,
inaudible. The bfo is not used for a -m re-
ception, except as an aid in searching for
weak stations.
The bfo input to the second detector need
only be sufficient to give a good beat note on
an average signal. Too much coupling into
the second detector will give an excessively
-4 -3 -2 -I 433 H
kHz
2 +3 1 high hiss level, masking weak signals by the
Figure 23 high noise background.
Selectivity curves of 455 -kHz mochanlcal Alters
Figure 24 shows a method of manually ad-
with nominal 0.8-kHz (dotted line) and 3.1- justing the bfo output to correspond with
kHz (solid line) bandwidth at -6 db. the strength of received signals. This type

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 213

1F STAGE
(- AUDIO changed, as the latter circuits usually change
the frequency of the bfo at the same time
they change the strength, making it nec-
essary to reset the trimmer each time the
5+ e+ output is adjusted.
The bfo usually is provided with a small
OA GRID -LEAK DETECTOR
trimmer which is adjustable from the front
IF STAGE DET. panel to permit adjustment over a range of S
or 10 kHz. For single -signal reception the
bfo always is adjusted to the high- frequency
side, in order to permit placing the hetero-
dyne image in the rejection notch.
In order to reduce the bfo signal output
voltage to a reasonable level which will pre-
AUDIO vent blocking the second detector, the signal
voltage is delivered through a low- capaci-
tance (high- reactance) capacitor having a
OB DIODE DETECTOR value of 1 to 10 -pf.
Care must be taken with the bfo to pre-
vent harmonics of the oscillator from being
AUDIO
picked up at multiples of the bfo frequency.
The complete bfo together with the coupling
circuits to the second detector, should be
thoroughly shielded to prevent pickup of the
harmonics by the input end of the receiver.
If bfo harmonics still have a tendency to
PLATE DETECTOR give trouble after complete shielding and
isolation of the bfo circuit has been accom-
plished, the passage of these harmonics from
I -P STAGE DET.
the bfo circuit to the rest of the receiver can
be stopped through the use of a low -pass
filter in the lead between the output of the
bfo circuit and the point on the receiver
where the bfo signal is to be injected.

10 -8 Detector, Audio, and


INFINITE- IMPEDANCE DETECTOR Control Circuits
Figure 25 Detectors Second detectors for use in super -
TYPICAL CIRCUITS FOR GRID -LEAK,
heterodynes are usually of the di-
DIODE, PLATE AND INFINITE IMPED- ode, plate, or infinite- impedance types. Oc-
ANCE DETECTOR STAGES casionally, grid -leak detectors are used in
receivers using one i -f stage or none at all,
in which case the second detector usually is
of variable bfo output control is a useful made regenerative.
adjunct to any superheterodyne, since it al- Diodes make a practical second detec-
lows sufficient bfo output to be obtained to tor because they allow a simple method of
beat with strong signals or to allow single - obtaining automatic volume control to be
sideband reception and at the same time used. Diodes load the tuned circuit to which
permits the bfo output, and consequently they are connected, however, and thus re-
the hiss, to be reduced when attempting to duce the selectivity slightly. Special i -f
receive weak signals. The circuit shown is transformers are used for the purpose of pro-
somewhat better than those in which one of viding a low- impedance input circuit to the
the electrode voltages on the bfo tube is diode detector.
214 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO

Figure 26

TYPICAL AVC CIRCUIT USING A DOUBLE DIODE


Any of the small dual -diode tubes may be used in this circuit. Or, if desired, a duodiode-triode
may be used, with the triode acting as the first audio stage. The left -hand diode serves as the
detector, while the right -hand side acts as the avc rectifier. The use of separate diodes for
detector and ave reduces distortion when receiving an amplitude-modulated signal with a high
modulation percentage.

Typical circuits for grid -leak, diode, plate Even with the circuit shown, a -c loading
and infinite- impedance detectors are shown can occur unless a very high (S megohms, or
in figure 25. more) value of grid resistor is used in the
Automatic Vol- following audio amplifier stage.
The elements of an automat-
ume Control ic volume control (avc) sys- AVC in In receivers having a beat -
tem are shown in figure 26. BFO Equipped frequency oscillator for the
A dual -diode tube is used as a combination Receivers reception of c -w or SSB
diode detector and avc rectifier. The left - signals, the use of avc can
hand diode operates as a simple rectifier in result in a great loss in sensitivity when the
the manner described earlier in this chapter. bfo is switched on. This is because the beat -
Audio voltage, superimposed on a d -c volt- oscillator output acts exactly like a strong
age, appears across the 500,000-ohm potenti- received signal, and causes the avc circuit to
ometer (the volume control) and the .0001- put high bias on the r -f and i -f stages, thus
pfd capacitor, and is passed on to the audio greatly reducing the receiver's sensitivity.
amplifier. The right -hand diode receives sig- Due to the above effect, it is necessary to
nal voltage directly from the primary of the either isolate the avc voltage or make the avc
last i -f amplifier, and acts as the avc recti- circuit inoperative when the bfo is being
fier. The pulsating d -c voltage across the used. The simplest method of eliminating the
1- megohm avc -diode load resistor is filtered avc action is to short the avc line to ground
by a 500,000-ohm resistor and a .0 S - tfd when the bfo is turned on. A two -circuit
capacitor, and is applied as bias to the grids of switch may be used for the dual purpose of
the r -f and i -f amplifier tubes; an increase or turning on the beat oscillator and shorting
decrease in signal strength will cause a corre- out the avc if desired.
sponding increase or decrease in avc bias
voltage, and thus the gain of the receiver is Signal- StrengthVisual means for determin-
automatically adjusted to compensate for Indicators ing whether or not the re-
changes in signal strength. ceiver is properly tuned, as
well as an indication of the relative signal
A -C Loading of By disassociating the avc and strength, are both provided by means of
Second Detector detecting functions through tuning indicators (S meters) of the meter
the use of separate diodes, as or vacuum -tube type. A d -c milliammeter
shown, most of the ill effects of a -c shunt can be connected in the plate -supply circuit
loading on the detector diode are avoided. of one or more r -f or i -f amplifiers, as shown
This type of loading causes serious distor- in figure 27A, so that the change in plate
tion, and the additional components required current, due to the action of the avc volt-
to eliminate it are well worth their cost. age, will be indicated on the instrument.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK AVC Circuits 215

R I.F I.F shown in the drawing is used to adjust the


meter reading to full scale with no signal
input to the receiver.
When an ordinary meter is used in the
plate circuit of a stage, for the purpose of
indicating signal strength, the meter reads
backwards with respect to strength. This is
because increased avc bias on stronger signals
causes lower plate current through the meter.
For this reason, special meters which indicate
RFaLF zero at the right -hand end of the scale are
often used for signal- strength indicators in

Lac
commercial receivers using this type of
circuit. Alternatively, the meter may be
mounted upside down, so that the needle
moves toward the right with increased
0-1 D
strength.
The circuit of figure 27B can frequently
be used to advantage in a receiver where the
R. F or I. F cathode of one of the r -f or i -f amplifier
stages runs directly to ground through the
cathode -bias resistor instead of running
O-1 D.C- through a cathode -voltage gain control. In
this case a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter in con-
junction with a resistor of 1000 to 3000
ohms can be used as shown as a signal -
470
strength meter. With this circuit the meter
will read backwards with increasing signal
6U5/6G5
Q OR 6E5 strength as in the circuit previously dis-
cussed.
TO AVC
Figure 27C is the circuit of a forward -
reading S meter often used in communi-
+20v cations receivers. The instrument is used in
an unbalanced bridge circuit with the d -c
Figure 27 plate resistance of one i -f tube as one leg
of the bridge and with resistors for the other
SIGNAL -STRENGTH METER CIRCUITS three legs. The value of resistor R must be
Shown above are four circuits for obtaining a determined by trial and error and will be
signal -strength reading which is a function of somewhere in the vicinity of 50,000 ohms.
incoming carrier amplitude. The circuits are
di d in the accompanying text. Sometimes the screen circuits of the r -f and
i -f stages are taken from this point along

The d -c instrument (MA) should have a with the screen- circuit voltage divider.
full -scale reading approximately equal to Electron -ray tubes (sometimes called mag-
the total plate current taken by the stage or ic eyes) can also be used as indicators of
stages whose plate current passes through relative signal strength in a circuit similar to
the instrument. The value of this current that shown in figure 27D. A 6U5/6G5 tube
can be estimated by assuming a plate current should be used where the avc voltage will be
on each stage (with no signal input to the from 5 to 20 volts and a type 6E5 tube
receiver) of about 6 ma. However, it will should be used when the avc voltage will run
be found to be more satisfactory to measure from 2 to 8 volts.
the actual plate current on the stages with a Audio Amplifiers Audio amplifiers are em-
milliammeter of perhaps 0 -100 ma full scale ployed in nearly all radio
before purchasing an instrument for use receivers. The audio amplifier stage or stages
as an S meter. The 50-ohm potentiometer are usually of the class -A type, although
216 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
class -AB push -pull stages are used in some There are two principal methods for re-
receivers. The purpose of the audio amplifier ducing this noise. They are:
is to bring the relatively weak signal from
the detector up to a strength sufficient to (1) line filters at the source of inter-
a -c
operate a pair of headphones or a loudspeak- ference, if the noise is created by an
er. Either triodes, pentodes, or beam tetrodes electrical appliance; and
may be used, the pentodes and beam tetrodes (2) noise -limiting circuits for the reduc-
usually giving greater output. In some re- tion, in the receiver itself, of inter-
ceivers, particularly those employing grid ference of the type caused by auto-
leak detection, it is possible to operate the mobile ignition systems.
headphones directly from the detector, with-
Power Line Many household appliances, such
out audio amplification. In such receivers, a
Filters as electric mixers, heating pads,
single audio stage with a beam tetrode or
pentode tube is ordinarily used to drive the vacuum cleaners, refrigerators,
loudspeaker. oil burners, sewing machines, doorbells, etc.,
Most communications receivers, either create an interference of an intermittent na-
home -constructed or factory -made, have a ture. The insertion of a line filter near the
single -ended beam tetrode such as a 6V6 or source of interference often will effect a
6AQS in the audio output stage feeding the complete cure. Filters for small appliances
speaker. If precautions are not taken such a can consist of a 0.1 -fd capacitor connected
stage will actually bring about a decrease in across the 120 -volt a -c line. Two capacitors
the effective signal -to -noise ratio of the re- in series across the line, with the midpoint
ceiver due to the rising high- frequency char- connected to ground, can be used in con-
acteristic of such a stage when feeding a junction with industrial heating machines,
speaker. One way of improving this condi- refrigerators, oil- burner furnaces, and other
tion is to place a mica or paper capacitor of more stubborn offenders. In severe cases of
approximately 0.003 /lid capacitance across interference, additional filters in the form of
the primary of the output transformer. The heavy -duty r -f choke coils must be con-
use of a capacitor in this manner tends to nected in series with the 120 -volt a -c line on
make the load impedance seen by the plate both sides of the line right at the interfering
of the output tube more constant over the appliance.
audio- frequency range. The speaker and
transformer will tend to present a rising im-
Peak Noise Numerous noise- limiting circuits
Limiters which are beneficial in overcom-
pedance to the tube as the frequency in-
creases, and the parallel capacitor will tend
ing key clicks, automobile igni-
to make the total impedance more constant tion interference, and similar noise impulses
since it will tend to present a decreasing have become popular. They operate on the
impedance with increasing audio frequency. principle that each individual noise pulse is
A still better way to improve the fre-
of very short duration, yet of very high
quency characteristic of the output stage, amplitude. The popping or clicking type of
noise from electrical ignition systems may
and at the same time reduce the harmonic
produce a signal having a peak value ten to
distortion, is to use shunt feedback from the
plate of the output tube to the plate of a twenty times as great as the incoming radio
tube such as a 6AU6 acting as an audio - signal, but an average power much less than
the signal.
amplifier stage ahead of the output stage.
As the duration of this type of noise peak
10-9 Noise Suppression is short, the receiver can be made inoperative
during the noise pulse without the human
The problem of noise suppression confronts ear detecting the total loss of signal. Some
the listener who is located in places where noise limiters actually punch a hole in the
interference from power lines, electrical ap- signal while others merely limit the maxi-
pliances, and automobile ignition systems is mum peak signal which reaches the head -
troublesome. This noise is often of such in- phones or speaker.
tensity as to swamp out signals from desired The noise peak is of such short duration
stations. that it would not be objectionable except for

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 217

iST DET. IST I. i. 2ND I.T. silencer circuit. The i -f signal is fed into a
6BE6
double -grid tube, such as a 6BE6, and thence
into the i -f chain. A 6BJ6 high -gain pent-
ode is capacity coupled to the input of the
i -f system. This auxiliary tube amplifies
both signal and noise that is fed to it. It has
a maximum of selectivity ahead of it so that
it receives the true noise pulse before it is
degraded by the i -f strip. A broadly tuned
i -f transformer is used to couple the noise
amplifier to a 6AL5 noise rectifier. The gain
of the noise amplifier is controlled by a po-
tentiometer in the cathode of the 6BJ6
noise amplifier. This potentiometer controls
the gain of the noise amplifier stage and in
addition sets the bias level on the 6AL5
diode so that the incoming signal will not be
rectified. Only noise peaks louder than the
signal can overcome the resting bias of the
6AL5 and cause it to conduct. A noise pulse
Figure 28 rectified by the 6AL5 is applied as a nega-
tive voltage to the control grid of the 6BE6
THE LAMB I -F NOISE SILENCER
i -f tube, disabling the tube, and punching

a hole in the signal at the instant of


the fact that it produces an overloading ef- the noise pulse. By varying the bias con-
fect on the receiver, which increases its time trol of the noise limiter, the negative con-
constant. A sharp voltage peak will give a trol voltage applied to the 6BE6 may be ad-
kick to the diaphragm of the headphones or justed until it is barely sufficient to over-
speaker, and the momentum or inertia keeps come the noise impulses applied to the #1
the diaphragm in motion until the damping control grid without allowing the modula-
of the diaphragm stops it. This move- tion peaks of the carrier to become badly
ment produces a popping sound which may distorted.
completely obliterate the desired signal. If
the noise pulse can be limited to a peak am- The Bishop Another effective i -f noise
plitude equal to that of the desired signal, Noise Limiter limiter is the Bishop limiter.
the resulting interference is practically neg- This is a full -wave shunt type
ligible for moderately low repetition rates, diode limiter applied to the primary of the
such as ignition noise. last i -f transformer of a receiver. The lim-
In addition, the i -f amplifier of the receiv- iter is self- biased and automatically adjusts
er will also tend to lengthen the duration of itself to the degree of modulation of the re-
the noise pulses because the relatively high -Q ceived signal. The schematic of this limiter
i -f tuned circuits will ring or oscillate when is shown in figure 29. The bias- circuit time
excited by a sharp pulse, such as is produced
by ignition noise. The most effective noise LAST I.i.
limiter would be placed before the high -Q
i -f tuned circuits. At this point the noise
pulse is the sharpest and has not been de-
graded by passage through the i -f transform-
ers. In addition, the pulse is eliminated be-
fore it can produce ringing effects in the i -f
chain. er

The Lamb An i -f noise limiter is shown Figure 29


Noise Limiter in figure 28. This is an adap-
tation of the Lamb noise THE BISHOP I -F NOISE LIMITER
218 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
constant is determined by C1 and the shunt drift and instability). Therefore, they are
resistance, which consists of R1 and R3 in capable of better peak noise suppression than
series. The plate resistance of the last i -f a standard communications receiver having
tube and the capacity of C1 determine the an i -f bandwidth of perhaps 8 kHz. Like-
charging rate of the circuit. The limiter is wise, when a crystal filter is used on the
disabled by opening S1, which allows the bias "sharp" position an a -f peak limiter is of
to rise to the value of the i -f signal. little benefit.
Audio Noise Some of the simplest and most Practical Noise limiters range all the
Limiters practical peak limiters for ra- Peak Noise way from an audio stage
diotelephone reception employ Limiter Circuits running at very low screen
one or two diodes either as shunt or series or plate voltage, to elaborate
limiters in the audio system of the receiver. affairs employing 5 or more tubes. Rather
When a noise pulse exceeds a certain pre- than attempt to show the numerous types,
determined threshold value, the limiter diode many of which are quite complex consider-
acts either as a short or open circuit, depend- ing the results obtained, only two very
ing on whether it is used in a shunt or series similar types will be described. Either is
circuit. The threshold is made to occur at a just about as effective as the most elaborate
level high enough that it will not clip modu- limiter that can be constructed, yet requires
lation peaks enough to impair voice intelligi- the addition of but a single diode and a few
bility, but low enough to limit the noise resistors and capacitors over what would be
peaks effectively. employed in a good superheterodyne without
Because the action of the peak limiter is a limiter. Both circuits, with but minor
needed most on very weak signals, and these modifications in resistance and capacitance
usually are not strong enough to produce values, are incorporated in one form or an-
proper avc action, a threshold setting that is other in different types of factory -built com-
correct for a strong phone signal is not munications receivers.
correct for optimum limiting on very weak Referring to figure 30, the first circuit
signals. For this reason the threshold control shows a conventional superheterodyne second
is often tied in with the avc system so as detector, avc, and firsi audio stage with the
to make the optimum threshold adjustment addition of one tube element (D3) which
automatic instead of manual. may be either a separate diode or part of a
Suppression of impulse noise by means of twin -diode as illustrated. Diode D3 acts as a
an audio peak limiter is best accomplished at series gate, allowing audio to reach the grid
the very front end of the audio system, and of the a -f tube only so long as the diode is
for this reason the function of a superheter- conducting. The diode is biased by a d -c
odyne second detector and limiter often are voltage obtained in the same manner as avc
combined in a composite circuit. control voltage, the bias being such that
The amount of limiting that can be ob- pulses of short duration no longer conduct
tained is a function of the audio distortion when the pulse voltage exceeds the carrier by
that can be tolerated. Because excessive dis- approximately 60 percent. This also clips
tortion will reduce the intelligibility as much voice modulation peaks, but not enough to
as will background noise, the degree of impair intelligibility.
limiting for which the circuit is designed has It is apparent that the series diode clips
to be a compromise. only positive modulation peaks, by limiting
upward modulation to about 60 percent.
Peak noise limiters working at the second
Negative or downward peaks are limited
detector are much more effective when the automatically to 100 percent in the detector,
i -f bandwidth of the receiver is broad, be-
because obviously the rectified voltage out of
cause a sharp i -f amplifier will lengthen the the diode detector cannot be less than zero.
pulses by the time they reach the second Limiting the downward peaks to 60 percent
detector, making the limiter less effective. or so instead of 100 percent would result in
Vhf superheterodynes have an i -f bandwidth but little improvement in noise reduction,
considerably wider than the minimum nec- and the results do not justify the additional
essary for voice sidebands (to take care of components required.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 219

VI V2
LAST -/TUBE
1 irr 6146,6AL5,ETC. o,r AUDIO
C,-0.1 -fd paper
C, -50-pf mica
Ci-1 00-pf mica
C,, C6 -0.01 -pfd paper
R,, R= 1 meg, t/2 watt
R,, R.-220,000 ohms,
1/2 watt
miss,
1/2 watt
R, -2 -meg potentiometer
=c4

Figure 30

NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT, WITH ASSOCIATED AVC


This limiter is of the series type, and is self-adjusting to carrier strength for phone reception.
For proper operation I volts should be developed across the secondary of the last i -f trans-
former (IFT) under carrier conditions.

It is important that the exact resistance Note that the return for the volume con-
values shown be used, for best results, and trol must be made to the cathode of the de-
that 10- percent tolerance resistors be used tector diode (and not to ground) when a
for R, and R4. Also, the rectified carrier dual tube is used as combined second -de-
voltage developed across C, should be at least tector first -audio. This means that in the cir-
f volts for good limiting. cuit shown in figure 31 a connection will
The limiter will work well on c -w and exist across the points where the "X" is
SSB if the amplitude of beat- frequency shown on the diagram since a common
oscillator injection is not too high. Variable cathode lead is brought out of the tube for
injection is to be preferred, adjustable from D, and V,. If desired, of course, a single
the front panel. If this feature is not pro- dual diode may be used for D, and D_ in
vided, the bfo injection should be reduced to this circuit as well as in the circuit of figure
the lowest value that will give a satisfactory 30. Switching the limiter in and out with
beat. When this is done, effective limiting the switch S brings about no change in vol-
and a good beat can be obtained by proper ume.
adjustment of the r -f and a -f gain controls. In any diode limiter circuit such as the
It is assumed, of course, that the avc is cut ones shown in these two figures it is im-
out of the circuit for c -w telegraphy re- portant that the mid -point of the heater
ception. potential for the noise -limiter diode be as
close to ground potential as possible. This
Alternative The circuit of figure 31 is means that the center -tap of the heater sup-
Limiter Circuit more effective than that
ply for the tubes should be grounded wher-
shown in figure 30 under cer-
ever possible rather than grounding one side
tain conditions and requires the addition of of the heater supply as is often done. Diffi-
only one more resistor and one more capaci- culty with hum pickup in the limiter circuit
tor than the other circuit. Also, this circuit may be encountered when one side of the
involves a smaller loss in output level than
heater is grounded due to the high values of
the circuit of figure 30. This circuit can be
resistance necessary in the limiter circuit.
used with equal effectiveness with a com-
The circuit of figure 31 has been used
bined diode- triode or diode- pentode tube
(6AT6, 6BN8, 6FM8, or similar diode -tri- with excellent success in several home -con-
odes, or 6AS8, 6CR6, 6BW8, or similar structed receivers. It is also used in certain
diode -pentodes) as diode detector and first manufactured receivers.
audio stage. However, a separate diode must An excellent check on the operation of
be used for the noise limiter (D_). This the noise limiter in any communications re-
diode may be one-half of a 6H6, or 6AL5, ceiver can be obtained by listening to the
etc.; it may be a triode connected 6J5, 6C4, Loran signals in the 160 -meter band. With
or similar type, or it may be a high back - the limiter out a sharp rasping buzz will be
resistance diode (1N65 8) , or equivalent. obtained when one of these stations is tuned
220 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
This circuit is of the self -ad-
justing type and gives less
distortion for a given degree
of modulation than the more
common limiter circuits.
R1, R,-070K, '/2 watt
R3-100K, /2 watt
Ro, R,-1 meg, /2 watt
5.-2 -meg potentiometer
C,- 0.00025 mica (approx.)
C, -0.01 -fd paper
C, -0.01 -fd paper
C, -0.01 -fd paper
D,, D, -6116, 6AL5, diode
sections of a 6T6, or
crystal diodes.

Figure 31

ALTERNATIVE NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT

in. With the noise limiter switched into the pedance from an ordinary coil and capacitor
circuit the buzz should be greatly reduced used as a resonant circuit. On the other
and a low- pitched hum should be heard. hand, quarter -wavelength sections of parallel
conductors or concentric transmission line
The Full -Wave The most satisfactory diode are not only more efficient but also become
Limiter noise limiter is the series full - of practical dimensions.
wave limiter, shown in figure
32. The positive noise peaks are clipped by Tuning Tubes and tuning capacitors
diode A, the clipping level of which may be Short Lines connected to the open end of a
adjusted to clip at any modulation level be- transmission line provide a ca-
tween 25 and 100 percent. The negative pacitance that makes the resonant length less
noise peaks are clipped by the right -hand than a quarter wavelength. The amount of
diode at a fixed level. shortening for a specified capacitive react-
The TNS Limiter The Twin Noise Squelch, ance is determined by the surge impedance
is a combination of a diode of the line section. It is given by the equa-
noise clipper and an audio squelch tube. The tion for resonance:
squelch circuit is useful in eliminating the
grinding background noise that is the resid-
1

27rfC
- Z tan I
ual left by the diode clipper. In figure 33,
the setting of the 470K potentiometer deter- where,
mines the operating level of the squelch ac-
tion and should be set to eliminate the resid- 7r equals 3.1416,
ual background noise. Because of the low in- f equals the frequency,
herent distortion of the TNS, it may be left C equals the capacitance,
in the circuit at all times. As with other Z equals the surge impedance of the line,
limiters, the TNS requires a high signal level tan l equals the tangent of the electrical
at the second detector for maximum limiting
length in degrees.
effect. The capacitive reactance of the capaci-
tance across the end is 1/ 27rfC ohms.
10-10 Special For resonance, this must equal the surge im-
Considerations pedance of the line times the tangent of its
in UHF Receiver Design electrical length (in degrees, where 90
equals a quarter wave). It will be seen that
Transmission At increasingly higher fre- twice the capacitance will resonate a line if
Line Circuits quencies, it becomes progres- its surge impedance is halved; also that a
sively more difficult to obtain given capacitance has twice the loading ef-
a satisfactory amount of selectivity and im- fect when the frequency is doubled.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK UHF Receiver Design 221

2ND DET.
These should be soldered at only one end and
grounded.
An unbalanced tap on a coaxial resonant
circuit can be made directly on the inner
conductor at the point where it is properly
matched (figure 34). For low impedances,
such as a concentric -line feeder, a small one -
AUDIO
half turn loop can be inserted through a hole
in the outer conductor of the coaxial circuit,
being in effect a half of the hairpin type
recommended for coupling balanced feeders
to coaxial resonant lines. The size of the loop
Figure 32 and closeness to the inner conductor deter-
mines the impedance matching and loading.
THE FULL-WAVE SERIES AUDIO
Such loops coupled in near the shorting disc
NOISE LIMITER
do not alter the tuning appreciably, if they
are not overcoupled.
Coupling Into It is possible to couple into Resonant A cavity is a closed resonant
Lines and a parallel -rod line by tap - Cavities chamber made of metal. The cav-
Coaxial Circuits ping directly on one or both ity, having both inductance and
rods, preferably through capacitance, supersedes coil- capacitor and ca-
blocking capacitors if any d.c. is present. pacitance loaded transmission -line tuned cir-
More commonly, however, a hairpin is induc- cuits at extremely high fequencies where
tively coupled at the shorting -bar end, either conventional L and C components, of even
to the bar or to the two rods, or both. This the most refined design, prove impractical
normally will result in a balanced load. because of the tiny electrical and physical
Should a loop unbalanced to ground be cou- dimensions they must have. Microwave cav-
pled in, any resulting unbalance reflected in- ities have high Q factors and are superior to
to the rods can be reduced with a simple conventional tuned circuits. They may be
Faraday screen, made of a few parallel wires employed in the manner of an obsorption
placed between the hairpin loop and the rods. wavemeter or as the tuned circuit in other
r-f test instruments, and in microwave trans-
mitters and receivers.
I -E STAGE 2ND DE T. -AUDIO
(- AUDIO
Resonant cavities usually are closed on all
sides and all of their walls are made of elec-
trical conductor. However, in some forms,
small openings are present for the purpose of
excitation.
Cavities have been produced in several
shapes including the plain sphere, dimpled
sphere, sphere with re- entrant cones of
various sorts, cylinder, prism (including
cube), ellipsoid, ellipsoid -hyperboloid, dough-
nut- shape, and various re- entrant types. In
appearance, they resemble in their simpler
forms metal boxes or cans.
The cavity actually is a linear circuit, but
one which is superior to a conventional co-
axial resonator in the uhf range. The cavity
resonates in much the same manner as does a
barrel or a closed room with reflecting walls.
Figure 33 Because electromagnetic energy (and the
associated electrostatic energy) oscillates to
THE TNS AUDIO NOISE LIMITER and fro inside them in one mode or another,
222 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO

CAVITY CAVITY

LOOP

CONCENTRIC LINE
LINE

CAVITY CAVITY CAVITY

O O
Figure 34
GRIDS
HOLE ELECTAMRON
COUPLING AN ANTENNA TO A BE

COAXIAL RESONANT CIRCUIT


Figure 35
A shows the recommended method for cou-
pling a coaxial line to a coaxial resonant cir- METHODS OF EXCITING A RESONANT
cuit. B shows an alternative method for use
with an open -wire type of ant feed line. CAVITY

resonant cavities resemble waveguides. The Wavelength and cavity dimensions (in centi-
mode of operation in a cavity is affected by meters) are related by the following simple
the manner in which microwave energy is in- resonance formulas:
jected. A cavity will resonate to a large
number of frequencies, each being associated for cylinder Ar = 2.6 X radius;
with a particular mode or standing -wave for cube Ar = 2.83 X half of 1 side;
pattern. The lowest mode (lowest frequency for sphere Ar = 2.28 X radius.
of operation) of a cavity resonator normally Butterfly Unlike the cavity resonator, which
is the one used. Circuit in its conventional form is a device
The resonant frequency of a cavity may which can tune over a relatively
be varied, if desired, by means of movable narrow band, the butterfly circuit is a tun-
plungers or plugs, as shown in figure 36A, able resonator which permits coverage of a
or a movable metal disc (figure 36B). A fairly wide uhf band. The butterfly circuit
cavity that is too small for a given wave- is very similar to a conventional coil /vari-
length will not oscillate. able- capacitor combination, except that both
The resonant frequencies of simple spheri- inductance and capacitance are provided by
cal, cylindrical, and cubical cavities may be
calculated simply for one particular mode.

TUNING
SLUGS

Figure 37

THE BUTTERFLY RESONANT CIRCUIT


Figure 36
Shown at A is the physical appearance of
TUNING METHODS FOR CYLINDRICAL the butterfly circuit as used in the vhf and
lower uhf range. B shows an electrical repre-
RESONANT CAVITIES sentation of the circuit.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK UHF Receiver Design 223

what appears to be a variable capacitor MHz to perhaps 3500 MHz, and above
alone. The Q of this device is somewhat less about 3500 MHz resonant cavities are used
than that of a concentric -line tuned circuit almost exclusively. The resonant cavity is
but is entirely adequate for numerous appli- also quite generally employed in the 2000 -
cations. to 3500 -MHz range.
Figure 37A shows construction of a In a properly designed receiver, thermal
single butterfly section. The butterfly- shaped agitation in the first tuned circuit is ampli-
rotor, from which the device derives its fied by subsequent tubes and predominates
name, turns in relation to the unconvention- in the output. For good signal -to- set -noise
al stator. The two groups of stator "fins" or ratio, therefore, one must strive for a high -
sectors are in effect joined together by a gain low -noise r -f stage. Hiss can be held
semicircular metal band, integral with the down by giving careful attention to this
sectors, which provides the circuit induc- point. A mixer has about 0.3 the gain of an
tance. When the rotor is set to fill the loop r -f tube of the same type; so it is advisable
opening (the position in which it is shown to precede a mixer by an efficient r -f stage.
in figure 37A), the circuit inductance and It is also of some value to have good r -f
capacitance are reduced to minimum. When selectivity before the first detector in order
the rotor occupies the position indicated by to reduce noises produced by beating noise
the dotted lines, the inductance and capaci- at one frequency against noise at another, to
tance are at maximum. The tuning range of produce noise at the intermediate frequency
practical butterfly circuits is in the ratio of in a superheterodyne.
1.5:1 to 3.5:1. The frequency limit of a tube is reached
Direct circuit connections may be made to when the shortest possible external connec-
points A and B. If balanced operation is de- tions are used as the tuned circuit, except
sired, either point C or D will provide the for abnormal types of oscillation. Wires or
electrical midpoint. Coupling may be ef- sizeable components are often best con-
fected by means of a small single -turn loop sidered as sections of transmission lines rather
placed near point E or F. The butterfly thus than as simple resistances, capacitances, or
permits continuous variation of both capaci- inductances.
tance and inductance, as indicated by the So long as small triodes and pentodes will
equivalent circuit in figure 37B, while at the operate normally, they are generally pre-
same time eliminating all pigtails and wiping ferred as vhf tubes over other receiving
contacts. methods that have been devised. However,
Several butterfly sections may be stacked the input capacitance, input conductance,
in parallel in the same way that variable ca- and transit time of these tubes limit the
pacitors are built up. In stacking these sec- upper frequency at which they may be
tions, the effect of adding inductances in operated. The input resistance, which drops
parallel is to lower the total circuit induct- to a low value at very short wavelengths,
ance, while the addition of stators and ro- limits the stage gain and broadens the tun-
tors raises the total capacitance, as well as ing.
the ratio of maximum to minimum capaci-
tance. VHF The first tube in a vhf receiver is
Butterfly circuits have been applied spe- Tubes most important in raising the signal
cifically to oscillators for transmitters, super- above the noise generated in succes-
heterodyne receivers, and heterodyne fre- sive stages, for which reason small vhf types
quency meters in the 100- to 1000 -MHz are definitely preferred.
frequency range. Tubes employing the conventional grid -
controlled and diode rectifier principles have
Receiver The types of resonant circuits de- been modernized, through various expedients,
Circuits scribed in the previous paragraphs for operation at frequencies as high, in some
have largely replaced conventional new types, as 4000 MHz. Beyond that fre-
coil- capacitor circuits in the range above 100 quency, electron transit time becomes the
MHz. Tuned short lines and butterfly cir- limiting factor and new principles must be
cuits are used in the range from about 100 enlisted. In general, the improvements em-
224 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
bodied in existing tubes have consisted of
(1) reducing electrode spacing to cut down SYMIOL i BRASS BASE CONNECTOR

electron transit time, (2) reducing electrode


areas to decrease interelectrode capacitances, CERAMIC SLEEVE
and (3) shortening of electrode leads either
BRASS CAP
by mounting the electrode assembly close to BRASS CONNECTOR PIN
the tube base or by bringing the leads out
directly through the glass envelope at nearby Figure 38
points. Through reduction of lead inductance
1N23 MICROWAVE -TYPE
and interelectrode capacitances, input and
CRYSTAL DIODE
output resonant frequencies due to tube con-
struction have been increased substantially. A small silicon crystal is attached to the base
c ctor and a fine feeler wire is set to the
Tubes embracing one or more of the fea- most sensitive spot on the crystal. Attar ad-
tures just outlined include the later loctal justment the ceramic shell is filled with com-
types, high- frequency acorns, button -base pound to hold the contact wire in position.
Crystals of this type are used to over 30,000
types, and the lighthouse types. The button - MHz.
base triode and the 603174 Nuvistor will
reach 500 MHz. Type 6F4 acorn triode is
recommended for use up to 1200 MHz. Type It is sufficient to state that current flows
1A3 button -base diode has a resonant fre- from several hundred to several thousand
ouency of 1000 MHz, while type 9005 acorn times more readily in one direction through
diode resonates at 1500 MHz. Lighthouse the contact of the feeler wire and crystal
type 2C40 can be used at frequencies up to than in the opposite direction. Consequently,
3 500 MHz as an oscillator.
an alternating current (including one of
microwave frequency) will be rectified by
Crystal More than three decades have the crystal detector. The load, through
Rectifiers passed since the crystal (mineral) which the rectifier current flows, may be
rectifier enjoyed widespread use connected in series or shunt with the crystal,
in radio receivers. Low -priced tubes com- although the former connection is most gen-
pletely supplanted the fragile and relatively erally employed.
insensitive crystal detector, although it did The basic arrangement of a modern fixed
continue for a few years as a simple meter crystal detector developed during World
rectifier in absorption wavemeters after its War II for microwave work, particularly
demise as a receiver component. radar, is shown in figure 38. Once the
Today, the crystal detector is of new im- feeler wire of this unit is set at the factory
portance in microwave communication. It is to the most sensitive spot on the surface of
being employed as a detector and as a mixer the silicon crystal and its pressure is ad-
in receivers and test instruments used at ex- justed, a filler compound is injected through
tremely high radio frequencies. At some of the filling hole to hold the feeler wire per-
the frequencies employed in microwave op- manently in position.
erations, the crystal rectifier is the only satis-
factory detector or mixer. 10-11 Receiver
The chief advantages of the crystal recti- Adjustment
fier are very low capacitance, relative free-
dom from transit -time difficulties, and its A simple regenerative receiver requires
two -terminal nature. No batteries or a -c little adjustment other than that necessary
power supply are required for its operation. to ensure correct tuning and smooth regen-
The crystal detector consists essentially eration over some desired range. Receivers of
of a small piece of silicon or germanium the tuned -radio -frequency type and super -
mounted in a base of low- melting -point alloy heterodynes require precise alignment to ob-
and contacted by means of a thin, springy tain the highest possible degree of selectivity
feeler wire. and sensitivity.
The complex physics of crystal rectifica- Good results can be obtained from a re-
tion is beyond the scope of this discussion. ceiver only when it is properly aligned and

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Receiver Adjustment 225

adjusted. The most practical technique for "neutralizing tools' to adjust the various i-f
making these adjustments is given below. and r-f trimmer capacitors; and (3) some
convenient type of tuning indicator, such as
Instruments A very small number of instru- a copper -oxide or electronic voltmeter.
ments will suffice to check and Throughout the alignment process, unless
align a communications receiver, the most specifically stated otherwise, the r-f gain
important of these testing units being a control must be set for maximum output,
modulated oscillator and a d -c and a -c volt- the beat oscillator switched off, and the avc
meter. The meters are essential in checking turned off or shorted out. When the signal
the voltage applied at each circuit point output of the receiver is excessive, either the
from the power supply. If the a -c voltmeter attenuator or the a -f gain control may be
is of the oxide- rectifier type, it can be used, turned down, but never the r -f gain control.
in addition, as an output meter when con-
nected across the receiver output when tun- I -F Alignment After the receiver has been
ing to a modulated signal. If the signal is a given a rigid electrical and
steady tone, such as from a test oscillator, mechanical inspection, and any faults which
the output meter will indicate the value of may have been found in wiring or the selec-
the detected signal. In this manner, align- tion and assembly of parts are corrected,
ment results may be visually noted on the the i -f amplifier may be aligned as the first
meter. step in the checking operations.
With the signal generator set to give a
TRF Receiver Alignment procedure in a modulated signal on the frequency at which
Alignment multistage trf receiver is ex- the i -f amplifier is to operate, clip the "hot"
actly the same as aligning a output lead from the generator through a
single stage. If the detector is regenerative, small fixed capacitor to the control grid of
each preceding stage is successively aligned the last i -f tube. Adjust both trimmer ca-
while keeping the detector circuit tuned to pacitors in the last i -f transformer (the one
the test signal, the latter being a station between the last i -f amplifier tube and the
signal or one locally generated by a test second detector) to resonance as indicated by
oscillator loosely coupled to the antenna maximum deflection of the output meter.
lead. During these adjustments, the r -f am- Each i -f stage is adjusted in the same
plifier gain control is adjusted for maximum manner, moving the hot lead, stage by stage,
sensitivity, assuming that the r -f amplifier back toward the front end of the receiver
is stable and does not oscillate. Often a sen- and backing off the attenuator as the signal
sitive receiver can be roughly aligned by strength increases in each new position. The
tuning for maximum noise pickup. last adjustment will be made to the first i -f
transformer, with the hot signal generator
Superheterodyne Aligning a superhet is a lead connected to the control grid of the
Alignment detailed task requiring a mixer. Occasionally it is necessary to discon-
great amount of care and nect the mixer grid lead from the coil,
patience. It should never be undertaken grounding it through a 1000- or 5000 -ohm
without a thorough understanding of the resistor, and then couple the signal generator
involved job to be done and then only when through a small capacitor to the grid.
there is abundant time to devote to the When the last i -f adjustment has been
operation. There are no shortcuts; every completed, it is good practice to go back
circuit must be adjusted individually and through the i -f channel, re- peaking all of
accurately if the receiver is to give peak per- the transformers. It is imperative that this
formance. The precision of each adjustment recheck be made in sets which do not include
is dependent on the accuracy with which a crystal filter, and where the simple align-
the preceding one was made. ment of the i -f amplifier to the generator is
Superhet alignment requires (1) a good final.
signal generator (modulated oscillator) cov-
ering the radio and intermediate frequencies I-F with There are several ways of align-
and equipped with an attenuator; (2) the Crystal Filter ing an i -f channel which con-
necessary socket wrenches, screwdrivers, or tains a crystal -filter circuit.

www.americanradiohistory.com
226 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
I-F SIGNAL IN F SIGNAL OUT not be set to zero beat when the receiver is
tuned to resonance with the signal, as this
will cause an equally strong beat to be ob-
tained on both sides of resonance.
Front -End Alignment of the front end of a
Alignment home -constructed receiver is a
relatively simple process, consist-
'r- 1 -F ALONE ing of first getting the oscillator to cover
the desired frequency range and then of
I F PLUS Q MULTIPLIER
peaking the various r -f circuits for maxi-
mum gain. However, if the frequency range
covered by the receiver is very wide a fair
amount of cut and try will be required to
453 kHz
obtain satisfactory tracking between the r -f
FREQUENCY circuits and the oscillator. Manufactured
communications receivers should always be
Figure 39
tuned in accordance with the instructions
The Q- MULTIPLIER given in the maintenance manual.
The loss resistance of a high -Q circuit is neu-
tralized by regeneration in a simple feedback 10-12 Receiving
amplifier. A highly selective passband is pro-
duced which is coupled to the i -f circuit of the Accessories
receiver.
The Q- Multiplier
The selectivity of a receiv-
However, the following method is one which er may be increased by rais-
has been found to give satisfactory results in ing the Q of the tuned circuits of the i -f
every case: An unmodulated signal generator strip. A simple way to accomplish this is to
capable of tuning to the frequency of the add a controlled amount of positive feed-
filter crystal in the receiver is coupled to back to a tuned circuit, thus increasing its
the grid of the stage which precedes the Q. This is done in the Q- multiplier, whose
crystal filter in the receiver. Then, with the
crystal filter switched in, the signal genera-
tor is tuned slowly to find the frequency I -F SIGNAL IN I -F SIGNAL OUT
where the crystal peaks. The receiver "S"
meter may be used as the indicator, and the
sound heard from the speaker will be of as-
sistance in finding the point. When the fre-
quency at which the crystal peaks has been
found, all the i -f transformers in the receiv-
er should be touched up to peak at that
frequency. O MULTIPLIER "NULL"

BFO Adjustment Adjusting the beat oscilla-


tor on a receiver that has
no front -panel adjustment is relatively sim-
ple. It is only necessary to tune the receiver
to resonance with any signal, as indicated by
the tuning indicator, and then turn on the 453 kHz
FREQUENCY
bfo and set its trimmer (or trimmers) to
produce the desired beat note. Setting the Figure 40
beat oscillator in this way will result in the Q- MULTIPLIER NULL CIRCUIT
beat note being stronger on one "side" of the
The addition of a second triode permits the
signal than on the other, which is what is Q- Multiplier to be used for nulling out on un-
desired for c -w reception. The bfo should wanted heterodyne.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Receiving Accessories 227

12AX7
TO PLATE TERMINAL PRODUCT AUDIO OUTPUT
OF FIRST I-F TUOE THRV 6 R -P SIGNAL
DETECTOR
2' OF COAXIAL UNE .001

L2 II

.00s L, 003

DOS
NULL.--. PEAK LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
10 MN
RFC

Figure 42
212AX7 SELECTIVITY
CONTROLS
THE PRODUCT DETECTOR
1.5 R i2 MEG. 0R
Audio output signal is developed only when
local oscillator is on.
- e +2oo-3oo V. - 6.3 V.

L,' GRAY BURNE VO CHORE (0.6 -0.0 MN)


L2'GRAI'BURNE "LOOPSTICK- COIL back drops the plate resistance of V2, shunt-
ing the i -f circuit. Off resonance, the feed-
Figure 41 back is reduced and the plate resistance of
V_ rises, reducing the amount of signal
SCHEMATIC OF A 455 -kHz attenuation in the i -f strip. A circuit com-
Q- MULTIPLIER bining both the "peak" and "null" features
Coil L, is required to tune out the reactance of is shown in figure 41.
the coaxial line It is adjusted for maximum
signal response. L, may be omitted if the Q- The Product Detector A version of the com-
multiplier is ted to the receiver with a mon mixer or convert-
short length of wire, and the i -f transformer
within the receiver is retuned. er stage may be used as a second detector
in a receiver in place of the usual diode de-
tector. The diode is an envelope detector
basic circuit is shown in figure 39. The cir-
(section 12 -1) and develops a d -c output
cuit L -C, -CZ is tuned to the intermediate voltage from a single r -f signal, and audio
frequency, and the loss resistance of the cir- "beats" from two or more input signals. A
cuit is neutralized by the positive -feedback product detector (figure 42) requires that
circuit composed of C, and the vacuum a local carrier voltage be present in order to
tube. Too great a degree of positive feedback produce an audio ouput signal. Such a detec-
will cause the circuit to break into oscilla- tor is useful for single -sideband work, since
tion. the intermodulation distortion is extremely
At the resonant frequency, the impedance low.
of the tuned circuit is very high, and when A pentagrid product detector is shown in
shunted across an i -f stage will have little figure 43. The incoming signal is applied to
effect upon the signal. At frequencies re-
moved from resonance, the impedance of
the circuit is low, resulting in high attenua-
tion of the i -f signal. The resonant frequen-
cy of the Q- multiplier may be varied by I-F SIGNAL
changing the value of one of the components
in the tuned circuit.
The Q- multiplier may also be used to
"null" a signal by employing negative feed-
back to control the plate resistance of an
auxiliary amplifier stage as shown in figure BEAT - OSC
SIGNAL
40. Since the grid- cathode phase shift
through the Q- multiplier is zero, the plate Figure 43
resistance of a second tube may be readily
controlled by placing it across the Q- multi- PENTAGRID MIXER USED AS
plier. At resonance, the high negative feed- PRODUCT DETECTOR
228 Radio Receiver Fundamentals

VI Vz V3 12AU7 .01
12AU7 + 12AU7 .01 VI + Vz
AUDIO OUT E---AUDIO
100 OUT
47K I-FSIC. 47K
100 K

BEAT - OSC. +
BEAT - OSC. SIGNAL
SIGNAL

Figure 44 Figure 45

TRIPLE-TRIODE PRODUCT DETECTOR DOUBLE-TRIODE PRODUCT DETECTOR


V, and V, act as cathode followers, delivering
sideband signal and local oscillator signal fo
grounded grid triodo mixer (V3). carrier substitutes for the transmitted car-
rier of the a -m signal.
Three triodes may be used as a product
grid 3 of the mixer tube, and the local oscil- detector (figure 44). Triodes V1 and V, act
lator is injected on grid 1. Grid bias is ad- as cathode followers, delivering the sideband
justed for operation over the linear portion signal and the local oscillator signal to a
of the tube -characteristic curve. When grid - grounded -grid triode (V3) which functions
1 injection is removed, the audio output as the mixer stage. A third version of the
from an unmodulated signal applied to grid product detector is illustrated in figure 45.
3 should be reduced approximately 30 to A twin - triode tube is used. Section V1 func-
40 db below normal detection level. When tions as a cathode- follower amplifier. Section
the frequency of the local oscillator is syn- V, is a "plate" detector, the cathode of
chronized with the incoming carrier, ampli- which is common with the cathode -follower
tude- modulated signals may be received by amplifier. The local -oscillator signal is in-
exalted- carrier reception, wherein the local jected into the grid circuit of tube V_.

6BE6 10K

Figure 46

COMBINED BEAT OSCILLATOR AND


PRODUCT DETECTOR
The variable i -f coupling capacitor is adjusted
to provide approximately 0.2 volt peak signal
BFO at pin 7 of the 68E6.
TRANS-
FORMER

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER ELEVEN

Generation of
Radio -Frequency Energy

A radio communication or broadcast radio- frequency generator. A modern high -


transmitter consists of a source of radio fre- frequency transmitter, on the other hand, is
quency power, or carrier; a system for a very complex generator. Such equipment
modulating the carrier whereby voice or comprises a very stable crystal -controlled or
telegraph keying or other modulation is self -controlled oscillator to stabilize the out-
superimposed upon it; and an antenna sys- put frequency. a series of frequency multi-
tem, including feedline, for radiating the pliers, or mixers, one or more amplifier stages
intelligence- carrying radio- frequency power. to increase the power up to the level which
The power supply employed to convert pri- is desired for feeding the antenna system,
mary power to the various voltages required and a filter system for keeping the har-
by the r -f and modulator portions of the monic energy generated in the transmitter
transmitter may also be considered part of from being fed to the antenna system.
the transmitter.
Voice modulation usually is accomplished 11 -1 Self- Controlled
by varying either the amplitude or the fre-
quency of the radio- frequency carrier in ac- Oscillators
cord with the components of intelligence to
be transmitted. In Chapter Four, it was explained that the
Radiotelegraph modulation (keying) nor- amplifying properties of a tube having three
mally is accomplished either by interrupting, or more elements give it the ability to gener-
shifting the frequency of, or superimposing ate an alternating current of a frequency de-
an audio tone on the radio -frequency carrier termined by the components associated with
in accordance with the dots and dashes to be it. A vacuum tube operated in such a circuit
transmitted. is called an oscillator, and its function is es-
The complexity of the radio- frequency s- ntially to convert direct current into radio -
generating portion of the transmitter is de- frequency alternating current of a predeter-
pendent on the power, order of stability, and mined frequency.
frequency desired. An oscillator feeding an Oscillators for controlling the frequency
antenna directly is the simplest form of of conventional radio transmitters can be
230 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO

pA SHUNT -FED HARTLEY OB SHUNT -FED COLPITTS TUNED PLATE TUNED GRID

R R

250
GRID
COIL

OD TUNED PLATE UNTUNED GRID ELECTRON COUPLED FO COLPITTS ELECTRON COUPLED

CLAPP OH CLAPP ELECTRON COUPLED

Figure 1

COMMON TYPES OF SELF -EXCITED OSCILLATORS


Fixed capacitor values are typical, but will vary somewhat with the application. In the Clapp
oscillator circuits (G) and (H), capacitors C, and C, should have a reactance of 50 to 100
ohms at the operating frequency of the oscillator. Tuning of these two oscillators is accom-
plished by capacitor C. In the circuits of (E), (F), and (H), tuning of the tank circuit in the
plate of the oscillator tube will have relatively small effect on the frequency of oscillation.
The plate tank circuit also may, if desired, be tuned to a harmonic of the oscillation fre-
quency, or a broadly resonant circuit may be used in this circuit position.

divided into two general classes: self -con- Negative -Grid A negative -grid oscillator is
trolled and crystal-controlled. Oscillators essentially a vacuum - tube
There are a great many types of self -con- amplifier with a sufficient
trolled oscillators, each of which is best portion of the output energy coupled back
suited to a particular application. They can into the input circuit to sustain oscillation.
further be subdivided into the classifications The control grid is biased negatively with
of: negative -grid oscillators, electron -orbit respect to the cathode. Common types of
oscillators, negative - resistance oscillators, negative -grid oscillators, which can be used
velocity -modulation oscillators, and mag- as fundamental or harmonic oscillators, are
netron oscillators. diagrammed in figure 1.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Oscillators 231

The Hartley Illustrated in figure 1 (A) is For best operation of the Hartley and Col -
the oscillator circuit which pitts oscillators, the voltage from grid to
finds the most general application at the cathode, determined by the tap on the coil
present time; this circuit is commonly called or the setting of the two capacitors, normal-
the Hartley. The operation of this oscillator ly should be from 1/3 to 1/5 that appearing
will be described as an index to the opera- between plate and cathode.
tion of all negative -grid oscillators; the only
real difference between the various circuits is The T.P.T.G. The tuned -plate tuned -grid os-
the manner in which energy for excitation is cillator illustrated at (C) has
coupled from the plate to the grid circuit. a tank circuit in both the plate and grid cir-
When plate voltage is applied to the Hart- cuits. The feedback of energy from the plate
ley oscillator shown at (A), the sudden flow to the grid circuits is accomplished by the
of plate current accompanying the applica- plate - to - grid interelectrode capacitance
tion of plate voltage will cause an electro- within the tube. The necessary phase re-
magnetic field to be set up in the vicinity of versal in feedback voltage is provided by
the coil. The building -up of this field will tuning the grid tank capacitor to the low
cause a potential drop to appear from turn side of the desired frequency and the plate
to turn along the coil. Due to the inductive capacitor to the high side. A broadly reso-
coupling between the portion of the coil in nant coil may be substituted for the grid
which the plate current is flowing and the tank to form the T.N.T. (tuned -not tuned)
grid portion, a potential will be induced in oscillator shown at D.
the grid portion.
Since the cathode tap is between the grid Electron -Coupled In any of the oscillator cir-
and plate ends of the coil, the induced grid Oscillators cuits just described it is
voltage acts in such a manner as to increase possible to take energy
further the plate current to the tube. This from the oscillator circuit by coupling an
action will continue for a short period of external load to the tank circuit. Since the
time determined by the inductance and ca- tank circuit determines the frequency of os-
pacitance of the tuned circuit, until the fly- cillation of the tube, any variations in the
wheel effect of the tuned circuit causes this conditions of the external circuit will be
action to come to a maximum and then to coupled back into the frequency -determining
reverse itself. The plate current then de- portion of the oscillator. These variations
creases (the magnetic field around the coil will result in frequency instability.
also decreasing) until a minimum is reached, The frequency- determining portion of
when the action starts again in the original an oscillator may be coupled to the load cir-
direction and at a greater amplitude than be- cuit only by an electron stream, as illustrated
fore. The amplitude of these oscillations, the in (E) and (F) of figure 1. When it is con-
frequency of which is determined by the sidered that the screen of the tube acts as
coil-capacitor circuit, will increase in a very the plate to the oscillator circuit, the plate
short period of time to a limit determined by merely acting as a coupler to the load, then
the plate voltage of the oscillator tube. the similarity between the cathode -grid-
screen circuit of these oscillators and the
The Colpitts Figure 1 (B) shows a version cathode -grid -plate circuits of the corre-
of the Colpilts oscillator. It sponding prototype can be seen.
can be seen that this is essentially the same The electron- coupled oscillator has good
circuit as the Hartley except that the ratio stability with respect to load and voltage
of a pair of capacitances in series determines variation. Load variations have a relatively
the effective cathode tap, instead of actually small effect on the frequency, since the only
using a tap on the tank coil. Also, the net coupling between the oscillating circuit and
capacitance of these two capacitors com- the load is through the electron stream flow-
prises the tank capacitance of the tuned cir- ing through the other elements to the plate.
cuit. This oscillator circuit is somewhat less The plate is electrostatically shielded from
susceptible to parasitic (spurious) oscilla- the oscillating portion by the bypassed
tions than the Hartley. screen.
232 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
The stability of the e.c.o. with respect to tor stability with respect to tube variations.
variations in supply voltages is explained as High -g,,, tubes such as the 6AH6, 5763, and
follows: The frequency will shift in one 6CB6 will permit the use of larger values of
direction with an increase in screen voltage, capacitance at C, and C, than will more
while an increase in plate voltage will cause conventional tubes such as the 6BA6, 6AQ5,
it to shift in the other direction. By a proper and such types. In general it may be said
proportioning of the resistors that comprise that the reactance of capacitors C, and C,
the voltage divider supplying screen voltage,
it is possible to make the frequency of the
oscillator substantially independent of sup-
should be on the order of 40 to 120 ohms at
the operating frequency of the oscillator
with the lower values of reactance going
-
ply voltage variations. with high -gm tubes and the higher values
being necessary to permit oscillation with
The Gait/ A relatively new type of oscilla- tubes having gm in the range of 2000 mi-
Oscillator tor circuit which is capable of cromhos.
giving excellent frequency sta- It will be found that the Clapp oscillator
bility is illustrated in figure 1G. Comparison will have a tendency to vary in power out-
between the more standard circuits of figure put over the frequency range of tuning ca-
IA through IF and the Clapp oscillator cir- pacitor C. The output will be greatest where
cuits of figures 1G and 1H will immediately C is at its largest setting, and will tend to
show one marked difference: the tuned cir- fall off with C at minimum capacitance. In
cuit which controls the operating frequency fact, if capacitors C, and C_2 have too large
in the Clapp oscillator is series resonant, a value the circuit will stop oscillation near
while in all the more standard oscillator cir- the minimum capacitance setting of capaci-
cuits the frequency -controlling circuit is tor C.
parallel resonant. Also, the capacitors C, and Hence it will be necessary to use a slightly
Co are relatively large in terms of the usual smaller value of capacitance at C, and C_
values for a Colpitts oscillator. In fact, the (to provide an increase in the capacitive re-
value of capacitors C, and Co will be in the actance at this point), or else the frequency
vicinity of 0.001 pfd. to 0.0025 pfd. for range of the oscillator must be restricted by
an oscillator which is to be operated in the paralleling a fixed capacitor across C so that
1.8 -MHz band. its effective capacitance at minimum setting
The Clapp oscillator operates in the fol- will be increased to a value which will sus-
lowing manner: at the resonant frequency of tain oscillation.
the oscillator tuned circuit (L, C) the im- In the triode Clapp oscillator, such as
pedance of this circuit is at minimum (since shown at figure 1G, output voltage for ex-
it operates in series resonance) and maxi- citation of an amplifier, doubler, or isolation
mum current flows through it. Note how- stage normally is taken from the cathode of
ever, that C, and C_ also are included within the oscillator tube by capacitive coupling to
the current path for the series -resonant cir- the grid of the next tube. However, where
cuit, so that at the frequency of resonance greater isolation of succeeding stages from
an appreciable voltage drop appears across the oscillating circuit is desired, the electron -
these capacitors. The voltage drop appearing coupled Clapp oscillator diagrammed in fig-
across C, is applied to the grid of the oscilla- ure 1H may be used. Output then may be
tor tube as excitation, while the amplified taken from the plate circuit of the tube by
output of the oscillator tube appears across capacitive coupling with either a tuned cir-
Co as the driving power to keep the circuit cuit, as shown, or with an r -f choke or a
in oscillation. broadly resonant circuit in the plate return.
Capacitors C, and C, should be made as Alternatively, energy may be coupled from
large in value as possible, while still permit- the output circuit L_ -C:, by link coupling
ting the circuit to oscillate over the full tun- to L2.
ing range of C. The larger these capacitors The considerations with regard to C, C2,
are made, the smaller will be the coupling and the grid tuned circuit are the same as
between the oscillating circuit and the tube, for the triode oscillator arrangement of fig-
and consequently the better will be oscilla- ure 1G.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Oscillators 233

6SK 7

Figure 2

TWO- TERMINAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS


Both circuits may be used for an audio oscil-
lator or for frequencies into the vhf range
simply by placing a tank circuit tuned to the
proper frequency where indicated on the
drawing. Recommended values for the com-
ponents are given below for both oscillators.

TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
OA TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR C,- 0.01 -fd mica for r.f. 10-fd elect. for a.f.
C2- 0.00005 -fd mica for r.f. 0.1 -fd paper for a.f.
C3 -0.003 -fd mica for r.f. 0.5 -fd paper for a.f.
C4- 0.01 -fd mica for r.f. 8-fd elect. for a.f.
12U7 R1-220K 1/2 -watt carbon
R2 -1800 ohms 1/2-watt carbon
R3-22K 2 -watt carbon
R4 -22K 2-watt carbon

CATHODE -COUPLED OSCILLATOR


C5- 0.00005 -fd mica for r.f. 0.1 -fd paper for audio
C2 -0.003 -fd mica for r.f. 8-fd elect. for audio
R1-47K 1/2-watt carbon
R2 -1K -watt carbon
1

OB CATHODE COUPLED OSCILLATOR

Negative- Resist- Negative - resistance oscilla- effect similar to the dynatron is obtained in
once Oscillators tors often are used when un- the transitron circuit, which uses a pentode
usually high frequency sta- with the suppressor coupled to the screen.
bility is desired, as in a frequency meter. The The negative resistance in this case is ob-
dynatron of a few years ago and the newer tained from a combination of secondary
transitron are examples of oscillator circuits emission and interelectrode coupling, and is
which make use of the negative- resistance considerably more stable than that obtained
characteristic between different elements in from uncontrolled secondary emission alone
some multigrid tubes. in the dynatron. A representative transitron
In the dynatron, the negative resistance is oscillator circuit is shown in figure 2.
a consequence of secondary emission of elec-
trons from the plate of a tetrode tube. By a
proper proportioning of the electrode volt-
age, an increase in screen voltage will cause
a decrease in screen current, since the in-
creased screen voltage will cause the screen
to attract a larger number of the secondary
electrons emitted by the plate. Since the net
screen current flowing from the screen sup-
ply will be decreased by an increase in screen
voltage, it is said that the screen circuit pre- Figure 3
sents a negative resistance.
If any type of tuned circuit, or even a re- THE FRANKLIN OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
sistance- capacitance circuit, is connected in A separate phase -inverter tube is used in this
series with the screen, the arrangement will oscillator to feed a portion of the output bask
oscillate-provided, of course, that the ex- to the input in the proper phase to sustain
oscillation. The values of C, and C, should be
ternal circuit impedance is greater than the as small as will permit oscillations to be sus-
negative resistance. A negative- resistance tained over the desired frequency range.
234 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
The chief distinction between a conven- itations on frequency tolerance, several pre-
tional negative -grid oscillator and a negative- cautions are taken to ensure that a variable -
resistance oscillator is that in the former the frequency oscillator will stay on frequency.
tank circuit must act as a phase inverter in The oscillator is fed from a voltage- regulated
order to permit the amplification of the tube power supply, uses a well- designed and tem-
to act as a negative resistance, while in the perature- compensated tank circuit, is of
latter the tube acts as its own phase inverter. rugged mechanical construction to avoid
Thus a negative- resistance oscillator requires the effects of shock and vibration, is pro-
only an untapped coil and a single capacitor tected against excessive changes in ambient
as the frequency -determining tank circuit, room temperature, and is isolated from feed-
and is classed as a two- terminal oscillator. In back or stray coupling from other portions
fact, the time constant of an RC circuit of the transmitter by shielding, filtering of
may be used as the frequency -determining voltage supply leads, and incorporation of
element and such an oscillator is rather one or more buffer -amplifier stages. In a
widely used as a tunable audio- frequency high -power transmitter a small amount of
oscillator. stray coupling from the final amplifier to the
The Franklin The Franklin oscillator makes oscillator can produce appreciable degrada-
Oscillator use of two cascaded tubes to tion of the oscillator stability if both are
obtain the negative- resistance on the same frequency. Therefore, the os-
effect (figure 3) . The tubes may be either a cillator usually is operated on a subharmonic
pair of triodes, tetrodes, or pentodes; a dual of the transmitter output frequency, with
triode; or a combination of a triode and a one or more frequency multipliers between
multigrid tube. The chief advantage of this the oscillator and final amplifier.
oscillator circuit is that the frequency -de-
termining tank only has two terminals, and 11 -2 Quartz Crystal
one side of the circuit is grounded. Oscillators
The second tube acts as a phase inverter to
give an effect similar to that obtained with Quartz is a naturally occurring crystal
the dynatron or transitron, except that the having a structure such that when plates are
effective transconductance is much higher. cut in certain definite relationships to the
If the tuned circuit is omitted or is replaced crystallographic axes, these plates will show
by a resistor, the circuit becomes a relaxa- the piezoelectric effect -the plates will be de-
tion oscillator or a multitrbrator. formed in the influence of an electric field,
Oscillator The Clapp oscillator has proved to and, conversely, when such a plate is com-
Stability be inherently the most stable of all pressed or deformed in any way a potential
difference will appear on its opposite sides.
the oscillator circuits discussed
The crystal has mechanical resonance, and
above, since minimum coupling between the
will vibrate at a very high frequency because
oscillator tube and its associated tuned cir-
of its stiffness, the natural period of vibra-
cuit is possible. However, this inherently
tion depending on the dimensions, the
good stability is with respect to tube varia-
method of electrical excitation, and crystal-
tions; instability of the tuned circuit with
respect to vibration or temperature will of lographic orientation. Because of the piezo-
electric properties, it is possible to cut a
course have as much effect on the frequency
of oscillation as with any other type of oscil- quartz plate which, when provided with
lator circuit. Solid mechanical construction suitable electrodes, will have the characteris-
tics of a series -resonant circuit with a very
of the components of the oscillating circuit,
high LC ratio and very high Q. The Q is
along with a small negative -coefficient com-
pensating capacitor included as an element several times as high as can be obtained with
an inductor -capacitor combination in con-
of the tuned circuit, usually will afford an
adequate degree of oscillator stability. ventional physical sizes. The equivalent elec-
trical circuit is shown in figure 4A, the re-
VFO Transmit- When used to control the fre- sistance component simply being an ac-
ter Controls quency of a transmitter in knowledgement of the fact that the Q, while
which there are stringent lim- high, does not have an infinite value.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Crystal Oscillators 235

C,
(SMALL)
c, i L,
(parallel -resonant) frequencies, the latter be-
ing slightly higher than the series- resonant
frequency and approaching it as C2 is in-
(

L,
(LARGE
L, ':ca creased.
SHUNT) The series- resonance characteristic is em-
R,
ployed in crystal filter circuits in receivers
and also in certain oscillator circuits wherein
(SMALL)
- the crystal is used as a selective feedback
element in such a manner that the phase of
Figure 4 the feedback is correct and the amplitude
adequate only at or very close to the series -
EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT OF resonant frequency of the crystal.
QUARTZ PLATE IN A HOLDER While quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salts,
At A is shown the equivalent series -reso- ADP, and EDT crystals all exhibit the
nant circuit of the crystal itself, at 11 is piezoelectric effect, quartz is the material
shown how the shunt capacitance of the holder widely employed for frequency control.
electrodes and associated wiring affects the
circuit to the combination circuit of C which As the cutting and grinding of quartz
exhibits both series resonance and parallel plates has progressed to a high state of devel-
resonance (antiresonance), the separation in
frequency between the two modes being very opment and these plates may be purchased at
small and determined by the ratio of C, to C,. prices which discourage the cutting and
grinding by simple hand methods for one's
The shunt capacitance of the electrodes own use, the procedure will be only lightly
and associated wiring (crystal holder and touched on here.
socket, plus circuit wiring) is represented by The crystal blank is cut from the raw
the dotted portion of figure 4B. In a high - quartz at a predetermined orientation with
frequency crystal this will be considerably respect to the optical and electrical axes, the
greater than the capacitance component of orientation determining the activity, tem-
an equivalent series LC circuit, and unless perature coefficient, thickness coefficient,
the shunt capacitance is balanced out in a and other characteristics. Various orienta-
bridge circuit, the crystal will exhibit both tions or "cuts" having useful characteristics
resonant (series -resonant) and antiresonant are illustrated in figure S.

Figure 5

ORIENTATION OF THE ae0 WNAL (Y,..)


<T -.S KTtl,S
COMMON CRYSTAL CUTS , tiAT ,--S-, ,AIMeKS
riITM

ION TfV[MTWa
rmplK'[,R
ONAiATMS
PWAMIeNI AMO
MOND ,AIMING

WIN Ta, - MT e
,IGT,NMAL
COWMAN.? NT RlieOi COTSTAL
T OIGLATOIS
A

M. KnOS oeeMeAe
See ThMIIUTYea M. T(MP IOtlPK.,iT,T
(piIPKKNT TP PaTOS
236 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
The crystal blank is then rough -ground made free from spurious responses, and has
almost to frequency, the frequency increas- an excellent temperature characteristic.
ing in inverse ratio to the oscillating dimen- However, above about 6 MHz it becomes
sion (usually the thickness). It is then quite thin and a difficult production job.
finished to exact frequency either by careful Between 6 MHz and about 12 MHz, the
lapping, by etching, or plating. The latter BT -cut plate is widely used. It also works
process consists of finishing it to a frequency well between 500 kHz and 6MHz, but the
slightly higher than that desired and then AT-cut is more desirable when a high order
silver plating the electrodes right on the of stability is desired and no crystal oven is
crystal, the frequency decreasing as the de- employed.
posit of silver is increased. If the crystal is For low- frequency operation on the order
not etched, it must be carefully scrubbed of 100 kHz, such as is required in a fre-
and "baked" several times to stabilize it, or quency standard, the GT-cut crystal is rec-
otherwise the frequency and activity of the ommended, though CT-and DT-cuts also
crystal will change with time. Irradiation by are widely used for applications between 50
X -rays recently has been used in crystal and 500 kHz. The CT-, DT-, and GT-cut
finishing. plates are known as contour cuts, as these
Unplated crystals usually are mounted in plates oscillate along the long dimension of
pressure holders, in which two electrodes are the plate or bar, and are much smaller phys-
held against the crystal faces under slight ically than would be the case for a regular
pressure. Unplated crystals also are some- AT- or BT-cut crystal for the same fre-
times mounted in an air-gap holder in which quency.
there is a very small gap between the crystal
and one or both electrodes. By making this Crystal Holders Crystals normally are pur-
gap variable, the frequency of the crystal chased ready mounted. The
may be altered over narrow limits (about best type mount is determined by the type
0.3% for certain types) . crystal and its application, and usually an
The temperature coefficient of frequency optimum mounting is furnished with the
for various crystal cuts of the "T "- rotated crystal. However, certain features are desir-
family is indicated in figure 5. These angles able in all holders. One of these is exclusion
are typical, but crystals of a certain cut will of moisture and prevention of electrode oxi-
vary slightly. By controlling the orientation dization. The best means of accomplishing
and dimensioning, the turning point (point this is a metal holder, hermetically sealed,
of zero temperature coefficient) for a BT- with glass insulation and a metal -to -glass
cut plate may be made either lower or higher bond. However, such holders are more ex-
than the 75 degrees shown. Also, by careful pensive, and a ceramic or phenolic holder
control of axes and dimensions, it is possible with rubber gasket will serve where require-
to get AT -cut crystals with a very flat ments are not too exacting.
temperature- frequency characteristic.
The first quartz plates used were either Y- Temperature- Control; Where the frequency
cut or X -cut. The former had a very high Crystal Ovens tolerance requirements
temperature coefficient which was discon- are not too stringent
tinuous, causing the frequency to jump at and the ambient temperature does not in-
certain critical temperatures. The X-cut had clude extremes, an AT -cut plate, or a BT-
a moderately bad coefficient, but it was more cut plate with optimum (mean- tempera-
continuous, and by keeping the crystal in a ture) turning point, will often provide
temperature controlled oven, a high order of adequate stability without resorting to a
stability could be obtained. However, the temperature -controlled oven. However, for
X-cut crystal was considerably less active broadcast stations and other applications
than the Y- cut, especially in the case of where very close tolerances must be main-
poorly grounded plates. tained, a thermostatically controlled oven,
For frequencies between 500 kHz and adjusted for a temperature slightly higher
about 6 MHz, the AT -cut crystal now is than the highest ambient likely to be en-
the most widely used. It is active, can be countered, must of necessity be employed.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillators 237

Overtone -Cut Just as a vibrating string can EXCITATION


Crystals be made to vibrate on its har- 6J5 ETC. EXCITATION

monics, a quartz crystal will


exhibit mechanical resonance (and therefore
electrical resonance) at harmonics of its
fundamental frequency. When employed in 1

the usual holder, it is possible to excite the L--


crystal only on its odd harmonics (over- = Cz

tones) .
+5
,00-150 v. e +e
,00 -150V.

By grinding the crystal especially for BASIC "PIERCE" OSCILLATOR HOT -CATHODE "PIERCE'
harmonic operation, it is possible to enhance OSCILLATOR

its operation as a harmonic resonator. BT-


and AT -cut crystals designed for optimum Figure 6
operation on the 3rd, th and even the 7th THE PIERCE CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
overtone are available. The f th- and 7th - CIRCUIT
overtone types, especially the latter, require
special holder and oscillator circuit pre- Shown at A Is the basic Pierce crystal oscil-
lator circuit. A capacitance of 70 to 7S pf.
cautions for satisfactory operation, but the normally will be required at C, for optimum
3rd -overtone type needs little more consid- operation. If a plate supply voltage higher
eration than a regular fundamental type. A than indicated is to be used, RFC, may be re-
placed by a 22,000 -ohm 2 -watt resistor.
crystal ground for optimum operation on a Shown at B is an alternative arrangement
particular overtone may or may not be a with the r -f ground moved to the plate, and
with the cathode floating. This alternative cir-
good oscillator on a different overtone or cuit has the advantage that the full r -f voltage
on the fundamental. One interesting char- developed a he crystal may be used as
acteristic of an overtone -cut crystal is that excitation to the next stage, since one side of
the crystal is grounded.
its overtone frequency is not quite an
exact multiple of its fundamental, though
the disparity is very small. C, to C2. For a given shunt capacitance
The overtone frequency for which the (C2) the crystal current for a given crystal
crystal was designed is the working fre- is directly proportional to the r -f voltage
quency. It is not the fundamental since across C2. This voltage may be measured by
the crystal itself actually oscillates on this means of a vacuum -tube voltmeter having
working frequency when it is functioning in a low input capacitance, and such a measure-
the proper manner. ment is a more pertinent one than a reading
When an overtone -cut crystal is employed, of r-f current by means of a thermogal-
a selective tuned circuit must be employed vanometer inserted in series with one of the
somewhere in the oscillator in order to dis- leads to the crystal holder.
criminate against the fundamental frequency The function of a crystal is to provide
or undesired overtones, otherwise the crys- accurate frequency control, and unless it is
tal might not always oscillate on the in- used in such a manner as to take advantage
tended frequency. For this reason the Pierce of its inherent high stability, there is no
oscillator (later described in this chapter) point in using a crystal oscillator. For this
is not suitable for use with overtone -cut
reason a crystal oscillator should not be run
crystals, because the only tuned element in at high plate input in an attempt to obtain
this oscillator circuit is the crystal itself. considerable power directly from the oscil-
lator, as such operation will cause the crystal
Crystal Current;
to heat, with resultant frequency drift and
For a given crystal
possible fracture.
Heating and Fracture operating as an anti -
resonant tank in a giv-
en oscillator fixed load impedance and plate 11 -3 Crystal Oscillator
and screen voltages, the r -f current through Circuits
the crystal will increase as the shunt capaci-
tance (C, of figure 4) is increased, because Considerable confusion exists as to nomen-
this effectively increases the step -up ratio of clature of crystal oscillator circuits, due to a
238 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
tendency to name a circuit after its dis- the crystal. Whereas the Pierce circuits of
coverer. Nearly all the basic crystal oscillator figure 6 will oscillate at (or very close to)
circuits were either first used or else devel- the antiresonant frequency of the crystal,
oped independently by G. W. Pierce, but he the circuits of figure 7 will oscillate at a
has not been so credited in all the literature. frequency a little above the antiresonant
Use of the crystal oscillator in master os- frequency of the crystal.
cillator circuits in radio transmitters dates The diagram shown in figure 7A is the
back to about 1924 when the first applica- basic circuit. The most popular version of
tion articles appeared. the tuned -plate oscillator employs a pentode
The Pierce or beam tetrode with cathode bias to pre-
The circuit of figure 6A is the
Oscillator vent excessive plate dissipation when the cir-
simplest crystal oscillator circuit.
It is one of those developed by
cuit is not oscillating. The cathode resistor
is optional. Its omission will reduce both
Pierce, and is generally known among ama-
teurs as the Pierce oscillator. The crystal crystal current and oscillator efficiency, re-
simply replaces the tank circuit in a Colpitts sulting in somewhat more output for a given
or ultra -audion oscillator. The r -f excitation crystal current. The tube usually is an audio
voltage available to the next stage is low, or video beam pentode or tetrode, the plate -
grid capacitance of such tubes being suffi-
being somewhat less than that developed
across the crystal. Capacitor C, will make
cient to ensure stable oscillation but not so
high as to offer excessive feedback with
more of the voltage across the crystal avail-
resulting high crystal current. The 6CL6
able for excitation, and sometimes will be
found necessary to ensure oscillation. Its makes an excellent all- around tube for this
value is small, usually approximately equal type circuit.
to or slightly greater than the stray capaci-
tance from the plate circuit to ground (in- Pentode The usual type of crystal -
cluding the grid of the stage being driven). Harmonic Crystal controlled h -f transmit-
If the r -f choke has adequate inductance, Oscillator Circuits ter operates, at least part
a crystal (even an overtone -cut crystal) will of the time, on a fre-
almost invariably oscillate on its fundamen- quency which is an integral multiple of the
tal. The Pierce oscillator therefore cannot be operating frequency of the controlling crys-
used with overtone -cut crystals. tal. Hence, oscillator circuits which are
The circuit at B is the same as that of capable of providing output on the crys-
A except that the plate instead of the cath- tal frequency if desired, but which also can
ode is operated at ground r -f potential. All deliver output energy on harmonics of the
of the r -f voltage developed across the crys- crystal frequency have come into wide use.
tal is available for excitation to the next Four such circuits which have found wide
stage, but still is low for reasonable values application are illustrated in figures 7C, 7D,
of crystal current. For best operation a tube 7E, and 7F.
with low heater -cathode capacitance is re- The circuit shown in figure 7C is recom-
quired. Excitation for the next stage may mended for use with overtone -cut crystals
also be taken from the cathode when using when output is desired on a multiple of the
this circuit. oscillating frequency of the crystal. As an
example, a 25 -MHz overtone -cut crystal
Tuned -Plate The circuit shown in fig- may be used in this circuit to obtain output
Crystal Oslillator ure 7A is also one used by on 50 MHz or a 48 -MHz overtone -cut
Pierce, but is more widely crystal may be used to obtain output on the
referred to as the Miller oscillator. To avoid 144 -MHz amateur band. The circuit is not
confusion, we shall refer to it as the tuned - recommended for use with the normal type
plate crystal oscillator. It is essentially an of fundamental- frequency crystal since more
Armstrong or tuned -plate /tuned -grid oscil- output with fewer variable elements can be
lator with the crystal replacing the usual LC obtained with the circuits of 7D and 7F.
grid tank. The plate tank must be tuned The Pierce harmonic circuit shown in fig-
to a frequency slightly higher than the anti- ure 7D is satisfactory for many applications
resonant (parallel -resonant) frequency of which require very low crystal current, but

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillators 239

6C4,ETC 6V6, 6AQ5, ETC 6G7, 6AQ5. 5763 3F

002
150
+250 v. +250V

BASIC -PLATE OSCILLATOR RECOMMENDED TUNED -PLATE SPECIAL RCUIT FOR USE WITH
C
OSCILLATOR OVERTONE CUT CRYSTAL.

`.J O

5763 F, 2F, 3F 5763 F, 2F, 3F, 4F 5763 F. 2F. 3F, 4F

10PF

200PF
200PF
vAniAeLe

1soP
22 R
+250v +250 V.

PIERCE HARMONIC CIRCUIT "TRITET" CIRCUIT COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

O
Figure 7

COMMONLY USED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS


Shown at A is the basic tuned -plate crystal oscillator with a triode oscillator tube. The plate
tank musi be tuned on the low- capacitance side of resonance to sustain oscillation. ll shows
the tuned -plot oscillator as it is normally used, with an a -f power pentode to permit high
output with relatively low crystal current. Schematics C, D, E, and F illustrate crystal oscillator
circuits which can deliver moderate output energy on harmonics of the oscillating frequency
of the crystal. C shows a special circuit which will permit use of an overtone -cut crystal to
obtain output energy well into the vhf range. D is valuable when extremely low crystal
current is a requirement, but delivers relatively low output. E is commonly used, but Is
subject to crystal damage if the cathode circuit is mistuned. F is recommended as the most
generally satisfactory from the standpoints of: low crystal current regardless of misadjust-
ment, good output on harmonic frequencies, one side of crystal Is grounded, will oscillate
with crystals from 1.5 to 10 MHz without adjustment, output tank may be tuned to the
crystal frequency for fundamental output without stopping oscillation or changing frequency.

has the disadvantage that both sides of the (1) the circuit will oscillate with crystals
crystal are above ground potential. The Tri- over a very wide frequency range with no
tet circuit of figure 7E is widely used and change other than plugging in or switching
can give excellent output with low crystal in the desired crystal; (2) crystal current is
current. However, the circuit has the dis- extremely low; (3) one side of the crystal
advantages of requiring a cathode coil, of re- is grounded, which facilitates crystal- switch-
quiring careful setting of the variable cath- ing circuits; (4) the circuit will operate
ode capacitor to avoid damaging the crystal straight through without frequency pulling,
when changing frequency ranges, and of or it may be operated with output on the
having both sides of the crystal above second, third, or fourth harmonic of the
ground potential. crystal frequency.
The Colpitts harmonic oscillator of figure
7F is recommended as being the most gener- Crystal Oscillator The tunable circuits of
ally satisfactory harmonic crystal oscillator Tuning all oscillators illustrated
circuit since it has the following advantages: should be tuned for max-
240 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
5763 75 ations become especially important. Keying
-F,2F,3F, of the plate voltage (in the negative lead)
20-is-IO4F. of a crystal oscillator, with the screen volt-
age regulated at about 150 volts, has been
2
found to give satisfactory results.
150
A Versatile 5763 The 5763 tube may be
\
7T.s305
- RFC Crystal Oscillator used in a modified Tri -tet
SAW MIN/DOCTOR
(20LIN)
151( 4.7K,2W crystal oscillator, capable
+300 v. of delivering sufficient power on all bands
NOTES from 160 meters through 10 meters to fully
I. Lo =/s LIN (sf- OF BBW 30/S) drive a pentode tube, such as the 807, 2E26
2. L2' 1.eLN (/ - OFBSW It 3003)
3. FOR /.O METER OPERATION ADO SPFCAP4O7OR
or 6146. Such an oscillator is extremely use-
BETWEEN PINS 1811o90f57s3 PLATE Q7R.55 p(
(2 fOF 84W 3010)
ful for portable or mobile work, since it
4. X7 MHz CRYSTAL FOR HARMONIC OPERATION combines all essential exciter functions in
one tube. The circuit of this oscillator is
Figure 8 shown in figure 8. For 160 -, 80- and 40-
meter operation the 5763 functions as a
ALL -BAND CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR tuned -plate oscillator. Fundamental- frequen-
CAPABLE OF DRIVING BEAM -TETRODE cy crystals are used on these three bands.
TUBE. 6CL6 OR 5763 MAY BE USED For 20 -, 15- and 10 -meter operation the
5763 functions as a Tri -tet oscillator with a
imum output as indicated by maximum ex- fixed -tuned cathode circuit. The impedance
citation to the following stage, except that of this cathode circuit does not affect opera-
the oscillator tank of tuned -plate oscillators tion of the 5763 on the lower frequency
(figure 7A and figure 7B) should be backed bands so it is left in the circuit at all times.
off slightly towards the low capacitance side A 7 -MHz crystal is used for fundamental
from maximum output, as the oscillator then output on 40 meters and for harmonic out-
is in a more stable condition and sure to put on 20, 15, and 10 meters. Crystal cur-
start immediately when power is applied. rent is extremely low regardless of the out-
This is especially important when the oscil- put frequency of the oscillator. The plate
lator is keyed, as for break -in c -w operation. circuit of the 5763 is capable of tuning a
frequency range of 2:1, requiring only
Crystal Switching It is desirable to keep stray two output coils: one for 80- 40 -meter oper-
shunt capacitances in the ation, and one for 20 -, 15-, and 10 -meter
crystal circuit as low as possible, regardless operation. In some cases it may be necessary
of the oscillator circuit. If a selector switch to add 5 picofarads of external feedback ca-
is used, this means that both switch and pacity between the plate and control grid of
crystal sockets must be placed close to the the 5763 tube to sustain oscillation with
oscillator -tube socket. This is especially true sluggish 160 -meter crystals.
of overtone -cut crystals operating on a
comparatively high frequency. In fact, on Triode Overtone The recent development of
the highest frequency crystals it is prefer- Oscillators reliable overtone crystals
able to use a turret arrangement for switch- capable of operation on the
ing, as the stray capacitances can be kept third, fifth, seventh (or higher) overtones
lower. has made possible vhf output from a low -
frequency crystal by the use of a double -
Crystal- OscillatorWhen the crystal oscillator triode regenerative oscillator circuit. Some
Keying is keyed, it is necessary of the twin triode tubes such as the 12AU7,
that crystal activity and 12AV7 and 6J6 are especially satisfactory
oscillator -tube transconductance be moder- when used in this type of circuit. Crystals
ately high, and that oscillator loading and that are ground for overtone service may
crystal shunt capacitance be low. Below be made to oscillate on odd- overtone fre-
2500 kHz and above 6 MHz these consider- quencies other than the one marked on the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillators 241

6J6 2F 6J6
4F

5K
X 7 CI C2

F 7-BMMi

FOR 7 MHz CRYSTAL


+300 V L1228 T. NSA ON NATIONAL XRSO
FORM
+300 V. L22 8T II /B ON NATIONAL XRSO
FORM

AO JONES HARMONIC OSCILLATOR OB COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

I2AU7 6J6
3F 6,9F
3F 6,9F

RFC

FOR SAINT CRYSTAL FOR BMNT CRYSTAL

7005 Saw MIN/DOCTOR


L i = /07 30I/ BBW M NIDUCTOR,
+300V L I= 9T. +300V. TAP AT ST. FROM GRID ENO
L2 = T 5005 B1W MIN /DOCTOR
THESE CO /LS MADE FROM SINGLE SECT/ON
OF MIN / DOCTOR ONE TURN BROKEN TO
DIVIDE INDUCTOR INTO TWO CO /LS.
REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR OD REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

12AT7 12AT7 (Da 6AB4)


6,9F

F 144MHi La
- +200 V.

Li= 5Te/B, D. SPACED

L2= /T HOOKUP WIRE, D. r


+300 V.

EO CATHODE FOLLOWER OVERTONE OSCILLATOR OF V H F OVERTONE OSCILLATOR

Figure 9

VARIOUS TYPES OF OVERTONE OSCILLATORS USING MINIATURE DOUBLE- TRIODE


VACUUM TUBES

crystal holder. A 24 -MHz overtone crystal, The first section of the 6J6 dual triode
for example, is a specially ground 8 -MHz comprises a regenerative oscillator, with out-
crystal operating on its third overtone. In put on either the third or fifth overtone of
the proper circuit it may be made to oscillate the crystal frequency. The regenerative loop
on 40 MHz (fifth overtone), 56 MHz (sev- of this oscillator consists of a capacitance
enth overtone), or 72 MHz (ninth over- bridge made up of C, and C_ with the ratio
tone) Even the ordinary 8 -MHz crystals
. C2 /C, determining the amount of regenera-
not designed for overtone operation may be tive feedback in the circuit. With an 8 -MHz
made to oscillate readily on 24 MHz (third crystal, output from the first section of the
overtone) in these circuits. 6J6 tube may be obtained on either 24 or
A variety of overtone oscillator circuits is 40 MHz, depending on the resonant frequen-
shown in figure 9. The oscillator of figure cy of the plate circuit inductor (L,) The .

9A is attributed to Frank Jones, W6AJF. second half of the 6J6 acts as a frequency
242 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
multiplier, its plate circuit (L2) tuned to will prevent self-oscillation of the circuit.
the sixth- or ninth -harmonic frequency The use of a 144 -MHz overtone crystal is
when L, is tuned to the third overtone, or to illustrated in figure 9F. A 6AB4 or one -half
the tenth- harmonic frequency when L, is of a 12AT7 tube may be used, with output
tuned to the fifth overtone. directly in the 2 -meter amateur band. A
Figure 9B illustrates a Colpitts overtone slight amount of regeneration is provided by
oscillator employing a 6J6 tube. This is an the one turn link, (L2) which is loosely
outgrowth of the Colpitts harmonic oscil- coupled to the 144 -MHz tuned tank circuit
lator of figure 7F. The regenerative loop in (L,) in the plate circuit of the oscillator
this case consists of C,, C2, and RFC be- tube. If a 12AT7 tube and a 110 -MHz
tween the grid, cathode, and ground of the crystal are employed, direct output in the
first section of the 6J6. The plate circuit of 220 -MHz amateur band may be obtained
the first section is tuned to the second, har- from the second half of the 12AT7.
monic of the crystal, and the second section
of the 6J6 doubles to the fourth harmonic 11 -4 Radio- Frequency
of the crystal. This circuit is useful in ob-
taining 28 -MHz output from a 7 -MHz Amplifiers
crystal and is highly popular in mobile work.
The circuit of figure 9C shows a typical The output of the oscillator stage in a
regenerative overtone oscillator employing a transmitter (whether it be self -controlled or
12AU7 double- triode tube. Feedback is con- crystal controlled) must be kept down to a
trolled by the number of turns in L2, and fairly low level to maintain stability and to
the coupling between L2 and L,. Only maintain a factor of safety from fracture of
enough feedback should be employed to the crystal when one is used. The low power
maintain proper oscillation of the crystal. output of the oscillator is brought up to the
Excessive feedback will cause the first sec- desired power level by means of radio-fre-
tion of the 12AU7 to oscillate as a self - quency amplifiers. The two classes of r -f
excited T.N.T. oscillator, independent of the amplifiers that find widest application in
crystal. A variety of this circuit is shown in radio transmitters are the class -B and class -C
figure 9D, wherein a tapped coil, (L,) is types.
used in place of the two separate coils.
Operation of the circuit is the same in either The Class -B Class -B amplifiers are used in a
case, regeneration now being controlled by Amplifier radio- telegraph transmitter when
the placement of the tap on L,. maximum power gain and mini-
A cathode -follower overtone oscillator is mum harmonic output is desired in a par-
shown in figure 9E. The cathode coil (L1) ticular stage. A class -B amplifier operates
is chosen so as to resonate with the crystal with cutoff bias and a comparatively small
and tube capacities just below the third - amount of excitation. Power gains of 20 to
overtone frequency of the crystal. For ex- 200 or so are obtainable in a well -designed
ample, with an 8 -MHz crystal, L3 is tuned class -B amplifier. The plate efficiency of a
to 24 MHz, L, resonates with the circuit class -B c -w amplifier will run around 65
capacities to 23.5 MHz, and the harmonic percent.
tank circuit of the second section of the
12AT7 is tuned either to 48 MHz or 72 The Class -B Another type of class -B ampli -
MHz. If a 24 -MHz overtone crystal is used Linear fier is the class -B linear stage as
in this circuit, L, may be tuned to 72 MHz, employed in radiophone work.
L, resonates with the circuit capacities to 70 This type of amplifier is used to increase the
MHz, and the harmonic tank circuit (L_) is level of a modulated signal, and de-
tuned to 144 MHz. If there is any tendency pends for its operation on the linear relation
towards self -oscillation in the circuit, it may between excitation voltage and output volt-
he eliminated by a small amount of inductive age. Or, to state the fact in another manner,
coupling and between L., and L,. Placing the power output of a class -B linear stage
these coils near each other, with the winding varies linearly with the square of the excita-
of L., correctly polarized with respect to L3 tion voltage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK R -F Amplifiers 243

The class-B linear amplifier is operated Grid -Modulated If the grid current to a class -
with cutoff bias and a small value of excita- Class-C C amplifier is reduced to a
tion, the actual value of exciting power low value, and the plate
being such that the power output under loading is increased to the point where the
carrier conditions is one - fourth of the peak plate dissipation approaches the rated value,
power capabilities of the stage. Class -B such an amplifier may be grid modulated
linears are very widely employed in broadcast for radiotelephony. If the plate voltage is
and commercial installations, and are com- raised to quite a high value and the stage is
mcn in amateur application for single -side- adjusted carefully, efficiencies as high as 40
band transmitters. Tubes with high plate to 43 percent with good modulation capa-
dissipation are required for moderate output bility and comparatively low distortion may
in this mode. The carrier efficiency of such an be obtained. Fixed bias is required. This type
amplifier will vary from 30 to 35 percent. of operation is termed class-C grid -bias mod-
ulation.

Grid Excitation Adequate grid excitation


The Gass -C Class -C amplifiers are very wide - must be available for class -
Amplifier ly used in a -m and c -w transmit- B or class -C service. The excitation for a
ters. Good power gain may be plate -modulated class -C stage must be suffi-
obtained (values of gain from 3 to 20 are cient to produce a normal value of d -c grid
common) and the plate- circuit efficiency current with rated bias voltage. The bias
may under certain conditions be as high as voltage preferably should be obtained from a
85 percent. Class -C amplifiers operate with combination of grid leak and fixed C -bias
considerably more than cutoff bias and supply.
ordinarily with a large amount of excitation Cutoff bias can be calculated by dividing
as compared to a class -B amplifier. The bias the amplification factor of the tube into the
for a normal class -C amplifier is such that d -c plate voltage. This is the value normally
plate current on the stage flows for approx- used for class -B amplifiers (fixed bias, no
imately 120 of the 360 excitation cycle. grid resistor). Class -C amplifiers use from
Class -C amplifiers are used in transmitters 1.5 to f times this value, depending on the
where a fairly large amount of excitation available grid drive, or excitation, and the
power is available and good plate- circuit desired plate efficiency. Less grid excitation
efficiency is desired. is needed for c -w operation, and the values
of fixed bias (if greater than cutoff) may
be reduced, or the value of the grid -bias re-
Plate Modulated The characteristic of a sistor can be lowered until normal rated d -c
Clou -C class -C amplifier which grid current flows.
makes it linear with re- The values of grid excitation listed for
spect to changes in plate voltage is that each type of tube may be reduced by as
which allows such an amplifier to be plate much as 50 percent if only moderate power
modulated for radiotelephony. Through the output and plate efficiency are desired. When
use of higher bias than is required for a c -w consulting the tube tables, it is well to re-
class -C amplifier and greater excitation, the member that the power lost in the tuned
linearity of such an amplifier may be extend- circuits must be taken into consideration
ed from zero plate voltage to twice the when calculating the available grid drive.
normal value. The output power of a class - At very -high frequencies, the r-f circuit
C amplifier, adjusted for plate modulation, losses may even exceed the power required
varies with the square of the plate voltage. for actual grid excitation.
This is the same condition that would take Link-coupling between stages, particularly
place if a resistor equal to the voltage on the to the final amplifier grid circuit, normally
amplifier, divided by its plate current, were will provide more grid drive than can be ob-
substituted for the amplifier. Therefore, tained from other coupling systems. The
the stage presents a resistive load tothemod- number of turns in the coupling link, and
ulator. the location of the turns on the coil, can be
244 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO


Figure 10

COMMON NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE-ENDED AMPLIFIERS

varied with respect to the tuned circuits to methods by which this energy feedback may
obtain the greatest grid drive for allowable be eliminated: the first, and the most com-
values of buffer or doubler plate current. mon method, is through the use of a capaci-
Slight readjustments sometimes can be made tance bridge, and the second method is
after plate voltage has been applied to the through the use of a parallel reactance of
driver tube. equal and opposite polarity to the grid -to-
Excessive grid current damages tubes by plate capacitance, to nullify the effect of
overheating the grid structure; beyond a this capacitance.
certain point of grid drive, no increase in Examples of the first method are shown
power output can be obtained for a given in figure 10. Figure l0A shows a capaci-
plate voltage. tance- neutralized stage employing a balanced
tank circuit. Phase reversal in the tank cir-
11 -5 Neutralization of cuit is obtained by grounding the center of
the tank coil to radio-frequency energy by
R -F Amplifiers capacitor C1. Points A and B are 180 degrees
out of phase with each other, and the cor-
The plate -to -grid feedback capacitance of rect amount of out -of -phase energy is
triodes makes it necessary that they be neu- coupled through the neutralizing capacitor
tralized for operation as r -f amplifiers at fre- (NC) to the grid circuit of the tube. The
quencies above about 500 kHz. Those equivalent bridge circuit of this is shown in
screen -grid tubes, pentodes, and beam figure 11A. It is seen that the bridge is not
tetrodes which have a plate -to -grid capaci- in balance, since the plate- filament capaci-
tance of 0.1 pf or less may be operated as an tance of the tube forms one leg of the bridge,
amplifier without neutralization in a well - and there is no corresponding capacitance
designed amplifier up to 30 MHz. from the neutralizing capacitor (point B)
to ground to obtain a complete balance. In
Neutralizing The object of neutralization is addition, it is mechanically difficult to obtain
Circuits to cancel or neutralize the ca- a perfect electrical balance in the tank coil,
pacitive feedback of energy and the potential between point A and
from plate to grid. There are two general ground and point B and ground, in most

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Neutralization 245

cases, is unequal. This circuit, therefore, decrease, and the voltage from point B to
holds neutralization over a very small oper- ground will increase, both in direct propor-
ating range and unless tubes of low inter - tion to the amount of circuit unbalance.
electrode capacitance are used the inherent The use of this circuit is not recommended
unbalance of the circuit will permit only ap- above 7 MHz, and it should be used below
proximate neutralization. that frequency only with low internal ca-
pacitance tubes.
Split- Stator Figure 10B shows the neu-
Plate Neutrali- tralization circuit which Push -Pull Two tubes of the same type
zotion is widely used in single - Neutralization can be connected for push-
ended r -f stages. The use of pull operation so as to obtain
a split- stator plate capacitor makes the elec- twice as much output as that of a single
trical balance of the circuit substantially in- tube. A push -pull amplifier, such as that
dependent of the mutual coupling within the shown in figure 12 also has an advantage
coil and also makes the balance independent in that the circuit can more easily be bal-
of the place where the coil is tapped. With anced than a single -tube r -f amplifier. The
conventional tubes this circuit will allow various interelectrode capacitances and the
one neutralization adjustment to be made on, neutralizing capacitors are connected in such
for example, 28 MHz, and this adjustment a manner that the reactances on one side of
usually will hold sufficiently close for opera-
tion on all lower- frequency bands.
Capacitor C2 is used to balance out the
plate- filament capacity of the tube to allow
a perfect neutralizing balance at all frequen-
cies. The equivalent bridge circuit is shown
in figure 11B. If the plate -filament capaci-
tance of the tube is extremely low (100TH
triode, for example) , capacitor C2 may be
omitted, or may merely consist of the
residual capacity of NC to ground.
O BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -A
Grid Neutralization A split grid -tank cir-
cuit may also be used C

for neutralization of a triode tube as shown


in figure 10C. Out of phase voltage is de-
veloped across a balanced grid circuit, and
coupled through NC to the single -ended
plate circuit of the tube. The equivalent
bridge circuit is shown in figure 11C. This
circuit is in balance until the stage is in
operation when the loading effect of the OB BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -B

tube upon one -half of the grid circuit


c
throws the bridge circuit out of balance.
The amount of unbalance depends on the N

grid -plate capacitance of the tube, and the


amount of mutual inductance between the OUT
two halves of the grid coil. If an r -f volt-
meter is placed between point A and ground, (NEIiDWL,-
Cc-r
(SMALL) RFC
and a second voltmeter placed between point CAPACITY)

B and ground, the loading effect of the tube


will be noticeable. When the tube is supplied BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -C

excitation with no plate voltage, NC may


be adjusted until the circuit is in balance. Figure 11
When plate voltage is applied to the stage,
the voltage from point A to ground will EQUIVALENT NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS

www.americanradiohistory.com
246 Generaticn of R -F Energy THE RADIO

ultra high frequencies where other neutrali-


zation circuits are unsatisfactory. This is
true because the lead length in the neutrali-
zation circuit is practically negligible. The
circuit can also be used with push -pull r -f
amplifiers. In this case, each tube will have
its own neutralizing inductor connected
from grid to plate.
The main advantage of this arrangement
is that it allows the use of single -ended tank
circuits with a single -ended amplifier.
Figure 12 The chief disadvantage of the shunt neu-
tralized arrangement is that the stage must
STANDARD CROSS -NEUTRALIZED
be neutralized each time the stage is re-
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AMPLIFIER
turned to a new frequency sufficiently re-
moved that the grid and plate tank circuits
must be retuned to resonance. However, by
the tuned circuits are exactly equal to those
the use of plug -in coils it is possible to
on the opposite side. For this reason, push -
change to a different band of operation by
pull r -f amplifiers can be more easily neu-
changing the neutralizing coil at the same
tralized in vhf transmitters; also, they usual-
time that the grid and plate coils are
ly remain in perfect neutralization when
tuning the amplifier to different bands. changed.
The circuit shown in figure 12 is perhaps
The 0.0001 -4d capacitor in series with
the most commonly used arrangement for a the neutralizing coil is merely a blocking
push -pull r -f amplifier stage. The rotor of capacitor to isolate the plate voltage from
the grid capacitor is grounded, and the rotor the grid circuit. The coil (L) will have to
have a very large number of turns for the
of the plate tank capacitor is bypassed to
ground. band of operation in order to be resonant
with the comparatively small grid -to -plate
Shunt or Coil The feedback of energy
Neutralization from grid to plate in an
unneutralized r-f amplifier
is a result of the grid -to -plate capacitance of
the amplifier tube. A neutralization circuit
is merely an electrcial arrangement for nulli-
fying the effect of this capacitance. All
the previous neutralization circuits have
made use of a bridge circuit for balancing
out the grid -to -plate energy feedback by
feeding back an equal amount of energy of
opposite phase.
Another method of eliminating the feed-
back effect of this capacitance, and hence of Figure 13
neutralizing the amplifier stage, is shown in
figure 13. The grid -to-plate capacitance in COIL- NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER
the triode amplifier tube acts as a capacitive This neutralization circuit is very effective with
reactance, coupling energy back from the triode tubes on any frequency, but is particu-
larly effective in the vhf range. Coil L is ad-
plate to the grid circuit. If this capacitance justed so that it resonates at the operating
is paralleled with an inductance having the frequency with the grid -to -plate capacitance
same value of reactance of opposite sign, the of the tube. Capacitor C may be a very small
unit of the low -capacitance neutralizing type
reactance of one will cancel the reactance of and is used to trim the circuit to resonance
the other and a high- impedance tuned cir- at the operating frequency. if some means of
varying the inductance of the coil a small
cuit from grid to plate will result. amount is available, the trimmer capacitor is
This neutralization circuit can be used on not needed.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Neutralizing Procedure 247

capacitance. But since, in all ordinary cases detuned slightly from resonance on either
with tubes operating on frequencies for side the grid current on the stage should
which they were designed, the LC ratio of decrease the same amount and without any
the tuned circuit will be very high, the sudden jumps on either side of resonance.
coil can use comparatively small wire, al- This will be found to be a very precise indi-
though it must be wound on air or very low - cation of accurate neutralization in either a
loss dielectric and must be insulated for the triode or beam-tetrode r -f amplifier stage,
sum of the plate r -f voltage and the grid r -f so long as the stage is feeding a load which
voltage. presents a resistive impedance at the oper-
ating frequency.
11 -6 Neutralizing Push -pull circuits usually can be more
completely neutralized than single -ended
Procedure circuits at very high frequencies. In the in-
termediate range of from 3 to 30 MHz,
An r -f amplifier is neutralized to prevent
single -ended circuits will give satisfactory
self -oscillation or regeneration. A neon bulb,
results.
a flashlight bulb and a loop of wire, or a di-
cde voltmeter can be used as a null indicator
for neutralizing low -power stages. The plate Neutralization of Radio- frequency amplifiers
voltage lead is disconnected from the r-f am- Screen -Grid R -F using screen -grid tubes can
plifier stage while it is being neutralized. Amplifiers be operated without any
Normal grid drive then is applied to the r -f additional provision for
stage, the neutralizing indicator is coupled neutralization at frequencies up to about 15
to the plate coil, and the plate tuning capac- MHz, provided adequate shielding has been
itor is tuned to resonance. The neutralizing provided between the input and output cir-
capacitor (or capacitors) then can be ad- cuits. Special vhf screen -grid and beam tet-
justed until minimum r.f. is indicated for rode tubes such as the 2E26, 6146, and 5516
resonant settings of both grid- and plate - in the low -power category and 4E27A,
tuning capacitors. Both neutralizing capaci- 4 -65A, 4 -125A, and 4 -250A in the medium-
tors are adjusted simultaneously and to ap- power category can frequently be operated
proximately the same value of capacitance at frequencies as high as 50 MHz without
when a physically symmetrical push -pull any additional provision for neutralization.
stage is being neutralized. Tubes such as the 807, 7094, and 813 can
A final check for neutralization should be be operated with good circuit design at fre-
made with a d -c milliammeter connected in quencies up to 30 MHz without any addi-
the grid -leak or grid -bias circuit. There will tional provision for neutralization. The 829
be no movement of the meter reading as the tube has been found to require neutralization
plate circuit is tuned through resonance in many cases above 20 MHz although the
(without plate voltage being applied) when 832A tube will operate quite stably at 100
the stage is completely neutralized. MHz without neutralization.
Plate voltage should be completely re- None of these tubes, however, has perfect
moved by actually opening the d -c plate cir- shielding between the grid and the plate, a
cuit. If there is a d -c return through the condition brought about by the inherent in-
plate supply, a small amount of plate current ductance of the screen leads within the tube
will flow when grid excitation is applied, even itself. In addition, unless "watertight" shield-
though no primary a -c voltage is being fed ing is used between the grid and plate cir-
to the plate transformer. cuits of the tube a certain amount of ex-
A further check on the neutralization of ternal leakage between the two circuits is
any r -f amplifier can be made by noting present. These difficulties may not be serious
whether maximum grid current on the stage enough to require neutralization of the stage
comes at the same point of tuning on the to prevent oscillation, but in many instances
plate- tuning capacitor as minimum plate they show up in terms of key- clicks when
current. This check is made with plate volt- the stage in question is keyed, or as parasitics
age on the amplifier and with normal anten- when the stage is modulated. Unless the
na coupling. As the plate tuning capacitor is designer of the equipment can carefully
248 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO

E
O

Figure 14

NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR


BEAM TETRODES

A c tional cross -neutralized circuit for use with push -pull beam tetrodes Is shown at A.
The neutralizing capacitors (NC) usually consist of small plates or rods mounted alongside
the plate elements of the tubes. B and C show grid -neutralized circuits for use with a single-
ended tetrode having either link coupling or capacitive coupling into the grid tank. D shows
a method of tuning the screen -lead inductance to accomplish neutralization in a single -
ended vhf tetrode amplifier, while E shows a method of neutralization by increasing the
grid-to -plate capacitance on a tetrode when the operating frequency is higher than that
frequency where the tetrode is "self- neutralized" as a result of series resonance in the
screen lead. Methods D and E normally are not practicable at frog 'es below about 50
MHz with the usual types of beam tetrode tubes.

check the tetrode stage for miscellaneous quired with beam tetrode tubes. This order
feedback between the grid and plate circuits, of capacitance is far less than can be ob-
and make the necessary circuit revisions to tained with a conventional neutralizing
reduce this feedback to an absolute mini- capacitor at minimum setting, so the neu-
mum, it is wise to neutralize the tetrode just tralizing arrangement is most commonly
as if it were a triode tube. made especially for the case at hand. Most
In most push -pull tetrode amplifiers the common procedure is to bring a conductor
simplest method of accomplishing neutrali- (connected to the opposite grid) in the vi-
zation is to use the cross- neutralized capaci- cinity of the plate itself or of the plate
tance bridge arrangement as normally em- tuning capacitor of one of the tubes. Either
ployed with triode tubes. The neutralizing one or two such capacitors may be used,
capacitances, however, must be very much two being normally used on a higher -fre-
smaller than used with triode tubes, values quency amplifier in order to maintain bal-
of the order of 0.2 pf normally being re- ance within the stage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Neutralizing Procedure 249

An example of this is shown in figure Cancellation of The provisions discussed in


14A. Screen -Lead the previous paragraphs are
Inductance for neutralization of the
Neutralizing A single -ended tetrode r -f small ( though still important
Single -Ended amplifier stage may be neu- at the higher frequencies) grid -to -plate ca-
Tetrode Stages tralized in the same manner pacitance of beam -tetrode tubes. However,
as illustrated for a push -pull in the vicinity of the upper frequency limit
stage in figure 14A, provided a split-stator of each tube type the inductance of the
tank capacitor is in use in the plate circuit. screen lead of the tube becomes of consid-
However, in the majority of single-ended erable importance. With a tube operating at
tetrode r -f amplifier stages a single- section a frequency where the inductance of the
capacitor is used in the plate tank. Hence, screen lead is appreciable, the screen will al-
other neutralization procedures must be em- low a considerable amount of energy leak -
ployed when neutralization is found neces- through from plate to grid even though the
sary. socket terminal on the tube is carefully by-
The circuit shown in figure 14B is not a passed to ground. This condition takes place
true neutralizing circuit, in that the plate - even though the socket pin is bypassed since
to -grid capacitance is not balanced out. the reactance of the screen lead will allow a
However, the circuit can afford the equiva- moderate amount of r -f potential to appear
lent effect by isolating the high resonant on the screen itself inside the electrode as-
impedance of the grid -tank circuit from the sembly in the tube. This effect has been re-
energy fed back from plate to grid. When duced to a very low amount in such tubes
NC and C are adjusted to bear the following as the 4CX250B, 8122, and 4CX1000K, but
ratio to the grid -to -plate capacitance and it is still quite appreciable in most beam -
the total capacitance from grid-to- ground tetrode tubes.
in the output tube, The effect of screen -lead inductance on
the stability of a stage can be eliminated at
NC CRP any particular frequency by one of two
C CFk methods. These methods are: (1) Tuning
out the screen -lead inductance by series -
both ends of the grid tank circuit will be at resonating the screen -lead inductance with a
the same voltage with respect to ground as a capacitor to ground. This method is illus-
result of r -f energy fed back to the grid trated in figure 14D and is commonly em-
circuit. This means that the impedance from ployed in commercially built equipment for
grid to ground will be effectively equal to operation on a narrow frequency band in the
the reactance of the grid -to- cathode capaci- range above about 75 MHz. The other
tance in parallel with the stray grid -to- method (2) is illustrated in figure 14E and
ground capacitance, since the high resonant consists in feeding back additional energy
impedance of the tuned circuit in the grid from plate to grid by means of a small ca-
has been effectively isolated from the feed- pacitor connected between these two ele-
back path. It is important to note that the ments. Note that this capacitor is connected
effective grid -to- ground capacitance of the in such a manner as to increase the effective
tube being neutralized includes the rated grid -to -plate capacitance of the tube. This
grid -to- cathode or input capacitance of the method has been found to be effective with
tube, the capacitance of the socket, wiring 6146 tubes in the range above 50 MHz and
capacitances and other strays, but it does not with tubes such as the 4 -125A and 4 -250A
include the capacitances associated with the in the vicinity of their upper frequency
grid- tuning capacitor. Also, if the tube is limits.
being excited by capacitive coupling from a Note that both these methods of stabi-
preceding stage (as in figure 14C) , the ef- lizing a beam -tetrode vhf amplifier stage by
fective grid -to- ground capacitance includes cancellation of screen -lead inductance are
the output capacitance of the preceding suitable only for operation over a relatively
stage and its associated socket and wiring narrow band of frequencies in the vhf range.
capacitances. At lower frequencies both these expedients
250 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO

r-- ,;---

INTERWOi1NO
COILS

C20PF
PER METER .01
WAVELENGTH

Figure 16

CONVENTIONAL TRIODE FREQUENCY


Figure 15
MULTIPLIER
GROUNDED -GRID AMPLIFIER Small triodes such as the 6C4 operate satis-
This type of triode amplifier requires no factorily as frequency multipliers, and can
neutralization, and is very popular as o zero - deliver output well into the vhf range. Resistor
bias class-B linear stage for SSB service. R normally will have a value in the vicinity of
100,000 ohms.

for reducing the effects of screen -lead in-


ductance will tend to increase the tendency result in a very low plate -to- filament capaci-
toward oscillation of the amplifier stage. tance when the grid is grounded, the grid
Neutralizing When a stage cannot be com- acting as an effective shield much in the
Problems pletely neutralized, the diffi- manner of the screen of a tetrode tube. By
culty usually can be traced to connecting such a triode in the typical cir-
one or more of the following causes: (1) cuit of figure 15, taking the usual precau-
Filament leads not bypassed to the common tions against stray capacitive and inductive
ground of that particular stage. (2) Ground coupling between input and output circuits,
lead from the rotor connection of the split - a stable power amplifier is realized which
stator tuning capacitor to filament open or requires no neutralization in the hf region.
too long. (3) Neutralizing capacitors in a A high -p. triode may not require grid bias to
field of excessive r.f. from one of the tuning operate in the class -B mode, however, some
coils. (4) Electromagnetic coupling between amount of grid bias may be added to achieve
grid and plate coils, or between plate and class -C operation.
preceding buffer or oscillator circuits. (5) The grounded -grid (cathode- driven) am-
Insufficient shielding or spacing between
plifier requires considerably more excitation
stages, or between grid and plate circuits in
compact transmitters. (6) Shielding placed than if the same tube were employed in a
too close to plate- circuit coils, causing in- conventional grounded-cathode circuit. The
duced currents in the shields. (7) Parasitic additional drive power required to drive a
oscillations when plate voltage is applied. tube in a grounded -grid circuit is not lost,
The cure for the latter is mainly a matter however, as it shows up in the output cir-
of cut and try- rearrange the parts, change cuit and adds to the power delivered to the
the length of grid, plate, or neutralizing load. Nevertheless it means that a larger
leads, insert a parasitic choke in the grid driver stage is required for an amplifier of
lead or leads, or eliminate the grid r -f chokes given output power as a portion of the drive
which may be the cause of a low- frequency power is delivered to the load (feedtbrough
parasitic (in conjunction with plate r -f power). Stage gains of 10 to 12 decibels are
chokes) . common in grounded -grid circuits.
Some tetrodes may be strapped as triodes
11 -7 Grounded -Grid
(screen and grid grounded) and operated as
Amplifiers class -B grounded -grid tubes. Data on this
Certain triodes such as the 3 -400Z have class of operation may often be obtained
a grid structure and lead arrangement which from the tube manufacturer.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Grounded -Grid Amplifiers 251

TANM CIeCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGC


P
e

nn
K N T

1 (CVTOrr) A u w LI
'
M
,
o n I
-, U\ w T

I 1


HI

N(CUTOFP)- - (

I CxC1TATION
VOLTAGE

`o

Figure 18

ILLUSTRATING THE ACTION OF A


FREQUENCY DOUBLER

Doubling is best accomplished by opera-


ting the tube with high grid bias. The grid
circuit is driven approximately to the normal
value of d -c grid current through the r -f
Figure 17 choke and grid -leak resistor, shown in figure
16. The resistance value generally is from
FREQUENCY- MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS
two to five times as high as that used with
The output of a triode vhf frequency multi- the same tube for straight amplification.
plier often may be increased by neutralization Consequently, the grid bias is several times as
of the grid -to -plate capacitance as shown at
A. Such a stage also may be operated as a high for the same value of grid current.
straight amplifier when the occasion demands. Neutralization is seldom necessary in a
A pentode frequency multiplier is shown at B.
Conventional power tetrodes operate satisfac- doubler circuit, since the plate is tuned to
torily as multipliers so long as the output fre- twice the frequency of the grid circuit. The
quency is below about 100 MHz. About this impedance of the grid- driving circuit is very
frequency special vhf tetrodes must be used to
obtain satisfactory output. low at the doubling frequency, and thus
there is little tendency for self- excited os-
cillation.
11-8 Frequency Frequency doublers require bias of several
Multipliers times cutoff; high -p. tubes therefore are de-
sirable for this type of service. Tubes which
Quartz crystals and variable- frequency os- have amplification factors from 20 to 200
cillators are not ordinarily used for direct are suitable for doubler circuits. Tetrodes
control of the output of high- frequency and pentodes make excellent doublers. Low -ic
transmitters. Frequency multipliers are triodes, having amplification constants of
usually employed to multiply the frequency from 3 to 10, are not applicable for doubler
to the desired value. These multipliers oper- service. In extreme cases the grid voltage
ate on exact multiples of the excitation fre- must be as high as the plate voltage for ef-
quency; a 3.6 -MHz crystal oscillator can be ficient doubling action.
made to control the output of a transmitter Angle of Flow The angle of plate- current
on 7.2 or 14.4 MHz, or on 28.8 MHz, by in Frequency flow in a frequency multiplier
means of one or more frequency multipliers. Multipliers is a very important factor in
When used at twice frequency, they are determining the plate efficiency. As the angle
often termed frequency doublers. A simple of flow is decreased for a given value of grid
doubler circuit is shown in figure 16. It con- current, the efficiency increases. To reduce
sists of a vacuum tube with its plate circuit the angle of flow, higher grid bias is required
tuned to twice the frequency of the grid - so that the grid excitation voltage will ex-
driving circuit. This doubler can be excited ceed the cutoff value for a shorter portion
from a crystal oscillator or another multi- of the exciting- voltage cycle. For a high
plier or amplifier stage. order of efficiency, frequency doublers should
252 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO

Figure 19 Figure 20
PUSH-PUSH FREQUENCY DOUBLER PUSH -PULL FREQUENCY TRIPLER
The output of a doubler stage may be materi- The push -pull tripler is advantageous in the
ally increased through the use of a push -push vhf range since circuit balance is maintained
circuit such as illustrated above. both in the input and output circuits. li the
circuit is neutralized it may be used either as
a straight amplifier or as a tripler. Either
have an angle of flow of 90 degrees or less, triodes or tetrodes may be used; dual -unit
tetrodes such as the 6360, 832A, and 8298 are
tripiers 60 degrees or less, and quadruplers particularly effective in the vhf range.
45 degrees or less. Under these conditions
the efficiency will be on the same order as
can be analyzed, the tripler skipping two ex-
the reciprocal of the harmonic on which the
citation pulses and the quadrupler three. In
stage operates. In other words the efficiency
each case the excitation pulse ideally should
of a doubler will be approximately %z or 50
be short enough that it does not exceed 180
percent, the efficiency of a tripler will be
degrees at the output frequency; otherwise
approximately 1/3 or 33 percent and that of
the excitation actually is bucking the output
a quadrupler will be about 25 percent. With
over a portion of the cycle.
good stage design the efficiency can be some-
In actual practice, it is found uneconomi-
what greater than these values, but as the
cal to provide sufficient excitation to run a
angle of flow is made greater than these
tripler or quadrupler in this fashion. Usually
limiting values, the efficiency falls off
the excitation pulses will be at least 90
rapidly. The reason is apparent from a study
degrees at the exciting frequency, with cor-
of figure 18.
respondingly low efficiency, but it is more
The pulses ABC, EFG, and JKL illustrate
practicable to accept the low efficiency and
180- degree excitation pulses under class -B
build up the output in succeeding amplifier
operation, the solid straight line indicating
stages. The efficiency can become quite low
cutoff bias. If the bias is increased by before the power gain becomes less than
N times, to the value indicated by the dot- unity.
ted straight line, and the excitation increased
until the peak r -f voltage with respect to Push -Push Two tubes can be connected in
ground is the same as before, then the ex- Multipliers parallel to give twice the output
citation frequency can be cut in half and the of a single -tube doubler. If the
effective excitation pulses will have almost grids are driven out of phase instead of in
the same shape as before. The only difference phase, the tubes then no longer work simul-
is that every other pulse is missing; MNO taneously, but rather one at a time. The ef-
simply shows where the missing pulse would fect is to fill in the missing pulses (figure
go. However, if the Q of the plate tank cir- 18) . Not only is the output doubled, but
cuit is high, it will have sufficient flywheel several advantages accrue which cannot be
effect to carry over through the missing obtained by straight parallel operation.
pulse, and the only effect will be that the Chief among these is the effective neutral-
plate input and r -f output at optimum load- ization of the fundamental and all odd har-
ing drop to approximately half. As the input monics, an advantage when spurious emis-
frequency is half the output frequency, an sions must be minimized. Another advantage
efficient frequency doubler is the result. is that when the available excitation is low
By the same token, a tripler or quadrupler and excitation pulses exceed 90 degrees, the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Frequency Multipliers 253

output and efficiency will be greater than for lent for operation with push-pull beam
the same tubes connected in parallel. tetrodes such as the 6360 and 829B, al-
The same arrangement may be used as a though a pair of tubes such as the 2E26, or
quadrupler, with considerably better effi- 5763 could just as well be used if proper at-
ciency than for straight parallel operation, tention were given to the matter of screen -
because seldom is it practicable to supply lead inductance.
sufficient excitation to permit 45- degree ex-
citation pulses. As pointed out above, the
push -push arrangement exhibits better effi- 11 -9 Tank -Circuit
ciency than a single -ended multiplier when Capacitances
excitation is inadequate for ideal multiplier
operation. It is necessary that the proper value of Q
A typical push -push doubler is illustrated be used in the plate tank circuit of any r -f
in figure 19. When high -transconductance amplifier. The following section has been de-
tubes are employed, it is necessary to employ voted to a treatment of the subject, and
a split- stator grid -tank capacitor to prevent charts are given to assist the reader in the
self -oscillation. With well screened tetrodes determination of the proper LC ratio to be
or pentodes having medium values of trans - used in a radio- frequency amplifier stage.
conductance, a split -coil arrangement with a A class -C amplifier draws plate current in
single- section capacitor may be employed the form of very distorted pulses of short
(the center tap of the grid coil being by- duration. Such an amplifier is always oper-
passed to ground). ated into a tuned inductance -capacitance or
tank circuit which tends to smooth out these
Push -Pull Frequency It is frequently desir- pulses, by its storage or tank action, into a
Triplers able in the case of uhf sine wave of radio- frequency output. Any
and vhf transmitters waveform distortion of the carrier frequency
that frequency multiplication stages be bal- results in harmonic interference in higher -
anced with respect to ground. Further it is frequency channels.
just as easy in most cases to multiply the A class -A r -f amplifier would produce a
crystal or vfo frequency by powers of three sine wave of radio- frequency output if its
rather than multiplying by powers of two as exciting waveform were also a sine wave.
is frequently done in lower- frequency trans- However, a class -A amplifier stage converts
mitters. Hence the use of push -pull tripiers its d -c input to r -f output by acting as a
has become quite prevalent in both commer- variable resistance, and therefore heats con-
cial and amateur vhf and uhf transmitter siderably. A class -Bor -C amplifier driven
designs. Such stages are balanced with re- hard with short pulses at the peak of the
spect to ground and appear in construction exciting waveform acts more as an electronic
and on paper essentially the same as a push - switch, and therefore can convert its d -c
pull r -f amplifier stage with the exception input to r -f output with relatively good
that the output tank circuit is tuned to three efficiency. Values of plate- circuit efficiency
times the frequency of the grid -tank circuit. from 65 to 85 percent are common in class -
A circuit for a push -pull tripler stage is C amplifiers operating under optimum con-
shown in figure 20. ditions of excitation, grid bias, and loading.
A push -pull tripler stage has the further
advantage in amateur work that it can also Tank Circuit Q As stated before, the tank
be used as a conventional push -pull r -f am- circuit of a class -C amplifier
plifier merely by changing the grid and plate receives energy in the form of short pulses
coils so that they tune to the same fre- of plate current which flow in the amplifier
quency. This is of some advantage in the tube. But the tank circuit must be able to
case of operating the 50 -MHz band with 50- store enough energy so that it can deliver a
MHz excitation, and then changing the current essentially sine wave in form to the
plate coil to tune to 144 MHz for operation load. The ability of a tank to store energy in
of the stage as a tripler from excitation on this manner may be designated as the effec-
48 MHz. This circuit arrangement is excel- tive Q of the tank circuit. The effective cir-
254 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
ating conditions on the class -BIC tube. This
load impedance may be obtained from the
DYNAMIC
CHARACTER IS following expression, which is true in the
T
-0+
p O
Li general case of any class -B /C amplifier:

RL - 2
E p m2
Np 1,, Ebb

where the values in the equation have the


characteristics listed in the beginning of
Chapter 6.
The expression is academic, since the peak
GRID SWING value of the fundamental component of
plate voltage swing (Epp,) is not ordinarily
Figure 21 known unless a high -voltage peak a -c volt-
meter is available for checking. Also, the
CLASS -C AMPLIFIER OPERATION decimal value of plate- circuit efficiency is
Plate current pulses are shown at A, !, and C. not ordinarily known with any degree of ac-
The dip in the top of the plate current wave- curacy. However, in a normally operated
form will occur when the xcitation voltage is
such that the minimum plate voltage dips
class -B /C amplifier the plate voltage swing will
below the maximum grid voltage. A detailed be approximately equal to 0.8 S to 0.9 times
discussion of th
operation of class -C ampli- the d -c plate voltage on the stage, and the
fiers is given in Chapter Six.
plate- circuit efficiency will be from 70 to 80
percent (N1, of 0.7 to 0.8) the higher values
,
cuit Q may be stated in any of several ways, of efficiency normally being associated with
but essentially the Q of a tank circuit is the the higher values of plate voltage swing.
ratio of the energy stored to 27r times the With these two assumptions as to the normal
energy lost per cycle. Further, the energy class -B /C amplifier, the expression for theplate
lost per cycle must, by definition, be equal load impedance can be greatly simplified to
to the energy delivered to the tank circuit the following approximate expression, which
by the class -Bor -C amplifier tube or tubes. also applies to class -AB, stages:
The Q of a tank circuit at resonance is
equal to its parallel -resonant impedance (the Rd.e.
resonant impedance is resistive at resonance) RI,
2
divided by the reactance of either the ca-
pacitor or the inductor which go to make up which means simply that the resistance pre-
the tank. The inductive reactance is equal sented by the tank circuit to the class- B/C
to the capacitive reactance, by definition, at
resonance. Hence we may state:

Q = eRL
=
Rt,
XL
where,
RI, is the resonant impedance of the tank,
Xe
XI,
is
is
the reactance of the tank capacitor,
the reactance of the tank coil.
1111
' ,
11111111111111111111111111
1

This value of resonant impedance (RL)


is the load which is presented to the class -C
amplifier tube in a single -ended circuit such
NIIllllll!!1
w11 NARMONIC

11111111161161i:ii~..M!
1116111111111111

5 U 201025 30
TANK CIRCUIT Q
as shown in figure 21.
The value of load impedance (RI,) which Figure 22
the class -B /C amplifier tube sees may be ob-
tained, looking in the other direction from RELATIVE HARMONIC OUTPUT
the tank coil, from a knowledge of the oper- PLOTTED AGAINST TANK CIRCUIT Q

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tank Circuits 255

\111111
\I
20000
Q= 2
5000

__- ME UT BALI

II
ZI NG

W
_ 1\
1\1111111M11IIIIII
BIBB.BBIBIBBfBBBBI
B)
mum
COIL

RFC

re
< lII
o 1m\11m1n\11111
<
\111!I\1\11111
il CI

II
'I19i1\\11111l
tr

10 20
H!iiIHi!!i
TOTAL CAPACITANCE ACROSS LC CIRCUIT (C1)
50 WO 200 500 1000 2000

Figure 23

PLATE TANK -CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS


Shown above in the case of each of the tank -circuit types is the recommended tank circuit
capacitance. A is a conventional tetrode amplifier, B is a coil -neutralized triode amplifier,
C is a grounded -grid triode amplifier, D is a grid -neutralized triode amplifier.

Illill\1IIII
\-
o

Q1211II

\111,111\11111111011111111
10 ..
oo0i
.

BIIi
mu
w
UZ
w
i` a5
J CC
s

.
`

,'
B;;I
III.
IIII
IIII
,111III
O J
U iIh!Id;!uIiIIIMuuhuIII
< <3
w
11IIII\1IIII1\\1111111

d
2 IIIIIilI'11I1111 11IIIIII ,

2 3 5 7 10
' ,1. 1II,
11,,II 20 70 50
I

00 200 500 000


CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE (C FOR
OPERATING Q OF 12 WITH SINGLE -ENDED SPLIT TANK COLS
Figure 24

PLATE CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS


Shown above for each of the tank circuit types is the recommended tank circuit capacitance
at the operating frequency for an operating Q of 12. A is a split-stator tank, each section of
which is twice the capacitance value read on the graph. B is circuit using tapped coil for
phase reversal.

tube is approximately equal to one -half the to the tube, with the expression for tank
d -c load resistance which the class -C stage Q given in a previous paragraph we have the
presents to the power supply (and also to the following expression which relates the react-
modulator in case high -level modulation of ance of the tank capacitor or coil to the d -c
the stage is to be used). input to the class -B /C stage:
Combining the above simplified expression Rd.c.
for the r -f impedance presented by the tank Xe=Xr, 2Q

www.americanradiohistory.com
256 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
The foregoing expression is the basis of the harmonic energy, so that additional harmon-
usual charts giving tank capacitance for the ic filtering circuits external to the amplifier
various bands in terms of the d -c plate volt- proper must be used if increased attenuation
age and current to the class -B /C stage, includ- of higher -order harmonics is desired. The
ing the charts of figure 23, figure 24, and curves also show that push -pull amplifiers
figure 25. may be operated at Q values of 6 or so, since
the second harmonic is cancelled to a large
Harmonic Radia- The problem of harmonic extent if there is no unbalanced coupling be-
tion versus Q radiation from transmitters tween the output tank circuit and the an-
has long been present, but tenna system.
it has become critical during the past decades
along with the extensive occupation of Capacity Charts for Figures 23, 24, and 2S
the vhf range. Television signals are particu- Optimum Tank Q lustrate the correct value
larly susceptible to interference from other of tank capacitance for
signals falling within the passband of the re- various circuit configurations. A Q value
ceiver, so that the TVI problem has received of 12 has been chosen as optimum for single -
the major emphasis of all the services in the ended circuits, and a value of 6 has been
vhf range which are susceptible to interfer- chosen for push -pull circuits. Figure 23 is
ence from harmonics of signals in the hf or used when a single -ended stage is employed,
lower -vhf range. and the capacitance values given are for the
Inspection of figure 22 will show quickly total capacitance across the tank coil. This
that the tank circuit of an r-f amplifier value includes the tube interelectrode ca-
pacitance (plate to ground), coil distributed
should have an operating Q of 12 or greater
capacitance, wiring capacitance, and the
to afford satisfactory rejection of second - value of any low- inductance plate -to- ground
harmonic energy. The curve begins to bypass capacitor as used for reducing har-
straighten out above a Q of about 15, so monic generation, in addition to the actual
that a considerable increase in Q must be "in -use" capacitance of the plate tuning ca-
made before an appreciable reduction in sec- pacitor. Total circuit stray capacitance may
ond- harmonic energy is obtained. Above a vary from perhaps S picofarads for a vhf
circuit Q of about 10 any increase will not stage to 30 picofarads for a medium -power
afford appreciable reduction in the third- tetrode h -f stage.

1,\ l'Il11\111111111
111111IIIII
; 111 ,I
W

W
. .
\ 1 imu
ll...1III
IL MIR
\\Cllil\Ilill11111
\111111\11111111111
11
I\ 1"
I11111
a sssssisssstsinImLIss.sisvssssssssinm

s , Il1llli\111I1i211111111

IIIIIiiLiM!iiiiiIIOI
2 3 S 7 10 20 30 30 CO 20D 300 1000
CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE (C ) FOR OPERATING O OF 8 WITH PUSH -PULL
TANK CIRCUITS
Figure 25

PLATE-TANK CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS FOR PUSH -PULL STAGES


Shown above is recommended tank circuit capacitance at operating frequency for a Q of 6.
A is split -stator tank, each section of which is twice the capacitance value read on the graph .

B is circuit using tapped colt for phase reversal.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tank Circuits 257

When a split plate -tank coil is employed series -fed. The important thing in establish-
in the stage in question, the graph of figure ing the operating Q of the tank circuit is
24 should be used. The capacitance read the ratio of the loaded resonant impedance
from the graph is the total capacitance across its terminals to the reactance of the L
across the tank coil. If the split- stator tun- and the C which make up the tank.
ing capacitor is used, each section of the Due to the unknowns involved in deter-
capacitor should have a value of capacitance mining circuit stray capacitances it is some-
equal to twice the value indicated by the times more convenient to determine the
graph. As in the case of figure 23, the values value of L required for the proper circuit Q
of capacitance read on the graph of figure (by the method discussed earlier in this Sec-
24 include all residual circuit capacitances. tion) and then to vary the tuned -circuit
For push-pull operation, the correct values capacitance until resonance is reached. This
of tank circuit capacitance may be deter- method is most frequently used in obtaining
mined with the aid of figure 25. The capaci- proper circuit Q in commercial transmitters.
tance values obtained from figure 25 are The values of R for using the charts are
the effective values across the tank circuit, easily calculated by dividing the d -c plate -
and if a split- stator tuning capacitor is used, supply voltage by the total d -c plate current
each section of the capacitor should have a (expressed in amperes). Correct values of
value of capacitance equal to twice the value total tuning capacitance are shown in the
indicated by the graph. As in the case of chart for the different amateur bands. The
figures 23 and 24, the values of capacitance shunt stray capacitance can be estimated
read on the graph of figure 25 include all closely enough for all practical purposes.
residual circuit capacitances. The coil inductance should then be chosen
The tank circuit operates in the same man- which will produce resonance at the desired
ner whether the tube feeding it is pentode, frequency with the total calculated tuning
beam tetrode, neutralized triode, grounded - capacitance.
grid triode; whether it is single -ended or Effect of Load- The Q of a circuit depends
push -pull; or whether it is shunt -fed or ing on Q on the resistance in series
with the capacitance and in-
Figure 26
ductance. This series resistance is very low
USUAL BREAKDOWN RATINGS OF for a low -loss coil not loaded by an antenna
COMMON PLATE SPACINGS
Air -gap in Peak voltage circuit. The value of Q may be from 100 to
inches breakdown 600 under these conditions. Coupling an an-
.030 1000
.050 2000 tenna circuit has the effect of increasing the
.070 3000
.100 4000 series resistance, though in this case the pow-
.125
.150
4500
5200
er is consumed as useful radiation by the an-
.170 6000 tenna. Mathematically, the antenna increases
.200
.250
7500
9000 the value of R in the expression Q = toL /R
.350 11,000 where L is the coil inductance in micro -
.500 15,000
.700 20,000 henrys and w is the term 27r (f being in
Recommended air -gap for use when no d -e MHz) .
voltage appears a plate tank capacitor
(when plate circuit is shunt fed, or when the The coupling from the final tank circuit
plate tank capacitor is Insulated from to the antenna or antenna transmission line
ground). can be varied to obtain values of Q from
D-C plate Plate perhaps 3 at maximum coupling to a value
voltage C-W mod.
400 .030 .050
of Q equal to the unloaded Q of the circuit
600 .050 .070 at zero antenna coupling. This value of un-
750 .050 .084
loaded Q can be as high as 500 or 600, as
1000 .070 .100
1250 .070 .144 mentioned in the preceding paragraph. How-
.200
ever, the value of Q = 12 will not be ob-
1500 .078
2000 .100 .250
2500 .175 .375 tained at values of normal d -c plate current
3000 .200 .500
3500 .250 .600 in the class -C amplifier stage unless the
Spacings should be multiplied by 1.5 for same C -to-L ratio in the tank circuit is correct
safety factor when d-e voltage appears across
plate tank capacitor. for that frequency of operation.
258 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
Tuning Capacitor To determine the required RP RA(Q2+1)(CxACT)
Air Gap tuning -capacitor air gap
RP Q2 RA (APPROX.)
for a particular amplifier
circuit it is first necessary to estimate the Q.
XC
L
peak r -f voltage which will appear between RI XLC
the plates of the tuning capacitor. Then, RP' APRO%. PLATC YOLTAGr
- PLATCCURRLLNT

**
using figure 26, it is possible to estimate the +e Re. 225 RA
FOR OPERATING CIRCUIT
plate spacing which will be required. Qor15; X
The instantaneous r -f voltage in the plate xL
circuit of a class -C amplifier tube varies
from nearly zero to nearly twice the d -c
plate voltage. If the d -c voltage is being 100 Figure 27
percent modulated by an audio voltage, the THE L- NETWORK IMPEDANCE
r -f peaks will reach nearly four times the TRANSFORMER
d -c voltage.
These rules apply to a loaded amplifier or The L- network is useful with a moderate
operating Q for high values of impedance
buffer stage. If either is operated without an transformation, and it may be used for appli-
r -f load, the peak voltages will be greater cations other than in the plate circuit of a
and can exceed the d -c plate supply voltage. tube with relatively low values of operating
Q for moderate impedance transformations.
For this reason no amplifier should be oper- Exact and approximate design equations are
ated without load when anywhere near nor- given.
mal d -c plate voltage is applied.
If a plate blocking capacitor is used, it to (Q2+1). The operating Q may be rela-
must be rated to withstand the d -c plate tively low (perhaps 3 to 6) in a matching
voltage plus any audio voltage. This capaci- net work between the plate tank circuit of
tor should be rated at a d -c working voltage an amplifier and a transmission line; hence
of at least twice the d-c plate supply in a impedance transformation ratios of 10 to 1
plate- modulated amplifier, and at least equal and even lower may be attained. But when
to the d -c supply in any other type of r -f the network also acts as the plate tank cir-
amplifier. cuit of the amplifier stage, as in figure 27,
11 -10 L- and Pi- Matching the operating Q should be at least 12 and
preferably 15. An operating Q of 15 repre-
Networks sents an impedance transformation of 225;
The L -and pi-networks often can be put this value normally will be too high even
to advantageous use in accomplishing an im- for transforming from the 2000- to 10,000 -
pedance match between two differing im- ohm plate impedance of a class -C amplifier
pedances. Common applications are the stage down to a 50 -ohm transmission line.
matching between a transmission line and However, the L- network is interesting
an antenna, or between the plate circuit of since it forms the basis of design for the pi-
a single -ended amplifier stage and an anten- network. Inspection of figure 27 will show
na transmission line. Such networks may be that the L- network in reality must be con-
used to accomplish a match between the sidered as a parallel- resonant tank circuit in
plate tank circuit of an amplifier and a which RA represents the coupled -in load re-
transmission line, or they may be used to sistance; only in this case the load resistance
match directly from the plate circuit of an is directly coupled into the tank circuit
amplifier to the line without the requirement rather than being inductively coupled as in
for a tank circuit -provided the network is the conventional arrangement where the load
designed in such a manner that it has suffi- circuit is coupled to the tank circuit by
cient operating Q for accomplishing har- means of a link. When R:.. is shorted, L and C
monic attenuation. comprise a conventional parallel- resonant
The L-Matching The L- network is of limited tank circuit, since for proper operation L
Network utility in impedance match- and C must be resonant in order for the net-
ing since its ratio of imped- work to present a resistive load to the class -C
ance transformation is fixed at a value equal amplifier.

www.americanradiohistory.com
H ANDBOOK L and Pi Networks 259

The Pi- Network The pi impedance -matching as the two knowns-or the actual values of
network, illustrated in figure the capacitance may be obtained for an op-
28, is much more general in its application erating Q of 12 by reference to figures 23,
than the L network since it offers greater 24 and 2S.
harmonic attenuation, and since it can be The inductive arm in the pi-network can
used to match a relatively wide range of be thought of as consisting of two induct-
impedances while still maintaining any de- ances in series, as illustrated in figure 28.
sired operating Q. The values of C, and L, The first portion of this inductance (L,)
in the pi_ network of figure 28 can be thought is that value of inductance which would
of as having the same values of the L net- resonate with C, at the operating frequency
work in figure 27 for the same operating Q, -the same as in a conventional tank circuit.
but, what is more important from the com- However, the actual value of inductance in
parison standpoint these values will be about this arm of the pi- network, Lrot will be
the sanie as in a conventional tank circuit. greater than L, for normal values of imped-
The value of the capacitance may be de- ance transformation. For high transformation
termined by calculation with the operating ratios LTot will be only slightly greater than
Q and the load impedance which should be L,; for a transformation ratio of 1.0, trot
reflected to the plate of the class -C amplifier will be twice as great as L,. The amount of

COAx
OUTPUT

WHERE Ell IS PLATE VOL TACE


PLATE LOAD (onus) - AND I S IS PLATE CURRENT
IN AMPERES.
Ce - .000214/P MICA CAPACITOR RATED AT TWICE THE D.C.
PLATE VOLTAGE.
RFC -N 2e ENAMELED, CLOSE -WOUND ON A CERAMIC INSULATOR
ID/A., LOW OR NATIONAL R -175A
1

RFC2- 2t MN, NATIONAL R -100

Estimated Plate
Load (ohms) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000` Notes
C, in pf, 3.5 MHz 520 360 280 210 180 155 135 120 110 90 The actual capacitance setting
7 260 180 140 105 90 76 68 60 56 45 for C, equals the value in this
14 130 90 70 52 45 38 34 30 28 23 table minus the published tube
21 85 60 47 35 31 25 23 20 19 15 output capacitance. Air gap
28 65 45 35 26 23 19 17 15 14 11 approx. 10 mils/100 y E,,.
L in h, 3.5 MHz 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14 15.5 18 20 25 Inductance values are for a
7 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 7 7.8 9 10 12.5 50-ohm load. For a 70-ohm
14 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.5 5 6.2 load, values are approx. 3%
21 0.73 1.08 1.38 1.7 2.05 2.3 2.6 3 3.3 4.1 higher.
28 0.55 0.8 1.05 1.28 1.55 1.7 1.95 2.5 2.5 3.1
C2 in pf, 3.5 MHz 2400 2100 1800 1550 1400 1250 1100 1000 900 700 For 50-ohm transmission line.
7 1200 1060 900 760 700 630 560 .500 460 350 Air gap for C2 is approx. 1
14 600 530 450 380 350 320 280 250 230 175 mil /100 v E,,.
21 400 350 300 250 230 210 185 165 155 120
28 300 265 225 190 175 160 140 125 115 90
Ca in pf, 3.5 MHz 1800 1500 1300 1100 1000 900 800 720 640 500 For 70-ohm transmission line.
7 900 750 650 560 500 450 400 360 320 250
14 450 370 320 280 250 220 200 180 160 125
21 300 250 215 190 170 145 130 120 110 85
28 225 185 160 140 125 110 100 90 80 65
Values given ore approximations All components shown in Table I are for a Q of 12. For other values of Q, use
Q. C, Q. Ln
Qn = e =
Qt,
When the estimated plate load is higher than 5000 ohms, it is recommended that the
components be selected for a circuit Q between 20 and 30.

Table 1. Components for Pi- Coupled Final Amplifiers (class AB, B, and C)
260 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
power level and the impedance to be fed. If
a S0 -ohm coaxial line is to be fed from the
pi-network, receiving -type capacitors will be
satisfactory even up to the power level of a
plate -modulated kilowatt amplifier. In any
event, the peak voltage which will be im-
pressed across the output capacitor is ex-
pressed by:
EPkz = 2RBWo
Roc. Ebb XC2RA RP
lb RA(Q2+1)R where,
Rear Rpc, the peak voltage across the capacitor,
EPk is

XL2
RA2 XC2 Ra isthe value of resistive load which the
X C, Ql- RA2+XC22 network is feeding,
W is the maximum value of the average
XL,= Q- XLTOT.'XLI+XL2 power output of the stage.

Figure 28 The harmonic attenuation of the pi net-


work is quite good, although an external
THE PI-NETWORK low -pass filter will be required to obtain
harmonic attenuation value upward of 100
The pi- network is valuable for use as an im-
pedance transformer over a wide ratio of db such as normally required. The attenua-
trans formation values. The operating Q should tion to second -harmonic energy will be ap-
be at least 12 when the circuit is to be used proximately 40 db for an operating Q of 15
in the plate circuit of a class -C amplifier. De-
sign equations are given above. Inductor for the pi-network; the value increases to
represents a single inductance, usually vari- about 45 db for a 1:1 transformation and
able, with a value equal to the sum of L, andL .
falls to about 38 db for an impedance step -
down of 80:1, assuming that the operating
inductance which must be added to L1 to Q is maintained at 15.
restore resonance and maintain circuit Q is Component Chart To simplify design proced-
obtained through use of the expression for for Pi- Networks ure, a pi- network chart is
X,,, and X,,_ in figure 28. given in Table I, summa-
The peak voltage rating of the main tun- rizing the calculations of figure 28 for var-
ing capacitor (C1) should be the normal ious values of plate load impedance for class
value for a class -C amplifier operating at the AB,, class -B and class -C amplifiers.
plate voltage to be employed. The inductor
(LTDI) may be a plug -in coil which is
changed for each band of operation, or some
sort of variable inductor may be used. A
continuously variable slider-type variable in-
ductor, such as used in certain items of
surplus military equipment, may be used to COAX
OUTPUT
good advantage if available, or a tapped
inductor such as used in the ART -13 may
be employed. However, to maintain good
circuit Q on the higher frequencies when a Ea WHERE EB IS PLATE
variable or tapped coil is used on the lower PLATE LOAD IoHMS)= VOLTAGE AND I B IS PLATE
22 IB CURRENT IN AMPERES
frequencies, the tapped or variable coil C 1 - SEE TABLE 1

should be removed from the circuit and re- C2- ONE -HALF TO TWO -THIRDS THAT
VALUE OF C2 GIVEN IN TABLE I
placed by a smaller coil which has been LI - 1.25 TIMES THAT VALUE OF L,
especially designed for the higher frequency GIVEN IN TABLE I
L2- ONE -THIRD VALUE OF L,, ABOVE
ranges.
The peak voltage rating of the output or
loading capacitor (CO is determined by the Table 2. The Pi -L Network

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Grid Bias 261

Figure 29

PI -L NETWORK PROVIDES EXTRA HARMONIC ATTENUATION

This linear amplifier makes use of a pi -L network in the plate circuit. The large vertical
coil is the main portion of the pi section, with the 10 -meter coil placed horizontally in front
of it. The L section is placed beneath the chassis in the recessed area. A three -deck
bandswitch is used one deck for the Pi coil, one deck for the L coil and the third deck for
additional 80 -meter loading capacitance. A small series -tuned circuit (adjusted to TV channel
2 or 3) is placed across the coaxial antenna receptacle to provide additional harmonic
protection at this band of frequencies.

The Pi -L Network The pi-L network shown value required for the equivalent pi- circuit
in Table II will provide 10 capacitor, and increasing the voltage rating
to 15 db more attenuation of the second by a factor of three over that minimum rat-
harmonic than will the pi, and even more ing established for the pi- capacitor. The pi-
attenuation to the higher harmonics. A pi- section coil (L1) will have an inductance
network may be converted to the pi -L con- about 1.2 times that of its pi- circuit
S

figuration by reducing the loading capacitor counterpart (coil L, Table I). The L- section
(C2) to about one -half to two -thirds that coil (L2) has no equivalent in the pi- circuit
262 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
and should be about one-third the induct- voltage. This procedure will ensure that the
ance of the pi- section coil (L1) as deter- tube is operating at a bias greater than cut-
mined above. A formal calculation of the off when the plate voltage is doubled on
pi -L circuit parameters is given in the article positive modulation peaks. C -w telegraph
"The Pi -L Plate Circuit in Kilowatt Am- and f -m transmitters can be operated with
plifiers ", by Rinaudo, QST, July 1962. (A bias as low as cutoff, if only limited excita-
free reprint of this article may be obtained tion is available and moderate plate efficiency
by writing to: Amateur Service Department, is satisfactory. In a c -w transmitter, the bias
EIMAC Division of Varian, San Carlos, supply or resistor should be adjusted to the
California) . point which will allow normal grid current
to flow for the particular amount of grid
11 -11 Grid Bias driving r -f power available. This form of
adjustment will allow more output from the
Radio- frequency amplifiers require some underexcited r -f amplifier than when higher
form of grid bias for proper operation. Prac- bias is used with corresponding lower values
tically all r -f amplifiers operate in such a of grid current. In any event, the operating
manner that plate current flows in the form bias should be set at as low a value as will
of short pulses which have a duration of give satisfactory operation, since harmonic
only a fraction of an r -f cycle. To accom- generation in a stage increases rapidly as the
plish this with a sinusoidal excitation volt- bias is increased.
age, the operating grid bias must be at least
Self Bias A resistor can be connected in
sufficient to cut off the plate current. In
very high efficiency class -C amplifiers the the grid circuit of a class-C ampli-
operating bias may be many times the cutoff fier to provide self bias. This resistor (R,
value. Cutoff bias, it will be recalled, is that in figure 30), is part of the d -c path in the
value of grid voltage which will reduce the grid circuit.
plate current to zero at the plate voltage The r -f excitation applied to the grid cir-
employed. The method for calculating it has cuit of the tube causes a pulsating direct cur-
been indicated previously. This theoretical rent to flow through the bias supply lead,
value of cutoff will not reduce the plate cur- due to the rectifying action of the grid, and
rent completely to zero, due to the variable- any current flowing through R, produces a
tendency or "knee" which is characteristic voltage drop across that resistor. The grid of
of all tubes as the cutoff point is approached. the tube is positive for a short duration of
each r -f cycle, and draws electrons from the
Class -C BiasAmplitude - modulated class -C filament or cathode of the tube during that
amplifiers should be operated time. These electrons complete the circuit
with the grid bias adjusted to a value great- through the d -c grid return. The voltage
er than twice cutoff at the operating plate drop across the resistance in the grid return
provides a negative bias for the grid.
Self bias automatically adjusts itself over
fairly wide variations of r -f excitation. The
I' ROM DRIVCR value of grid resistance should be such that
normal values of grid current will flow at
the maximum available amount of r-f ex-
citation. Self bias cannot be used for grid -
Figure 30 modulated or linear amplifiers in which the
average d -c current is constantly varying
SELF BIAS with modulation.
The grid resistor on an amplifier or multiplier
stag. may also be used as the shunt food Safety Bias Self bias alone provides no pro-
impedance to the grid of the tube when a tection against excessive plate
high value of resistor (greater than perhaps
20,000 ohms) is used. When a lower value of current in case of failure of the source of r -f
grid resistor is to be employed, an r -f choke grid excitation. A C- battery or C -bias supply
should be used between the grid of the tub*
and the grid resistor to r.duce r -f losses in can be connected in series with the grid resis-
the grid resistance. tor as shown in figure 31. This fixed protec-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Protective Circuits 263

sired grid and plate current flowing through


FROM DRIVER
the resistor will bias the tube for proper
operation.
This type of bias is used more extensively
in audio- frequency than in radio -frequency
amplifiers. The voltage drop across the resis-
tor must be subtracted from the total plate
Figure 31
supply voltage when calculating the power
COMBINATION SELF AND input to the amplifier, and this loss of plate
FIXED BIAS voltage in an r -f amplifier may be excessive.
Self bias often is used in conjunction with a A class -A audio amplifier is biased only to
Axed minimum value of power supply bias. approximately one-half cutoff, whereas an
This arrangement permits the operating bias
to be established by the excitation energy, r -f amplifier may be biased to twice cutoff,
but in the abs of excitation the elec- or more, and thus the plate supply voltage
trode is to the tube will be held to safe loss may be a large percentage of the total
values by the Axed -minimum power supply
bias. If a relatively low value of grid resistor available voltage when using low- or me-
is to be used, an r -f choke should be con- dium- tubes.
nected between the grid of the tube and the
resistor as discussed in figure 30. Often just enough cathode bias is em-
ployed in an r-f amplifier to act as safety
tive bias will protect the tube in the event of bias to protect the tubes in case of excita-
failure of grid excitation. "Zero-bias" tubes tion failure, with the rest of the bias coming
from a grid resistor.
do not require this bias source, since their plate
current will drop to a safe value when the Separate Bias An external supply often is
excitation is removed. Supply used for grid bias, as shown in
figure 33. Battery bias gives
Cathode Bias A resistor can be connected in very good voltage regulation and is satisfac-
series with the cathode or cen- tory for grid- modulated or linear amplifiers,
ter- tapped filament lead of an amplifier to se- which operate at low grid current. In the
cure automatic bias. The plate current flows case of class -C amplifiers which operate with
through this resistor, then back to the high grid current, battery bias is not satis-
cathode or filament, and the voltage drop factory. This direct current has a charging
across the resistor can be applied to the grid effect on the dry batteries; after a few
circuit by connecting the grid bias lead to months of service the cells will become un-
the grounded or power supply end of resistor stable, bloated, and noisy.
R, as shown in figure 32. A separate a -c operated power supply is
The grounded (B- minus) end of the cath- commonly used for grid bias. The bleeder re-
ode resistor is negative relative to the cath- sistance across the output of the filter can
ode by an amount equal to the voltage drop be made sufficiently low in value that the
across the resistor. The value of resistance grid current of the amplifier will not appre-
must be so chosen that the sum of the de- ciably change the amount of negative grid-

PROM
DRIVER

Figure 33

Figure 32 R -F STAGE WITH BATTERY BIAS


R -F STAGE WITH CATHODE BIAS Battery bias is seldom used, due to deteriora-
tion of the cells by the grid
Cathode bias sometimes Is advantageous for However, it may be used in certain special
use in an r -f stage that operats with a rela- applications, or the Arsd bias voltage may be
tively small amount of r -f excitation. supplied by a bias power supply.
264 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
bias voltage. Alternately, a voltage -regulated
grid -bias supply can be used. This type of
bias supply is used in class -B audio and class -
B r -f linear amplifier service where the volt-
age regulation in the C -bias supply is im-
portant. For a class -C amplifier, regulation
is not so important, and an economical de-
sign of components in the power supply, Figure 34
therefore, can be utilized. In this case, the DROPPING -RESISTOR SCREEN SUPPLY
bias voltage must be adjusted with normal
grid current flowing, as the grid current will
raise the bias considerably when it is flowing The Clomp Tube A clamp tube may be added
through the bias- supply bleeder resistance. to the series screen supply,
as shown in figure 35. The clamp tube is nor-
11 -12 Protective Circuits mally cut off by virtue of the d -c grid bias
drop developed across the grid resistor of the
for Tetrode tetrode tube. When excitation is removed
Transmitting Tubes from the tetrode, no bias appears across the
grid resistor, and the clamp tube conducts
The tetrode transmitting tube requires heavily, dropping the screen voltage to a
three operating voltages: grid bias, screen safe value. When excitation is applied to the
voltage, and plate voltage. The current re- tetrode the clamp tube is inoperative, and
quirements of these three operating voltages fluctuations of the plate loading of the
are somewhat interdependent, and a change tetrode tube could allow the screen voltage
in potential of one voltage will affect the to rise to a damaging value. Because of this
current drain of the tetrode in respect to the factor, the clamp tube does not offer com-
other two voltages. In particular, if the grid plete protection to the tetrode.
excitation voltage is interrupted as by key-
ing action, or if the plate supply is momen- The Separate A low- voltage screen supply
tarily interrupted, the resulting voltage or Screen Supply may be used instead of the
current surges in the screen circuit are apt series screen-dropping resis-
to permanently damage the tube. tor. This will protect the screen circuit from
excessive voltages when the other tetrode
The Series Screen A simple method of ob-
operating parameters shift. However, the
Supply taining screen voltage is by screen can be easily damaged if plate or bias
means of a dropping resis- voltage is removed from the tetrode, as the
tor from the high- voltage plate supply, as screen current will reach high values and the
shown in figure 34. Since the current drawn screen dissipation will be exceeded. If the
by the screen is a function of the exciting screen supply is capable of providing slightly
voltage applied to the tetrode, the screen more screen voltage than the tetrode re-
voltage will rise to equal the plate voltage quires for proper operation, a series wattage -
under conditions of no exciting voltage. If limiting resistor may be added to the circuit
the control grid is overdriven, on the other
hand, the screen current may become exces-
sive. In either case, damage to the screen and
its associated components may result. In ad-
dition, fluctuations in the plate loading of RFC

the tetrode stage will cause changes in the


screen current of the tube. This will result +e
in screen voltage fluctuations due to the in- NEGATIVE
herently poor voltage regulation of the OPERATING
e/As curs
I CLAMP
TURF
OFF CLAMP
screen series dropping resistor. These effects rasE
become dangerous to tube life if the plate
voltage is greater than the screen voltage by Figure 35
a factor of 2 or so. CLAMP -TUBE SCREEN SUPPLY

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Interstage Coupling 265

and the driver tube. This method of cou-


pling is simple and economical for low -power
amplifier or exciter stages, but has certain
disadvantages, particularly for high-fre-
SERIES RESISTOR
quency stages. The grid leads in an amplifier
should be as short as possible, but this is
LOW VOLTAGE +e
SCREEN SUPPLY difficult to attain in the physical arrange-
ment of a high-power amplifier with respect
Figure 36 to a capacitively coupled driver stage.
A PROTECTIVE WATTAGE-LIMITING RE- Disadvantages of One significant disadvan-
SISTOR FOR USE WITH LOW -VOLTAGE Capacitive tage of capacitive coupling
SCREEN SUPPLY Coupling is the difficulty of adjust-
ing the load on the driver
as shown in figure 36. With this resistor in stage. Impedance adjustment can be accom-
the circuit it is possible to apply excitation plished by tapping the coupling lead a part
to the tetrode tube with screen voltage pres- of the way down on the plate coil of the
ent (but in the absence of plate voltage) tuned stage of the driver circuit; but often
and still not damage the screen of the tube. when this is done a parasitic oscillation will
The value of the resistor should be chosen so take place in the stage being driven.
that the product of the voltage applied to
the screen of the tetrode times the screen
current never exceeds the maximum rated
screen dissipation of the tube.

11 -13 Interstoge Coupling

Energy is usually coupled from one circuit


of a transmitter into another either by ca-
Figure 38
pacitive coupling, inductive coupling, or
link coupling. The latter is a special form of BALANCED CAPACITIVE COUPLING
inductive coupling. The choice of a coupling Balanced capacitive coupling sometimes is
method depends on the purpose for which it useful when it is desirable to use a relatively
large inductance in the interstago tank cir-
is to be used. cuit, or where the exciting stags is neutralized
as shown above.
Capacitive Capacitive coupling between an
Coupling amplifier or doubler circuit and a
preceding driver stage is shown One main disadvantage of capacitive cou-
in figure 37. The coupling capacitor (C) pling lies in the fact that the grid -to -fila-
isolates the d -c plate supply from the next ment capacitance of the driven tube is
grid and provides a low- impedance path for placed directly across the driver tuned cir-
the rf energy between the tube being driven cuit. This condition sometimes makes the r -f
amplifier difficult to neutralize, and the in-
creased minimum circuit capacitance makes
it difficult to use a reasonable size coil in the
vhf range. Difficulties from this source can
be partially eliminated by using a center -
tapped or split-stator tank circuit in the
plate of the driver stage, and coupling ca-
pacitively to the opposite end from the plate.
This method places the plate -to- filament ca-
Figure 37 pacitance of the driver across one-half of
the tank and the grid -to- filament capaci-
CAPACITIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING tance of the following stage across the other

www.americanradiohistory.com
266 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
Unity Coupling If the grid- tuning capacitor
of figure 39 is removed and
the coupling increased to the maximum
practicable value by interwinding the turns
of the two coils, the circuit insofar as r.f.
is concerned, acts like that of figure 37, in
which one tank serves both as plate tank
for the driver and grid tank for the driven
stage. The interwound grid winding serves
Figure 39 simply to isolate the d -c plate voltage of the
INDUCTIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING driver from the grid of the driven stage, and
to provide a return for d -c grid current.
This type of coupling, illustrated in figure
half. This type of coupling is shown in 40, is commonly known as unity coupling.
figure 38. Because of the high mutual inductance,
Capacitive coupling can be used to ad- both primary and secondary are resonated by
vantage in reducing the total number of the one tuning capacitor.
tuned circuits in a transmitter so as to con-
serve space and cost. It also can be used to Link Coupling A special form of inductive
advantage between stages for driving beam coupling which is widely em-
tetrode or pentode amplifier or doubler ployed in radio transmitter circuits is known
stages. as link coupling. A low impedance r-f trans-
mission line couples the two tuned circuits
Inductive Inductive coupling (figure 39) together. Each end of the line is terminated
Coupling results when two coils are electro- in one or more turns of wire, or links, wound
magnetically coupled to one an- around the coils which are being coupled to-
other. The degree of coupling is controlled gether. These links should be coupled to each
by varying the mutual inductance of the tuned circuit at the point of zero r -f po-
two coils, which is accomplished by chang- tential, or nodal point. A ground connection
ing the spacing or the relationship between to one side of the link usually is used to re-
the axes of the coils. duce harmonic coupling, or where capacitive
Inductive coupling is used extensively for coupling between two circuits must be min-
coupling r -f amplifiers in radio receivers. imized. Coaxial line is commonly used to
However, the mechanical problems involved transfer energy between the two coupling
in adjusting the degree of coupling limit the links, although twin -lead may be used where
usefulness of direct inductive coupling in harmonic attenuation is not so important.
transmitters. Either the primary or the sec-
ondary or both coils may be tuned.

INTERWOUND

LINK COUPLING
AT `COLD' ONOS.
UPPER ENOS'HOT"

Figure 41

INTERSTAGE COUPLING BY MEANS


Figure 40 OF A LINK

"UNITY" INDUCTIVE COUPLING Link interstage coupling is very commonly


used since the two stages may be separated
Due to the high value of coupling between by a considerable distance, since the amount
the two coils, one tuning capacitor tunes of a coupling between the two stages may be
both circuits. This arrangement often is useful easily varied, and since the capacitances of
in coupling from a single -ended to a push-pull the two stages may be isolated to permit use
stage. of larger inductances in the vhf range.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Shunt and Series Feed 267

LINK COUPLING
AT -COLD - CENTER.
ENDS "MOT'
+SG +NV +SG +MV

PARALLEL PLATE FEED SERIES PLATE FEED

Figure 42
Figure 43
PUSH -PULL LINK COUPLING
ILLUSTRATING PARALLEL AND
SERIES PLATE FEED
Typical link -coupled circuits are shown in Parallel plate feed is desirable from a safety
figure 41 and 42. Some of the advantages of standpoint since the tank circuit is at ground
link coupling are the following: potential with respect to d.c. However, a
high -impedance r -f choke is required, and
the r -f choke must be able to withstand the
(1) It eliminates coupling taps on tuned peak r -f voltage output of the tube. Series
plate feed eliminates the requirement for a
circuits. high -performance r -f choke, but requires the
(2) It permits the use of series power sup- use of a relatively large value of bypass
ply connections in both tuned-grid capacitance at the bottom end of the tank
circuit, as contrasted to the moderate value
and tuned -plate circuits, and thereby of coupling capacitance which may be used
eliminates the need of shunt -feed r -f at the top of the tank circuit for parallel
plate feed.
chokes.
(3) It allows considerable separation be-
tween transmitter stages without ap- sage of r -f energy while still permitting a
preciable r-f losses or stray chassis cur- direct current or audio- frequency current to
rents. pass. They consist of inductances wound
(4) It reduces capacitive coupling and with a large number of turns, either in the
thereby makes neutralization more form of a solenoid, a series of solenoids, a
easily attainable in r -f amplifiers. single universal pie winding, or a series of
(S) It provides semiautomatic impedance pie windings. These inductors are designed
matching between plate and grid to have as much inductance and as little
tuned circuits, with the result that distributed or shunt capacitance as possible.
greater grid drive can be obtained in The unavoidable small amount of distributed
comparison to capacitive coupling. capacitance resonates the inductance, and
(6) It effectively reduces the coupling of this frequency normally should be much
harmonic energy. lower than the frequency at which the
The link -coupling line and links can be
made of No. 18 pushback wire for coupling
between low -power stages. For coupling be-
tween higher- powered stages the 150-ohm
twin -lead transmission line is quite effective
and has very low loss. Coaxial transmission
is most satisfactory between high powered
amplifier stages, and should always be used
where harmonic attenuation is important. -BIAS -BIAS

PARALLEL BIAS FEED SERIES BIAS FEED


11 -14 Radio -Frequency
Chokes Figure 44

Radio- frequency chokes are connected in ILLUSTRATING SERIES AND


circuits for the purpose of stopping the pas- PARALLEL BIAS FEED
268 Generation of R -F Energy

transmitter or receiver circuit is operating. high resistance to prevent waste of r -f


R -f chokes for operation on several bands power.
must be designed carefully so that the im-
pedance of the choke will be extremely high 11 -15 Parallel and
(several hundred thousand ohms) in each of Push -Pull Tube Circuits
the bands.
The comparative r -f power output from
The direct current which flows through
parallel or push -pull operated amplifiers is
the r -f choke largely determines the size of
the same if proper impedance matching is
wire to be used in the winding. The induc-
accomplished, if sufficient grid excitation is
tance of r-f chokes for the vhf range is
available in both cases, and if the frequency
much less than for chokes designed for
of measurement is considerably lower than
broadcast and ordinary short -wave opera-
tion. A very high- inductance r -f choke has the frequency limit of the tubes.
more distributed capacitance than a smaller Parallel Operating tubes in parallel has
one, with the result that it will actually Operation some advantages in transmitters
offer less impedance at very high frequencies. designed for operation below 30
Another consideration, just as important MHz, particularly when tetrode or pentode
as the amount of d.c. the winding will carry, tubes are to be used. Only one neutralizing
is the r -f voltage which may be placed across capacitor is required for parallel operation of
the choke without its breaking down. This triode tubes, as against two for push -pull.
is a function of insulation, turn spacing, fre- Above about 30 MHz, depending on the
quency, number and spacing of pies, and tube type, parallel -tube operation is not
other factors. ordinarily recommended with triode tubes.
Some chokes which are designed to have a However, parallel operation of grounded -
high impedance over a very wide range of grid stages and stages using low -C beam
frequency are, in effect, really two chokes: a tetrodes often will give excellent results well
uhf choke in series with a high- frequency into the vhf range.
choke. A choke of this type is polarized; that
Push -Pull The push -pull connection pro -
is, it is important that the correct end of the
Operation vides a well -balanced circuit in-
combination choke be connected to the
"hot" side of the circuit. sofar as miscellaneous capaci-
tances are concerned; in addition, the circuit
Shunt and Direct -current grid and plate can be neutralized more completely, espe-
Series Feed connections are made either by cially in high- frequency amplifiers. The LC
series- or parallel -feed systems. ratio in a push -pull amplifier can be made
Simplified forms of each are shown in figures higher than in a plate -neutralized parallel -
43 and 44. tube operated amplifier. Push -pull amplifiers,
Series feed can be defined as that in which when perfectly balanced, have less second -
the d -c connection is made to the grid or harmonic output than parallel- or single -tube
plate circuits at a point of very low r -f po- amplifiers, but in practice undesired capaci-
tential. Shunt feed always is made to a point tive coupling and circuit unbalance more or
of high r -f voltage and always requires a less offset the theoretical harmonic -reducing
high- impedance r-f choke or a relatively advantages of push -pull r -f circuits.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER TWELVE

R -F Feedback

Comparatively high gain is required in sin - 12 -1 R -F Feedback


gle-sideband equipment because the signal is
usually generated at levels of one watt or less.
Circuits
To get from this level to a kilowatt requires R -f feedback circuits have been developed
about 30 db of gain. High gain tetrodes may by the Collins Radio Co. for use with linear
be used to obtain this increase with a minimum amplifiers. Tests with large receiving and small
number of stages and circuits. Each stage con- transmitting tubes showed that amplifiers us-
tributes some distortion; therefore, it is good ing these tubes without feedback developed
practice to keep the number of stages to a signal -to- distortion ratios no better than 30 db
minimum. It is generally considered good prac- or so. Tests were run employing cathode -fol-
tice to operate the low -level amplifiers below lower circuits, such as shown in figure 1A.
their maximum power capability in order to Lower distortion was achieved, but at the cost
confine most of the distortion to the last two of low gain per stage. Since the voltage gain
amplifier stages. R -f feedback can then be through the tube is less than unity, all gain
utilized to reduce the distortion in the last has to be achieved by voltage step -up in the
two stages. This type of feedback is no dif- tank circuits. This gain is limited by the dis-
ferent from the common audio feedback used sipation of the tank coils, since the circuit
in high - fidelity sound systems. A sample of capacitance across the coils in a typical trans-
the output waveform is applied to the ampli- mitter is quite high. In addition, the tuning
fier input to correct the distortion developed of such a stage is sharp because of the high -
in the amplifier. The same advantages can be Q circuits.
obtained at radio frequencies that are obtained The cathode - follower performance of the
at audio frequencies when feedback is used. tube can be retained by moving the r-f ground

Bf
B

R.f.1N

BIAS

O
Figure 1

SIMILAR CATHODE -FOLLOWER CIRCUITS HAVING DIFFERENT R -F GROUND POINTS.


270 R -F Feedback THE RADIO
B+

R. F. OUT

B AS BIAS B+

Figure 2 Figure 4
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -FAMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
R -F FEEDBACK CIRCUIT AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING
OUTPUT NETWORK.
Tuning and loading are accomplished by C,
and C.. C and are tuned in unison to
establish the correct degree of feedback.
R.F.OUT

Inductive coupling is required for this cir-


cuit, as shown in the illustration.
The circuit of figure 3 eliminates the need
for inductive coupling by moving the r -f
ground to the point common to both tank
Figure 3 circuits. The advantages of direct coupling be-
SINGLE STAGE FEEDBACK tween stages far outweigh the disadvantages of
AMPLIFIER WITH GROUND having the r -f feedback voltage appear on the
RETURN POINT MODIFIED FOR
UNBALANCED INPUT AND cathode of the amplifier tube.
OUTPUT CONNECTIONS. In order to match the amplifier to a load,
the circuit of figure 4 may be used. The ratio
point of the circuit from the plate to the cath- of X,,, to Xe, determines the degree of feed-
back, so it is necessary to tune them in unison
ode as shown in figure 1B. Both ends of the
when the frequency of operation is changed.
input circuit are at high r -f potential so in-
Tuning and loading functions are accomplished
ductive coupling to this type of amplifier is by varying C_ and C3. L2 may also be varied
necessary.
to adjust the loading.
Inspection of figure 1B shows that by mov-
ing the top end of the input tank down on a Feedback Around a The maximum phase
voltage- divider tap across the plate tank cir- Two -Stage Amplifier shift obtainable over
cuit, the feedback can be reduced from 100 %, two simple tuned cir-
as in the case of the cathode-follower circuit, cuits does not exceed 180 degrees, and feed-
down to any desired value. A typical feedback back around a two -stage amplifier is possible.
circuit is illustrated in figure 2. This circuit The basic circuit of a two stage feedback
is more practical than those of figure 1, since amplifier is shown in figure 5. This circuit
the losses in the input tank are greatly reduced. is a conventional two -stage tetrode amplifier
A feedback level of 12 db may be achieved except that r.f. is fed back from the plate
as a good compromise between distortion and circuit of the PA tube to the cathode of the
stage gain. The voltage developed across C2 driver tube. This will reduce the distortion
will be three times the grid -cathode voltage.

E
lIN000
R. F. I NO)

Figure 5
BASIC CIRCUIT OF TWO-STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -F FEEDBACK
Feedback voltage is obtained from a voltage divider across the output circuit and
applied directly to the cathode of the first tube. The input tank circuit is thus
outside the feedback loop.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK R -F Feedback Circuits 271

of both tubes as effectively as using individual cuit is inductive there is energy transferred
feedback loops around each stage, yet will from the plate to the grid circuit (positive
allow a higher level of over -all gain. With feedback) which will introduce negative resist-
only two tuned circuits in the feedback loop, ance in the grid circuit. When this shunt
it is possible to use 12 to 15 db of feedback negative resistance across the grid circuit is
and still leave a wide margin for stability. It lower than the equivalent positive resistance
is possible to reduce the distortion by nearly of the grid loading, circuit losses, and driving
as many db as are used in feedback. This cir- source impedance, the amplifier will oscillate.
cuit has two advantages that are lacking in the When the plate circuit is in resonance
single -stage feedback amplifier. First, the fila- (phase angle equal to zero) the input resist-
ment of the output stage can now be operated ance due to the grid -plate capacitance becomes
at r -f ground potential. Second, any conven- infinite. As the plate circuit is tuned to the
tional pi output network may be used. capacitive side of resonance, the input resist-
R -f feedback will correct several types of ance becomes positive and power is actually
distortion. It will help correct distortion caused transferred from the grid to the plate circuit.
by poor power supply regulation, too low grid This is the reason that the grid current in an
bias, and limiting on peaks when the plate unneutralized tetrode r -f amplifier varies from
voltage swing becomes too high. a low value with the plate circuit tuned on the
low- frequency side of resonance to a high value
Neutralization The purpose of neutraliza- on the high -frequency side of resonance The
and R -F Feedback tion of an r -f amplifier grid current is proportional to the r-f voltage
stage is to balance out ef- on the grid which is varying under these con-
fects of the grid -plate capacitance coupling in ditions. In a tetrode class -ABs amplifier, the
the amplifier. In a conventional amplifier us- effect of grid -plate feedback can be observed
ing a tetrode tube, the effective input capacity by placing a r -f voltmeter across the grid cir-
is given by: cuit and observing the voltage change as the
Input capacitance = Cin +Cgp (1 + A cos B) plate circuit is tuned through resonance.
If the amplifier is over -neutralized, the ef-
where, fects reverse so that with the plate circuit
Cia equals tube input capacitance, tuned to the low- frequency side of resonance,
C. equals grid -plate capacitance, the grid voltage is high, and on the high -fre-
A equals grid -to -plate voltage amplifica- quency side of resonance, it is low.
cation,
O equals angle of load.
Amplifier A useful "rule of
Neutralization Check thumb' method of
In a typical unneutralized tetrode amplifier checking neutraliza-
having a stage gain of 33, the input capaci- tion of an amplifier stage (assuming that it
tance of the tube with the plate circuit in is nearly correct to start with) is to tune both
resonance is increased by 8 pf due to the grid and plate circuits to resonance. Then, ob-
unneutralized grid -plate capacitance. This is serving the r -f grid current, tune the plate cir-
unimportant in amplifiers where the gain (A) cuit to the high - frequency side of resonance.
remains constant but if the tube gain varies, If the grid current rises, more neutralization
serious detuning and r-f phase shift may result. capacitance is required. Conversely, if the grid
A grid or screen modulated r -f amplifier is an current decreases, less capacitance is needed.
example of the case where the stage gain var- This indication is very sensitive in a neutral-
ies from a maximum down to zero. The gain ized triode amplifier, and correct neutraliza-
of a tetrode r -f amplifier operating below plate tion exists when the grid current peaks at the
current saturation varies with loading so that point of plate current dip. In tetrode power
if it drives a following stage into grid current amplifiers this indication is less pronounced.
the loading increases and the gain falls off. Sometimes in a supposedly neutralized tetrode
The input of the grid circuit is also affected amplifier, there is practically no change in
by the grid -plate capacitance, as shown in this grid voltage as the plate circuit is tuned
equation: through resonance, and in some amplifiers it
1
Input resistance = 2af X Cg, (Asia)
is unchanged on one side of resonance and
drops slightly on the other side. Another ob-
This resistance is in shunt with the grid servation sometimes made is a small dip in
current loading, grid tank circuit losses, and the center of a broad peak of grid current.
driving source impedance. When the plate cir- These various effects are probably caused by
272 R -F Feedback THE RADIO

Figure 6 Figure 7
SINGLE STAGE R -F AMPLIFIER NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER AND
WITH FEEDBACK RATIO OF INHERENT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
C /C, to C:,. /C,r DETERMINES Neutralization is achieved by varying
STAGE NEUTRALIZATION
the capacity of c,.

coupling from the plate to the grid circuit tential when r.f. is impressed upon the cathode.
through other paths which are not balanced The output voltage available with capacity
out by the particular neutralizing circuit used. coupling, of course, is less than the plate -
Figure 6 shows an r -f am- cathode r -f voltage developed by the amount
Feedback and
plifier with negative feed- of feedback voltage across Cl.
Neutralization
of a One -Stage back. The voltage devel-
R -F Amplifier oped across C, due to the 12 -2 Feedback and
divider action of C :, and C, Neutralization of a
is introduced in series with the voltage devel-
Two -Stage R -F Amplifier
oped across the grid tank circuit and is in
phase -opposition to it. The feedback can be Feedback around two r -f stages has the ad-
made any value from zero to 100% by proper- vantage that more of the tube gain can be
ly choosing the values of C3 and C1. realized and nearly as much distortion reduc-
For reasons stated previously, it is necessary tion can be obtained using 12 db around two
to neutralize this amplifier, and the relation- stages as is realized using 12 db around each
ship for neutralization is: of two stages separately. Figure 9 shows a
C. Cgp basic circuit of a two -stage feedback ampli-
fier. Inductive output coupling is used, al-
C, Cgt though a pi- network configuration will also
It is often necessary to add capacitance from work well. The small feedback voltage required
plate to grid to satisfy this relationship is obtained from the voltage divider (C1-C2)
Figure 7 is identical to figure 6 except that and is applied to the cathode of the driver
it is redrawn to show the feedback inherent in tube. C, is only a few pf, so this feedback
this neutralization circuit more clearly. CN and voltage divider may be left fixed for a wide
C replace C3 and C4, and the main plate tank frequency range. If the combined tube gain is
tuning capacitance is C3. The circuit of figure 160, and 12 db of feedback is desired, the ratio
7 presents a problem in coupling to the grid of C._ to C, is about 40 to 1. This ratio in
circuit. Inductive coupling is ideal, but the practice may be 100 pf to 2.5 pf, for example.
extra tank circuits complicate the tuning of a A complication is introduced into this sim-
transmitter which uses several cascaded am- plified circuit by the cathode -grid capacitance
plifiers with feedback around each one. The
grid could be coupled to a high source imped-
ance such as a tetrode plate, but the driver R. F. OUT

then cannot use feedback because this would


cause the source impedance to be low. A pos- R,F.iN

sible solution is to move the circuit ground


point from the cathode to the bottom end of
the grid tank circuit. The feedback voltage then
appears between the cathode and ground
( figure 8 ) . The input can be capacitively
coupled, and the plate of the amplifier can
be capacitively coupled to the next stage. Also, UNBALANCED INPUT AND OUTPUT
cathode type transmitting tubes are available CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -STAGE
that allow the heater to remain at ground po- R -F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK R -F Feedback Circuits 273

Figure 9
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK.
Included is a capacitor (C,) for neutralizing the cathode -grid capacity of the first tube. V, is neutralized
by capacitor C., and V, is neutralized by the correct ratio of C, /C,.

of the first tube which .causes an. undesired more feedback from the output stage to over-
coupling to the input grid circuit. It is neces- come.
sary to neutralize out this capacitance coupling,
as illustrated in figure 9. The relationship for
Tests For Neutralizing the circuit of
Neutralization figure 9 balances out cou-
neutralization is:
pling between the input
Ca CRf
tank circuit and the output tank circuit, but it
C4 C6 does not remove all coupling from the plate
circuit to the grid- cathode tube input. This
The input circuit may be made unbalanced latter coupling is degenerative, so applying a
by making C, five times the capacity of C.,. signal to the plate circuit will cause a signal
This will tend to reduce the voltage across to appear between grid and cathode, even
the coil and to minimize the power dissipated though the stage is neutralized. A bench test
by the coil. For proper balance in this case, for neutralization is to apply a signal to the
C,; must be five times the grid- filament capaci- plate of the tube and detect the presence of a
tance of the tube. signal in the grid coil by inductive coupling
Except for tubes having extremely small to it. No signal will be present when the stage
grid -plate capacitance, it is still necessary to is neutralized. Of course, a signal could be in-
properly neutralize both tubes. If the ratio of ductively coupled to the input and neutraliza-
C, to C, is chosen to be equal to the ratio of tion accomplished by adjusting one branch of
the grid -plate capacitance to the grid -filament the neutralizing circuit bridge (Cr, for ex-
capacitance in the second tube (V2), this tube ample) for minimum signal on the plate cir-
will be neutralized. Tubes such as a 4X -150A cuit.
have very low grid -plate capacitance and prob-
ably will not need to be neutralized when used Neutralizing the cathode -grid capacitance of
in the first (V,) stage. If neutralization is the first stage of figure 9 may be accomplished
necessary, capacitor C., is added for this pur- by applying a signal to the cathode of the tube
pose and the proper value is given by the and adjusting the bridge balance for minimum
following relationship: signal on a detector inductively coupled to the
input coil.
C6 Cgf Ca
Cs C C, Tuning a Two -Stage Tuning the two -stage
Feedback Amplifier feedback amplifier of
If neither tube requires neutralization, the figure 9 is accom-
bottom end of the interstage tank circuit may plished in an unconventional way because the
be returned to r -f ground. The screen and output circuit cannot be tuned for maximum
suppressor of the first tube should then be output signal. This is because the output cir-
grounded to keep the tank output capaci- cuit must be tuned so the feedback voltage
tance directly across this interstage circuit and applied to the cathode is in -phase with the
to avoid common coupling between the feed- input signal applied to the first grid. When
back on the cathode and the interstage circuit. the feedback voltage is not in- phase, the result-
A slight amount of degeneration occurs in the ant grid- cathode voltage increases as shown
first stage since the tube also acts as a grounded in figure 10. When the outl. t
circuit is
grid amplifier with the screen as the grounded properly tuned, the resultant grid-c,-bode volt-
grid. The p. of the screen is much lower than age on the first tube will be at a mini, um, and
that of the control grid so that this effect may the voltage on the interstage tuned circuit will
be unnoticed and would only require slightly also be at a minimum.
274 R -F Feedback THE RADIO

VOLTAGE - GRID TO CATHODE

vOLTAGE-
INNIT GRID
TO
GROUND 1VOLTAGE -CATHODE TO GROUND
(PEEOIACEI

J
Figure 12
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT WITH
Figure 10 SEPARATE NEUTRALIZING
AND FEEDBACK CIRCUITS.
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP OF
FEEDBACK VOLTAGE
A = Output Circuit Properly Tuned It is convenient, however, to separate these cir-
B= Output Circuit Mis -Tuned
cuits so neutralization and feedback can be
adjusted independently. Also, it may be de-
The two -stage amplifier may be tuned by sirable to be able to switch the feedback out
placing a r -f voltmeter across the interstage of the circuit. For these reasons, the circuit
tank circuit ( "hot" side to ground) and tuning shown in figure 12 is often used. Switch S1
the input and interstage circuits for maximum removes the feedback loop when it is closed.
meter reading, and tuning the output circuit A slight tendency for low- frequency para-
for minimum meter reading. If the second tube sitic oscillations still exists with this circuit.
is driven into the grid current region, the grid LI should have as little inductance as possible
current meter may be used in place of the r -f without upsetting the feedback. If the value of
voltmeter. On high powered stages where oper- L, is too low, it cancels out part of the re-
ation is well into the class -AB region, the actance of feedback capacitor C, and causes
plate current dip of the output tube indicates the feedback to increase at low values of radio
correct output circuit tuning, as in the usual frequency. In some cases, a swamping resistor
amplifier. may be necessary across L1. The value of this
resistor should be high compared to the re-
Parasitic Oscillations in Quite often low fre- actance of C, to avoid phase -shift of the r -f
the Feedback Amplifier q u e n c y parasitics feedback.
may be found in
the interstage circuit of the two -stage feedback
amplifier. Oscillation occurs in the first stage 12 -3 Neutralization
due to low frequency feedback in the cathode Procedure in
circuit. R -f chokes, coupling capacitors, and Feedback -Type Amplifiers
bypass capacitors provide the low frequency
tank circuits. When the feedback and second Experience with feedback amplifiers has
stage neutralizing circuits are combined, it is brought out several different methods of neu-
necessary to use the configuration of figure 11. tralizing. An important observation is that
This circuit has the advantage that only one when all three neutralizing adjustments are
capacitor (G) is required from the plate of correctly made the peaks and dips of various
the output tube, thus keeping the added ca- tuning meters all coincide at the point of cir-
pacitance across the output tank at a minimum. cuit resonance. For example, the coincident in-
dications when the various tank circuits are
tuned through resonance with feedback oper-
ating are:
A-When the PA plate circuit is tuned
through resonance:
1 -PA plate current dip
2-Power output peak
3 -PA r -f grid voltage dip
8 AS
4-PA grid current dip
Figure 11 (Note: The PA grid current peaks
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT COMBINING
NEUTRALIZATION AND when feedback circuit is disabled
FEEDBACK NETWORKS. and the tube is heavily driven)

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Neutralization 275

(--/
c.
C. I,
R. F. IN
R. F OUT
(z, J[Cs k ;Lc
`
Lt
P
Hb
Tc9
L aF
Cto
; `CGF
IOU7
?/
St1-
Cs
r ,1
\
CN
RFCP
F
o
e.,
-1

TiT
HP =
BIAS B+ BIAS
Figure 13
TWO-STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

B-When the PA grid circuit is tuned 2- Neutralize the grid -plate capaci-
through resonance: tance of the driver stage
1- Driver plate current dip 3- Neutralize the grid-plate capaci-
2 -PA r -f grid voltage peak tance of the power amplifier (PA )
3 -PA grid current peak stage
4-PA power output peak 4-Apply r -f feedback
5- Neutralize driver grid -cathode ca-
C -When the driver grid circuit is tuned pacitance
through resonance:
1- Driver r -f grid voltage peak These steps will be explained in more detail
2- Driver plate current peak in the following paragraphs:
3 -PA r -f grid current peak Step 1. The removal of r -f feedback through
4 -PA plate current peak the feedback circuit must be complete. The
5 -PA power output peak
switch (Si) shown in the feedback circuit
( figure 13 ) is one satisfactory method. Since
Four meters may be employed to measure
the most important of these parameters. The C1, is effectively across the PA plate tank cir-
meters should be arranged so that the follow- cuit it is desirable to keep it across the circuit
ing pairs of readings are displayed on meters when feedback is removed to avoid appreciable
located close together for ease of observation detuning of the plate tank circuit. Another
of coincident peaks and dips: method that can be used if properly done is
to ground the junction of CI; and C. Ground-
1-PA plate current and power output ing this common point through a switch or
2 -PA r -f grid current and PA plate relay is not good enough because of common
current coupling through the length of the grounding
3 -PA r -f grid voltage and power out- lead. The grounding method shown in figure
put 14 is satisfactory.
4- Driver plate current and PA r -f
Step 2. Plate power and excitation are applied.
grid voltage
The driver grid tank is resonated by tuning
The third pair listed above may not be for a peak in driver r -f grid voltage or driver
necessary if the PA plate current dip is pro- plate current. The power amplifier grid tank
nounced. When this instrumentation is pro- circuit is then resonated and adjusted for a
vided, the neutralizing procedure is as follows: dip in driver plate current. Driver neutraliza-
tion is now adjusted until the PA r -f grid
1- Remove the r -f feedback voltage (or PA grid current) peaks at exactly
the point of driver plate current dip. A handy
rule for adjusting grid -plate neutralization of
a tube without feedback: with all circuits in
resonance, detune the plate circuit to the high
frequency side of resonance: If grid current
to next stage (or power output of the stage
under test) increases, more neutralizing capaci-
tance is required and vice versa.

Figure 14 If the driver tube operates class A so that


FEEDBACK SHORTING DEVICE. a plate current dip cannot be observed, a dif-
276 R -F Feedback

Neutralization The method of neutralization


Techniques employing a sensitive r -f de-
tector inductively coupled to
a tank coil is difficult to apply in some cases
because of mechanical construction of the
equipment, or because of undesired coupling.
" Another method for observing neutralization
Figure 15 can be used, which appears to be more ac-
FEEDBACK NEUTRALIZING curate in actual practice. A sensitive r -f detec-
CIRCUIT USING tor such as a receiver is loosely coupled to the
AUXILIARY RECEIVER.
grid of the stage being neutralized, as shown
in figure 15. The coupling capacitance is of
ferent neutralizing procedure is necessary This the order of one or two pf. It must be small
enough to avoid upsetting the neutralization
will be discussed in a subsequent section.
when it is removed because the total grid -
Step 3. This is the same as step 2 except it ground capacitance is one leg of the neutraliz-
ing bridge. A signal generator is connected at
is applied to the power amplifier stage. Ad- point S and the receiver at point R. If C,,, is
just the neutralization of this stage for a peak not properly adjusted the S -meter on the re-
in power output at the plate current dip. ceiver will either kick up or down as the grid
tank circuit is tuned through resonance. C,,,
Step 4. Reverse step 1 and apply the r -f feed- may be adjusted for minimum deflection of the
back. S -meter as the grid circuit is tuned through
resonance.
Step 5. Apply plate power and an exciting sig- The grid -plate capacitance of the tube is
nal to drive the amplifier to nearly full out- then neutralized by connecting the signal gen-
put. Adjust the feedback neutralization for a erator to the plate of the tube and adjusting
peak in amplifier power output at the exact C of figure 13 for minimum deflection again
as the grid tank is tuned through resonance.
point of minimum amplifier plate current.
The power amplifier stage is neutralized in
Decrease the feedback neutralization capaci- the same manner by connecting a receiver
tance if the power output rises when the tank loosely to the grid circuit, and attaching a
circuit is tuned to the high frequency side of signal generator to the plate of the tube. The
resonance. r -f signal can be fed into the amplifier output
terminal if desired.
The above sequence applies when the neu- Some precautions are necessary when using
tralizing adjustments are approximately cor- this neutralization method. First, some driver
rect to start with. If they are far off, some "cut - tubes (the 6CL6, for example) have appre-
ciably more effective input capacitance when
and -try" adjustment may be necessary. Also, in operation and conducting plate current than
the driver stage may break into oscillation if when in standby condition. This increase in
the feedback neutralizing capacitance is not input capacitance may be as great as three or
near the correct setting. four pf, and since this is part of the neu-
tralizing bridge circuit it must be taken into
It is assumed that a single-tone test signal consideration. The result of this change in
is used for amplifier excitation during the input capacitance is that the neutralizing ad-
above steps, and that all tank circuits are at justment of such tubes must be made when
resonance except the one being detuned to they are conducting normal plate current. Stray
make the observation. There is some interaction coupling must be avoided, and it may prove
between the driver neutralization and the feed- helpful to remove filament power from the
back neutralization so if an appreciable change preceding stage or disable its input circuit in
is made in any adjustment the others should some manner.
be rechecked. It is important that the grid -plate It should be noted that in each of the above
neutralization be accomplished first when using adjustments that minimum reaction on the
the above procedure, otherwise the feedback grid is desired, not minimum voltage. Some
neutralization will be off a little, since it par- residual voltage is inherent on the grid when
tially compensates for that error. this neutralizing circuit is used.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Amplitude Modulation

If the output of a c -w transmitter is varied cies are converted to radio-frequency side -


in amplitude at an audio frequency rate in- bands. Though it may be difficult to visual-
stead of interrupted in accordance with code ize, the amplitude of the radio -frequency
characters, a tone will be heard on a receiver carrier does not vary during conventional
tuned to the signal. If the audio signal con- amplitude modulation.
sists of a band of audio frequencies com- Even though the amplitude of radio -fre-
prising voice or music intelligence, then the quency voltage representing the composite
voice or music which is superimposed on the signal (resultant of the carrier and sidebands,
radio -frequency carrier will be heard on the called the envelope) will vary from zero to
receiver. twice the unmodulated signal value during
When voice, music, video, or other intelli- full modulation, the amplitude of the carrier
gence is superimposed on a radio frequency component does not vary. Also, as long as
carrier by means of a corresponding variation the amplitude of the modulating voltage
in the amplitude of the radio frequency out- does not vary, the amplitude of the sidebands
put of a transmitter, amplitude modulation will remain constant. For this to be apparent,
is the result. Telegraph keying of a c -w however, it is necessary to measure the am-
transmitter is the simplest form of amplitude plitude of each component with a highly
modulation, while video modulation in a selective filter. Otherwise, the measured
television transmitter represents a highly power or voltage will be a resultant of two
complex form. Systems for modulating the or more of the components, and the ampli-
amplitude of a carrier envelope in accord- tude of the resultant will vary at the mod-
ance with voice, music, or similar types of ulation rate.
complicated audio waveforms are many and If a carrier frequency of 5000 kHz is
varied, and will be discussed later in this modulated by a pure tone of 1000 Hz, or 1
chapter. kHz, two sidebands are formed: one at 5001
kHz (the sum frequency) and one at 4999
kHz (the difference frequency). The fre-
13-1 Sidebands quency of each sideband is independent of
the amplitude of the modulating tone, or
modulation percentage; the frequency of
Modulation is essentially a form of mixing, each sideband is determined only by the fre-
or combining, already covered in a previous quency of the modulating tone. This assumes,
chapter. To transmit voice at radio frequen- of course, that the transmitter is not modu-
cies by means of amplitude modulation, the lated in excess of its linear capability.
voice frequencies are mixed with a radio - When the modulating signal consists of
frequency carrier so that the voice frequen- multiple frequencies, as is the case with

www.americanradiohistory.com
278 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
voice or music modulation, two sidebands
will be formed by each modulating frequen-
cy (one on each side of the carrier), and
the radiated signal will consist of a band of 1
A
C.W. OR UNMODULATED CARRIER
frequencies. The bandwidth, or channel, taken
up in the frequency spectrum by a conven-
tional double -sideband amplitude -modulated
signal, is equal to twice the highest modu-
SINE WAVE
lating frequency. For example, if the highest AUDIO SIGNAL FROM MODULATOR

modulating frequency is 5000 Hz, then the


A/2
signal (assuming modulation of complex and
varying waveform) will occupy a band ex- CliLR= I I I I I I I Z
tending from 5000 Hz below the carrier to IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII111111
1 1 1 1

5000 Hz above the carrier. IIII11'' A/2


50% MODULATED CARRIER
Frequencies up to at least 2500 Hz, and
preferably 3500 Hz, are necessary for good
speech intelligibility. If a filter is incorporated
in the audio system to cut out all frequen- IIIIIIIIII,
cies above approximately 3000 Hz, the band- 1111111111111111111111M 111111111
width of a radiotelephone signal can be
limited to 6 kHz without a significant loss
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII!IL '
in intelligibility. However, if harmonic dis-
00% MODULATED CARRIER
tortion is introduced subsequent to the filter,
as would happen in the case of an over-
loaded modulator or overmodulation of the Figure 1

carrier, new frequencies will be generated


AMPLITUDE -MODULATED WAVE
and the signal will occupy a band wider
than 6 kHz. Top drawing A rep an unmodulated
carrier wave; I shows the audio output of the
modulator. Drawing C shows the audio signal
13 -2 Mechanics of imp d on the carrier wave to the extent
of SO percent modulation; D shows the carrier
Modulation with 100 percent amplitude modulation.

A c -w or unmodulated r -f carrier wave is modulation the upward modulation is limited


represented in figure lA. An audio- frequency to a value of twice the unmodulated carrier
sine wave is represented by the curve of wave amplitude because the amplitude can-
figure 113. When the two are combined or not go below zero on downward portions of
"mixed," the carrier is said to be amplitude the modulation cycle. Figure 1D illustrates
modulated, and a resultant similar to 1C or the maximum obtainable distortionless mod-
1D is obtained. It should be noted that under ulation with a sine modulating wave, the r -f
modulation, each half cycle of r -f voltage voltage at the peak of the r-f cycle varying
differs slightly from the preceding one and from zero to twice the unmodulated value,
the following one; therefore at no time dur- and the r -f power varying from zero to four
ing modulation is the r -f waveform a pure times the unmodulated value (the power
sine wave. This is simply another way of varies as the square of the voltage) .

saying that during modulation, the transmit- While the average r-f voltage of the mod-
ted r -f energy no longer is confined to a ulated wave over a modulation cycle is the
single radio frequency. same as for the unmodulated carrier, the
It will be noted that the average amplitude average power increases with modulation. If
of the peak r -f voltage, or modulation enve- the radio- frequency power is integrated over
lope, is the same with or without modula- the audio cycle, it will be found with 100
tion. This simply means that the modulation percent sine -wave modulation the average r -f
is symmetrical (assuming a symmetrical power has increased 50 percent. This addi-
modulating wave) and that for distortionless tional power is represented by the sidebands,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Modulation 279

because, as previously mentioned, the carrier


power does not vary under modulation.
Thus, when a 100 -watt carrier is modulated
100 percent by a sine wave, the total r -f
power is 150 watts-100 watts in the carrier
and 25 watts in each of the two sidebands.

Modulation Figure 2
So long as the relative propor-
Percentage tion of the various sidebands GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF MODU-
making up voice modulation is LATION PERCENTAGE
maintained, the signal may be received and The procedure for determining modulation
detected without distortion. However, the percentage from the peak voltage points
indicated is discussed in the text.
higher the average amplitude of the side -
bands, the greater the audio signal produced
at the receiver. For this reason it is desirable
to increase the modulation percentage, or de- M
Ecar - Emin
Ecar
gree of modulation, to the point where maxi-
mum peaks just hit 100 percent. If the
modulation percentage is increased so that In the above two formulas E. is the

the peaks exceed this value, distortion is in- maximum carrier amplitude with modulation
and En, in is the minimum amplitude; Ecar
troduced, and if carried very far, bad inter-
is the steady -state amplitude of the carrier
ference to signals on nearby channels will
result. without modulation. Since the deflection of
the spot on a cathode -ray tube is linear with
respect to voltage, the relative voltages of
Modulation The amount by which a car - these various amplitudes may be determined
Measurement rier is being modulated may by measuring the deflections, as viewed on
be expressed either as a mod- the screen, with a rule calibrated in inches
ulation factor, varying from zero to 1.0 at or centimeters. The percentage of modula-
maximum modulation, or as a percentage. tion of the carrier may be found by multiply-
The percentage of modulation is equal to 100 ing the modulation factor thus obtained by
times the modulation factor. Figure 2A 100. The above procedure assumes that there
shows a carrier wave modulated by a sine - is no carrier shift, or change in average
wave audio tone. A picture such as this carrier amplitude with modulation.
might be seen on the screen of a cathode-ray If the modulating voltage is symmetrical,
oscilloscope with sawtooth sweep on the such as a sine wave, and modulation is ac-
horizontal plates and the modulated carrier complished without the introduction of dis-
impressed on the vertical plates. The same tortion, then the percentage modulation will
carrier without modulation would appear on be the same for both negative and positive
the oscilloscope screen as figure 2B. peaks. However, the distribution and phase
The percentage of modulation of the posi- relationships of harmonics in voice and music
tive peaks and the percentage of modulation waveforms are such that the percentage
of the negative peaks can be determined modulation of the negative modulation peaks
separately from two oscilloscope pictures may exceed the percentage modulation of the
such as shown. positive peaks, or vice versa. The percent-
The modulation factor of the positive age modulation when referred to without
peaks may be determined by the formula: regard to polarity is an indication of the
average of the negative and positive peaks.
M - Emu: - Ecar Modulation The modulation capability of a
Ecar Capability transmitter is the maximum
percentage to which that trans-
The factor for negative peaks may be de- mitter may be modulated before spurious
termined from the formula: sidebands are generated in the output or
280 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
before the distortion of the modulating removed from the desired signal and ad-
waveform becomes objectionable. The high- justing the phase-reversing switch to the
est modulation capability which any trans- position which gives the least "splatter" when
mitter may have on the negative peaks is the transmitter is modulated rather heavily.
100 percent. The maximum permissible mod- If desired, the switch then may be replaced
ulation of many transmitters is less than with permanent wiring, so long as the micro-
100 percent, especially on positive peaks. phone and speech system are not to be
The modulation capability of a transmitter changed.
may be limited by tubes with insufficient A more conclusive illustration of the lop-
filament emission, by insufficient excitation sidedness of a speech waveform may be ob-
or grid bias to a plate -modulated stage, too tained by observing the modulated waveform
light loading of any type of amplifier car- of a radiotelephone transmitter on an oscil-
rying modulated r.f., insufficient power out- loscope. A portion of the carrier energy of
put capability in the modulator, or too much the transmitter should be coupled by means
excitation to a grid -modulated stage or a of a link directly to the vertical plates of
class -B linear amplifier. In any case, the the 'scope, and the horizontal sweep should
FCC regulations specify that no transmitter be a sawtooth or similar wave occurring at
may be modulated in excess of its modulation a rate of approximately 30 to 70 sweeps
capability. Hence, it is desirable to make per second.
the modulation capability of a transmitter With the speech signal from the speech
as near as possible to 100 percent so that the amplifier connected to the transmitter with
carrier power may be used most effectively. one polarity it will be noticed that negative-
peak clipping -as indicated by bright "spots"
Speech Waveform The manner in which the in the center of the 'scope pattern whenever
Dissymmetry human voice is produced the carrier amplitude goes to zero-will
by the vocal cords gives occur at a considerably lower level of aver-
rise to a certain dissymmetry in the wave- age modulation than with the speech signal
form of voice sounds when they are picked being fed to the transmitter with the other
up by a good quality microphone. This is polarity. When the input signal to the
especially pronounced in the male voice, and transmitter is polarized in such a manner
more so on certain voice sounds than on that the "fingers" of the speech wave ex-
others. The result of this dissymmetry in tend in the direction of positive modulation
the waveform is that the voltage peaks on these fingers usually will be clipped in the
one side of the average value of the wave plate circuit of the modulator at an accept-
will be considerably greater, often two or able peak modulation level.
three times as great, as the voltage excursions The use of the proper polarity of the in-
on the other side of the zero axis. The coming speech wave in modulating a trans-
average value of voltage on both sides of mitter can afford an increase of approxi-
the wave is, of course, the same. mately two to one in the amount of speech
As a result of this dissymmetry in the audio power which may be placed on the
male voice waveform, there is an optimum carrier of an amplitude- modulated trans-
polarity of the modulating voltage that must mitter for the same amount of sideband
be observed if maximum sideband energy is splatter. More effective methods for in-
to be obtained without negative peak clip- creasing the amount of audio power on the
ping and generation of splatter on adjacent carrier of an a -m phone transmitter are
channels. discussed later in this chapter.
A double -pole double -throw phase-revers-
ing switch in the input or output leads of
any transformer in the speech amplifier sys- 13 -3 Systems of Amplitude
tem will permit switching the extended peaks Modulation
in the direction of maximum modulation cap-
ability. The optimum polarity may be de- There are many different systems and
termined easily by listening on a selective methods for amplitude -modulating a carrier,
receiver tuned to a frequency 30 to 50 kHz but most may be grouped under three gen-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 281

eral classifications: (1) variable -efficiency Efficiency without modulation 35%


systems in which the average input to the Input on 100% positive modulation
stage remains constant with and without peak (plate current doubles) 200 watts
modulation and the variations in the effi- Efficiency on 100% positive peak 70%
ciency of the stage in accordance with the Output on 100% positive modula-
modulating signal accomplish the modula- tion peak 140 watts
tion; (2) constant -efficiency systems in Input on 100% negative peak 0 watts
which the input to the stage is varied by an Efficiency on 100% negative peak 0%
external source of modulating energy to ac- Output on 100% negative peak 0 watts
complish the modulation; and (3) so- called Average input with 100%
high -efficiency systems in which circuit com- modulation 100 watts
plexity is increased to obtain high plate - Average output with 100% modula-
circuit efficiency in the modulated stage tion (35 watts carrier plus 17.5
without the requirement of an external high - watts sideband) 52.5 watts
level modulator. The various systems under Average efficiency with 100%
each classification have individual character- modulation 52.5%
istics which make certain ones best suited to
particular applications. Systems of Efficiency There are many sys-
Modulation tems of efficiency mod-
ulation, but they all
Variable -Efficiency Since the average input
have the general limitation discussed in the
Modulation remains constant in a
previous paragraph -so long as the carrier
stage employing varia- amplitude is to remain constant with and
ble- efficiency modulation, and since the aver- without modulation, the efficiency at carrier
age power output of the stage increases with
level must be not greater than one -half the
modulation, the additional average power peak modulation efficiency if the stage is to
output from the stage with modulation must be capable of 100 percent modulation.
come from the plate dissipation of the tubes The classic example of efficiency modula-
in the stage. Hence, for the best relation be- tion is the class-B linear r -f amplifier, to be
tween tube cost and power output, the tubes discussed below. The other three common
employed should have as high a plate dissi- forms of efficiency modulation are control -
pation rating per dollar as possible. grid modulation, screen -grid modulation, and
The plate efficiency in such an amplifier suppressor -grid modulation. In each case,
is doubled when going from the unmodu-
including that of the class -B linear amplifier,
lated condition to the peak of the modula- note that the modulation, or the modulated
tion cycle. Hence, the unmodulated efficiency signal, is impressed on a control electrode of
of such an amplifier must always be less than the stage.
45 percent, since the maximum peak efficien-
cy obtainable in a conventional amplifier is The Class -B This is the simplest practi-
in the vicinity of 90 percent. Since the peak Linear Amplifier cable type amplifier for an
efficiency in certain types of amplifiers will amplitude -modulated wave
be as low as 60 percent, the unmodulated or a single-sideband signal. The system pos-
efficiency in such amplifiers will be in the sesses the disadvantage that excitation, grid
vicinity of 30 percent. bias, and loading must be carefully con-
Assuming a typical amplifier having a trolled to preserve the linearity of the stage.
peak efficiency of 70 percent, the following Also, the grid circuit of the tube, in the
figures give an idea of the operation of an usual application where grid current is drawn
idealized efficiency -modulated stage adjusted on peaks, presents a widely varying value of
for 100 percent sine -wave modulation. It load impedance to the source of excitation.
should be kept in mind that the plate volt- Hence it is necessary to include some sort
age is constant at all times, even over the of swamping resistor to reduce the effect of
audio cycles. grid -impedance variations with modulation.
Plate input without modulation 100 watts If such a swamping resistance across the grid
Output without modulation 35 watts tank is not included, or is too high in value,
282 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
the positive modulation peaks of the in- that appreciable grid current will be drawn
coming modulated signal will tend to be on modulation peaks. Also, a fixed source of
flattened with resultant distortion of the grid bias must be provided for the stage.
wave being amplified. A regulated grid -bias power supply is the
The class -B linear amplifier has long been usual source of negative bias voltage.
used in broadcast transmitters, but recently
has received much more general usage in the Adjustment of a Class- With grid bias ad-
hf range for two significant reasons: (a) B Linear Amplifier justed to the correct
the class -B linear is an excellent way of in- value, and with pro-
creasing the power output of a single - vision for varying the excitation voltage to
sideband transmitter, since the plate efficien- the stage and the loading of the plate circuit,
cy with full signal will be in the vicinity of a fully modulated signal is applied to the
70 percent, while with no modulation the grid circuit of the stage. Then with an
input to the stage drops to a relatively low oscilloscope coupled to the output of the
value; and (b) the class -B linear amplifier stage, excitation and loading are varied until
operates with relatively low harmonic output the stage is drawing the normal plate input
since the grid bias on the stage normally is and the output waveshape is a good replica
slightly less than the value which will cut of the input signal. The adjustment proced-
off plate current to the stage in the absence ure normally will require a succession of
of excitation. approximations, until the optimum set of
Since a class -B linear amplifier is biased adjustments is attained. Then the modulation
to extended cutoff with no excitation (the being applied to the input signal should be
grid bias at extended cutoff will be approxi- removed to check the linearity. With modu-
mately equal to the plate voltage divided by lation removed, in the case of a 100 percent
the amplification factor for a triode, and a -m signal, the input to the stage should re-
will be approximately equal to the screen main constant, and the peak output of the
voltage divided by the grid-screen it factor r -f envelope should fall to one -half the value
for a tetrode or pentode) the plate current obtained on positive modulation peaks.
will essentially flow in 180- degree pulses.
Due to the relatively large operating angle of Class -C One effective system of
plate current flow the theoretical peak plate Grid Modulation efficiency modulation for
efficiency is limited to 78.5 percent, with 65 communications work is
to 70 percent representing a range of effi- class -C control -grid bias modulation. The
ciency ndrmally attainable. distortion is slightly higher than for a prop-
The carrier power output from a class -B erly operated class -B linear amplifier, but the
linear amplifier of a normal 100 percent efficiency is also higher, and the distortion
modulated a -m signal will be about one -half can be kept within tolerable limits for com-
the rated plate dissipation of the stage, with munications work.
optimum operating conditions. The peak Class -C grid modulation requires high
output from a class -B linear, which repre- plate voltage on the modulated stage if
sents the maximum -signal output as a single - maximum output is desired. The plate volt-
sideband amplifier, or peak output with a age is normally run about 50 percent higher
100 percent a -m signal, will be about twice than for maximum output with plate modu-
the plate dissipation of the tubes in the lation.
stage. Thus the carrier -level input power to The driving power required for operation
a class -B linear should be about 1.5 times the of a grid -modulated amplifier under these
rated plate dissipation of the stage. conditions is somewhat more than is required
The schematic circuit of a class -B linear for operation at lower bias and plate voltage,
amplifier is the same as a conventional single - but the increased power output obtainable
ended or push -pull stage, whether triodes or overbalances the additional excitation re-
beam tetrodes are used. However, a swamp- quirement. Actually, almost half as much
ing resistor, as mentioned before, must be excitation is required as would be needed if
placed across the grid tank of the stage if the same stage were to be operated as a
the operating conditions of the tube are such class -C plate -modulated amplifier. A re-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 283

R-F AMPLIFIER
sistor across the grid tank of the stage
serves as swamping to stabilize the r-f driv-
ing voltage. At least 50 percent of the out- RFC .:O
PANT.
put of the driving stage should be dissipated
in this swamping resistor under carrier con-
ditions. IDOA f
A comparatively small amount of audio W.W.
.9
power will be required to modulate the am-
plifier stage 100 percent. An audio amplifier
having 20 watts output will be sufficient to
modulate an amplifier with one kilowatt
input. Proportionately smaller amounts of
audio will be required for lower -powered
stages. However, the audio amplifier that is 2SR 10w
MIDGET CHORE

being used as the grid modulator should, in


any case, either employ low -plate- resistance
tubes such as 2A3's, employ degenerative R2 *
AUDIO INPUT T0R
feedback from the output stage to one of FROM 6U6
ETC
the preceding stages of the speech amplifier,
or be resistance loaded with a resistor across
the secondary of the modulation transformer. 2A3 5V3GT

This provision of low driving impedance


in the grid modulator is to ensure good
regulation in the audio driver for the grid - 325 V. 325V.

modulated stage. Good regulation of both ,00400,


the audio and the r -f drivers of a grid - 1 Osa
SMALL 80-80 MA.
modulated stage is quite important if dis- 115-V A C 8 C TRANSFORMER

tortion -free modulation approaching 100


percent is desired, because the grid imped- Figure 3
ance of the modulated stage varies widely GRID -BIAS MODULATOR CIRCUIT
over the audio cycle.
A practical circuit for obtaining grid -bias
modulation is shown in figure 3. The modu- ventional speech amplifier stage. The higher
lator and bias regulator tube have been com- voltages may be obtained from a tube such
bined in a single 2A3 tube. as a 6C4 through an audio transformer of
The regulator-modulator tube operates as 2:1 or 2.5:1 ratio.
a cathode - follower. The average d -c voltage With the normal amount of comparatively
on the control grid is controlled by the 70,- tight antenna coupling to the modulated
000 -ohm wirewound potentiometer and this stage, an unmodulated carrier efficiency of
potentiometer adjusts the average grid bias 40 percent can be obtained, with substantial-
on the modulated stage. However, a -c signal ly distortion -free modulation up to practi-
voltage is also impressed on the control grid cally 100 percent. If the antenna coupling is
of the tube and since the cathode follows decreased slightly from the condition just
this a -c wave the incoming speech wave is described, and the excitation is increased to
superimposed on the average grid bias, thus the point where the amplifier draws the same
effecting grid -bias modulation of the r -f input, carrier efficiency of 50 percent is ob-
amplifier stage. An audio voltage swing is tainable with tolerable distortion at 90 per-
required on the grid of the 2A3 of approx- cent modulation.
imately the same peak value as will be re-
quired as bias -voltage swing on the grid -bias Tuning the The most satisfactory pro -
modulated stage. This voltage swing will Grid -Bias cedure for tuning a stage
normally be in the region from SO to 200 Modulated Stage for grid -bias modulation of
peak volts. Up to about 100 volts peak swing the class -C type is as fol-
can be obtained from a 6AU6 tube as con- lows. The amplifier should first be neutral-

www.americanradiohistory.com
284 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

ized, and any possible tendency toward does offer other advantages and the linearity
parasitics under any condition of operation is quite adequate for communications work.
should be eliminated. Then the antenna There are two significant and worthwhile
should be coupled to the plate circuit, the advantages of screen -grid modulation for
grid bias should be run up to the maximum communications work: (1) The excitation
available value, and the plate voltage and requirements for an amplifier which is to be
excitation should be applied. The grid -bias screen modulated are not at all critical,
voltage should then be reduced until the am- and good regulation of the excitation volt-
plifier draws the approximate amount of age is not required. The normal rated grid -
plate current it is desired to run, and modu- circuit operating conditions specified for
lation corresponding to about 80 percent is class -C c -w operation are quite adequate for
then applied. If the plate current kicks up screen -grid modulation. (2) The audio mod-
when modulation is applied, the grid bias ulating power requirements for screen -grid
should be reduced; if the plate meter kicks modulation are relatively low.
down, increase the grid bias. A screen -grid modulated r -f amplifier op-
When the amount of bias voltage has been erates as an efficiency- modulated amplifier,
found (by adjusting the fine control (R2) the same as does a class -B linear amplifier and
on the bias supply) where the plate meter re- a grid -modulated stage. Hence, plate circuit
mains constant with modulation, it is more loading is relatively critical as in any effi-
than probable that the stage will be drawing ciency- modulated stage, and must be ad-
either too much or too little input. The an- justed to the correct value if normal power
tenna coupling should then be either in- output with full modulation capability is to
creased or decreased (depending on whether be obtained. As in the case of any efficiency -
the input was too little or too much, respec- modulated stage, the operating efficiency at
tively) until the input is more nearly the the peak of the modulation cycle will be
correct value. The bias should then be re- between 70 and 80 percent, with efficiency
adjusted until the plate meter remains con- at the carrier level (if the stage is operating
stant with modulation as before. By slight in the normal manner with full carrier)
jockeying back and forth of antenna cou- about half of the peak -modulation value.
pling and grid bias, a point can be reached There are two main disadvantages of
where the tubes are running at rated plate screen -grid modulation, and several factors
dissipation, and where the plate milliam- which must be considered if satisfactory op-
meter on the modulated stage remains sub- eration of the screen -grid modulated stage is
stantially constant with modulation. to be obtained. The disadvantages are: (1)
The linearity of the stage should then be As mentioned before, the linearity of modu-
checked by any of the conventional methods; lation with respect to screen -grid voltage of
the trapezoidal pattern method employing a such a stage is satisfactory only for com-
cathode -ray oscilloscope is probably the most munications work, unless carrier -rectified
satisfactory. The check with the trapezoidal degenerative feedback is employed around
pattern will allow the determination of the the modulated stage to improve the linear-
proper amount of gain to employ on the ity of modulation. (2) The impedance of
speech amplifier. Too much audio power on the screen grid to the modulating signal is
the grid of the modulated stage should not nonlinear. This means that the modulating
be used in the tuning -up process, as the plate signal must be obtained from a source of
meter will kick erratically and it will be im- quite low impedance if audio distortion of
possible to make a satisfactory adjustment. the signal appearing at the screen grid is to
Screen-Grid be avoided.
Amplitude modulation may be
Modulation accomplished by varying the Screen -Grid Instead of being linear with re-
screen -grid voltage in a class - Impedance to modulating voltage, as
spect
C amplifier which employs a pentode, beam is the plate circuit of a plate -
tetrode, or other type of screen -grid tube. modulated class -C amplifier, the screen grid
The modulation obtained in this way is not presents approximately a square -law imped-
especially linear, but screen -grid modulation ance to the modulating signal over the region

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 285

of signal excursion where the screen is posi- cycle when the screen does draw current, it
tive with respect to ground. This nonlineari- presents approximately a square -law imped-
ty may be explained in the following man- ance.
ner: At the carrier level of a conventional Circuits for Laboratory analysis of a large
screen -modulated stage the plate -voltage Screen -Grid number of circuits for accom-
swing of the modulated tube is one -half the Modulation plishing screen modulation has
voltage swing at peak -modulation level. This
led to the conclusion that the
condition must exist in any type of conven- audio modulating voltage must be obtained
tional efficiency -modulated stage if 100 per-
from a low- impedance source if low- distor-
cent positive modulation is to be attainable.
tion modulation is to be obtained. Figure 4
Since the plate -voltage swing is at half am-
shows a group of sketches of the modulation
plitude, and since the screen voltage is at
envelope obtained with various types of
half its full modulation value, the screen cur-
modulators and also with insufficient antenna
rent is relatively low. But at the positive
modulation peak the screen voltage is ap- coupling. The result of this laboratory work
led to the conclusion that the cathode -fol-
proximately doubled, and the plate -voltage
lower modulator of the basic circuit shown
swing also is at twice the carrier amplitude.
in figure 5 is capable of giving good- quality
Due to the increase in plate -voltage swing
screen -grid modulation, and in addition the
with rising screen voltage, the screen current
increases more than linearly with rising
circuit provides convenient adjustments for
the carrier level and the output level on
screen voltage.
negative modulation peaks. This latter con-
In a test made on an amplifier with an 813
trol (P2) in figure 5, allows the amplifier to
tube, the screen current at carrier level was
be adjusted in such a manner that negative -
about 6 ma with screen potential of 190
peak clipping cannot take place, yet the
volts; but under conditions which repre-
negative modulation peaks may be adjusted
sented a positive modulation peak the screen
to a level just above that at which sideband
current measured 2S ma at a potential of splatter will occur.
400 volts. Thus instead of screen current
doubling with twice screen voltage as would The Cathode- The cathode follower is
be the case if the screen presented a resistive Follower Modulator ideally suited for use as
impedance, the screen current became about the modulator for a
four times as great with twice the screen screen -grid stage since it acts as a relatively
voltage. low- impedance source of modulating voltage
Another factor which must be considered for the screen -grid circuit. In addition the
in the design of a screen -modulated stage, if cathode- follower modulator allows the sup-
full modulation is to be obtained, is that the ply voltage both for the modulator and for
power output of a screen -grid stage with the screen grid of the modulated tube to be
zero screen voltage is still relatively large. obtained from the high- voltage supply for
Hence, if anything approaching full modu- the plate of the screen -grid tube or beam
lation on negative peaks is to be obtained, tetrode. In the usual case the plate supply
the screen potential must be made negative for the cathode follower, and hence for the
with respect to ground on negative modula- screen grid of the modulated tube, may be
tion peaks. In the usual types of beam taken from the bleeder on the high - voltage
tetrode tubes the screen potential must be power supply. A tap on the bleeder may be
20 to SO volts negative with respect to used, or two resistors may be connected in
ground before cutoff of output is obtained. series to make up the bleeder, with appro-
This condition further complicates the prob- priate values such that the voltage applied
lem of obtaining good linearity in the audio to the plate of the cathode follower is ap-
modulating voltage for the screen -modulated propriate for the tube to be modulated. It
stage, since the screen voltage must be driven is important that a bypass capacitor be used
negative with respect to ground over a from the plate of the cathode -follower mod-
portion of the cycle. Hence the screen draws ulator to ground.
no current over a portion of the modulating The voltage applied to the plate of the
cycle, and over the major portion of the cathode follower should be about 100 volts

www.americanradiohistory.com
286 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

ENVELOPE OOTAINCO WITH


INSUFFICIENT ANTENNA
COUPLING

+VtOO. +S .G. -SO V. APPROX.


Figure 4

SCREEN-MODULATION CIRCUITS
Three common screen -modulation circuits are illustrated above. All three circuits are capable
of giving intelligible voice modulation although the waveform distortion in the circuits of
A and it is likely to be rather severe. The arrangement at A is often called "clamp- tube"
screen modulation; by returning the grid resistor on the clamp tube to ground the circuit will
give controlled -carrier screen modulation. This circuit has the advantage that it is simple
and is well suited to use in mobile transmitters. 6 is an arrangement using a transformer-
coupled modulator, and offers no particular advantages. The arrangement at C is capable
of giving good modulation linearity due to the low impedance of the cathode -follower
modulator. However, due to the relatively low heater- cathode ratings on tubes suited for
use as the modulator, a separate heater supply for the modulator tube normally is required.
This limitation makes application of the circuit to the mobile transmitter a special problem,
since an isolated heater supply normally is not available. Shown at D as an assistance in the
tuning of a screen- modulated transmitter (or any efficiency- modulated transmitter for that
matter) is the type of modulation envelope which results when loading to the modulated
stage is insufficient.

greater than the rated screen voltage for the The only current taken by the cathode
tetrode tube as a c -w class -C amplifier. follower itself will be that which will flow
Hence the cathode- follower plate voltage through the 100,000 -ohm resistor between
should be about 350 volts for an 815, 2E26, the cathode of the 6L6 modulator and the
or 829B, about 400 volts for an 807 or negative supply. The current taken from
4 -125A, about 500 volts for an 813, and the bleeder on the high -voltage supply will
about 600 volts for a 4 -250A or a 4E27. be the carrier -level screen current of the
Then potentiometer (P1) in figure 5 should tube being modulated (which current passes
be adjusted until the carrier -level screen of course through the cathode follower) plus
voltage on the modulated stage is about one - that current which will pass through the
half the rated screen voltage specified for 100,000 -ohm resistor.
the tube as a class -C c -w amplifier. The The loading of the modulated stage should
current taken by the screen of the modu- be adjusted until the input to the tube is
lated tube under carrier conditions will be about 50 percent greater than the rated
about one- fourth the normal screen current plate dissipation of the tube or tubes in the
for c -w operation. stage. If the carrier -level screen voltage value
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 287

obtained. Note that the correct plate current


6J5, ETC. sTCVUV 6L6 350 TO 600 V
for an efficiency- modulated amplifier is only
slightly less than the out-of- resonance plate
current of the stage. Hence carrier -level
TO SCREEN OF
screen voltage must be low so that the out -
MODULATED STAGE
of- resonance plate current will not be too
high, and relatively heavy antenna coupling
must be used so that the operating plate
current will be near the out -of- resonance
-1oo value, and so that the operating input will
15 K POT.
P2
be slightly greater than 1.5 times the rated
+250 V plate dissipation of the tube or tubes in the
Figure 5 stage. Since the carrier efficiency of the
stage will be only 35 to 40 percent, the tubes
CATHODE -FOLLOWER will be operating with plate dissipation of
SCREEN -MODULATION CIRCUIT approximately the rated value without mod-
A detailed discussion of this circuit, which also
ulation.
is represented in figure 4C, is given in the
accompanying tent. Speech Clipping in The maximum r -f out -
the Modulated Stage put of an efficiency-
is correct for linear modulation of the stage, modulated stage is limit-
the loading will have to be somewhat greater ed by the maximum permiss i ble plate -voltage
than that amount of loading which gives swing on positive modulation peaks. In the
maximum output from the stage. The stage modulation circuit of figure 5 the minimum
may then be modulated by applying an output is limited by the minimum voltage
audio signal to the grid of the cathode - which the screen will reach on a negative
follower modulator, while observing the modulation peak, as set by potentiometer P2.
modulated envelope on an oscilloscope. Hence the screen- grid -modulated stage,
If good output is being obtained, and the when using the modulator of figure 5, acts
modulation envelope appears as shown in effectively as a speech clipper, provided the
figure 4C, all is well, except that P2 in figure modulating signal amplitude is not too much
S should be adjusted until negative modu-
more than that value which will accomplish
lation peaks, even with excessive modulating full modulation. With correct adjustments
signal, do not cause carrier cutoff with its of the operating conditions of the stage it
attendant sideband splatter. If the envelope can be made to clip positive and negative
appears as at figure 4D, antenna coupling modulation peaks symmetrically. However,
should be increased while the carrier level is the inherent peak -clipping ability of the
backed down by potentiometer P, in figure stage should not be relied upon as a means
S until a set of adjustments is obtained of obtaining a large amount of speech com-
which will give a satisfactory modulation pression, since excessive audio distortion and
envelope as shown in figure 4C. excessive screen current on the modulated
stage will result.
Changing Bonds After a satisfactory set of
adjustments has been ob- Characteristics of aAn important charac-
tained, it is not difficult to readjust the am- Typical Screen- teristic of the screen -
plifier for operation on different bands. Po- Modulated Stage modulated stage, when
tentiometers P, (carrier level), and P2 (neg- using the cathode -fol-
ative -peak level) may be left fixed after a lower modulator, is that excessive plate volt-
satisfactory adjustment, with the aid of the age on the modulated stage is not required.
scope, has once been found. Then when In fact, full output usually may be obtained
changing bands it is only necessary to adjust with the larger tubes at an operating plate
excitation until the correct value of grid voltage from one -half to two -thirds the
current is obtained, and then to adjust an- maximum rated plate voltage for c -w op-
tenna coupling until correct plate current is eration. This desirable condition is the nat-

www.americanradiohistory.com
288 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

ural result of using a low- impedance source ically, suppressor-grid modulation operates
of modulating signal for the stage. in the same general manner as other forms
As an example of a typical screen -modu- of efficiency modulation; carrier plate -cir-
lated stage, full output of 75 watts of car- cuit efficiency is about 35 percent, and an-
rier may be obtained from an 813 tube tenna coupling must be rather tight. How-
operating with a plate potential of only 1250 ever, suppressor -grid modulation has one
volts. No increase in output from the 813 sizeable disadvantage, in addition to the fact
may be obtained by increasing the plate that pentode tubes are not nearly so widely
voltage, since the tube may be operated with used as beam tetrodes which of course do
full rated plate dissipation of 125 watts, not have the suppressor element. This dis-
with normal plate efficiency for a screen - advantage is that the screen -grid current
modulated stage-37.5 percent, at the 1250 - to a suppressor -grid modulated amplifier is
volt potential. rather high. The high screen current is a
The operating conditions of a screen - natural consequence of the rather high neg-
modulated 813 stage are as follows: ative bias on the suppressor grid, which re-
duces the plate -voltage swing and plate cur-
Plate voltage -1250 volts rent with a resulting increase in the screen
Plate current-160 ma current.
Plate input-200 watts In tuning a suppressor -grid modulated
Grid current -11 ma amplifier, the grid bias, grid current, screen
-
Grid bias- 110 volts voltage, and plate voltage are about the
Carrier screen voltage -190 volts same as for class -C c -w operation of the
Carrier screen current -6
ma stage. But the suppressor grid is biased
Power output -approx. 75 watts negatively to a value which reduces the
plate- circuit efficiency to about one -half the
With full 100 percent modulation the plate maximum obtainable from the particular
current decreases about 2 ma and the screen amplifier, with antenna coupling adjusted
current increases about 1 ma; hence plate, until the plate input is about 1.5 times the
screen, and grid current remain essentially rated plate dissipation of the stage. It is im-
constant with modulation. Referring to portant that the input to the screen grid be
figure 5, which was the circuit used as mod- measured to make sure that the rated screen
ulator for the 813, E1 measured + 155 dissipation of the tube is not being exceeded.
volts,
+
E2 measured -
190 volts, E4 measured
50 volts, E3 measured
+ 500 volts,
and the rms swing at E5 for full modulation 4E27 CARRIER
OUTPUT
measured 210 volts, which represents a peak -33W
swing of about 296 volts. Due to the high
R -P INPUT
positive voltage, and the large audio swing,
1G
on the cathode of the 6L6 (triode con-

-
E MA.

nected) modulator tube, it is important that 154'


44M
IP=70MA.
the heater of this tube be fed from a sep- -130V.
arate filament transformer or filament wind- 6J5 2,ISTEPUP +1500 V.

ing. Note also that the operating plate -to-


cathode voltage on the 6L6 modulator tube A4 INPUT PEAR SWING FOR FULL
MODULATION 210 V.
T.

does not exceed the 360 -volt rating of the


tube, since the operating potential of the
cathode is considerably above ground poten- +300V -210V
tial. Figure 6
Suppressor -GridStill another form of effi- AMPLIFIER WITH SUPPRESSOR -GRID
Modulation ciency modulation may be MODULATION
obtained by applying the
Recommended operating conditions for linear
audio modulating signal to the suppressor suppressor-grid modulation of a 4E27/5 -1251
grid of a pentode class -C r -f amplifier. Bas- stage are given on the drawing.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Input Modulation Systems 289

Then the audio signal is applied to the sup- trical quarter -wave lines. They will be de-
pressor grid. In the normal application the scribed later in this section.
audio voltage swing on the suppressor will
be somewhat greater than the negative bias Plate Modulation Plate modulation is the ap-
on the element. Hence suppressor-grid cur- plication of the audio pow-
rent will flow on modulation peaks, so that er to the plate circuit of an r -f amplifier.
the source of audio signal voltage must have The r-f amplifier must be operated class C
good regulation. Tubes suitable for suppres- for this type of modulation in order to ob-
sor -grid modulation are: the 4E27A /5 -I25B tain a radio- frequency output which changes
and 803. A typical suppressor -grid modu- in exact accord with the variation in
lated amplifier is illustrated in figure 6. plate voltage. The r -f amplifier is 100 per-
cent modulated when the peak a -c voltage
13 -4 Input Modulation from the modulator is equal to the d -c volt-
age applied to the r -f tube. The positive
Systems peaks of audio voltage increase the instan-
taneous plate voltage on the r -f tube to twice
Constant -efficiency variable -input modu- the d -c value, and the negative peaks reduce
lation systems operate by virtue of the addi- the voltage to zero.
tion of external power to the modulated The instantaneous plate current to the
stage to effect the modulation. There are r -f stage also varies in accord with the
two general classifications that come under modulating voltage. The peak alternating
this heading; those systems in which the current in the output of a modulator must be
additional power is supplied as audio -fre- equal to the d -c plate current of the class -C
quency energy from a modulator (usually r -f stage at the point of 100 percent modu-
called plate -modulation systems) and those lation. This combination of change in audio
systems in which the additional power to voltage and current can be most easily re-
effect modulation is supplied as direct cur- ferred to in terms of audio power in watts.
rent from the plate supply. In a sinusoidally modulated wave, the an-
Under the former classification comes tenna current increases approximately 22
Heising modulation (probably the oldest percent for 100 percent modulation with a
type of modulation to be applied to a con- pure tone input; an r -f meter in the antenna
tinuous carrier) , class -B plate modulation, circuit indicates this increase in antenna cur-
and series modulation. These types of plate rent. The average power of the r -f wave in-
modulation are by far the easiest to get into creases 50 percent for 100 percent modula-
operation, and they give a very good ratio tion, the efficiency remaining constant.
of power input to the modulated stage to This indicates that in a plate -modulated
power output; 65 to 80 percent efficiency radiotelephone transmitter, the audio -fre-
is the general rule. It is for these two im- quency channel must supply this additional
SO percent increase in average power for
portant reasons that these modulation sys-
sine -wave modulation. If the power input
tems, particularly class -B plate modulation,
to the modulated stage is 100 watts, for
are at present the most popular for a -m
example, the average power will increase
communications work. to 1 5 0 watts at 100 percent modulation, and
Modulation systems coming under the this additional 50 watts of power must be
second classification are of comparatively supplied by the modulator when plate mod-
recent development but have been widely ulation is used. The actual antenna power is
applied to broadcast work. There are quite a constant percentage of the total value of
a few systems in this class. Two of the more input power.
widely used are the Doherty linear amplifier, One of the advantages of plate (or power)
and the Terman - Woodyard high -efficiency modulation is the ease with which proper
grid- modulated amplifier. Both systems oper- adjustments can be made in the transmitter.
:.te by virtue of a carrier amplifier and a Also, there is less plate loss in the r -f ampli-
peak amplifier connected together by elec- fier for a given value of carrier power than
290 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
MOOULATED CLASS -C CLASS -C
R-i AMPLIFIER AMPLI FIER

R-F OR IVE

CLASS -S
MODULATOR
MODULATOR

A-F
DRIVE
UCH

Figure 7

HEISING PLATE MODULATION MOO. +S R-F +S

This type of modulation was the first form


of plate modulation. It is sometimes known Figure 8
as "constant- current" modulation. Because
of the effective 1:1 ratio of the coupling CLASS -B PLATE MODULATION
choke, it is impossible to obtain 100 per-
cent modulation unless the plate voltage to This type of modulation is the most flexible
the modulated stage is dropped slightly by in that the loading adjustment can bo made
resistor R. The capacitor (C) merely by- in a short period of time and without elab-
passes the audio around R, so that the full orate test equipment after a change M
a -f output voltage of the modulator is operating fr cy of the class -C amplifier
impressed on the class -C stage. has been made.

with other forms of modulation because the Heising Heising modulation is the old -
plate efficiency is higher. Modulation est system of plate modulation,
By properly matching the plate impedance and usually consists of a class -A
of the r-f tube to the output of the modu- audio amplifier coupled to the r -f amplifier
lator, the ratio of voltage and current swing by means of a modulation choke coil, as
to d -c voltage and current is automatically shown in figure 7.
obtained. The modulator should have a peak The d -c plate voltage and plate current of
voltage output equal to the average d -c the r -f amplifier must be adjusted to a value
plate voltage on the modulated stage. The which will cause the plate impedance to
modulator should also have a peak power match the output of the modulator, since
output equal to the d -c plate input power the modulation choke gives a 1 -to -1 cou-
to the modulated stage. pling ratio. A series resistor, bypassed for
The average power output of the modula- audio frequencies by means of a capacitor,
tor will depend on the type of waveform. If must be connected in series with the plate of
the amplifier is being Heising modulated by the r -f amplifier to obtain modulation up to
a class -A stage, the modulator must have an 100 percent. The peak output voltage of a
average power output capability of one-half class -A amplifier does not reach a value equal
the input to the class -C stage. If the mod- to the d -c voltage applied to the amplifier
and, consequently, the d -c plate voltage im-
ulator is a class -B audio amplifier, the aver-
pressed across the r -f tube must be reduced
age power required of it may vary from
to a value equal to the maximum available
one -quarter to more than one -half the class - a -c peak voltage if 100% modulation is to
C input depending on the waveform. How- be obtained.
ever, the peak power output of any modu- A higher degree of distortion can be toler-
lator must be equal to the class-C input to ated in low -power emergency phone trans-
be modulated. mitters which use a pentode modulator tube,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Plate Modulation 291

and the series resistor and bypass capacitor though the average power for this value of
are usually omitted in such transmitters. peak varies widely depending on the mod-
Class -B High -level class -B plate ulation waveform, being greater than 50 per-
Plate Modulation modulation is the least cent for speech that has been clipped and
expensive method of plate filtered, SO percent for a sine wave, and
modulation. Figure 8 shows a conventional about 25 percent for typical unclipped
class -B plate -modulated class -C amplifier. speech tones.
The statement that the modulator output Modulation The modulation transformer is
power must be one -half the class-C input for Transformer a device for matching the load
100 percent modulation is correct only if Calculations impedance of the class -C am-
the waveform of the modulating power is a plifier to the recommended load
sine wave. Where the modulator waveform is impedance of the class -B modulator tubes.
unclipped speech waveforms, the average Modulation transformers intended for com-
modulator power for 100 percent modulation munications work are usually designed to
is considerably less than one -half the class -C carry the class -C plate current through their
input. secondary windings, as shown in figure 8.
Power Relations in It has been determined The manufacturer's ratings should be con-
Speech Waveforms experimentally that the sulted to ensure that the d -c plate current
ratio of peak -to- average passed through the secondary winding does
power in a speech waveform is approximately not exceed the maximum rating.
4 to 1 as contrasted to a ratio of 2 to 1 in a A detailed discussion of the method of
sine wave. This is due to the high harmonic making modulation transformer calculations
content of such a waveform, and to the fact has been given in Chapter Six. However, to
that this high harmonic content manifests emphasize the method of making the calcula-
itself by making the wave unsymmetrical tion, an additional example will be given.
and causing sharp peaks or "fingers" of high Suppose we take the case of a class -C
energy content to appear. Thus for unclipped amplifier operating at a plate voltage of
speech, the average modulator plate current, 2000 volts with 225 ma of plate current.
plate dissipation, and power output are ap- This amplifier would present a load resist-
proximately one -half the sine wave values ance of 2000 divided by 0.225 ampere or
for a given peak output power. 8888 ohms. The plate power input would be
Both peak power and average power are 2000 times 0.225 or 450 watts. By reference
necessarily associated with waveform. Peak to Chapter Six we see that a pair of 811 tubes
power is just what the name implies; the operating at 1500 plate volts will deliver
power at the peak of a wave. Peak power, 225 watts of audio output. The plate -to-
although of the utmost importance in mod- plate load resistance for these tubes under
ulation, is of no great significance in a -c the specified operating conditions is 18,000
power work, except insofar as the average ohms. Hence our problem is to match the
power may be determined from the peak class -C amplifier load resistance of 8888
value of a known waveform. ohms to the 18,000 -ohm load resistance re-
There is no time element implied in the quired by the modulator tubes.
definition of peak power; peak power may be A 200- to 300 -watt modulation trans-
instantaneous-and for this reason average former will be required for the job. If the
power, which is definitely associated with taps on the transformer are given in terms
time, is the important factor in plate dissi- of impedances it will only be necessary to
pation. It is possible that the peak power of connect the secondary for 8888 ohms (or a
a given waveform be several times the aver- value approximately equal to this such as
age value; for a sine wave, the peak power is 9000 ohms) and the primary for 18,000
twice the average value and for unclipped ohms. If it is necessary to determine the
speech the peak power is approximately four proper turns ratio required of the transform-
times the average value. For 100 percent er it can be determined in the following
modulation, the peak (instantaneous) audio manner. The square root of the impedance
power must equal the class -C input, al- ratio is equal to the turns ratio, hence:
292 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

8888 = 0.494 = 0.703 conditions, the screen tends to modulate it-


18000 self, the screen voltage varying over the
audio cycle as a result of the screen imped-
ance increasing with plate voltage, and de-
The transformer must have a turns ratio
creasing with a decrease in plate voltage.
of approximately 1- to -0.7 step down, total This circuit arrangement is illustrated in
primary to total secondary. The greater figure 9B.
number of turns always goes with the higher A similar application of this principle is
impedance, and vice versa.
shown in figure 9D. In this case the screen
Plate-and -Screen When only the plate of a voltage is fed directly from a low -voltage
Modulation screen -grid tube is modu- supply of the proper potential through choke
lated, it is difficult to ob- L. A conventional filter choke having an
tain high -percentage linear modulation under inductance from 10 to 20 henrys will be
ordinary conditions. The plate current of satisfactory for L.
such a stage is not linear with plate voltage. To afford protection of the tube when
However, if the screen is modulated simul- plate voltage is not applied but screen volt-
taneously with the plate, the instantaneous age is supplied from the exciter power sup-
screen voltage drops in proportion to the ply, when using the arangement of figure
drop in the plate voltage, and linear modula- 9D, a resistor of 3000 to 10,000 ohms can
tion can then be obtained. Four satisfactory be connected in series with choke L. In
this case the screen supply voltage should be
circuits for accomplishing combined plate
and screen modulation are shown in figure 9. at least 1.5 times as much as is required for
The screen r -f bypass capacitor (C2) actual screen voltage, and the value of re-
should not have a greater value than 0.005 sistor is chosen such that with normal screen
fd, preferably not larger than 0.001 fd. It current the drop through the resistor and
choke will be such that normal screen volt-
should be large enough to bypass effectively
age will be applied to the tube. When the
all r-f voltage without short -circuiting high -
plate voltage is removed the screen current
frequency audio voltages. The plate bypass
will increase greatly and the drop through
capacitor can be of any value from 0.002 resistor R will increase to such a value that
fd to 0.005 fd. The screen -dropping re- the screen voltage will be lowered to the
sistor (R1) should reduce the applied high point where the screen dissipation on the
voltage to the value specified for operating tube will not be exceeded. However, the
the particular tube in the circuit. Capacitor supply voltage and value of resistor R must
C, is seldom required yet some tubes may be chosen carefully so that the maximum
require this capacitor in order to keep C: rated screen dissipation cannot be exceeded.
from attenuating the high frequencies. Dif- The maximum possible screen dissipation us-
ferent values between .0002 and .002 fd. ing this arrangement is equal to: W =
should be tried for best results. E2/4R where E is the screen supply voltage
Figure 9C shows another method which and R is the combined resistance of the re-
uses a third winding on the modulation sistor in figure 9D and the d -c resistance
transformer, through which the screen grid of the choke (L). It is wise, when using this
is connected to a low- voltage power supply. arrangement to check, using the above for-
The ratio of turns between the two output mula, to see that the value of W obtained is
windings depends on the type of screen -grid less than the maximum rated screen dissipa-
tube which is being modulated. Normally it tion of the tube or tubes used in the modu-
will be such that the screen voltage is being lated stage. This same system can of course
modulated 60 percent when the plate voltage also be used in figuring the screen supply
i- receiving 100 percent modulation. circuit of a pentode or tetrode amplifier stage
If the screen voltage is derived from a where modulation is not to be applied.
dt pping resistor (not a divider) that is by- The modulation transformer for plate -
pas ed for r.f. but not a.f., it is possible to and- screen modulation, when utilizing a
sect e quite good modulation by applying dropping resistor as shown in figure 9A, is
mod lation only to the plate. Under these similar to the type of transformer used for

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Plate Modulation 293

e+ 8+
B+ 5.5 e+

B+ e+

Figure 9

PLATE MODULATION OF A BEAM -TETRODE OR SCREEN -GRID TUBE


These alternative arrangements for plate modulation of tetrodes or pentodes ore discussed in
detail in the text. The arrangements shown at B or D are recommended for most applications.

any plate -modulated transmitter. The com- inexpensive modulator of grid modulation.
bined screen and plate current is divided into Cathode modulation consists essentially of a
the plate voltage in order to obtain the mixture of the two.
class -C amplifier load impedance. The peak The efficiency of the average well- designed
audio power required to obtain 100 percent plate -modulated transmitter is in the vicinity
modulation is equal to the d -c power input of 75 to 80 percent, with a compromise at
to the screen, screen resistor, and plate of the perhaps 77.5 percent. On the other hand, the
modulated r -f stage. efficiency of a good grid -modulated trans-
mitter may run from 28 to perhaps 40 per-
13 -5 Cathode Modulation cent with the average falling at about
34 percent. Now since cathode modulation
Cathode modulation offers a workable consists of simultaneous grid and plate mod-
compromise between the good plate efficiency ulation, in phase with each other, we can
but expensive modulator of high-level plate theoretically obtain any efficiency from
modulation, and the poor plate -efficiency but about 34 to 77.5 percent from our cathode-
294 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

modulated stage, depending on the relative moved for cathode modulation, as shown in
percentages of grid and plate modulation. figure 11. With low -p triodes, some extra
Since the system is a compromise between grid bias (over and above that amount sup-
the two fundamental modulation arrange- plied by the cathode modulator) may be
ments, a value of efficiency approximately needed to achieve proper linearity of the
half way between the two would seem to be modulated stage. In any case, proper oper-
the best compromise. Experience has proved ation of a cathode - modulated stage should
this to be the case. A compromise efficiency be determined by examining the modulated
of about 56.5 percent, roughly half way be- output waveform of the stage on an oscil-
tween the two limits, has proved to be opti- loscope.
mum. Calculation has shown that this value
of efficiency can be obtained from a cathode - Excitation The r -f driver for a cathode -
modulated amplifier when the audio- frequen- modulated stage should have
cy modulating power is approximately 20 about the same power output capabilities as
percent of the d -c input to the cathode - would be required to drive a c -w amplifier
modulated stage. to the same input as it is desired to drive the
cathode- modulated stage. However, some
An Economical Series cathode modulation is form of excitation control should be avail-
Series Cathode ideally suited as an economi- able since the amount of excitation power
Modulator cal modulating arrangement has a direct bearing on the linearity of a
for a high -power triode c -w cathode -modulated amplifier stage. If link
transmitter. The modulator can be con- coupling is used between the driver and the
structed quite compactly and for a minimum modulated stage, variation in the amount of
component cost since no power supply is re- link coupling will afford ample excitation
quired for it. When it is desired to change variation. If much less than 40 percent plate
over from c -w to 'phone, it is only neces- modulation is employed, the stage begins to
sary to cut the series modulator into the resemble a grid -bias modulated stage, and
cathode- return circuit of the c -w amplifier the necessity for good r -f regulation will
stage. The plate voltage for the modulator apply.
tubes and for the speech amplifier is taken
from the cathode voltage drop of the modu- Cathode Modulation Cathode modulation has
lated stage across the modulator unit. of Tetrodes not proved too satisfac-
Figure 10 shows the circuit of such a tory for use with beam
modulator, designed to cathode -modulate a tetrode tubes. This is a result of the small
class -C amplifier using push -pull 810 tubes, excitation and grid -swing requirements for
running at a supply voltage of 2500, and such tubes, plus the fact that some means
with a plate input of 660 watts. The mod- for holding the screen voltage at the po-
ulated stage runs at about 50 percent effi- tential of the cathode as far as audio is con-
ciency, giving a power output of nearly 350 cerned is usually necessary. Because of these
watts, fully modulated. The voltage drop factors, cathode modulation is not recom-
across the cathode modulator is 400 volts, mended for use with tetrode r -f amplifiers.
allowing a net plate to cathode voltage of
2100 volts on the final amplifier. The plate 13 -6 The Doherty and the
current of the 810's should be about 330 ma, Terman- Woodyard
and the grid current should be approximate-
ly 40 ma, making the total cathode current Modulated Amplifiers
of the modulated stage 370 ma. Four parallel
6L6 modulator tubes can pass this amount These two amplifiers will be described to-
of plate current without difficulty. It must gether since they operate on very similar
be remembered that the voltage drop across principles. Figure 12 shows a greatly simpli-
the cathode modulator is also the cathode fied schematic diagram of the operation of
bias of the modulated stage. In most cases, both types. Both systems operate by virtue
no extra grid bias is necessary. If a bias sup- of a carrier tube, (V1 in both figures 12 and
ply is used for c -w operation, it may be re- 13) which supplies the unmodulated carrier,
HAN DBOOK Cathode Modulation 295

TO CATHODE -
MODULATED
STAGE
6AU6 6AU6 6L6 6L6 6L6 6L6
500 K
.002

1o6,iw
e.
ALL KES /STORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS CAUTION - FILAMENTS OF 646 TUBES MUST BE AT OPERATING
OTHERWISE NOTED TEMPERATURE BEFORE PLATE VOLTAGE IS APPLIED
ALL CAPACITORS IN /IF UNLESS TO MODULATED AMPLIFIER.
OTHERWISE NOTED.

Figure 10

SERIES CATHODE MODULATOR FOR A HIGH -POWER TRIODE R -F


AMPLIFIER

and whose output is reduced to supply neg- until at the peak of the modulation cycle it
ative peaks, and a peak tube, (V2) whose is contributing enough power so that the
function is to supply approximately half the impedance at the load end of the line is equal
positive peak of the modulation cycle and to R, instead of the R/2 that is presented
whose additional function is to lower the under the carrier conditions. This is true
load impedance on the carrier tube so that because at a positive modulation peak (since
it will be able to supply the other half of it is delivering full power) the peak tube
the positive peak of the modulation cycle. subtracts a negative resistance of R/2 from
The peak tube is able to increase the the load end of the line.
output of the carrier tube by virtue of an Now, since under the peak condition of
impedance - inverting line between the plate modulation the load end of the line is termi-
circuits of the two tubes. This line is de-
signed to have a characteristic impedance of R -F AMPLIFIER
one -half the value of load into which the
carrier tube operates under the carrier con-
ditions. Then a load of one-half the charac-
teristic impedance of the quarter -wave line
is coupled into the output. By experience
with quarter -wave lines in antenna -matching
circuits we know that such a line will vary
the impedance at one end of the line in such
a manner that the geometric mean between
the two terminal impedances will be equal
to the characteristic impedance of the line.
Thus, if we have a value of load of one -half
4 -6L6'5
the characteristic impedance of the line at UC 64U6 6405

one end, the other end of the line will present CATHODE
MODULATOR
a value of twice the characteristic imped-
ance of the lines to carrier tube V,.
This is the situation that exists under the
carrier conditions when the peak tube merely Figure 11
floats across the load end of the line and
contributes no power. Then as a positive CATHODE -MODULATOR INSTALLATION
peak of modulation comes along, the peak SHOWING PHONE -CW TRANSFER
tube starts to contribute power to the load SWITCH
;
296 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
nated in R ohms instead of R /2, the imped-
ance at the carrier -tube will be reduced from
2R ohms to R ohms. This again is due to the
impedance- inverting action of the line. Since
o - t
-JXRo

Ci
Vt
j6
ELECTRICAL A/4
LINE ZD R
2

LOAD

the load resistance on the carrier tube has


been reduced to half the carrier value, its ?JX.ROjX.RO
output at the peak of the modulation cycle
will be doubled. Thus we have the necessary Figure 12
condition for a 100 percent modulation
peak; the amplifier will deliver four times as DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
much power as it does under the carrier con- THE DOHERTY LINEAR
ditions.
On negative modulation peaks the peak ciency, while the peak tube again is biased
tube does not contribute; the output of the so that it draws almost no plate current.
carrier tube is reduced until, on a 100 per- Unmodulated r.f. is applied to the grid cir-
cent negative peak, its output is zero. cuits of the two tubes and the modulating
The Electrical
voltage is inserted in series with the fixed
While an electrical quarter - bias voltages. From one -half to two -thirds
Quarter -Wave wave line (consisting of a pi as much audio voltage is required at the grid
Line network with the inductance of the peak tube as is required .at the grid
and capacitance units having of the carrier tube.
a reactance equal to the characteristic im-
pedance of the line) does have the desired Operating The resting carrier efficiency of
impedance-inverting effect, it also has the Efficiencies the grid -modulated amplifier
undesirable effect of introducing a 90 phase may run as high as is obtain-
shift across such a line. If the shunt elements able in any class -C stage-80 percent or
are capacitances, the phase shift across the better. The resting carrier efficiency of the
line lags by 90 ; if they are inductances, the linear will be about as good as is obtainable
phase shift leads by 90 . Since there is an in any class -B amplifier -60 to 70 percent.
undesirable phase shift of 90 between the The over -all efficiency of the bias -modulated
plate circuits of the carrier and peak tubes, amplifier at 100 percent modulation will run
an equal and opposite phase shift must be about 75 percent; of the linear-about 60
introduced in the exciting voltage of the percent.
grid circuits of the two tubes so that the In figure 13 the plate tank circuits are de-
resultant output in the plate circuit will be tuned enough to give an effect equivalent to
in phase. This additional phase shift has been the shunt elements of the quarter -wave
indicated in figure 12 and a method of ob- "line" of figure 12. At resonance, coils L,
taining it has been shown in figure 13. and L: in the grid circuits of the two tubes
have each an inductive reactance equal to
Comparison Between The difference between the capacitive reactance of capacitor C,.
Doherty and Terman- the Doherty linear am- Thus we have the effect of a pi network
Woodyard Amplifiers plifier and the Terman- consisting of shunt inductances and series
Woodyard grid- modula- capacitance. In the plate circuit we want a
ted amplifier is the same as the difference phase shift of the same magnitude but in
between any linear and grid -modulated the opposite direction; so our series element
stages. Modulated r.f. is applied to the grid is inductance L, whose reactance is equal to
circuit of the Doherty linear amplifier with the characteristic impedance desired of the
the carrier tube biased to cutoff and the peak network. Then the plate tank capacitors of
tube biased to the point where it draws sub- the two tubes (C2 and C :,) are increased an
stantially zero plate current at the carrier amount past resonance, so that they have a
condition. capacitive reactance equal to the inductive
In the Terman-Woodyard grid -modulated reactance of the coil L;,. It is quite important
amplifier the carrier tube runs class -C with that there be no coupling between the in-
comparatively high bias and high plate efi- ductors.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Speech Clipping 297

very short duration. These peaks will cause


overmodulation if the average level of mod-
NC
ulation on loud syllables exceeds approxi-
C
mately 30 percent. Careful checking into the
nature of speech sounds has revealed that
EXCITA- 3
these high -intensity peaks are due primarily
TION
to the vowel sounds. Further research has
revealed that the vowel sounds add little to
intelligibility, the major contribution to in-
telligibility coming from the consonant
sounds such as y, b, k, s, t, and 1. Measure-
TO
ANT.
ments have shown that the power contained
in these consonant sounds may be down 30
db or more from the energy in the vowel
Va
sounds in the same speech passage. Obvious-
ly, then, if we can increase the relative en-
Figure 13
ergy content of the consonant sounds with
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF A respect to the vowel sounds it will be possi-
"HIGH- EFFICIENCY" AMPLIFIER ble to understand a signal modulated with
such a waveform in the presence of a much
The basic system, comprising a "carrier" tube
and a "peak" tube interconnected by lumped - higher level of background noise and inter-
constant quarter-wave lines, is the same for ference. Experiment has shown that it is
either grid-bias modulation or for use as a possible to accomplish this desirable result
linear amplifier of a modulated wave.
simply by cutting off or clipping the high -
intensity peaks and thus building up in a
Although both these types of amplifiers relative manner the effective level of the
are highly efficient and require no high -level weaker sounds.
audio equipment, they are difficult to adjust Such clipping theoretically can be accom-
-particularly so on the higher frequencies plished simply by increasing the gain of the
-and it would be an extremely difficult speech amplifier until the average level of
problem to design a multiband transmitter modulation on loud syllables approaches 90
employing the circuit. However, the grid - percent. This is equivalent to increasing the
bias modulation system has advantages for speech power of the consonant sounds by
the high -power transmitter which will be about 10 times or, conversely, we can say
operated on a single frequency band. that 10 db of clipping has been applied to
Other High- Efficiency Many other high -effi- the voice wave. However, the clipping when
Modulation Systems ciency modulation sys- accomplished in this manner will produce
tems have been de- higher order sidebands known as "splatter,"
scribed since about 1936. The majority of and the transmitted signal would occupy a
these, however, have received little applica- relatively tremendous spectrum width. So
tion either by commercial interests or by another method of accomplishing the desir-
amateurs. In most cases the circuits are diffi- able effects of clipping must be employed.
cult to adjust, or they have other undesirable A considerable reduction in the amount of
features which make their use impracticable splatter caused by a moderate increase in the
alongside the more conventional modulation gain of the speech amplifier can be obtained
systems. Nearly all these circuits have been by phasing the signal from the speech ampli-
published in the I.E.E.E. Proceedings and the fier to the transmitter such that the high -
interested reader can refer to them in back intensity peaks occur on upward or positive
copies of that journal. modulation. Overloading on positive modu-
lation peaks produces less splatter than the
13 -7 Speech Clipping negative -peak clipping which occurs with
overloading on the negative peaks of modu-
Speech waveforms are characterized by lation. This aspect of the problem has been
frequently recurring high -intensity peaks of discussed in more detail in the section on
298 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

-
1001b POB. MO014ATIQN

Figure 14 AV R

SPEECH -WAVEFORM
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
11, 100% NEG MODULATION

Showing the effect of using the


proper polarity of a speech wave _1001b POS. M000LATIQIj
for modulating a transmitter. A
shows the effect of proper speech
polarity on a transmitter having an
upward modulation capability of AVERAGE LEVEL
greater than 100 percent. I shows
the effect of using proper speech
polarity on a transmitter having an
upward modulation capability of
only 100 percent. Both these condi- 100% NEG. MOOIILATION
tions will give a clean signal with-
out objectionable splatter. C shows
the effect of the use of improper 100 lb POS_MOOULAT ION
speech polarity. This condition will
cause serious splatter due to nega-
tive -peak clipping in the modulated-
amplifier stage.
AVERAGE LEVEL

100% NEG MODULATION


NEGATIVE -
PEAK CLIPPING
1

Speech Waveform Dissymmetry earlier in that phase shift between the clipper -filter
this chapter. The effect of deriving proper stage and the final modulated amplifier be
speech polarity from the speech amplifier is kept to a minimum. However, if there is
shown in figure 14. phase shift after the clipper -filter the system
A much more desirable and effective meth- does not completely break down. The pres-
od of obtaining speech clipping is actually to ence of phase shift merely requires that the
employ a clipper circuit in the earlier stages audio gain following the clipper -filter be
of the speech amplifier, and then to filter out reduced to the point where the cant applied
the objectionable distortion components by to the clipped speech waves still cannot
means of a sharp low -pass filter having a cause overmodulation. This effect is illus-
cutoff frequency of approximately 3000 Hz. trated in figures 15 and 16.
Tests on clipper -filter speech systems have The cant appearing on the tops of the
shown that 6 db of clipping on voice is just square waves leaving the clipper -filter centers
noticeable, 12 db of clipping is quite accept- about the clipping level. Hence, as the fre-
able, and values of clipping from 20 to 25 quency being passed through the system is
db are tolerable under such conditions that a lowered, the amount by which the peak of
high degree of clipping is necessary to get the canted wave exceeds the clipping level
through heavy QRM or QRN. A signal with is increased.
12 db of clipping doesn't sound quite natur-
al but it is not unpleasant to listen to and is Phase -Shift a normal transmitter having
In
much more readable than an unclipped signal Correction moderate amount of phase
a
in the presence of strong interference. shift the cant applied to the
The use of a clipper -filter in the speech tops of the waves will cause overmodulation
amplifier, to be completely effective, requires on frequencies below those for which the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Speech Clipping 299

POSITIVE CLIPPING LEVEL

AV RA
Figure 15
_ Nf,GQTIL( 4IPP1NQ.LEYEL ACTION OF A CLIPPER -FILTER
ON A SPEECH WAVE
Drawing A shows the incoming
speech way. before it reaches the
INCOMING SPEECH WAVE clipper stage. fi shows the output
of the clipper -filter, illustrating the
manner in which the peaks are clip-
ped and then the sharp edges of
the tipped way. removed by the
filter. C shows the effect of phase
shift in the stages following the
clipper -filter and the manner in
which the transmitter may b. ad-
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL justed for 100 percent modulation
of the "canted" peaks of the way.,
CLIPPED AND FILTERED SPEECH WAVE
the sloping top of the ware reach-
ing about 70 percent modulation.

at.
_100 -.b POSITIVE MOOUATION

20i> POSITIVllAQQU .ATI9

AVERAGE LEVEL

701b NEGATIVE MODULATION


TIV T
MODULATED WAVE AFTER UNDERGOING PHASE SHIFT

gain following the clipper -filter has been into the microphone the distortion
adjusted unless remedial steps have been being introduced by the clipper -filter
taken. The following steps are advised: circuit is quite apparent but not ob-
jectionable. This amount of distortion
1. Introduce bass suppression into the will be apparent to the normal listener
speech amplifier ahead of the clipper - when 10 to 13 db of clipping is taking
filter. place.
2. Improve the low- frequency response 2. Tune a selective communications re-
characteristic insofar as it is possible in ceiver about 13kHz to one side or the
the stages following the clipper -filter. other of the frequency being transmit-
Feeding the plate current to the final ted. Use a short antenna or no antenna
amplifier through a choke rather than at all on the receiver so that the trans-
through the secondary of the modu- mitter is not blocking the receiver.
lation transformer will help materially. 3. Again, with normal talking into the
Even with the normal amount of im- microphone, adjust the gain follow-
provement which can be attained through the ing the clipper -filter to the point where
steps mentioned above there will still be an the sideband splatter is being heard,
amount of wave cant which must be com- and then slightly back -off the gain
pensated in some manner. This compensation after the clipper -filter until the splat-
can be done in either of two ways. The first ter disappears.
and simpler way is as follows: If the phase shift in the transmitter or
1. Adjust the speech gain ahead of the modulator is not excessive the adjustment
clipper -filter until with normal talking procedure given above will allow a clean
300 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

F 7.- 7r
MODULATOR SR4GY,1616
836 Cz

z
O o

rLi i C. 1

TO
la V PLATE- MODULATED
3000 % WAVE CLASS -C AMPLI FIER
FIL. TRANS. 7500 -10 000 OHMS
INAVTED LOAD
_ _ ML.
FOSUR

W}

O
>
W

Z
0 Ai 11 +5 MOD. 115-V A.0

Figure 17
+S R-F FINAL

O.
HIGH -LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
Ra_.
1000% WAVE This circuit is effective in reducing splatter
caused by negative -peak clipping in the mod-
ulated amplifier stage. The use of a two-section
Alter as shown is recommended, although
either a single m- derived or a constant -k
section may be used for greater my.
Suitable chokes, along with recommended ca-
pacitor values, are available from s I
manuf act s.

of the waves than is illustrated in this figure,


300 WAVE it will be well to apply the second step in
Figure 16 compensation in order to ensure that side -
band splatter cannot take place and to af-
ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF PHASE ford a still higher average percentage of
SHIFT AND FILTERED WAVES OF modulation. This second step consists of the
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY addition of a high -level splatter suppressor
Sketch A shows the effect of a clipper and a such as is illustrated in figure 17.
filter having a cutoff of about 3500 Hz on a The use of a high -level splatter suppressor
wave of 3000 Ns. Note that no harmonics
are present in the wave so that phase shift after a clipper -filter system will afford the
following the clipper -Alter will have no signifi- result shown in figure 18 since such a device
cant effect on the shape of the wave. B and C will not permit the negative -peak clipping
show the effect of phase shift on waves well
below the cutoff frequency of the Alter. Note which the wave cant caused by audio- system
that the "cant" placed on the top of the wave phase shift can produce. The high -level splat-
causes the peak value to rise higher and
higher above the clipping level as the fre- ter suppressor operates by virtue of the fact
quency is lowered. It is for this reason that that it will not permit the plate voltage on
bass suppression before the clipper stage is the modulated amplifier to go completely to
desirable. Improved low-frequency response
following the clipper -filter will reduce the zero regardless of the incoming signal ampli-
phase shift and therefore the "canting" of the tude. Hence negative -peak clipping with its
wave at the lower voice frequencies.
attendant splatter cannot take place. Such a
device can, of course, also be used in a trans-
signal to be radiated regardless of any rea- mitter which does not incorporate a clipper -
sonable voice level being fed into the micro- filter system. However, the full increase in
phone. average modulation level without serious
If a cathode -ray oscilloscope is available distortion, afforded by the clipper -filter sys-
the modulated envelope of the transmitter tem, will not be obtained.
should be checked with 30 -to 70 -Hz saw - A word of caution should be noted at this
tooth waves on the horizontal axis. If the time in the case of tetrode -final modulated
upper half of the envelope appears in general amplifier stages which afford screen -voltage
the same as the drawing of figure 13C, all is modulation by virtue of a tap or a separate
well and phase -shift is not excessive. How- winding on the modulation transformer such
ever, if much more slope appears on the tops as is shown in figure 9C of this chapter. If

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Splatter Suppression 301

Figure 18

ACTION OF HIGH -LEVEL


SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
A high -level splatter suppressor
may 6e used in a transmitter with-
out a clipper-Alter to reduce nega-
tive -peak clipping, or such a unit
may be used following a clipper -
Alter to allow a higher average
SPLATTER -CAUSING modulation level by eliminating the
NEGATIVE OVERMOOULAT ION PEAR negative -peak clipping which the
CUT Orr DV 'NIGH-LEVEL'
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR! wave cant caused by phase shift
might produce.

such a system of modulation is in use, the 12 to 14 db loss of gain incurred in the


high -level splatter suppressor shown in figure clipping process. A simple low -pass filter
17 will not operate satisfactorily since nega- made up of a 20 henry a -c /d -c replacement
tive -peak clipping in the stage can take type filter choke and two mica capacitors
place when the screen voltage goes too low. follows the 6J6 clipper. This filter is de-
signed for a cutoff frequency of about 3500
Clipper Circuits Two effective low -level clip- Hz when operating into a load impedance of
per -filter circuits are shown 0.5 megohm. The output level of 8 volts
in figures 19 and 20. The circuit of figure peak is ample to drive a triode speech- ampli-
19 employs a 6J6 double triode as a clipper, fier stage, such as a 6C4.
each half of the 6J6 clipping one side of the A 6AL5 double -diode series clipper is em-
impressed waveform. The optimum level at ployed in the circuit of figure 20, and a com-
which the clipping operation begins is set by mercially made low -pass filter is used to give
the value of the cathode resistor. A maxi- somewhat better high- frequency cutoff char-
mum of 12 to 14 db of clipping may be used acteristics. A double triode is employed as a
with this circuit, which means that an extra speech amplifier ahead of the clipper circuit.
12 to 14 db of speech gain must precede the The actual performance of either circuit is
clipper. For a peak output of 8 volts from about the same.
the clipper filter, a peak audio signal of about To eliminate higher -order products that
40 volts must be impressed on the clipper may be generated in the stages following the
input circuit. The 6C4 speech-amplifier stage clipper-filter, it is wise to follow the modu-
must therefore be considered as a part of the lator with a high -level filter, as shown in
clipper circuit since it compensates for the figure 21.

6AU6 6J6 20 H
(STANCOR 0ISI0

PEAK OLITPY/T APPROX.


IV. MAX. WITH /2 OD
Of CLIPPING.

0K,IW ALL RESISTORS 0.3 WATT UNLESS


I W OTHERWISE MARKED.
ALL CAPACITORS IMAM UNLESS
f2]0 V. OTHERWISE NOTED.

Figure 19

CLIPPER FILTER USING 6J6 DOUBLE TRIODE STAGE


302 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO

6AL5 CHICAGO TRANS.


LPF -2 FILTER
.01
TO NEXT
GRID

PEAK' OUTPUT APPROX.


V MAX. WITH 1208
OF CLIPPINi

ALL RESISTORS 0.3 WATT UNLESS


OTHERWISE MARKED.
ALL CAPACITORS IN LF UNLESS
300 V. OTHERWISE MARKED.

Figure 20

CLIPPER FILTER USING 6AL5 STAGE

CLASS -C AMPLIFIER
a full 12 db of clipping is used. This means
that the Adj. Gain control may be advanced
some 12 db past the point where the clipping
action started. Clipping action should start
at 85 to 90 percent modulation when a sine
wave is used for circuit- adjustment purposes.
High -Level Even though we may have cut
Filters off all frequencies above 3000 or
3500 Hz through the use of a
filter system such as is shown in the circuits

CLASS -C STAGE

e+ MOD. 5+ R F.

Figure 21

ADDITIONAL HIGH-LEVEL LOW -PASS


FILTER TO FOLLOW MODULATOR MODULATION
TRANSFORMER
WHEN A LOW -LEVEL CLIPPER
FILTER IS USED
Suitable choke, along with recommended ca-
pacitor values, is available from s 1

manufacturers.

Clipper Adjustment These clipper circuits


have two adjustments: Figure 22
Adjust Gain and Adjust Clipping. The Adj.
"BUILDING-OUT" THE MODULATION
Gain control determines the modulation level
TRANSFORMER
of the transmitter. This control should be
set so that overmodulation of the transmitter This expedient utilises the leakage reactance
of the modulation transformer in conjunction
is impossible, regardless of the amount of with the capacitors shown to make up a single -
clipping used. Once the Adj. Gain control section low -pass Alter. In order to determine
has been roughly set, the Adj. Clip. control exact values for C, and C, plus C,, H is
sary to use a measurement setup such
may be used to set the modulation level to as is shown in figure 23. However, experiment
any percentage below 100 percent. As the has shown in the case of a number of com-
mercially available modulation transformers
modulation level is decreased, more and more that a value for C, of 0.002 Add and C, plus C,
clipping is introduced into the circuit, until of 0.004 Aid will give satisfactory results.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN D BOOK Splatter Suppression 303

of figures 19 and 20, higher frequencies may load resistance for the class -B modulator
again be introduced into the modulated wave tubes. Resistor R3 should be equal to the
by distortion in stages following the speech value of load resistance which the class -C
amplifier. Harmonics of the incoming audio modulated stage will present to the modu-
frequencies may be generated in the driver lator. The meter (V) can be any type of
stage for the modulator; they may be gen- a -c voltmeter. The indicating instrument on
erated in the plate circuit of the modulator; the secondary of the transformer can be
or they may be generated by nonlinearity in either a cathode -ray oscilloscope or a high -
the modulated amplifier itself. impedance a -c voltmeter of the vacuum -
Regardless of the point in the system fol- tube or rectifier type.
lowing the speech amplifier where the high With a setup as shown in figure 23 a plot
audio frequencies may be generated, these of output voltage against frequency is made,
frequencies can still cause a broad signal to at all times keeping the voltage across V
be transmitted even though all frequencies constant, using various values of capacitance
above 3000 or 3500 Hz have been cut off in for C, and C2 plus C3. When the proper
the speech amplifier. The effects of distortion values of capacitance have been determined
in the audio system following the speech am- which give substantially constant output up
plifier can be eliminated quite effectively to about 3000 or 3500 Hz and decreasing
through the use of a frost-modulator filter. output at all frequencies above, high -voltage
Such a filter may be used between the modu- mica capacitors can be substituted if receiv-
lator plate circuit and the r -f amplifier ing types were used in the tests and the
which is being modulated. transformer connected to the modulator and
This filter may take three general forms in class -C amplifier.
a normal case of a class -C amplifier plate With the transformer reconnected in the
modulated by a class -B modulator. The best transmitter a check of the modulated -wave
method is to use a high -level low -pass filter output of the transmitter should be made
as shown in figure 21 and discussed previous- using an audio oscillator as signal generator
ly. Another method which will give excellent and an oscilloscope coupled to the transmit-
results in some cases and poor results in ter output. With an input signal amplitude
others, dependent on the characteristics of fed to the speech amplifier of such amplitude
the modulation transformer, is to "build - that limiting does not take place, a substan-
out" the modulation transformer into a filter tially clean sine wave should be obtained on
section. This is accomplished as shown in the carrier of the transmitter at all input
figure 22 by placing mica capacitors of the frequencies up to the cutoff frequency of
correct value across the primary and second- the filter system in the speech amplifier and
ary of the modulation transformer. The of the filter which includes the modulation
proper values for capacitors C, and C2 must, transformer. Above these cutoff frequencies
in the ideal case, be determined by trial and
error. Experiment with a number of modu-
lators has shown, however, that if a 0.002 -
pfd. capacitor is used for C1, and if the sum
of C2 and C:, is made 0.004 -pfd (0.002 pfd AUDIO
OSCILLATOR
for C_ and 0.002 for C3) the ideal condition
of cutoff above 3000 Hz will be approached
in most cases with the "multiple- match"
type of modulation transformer.
If it is desired to determine the optimum Figure 23
values of the capacitors across the trans-
former this can be determined in several TEST SETUP FOR BUILDING -OUT
ways, all of which require the use of a cali- MODULATION TRANSFORMER
brated audio oscillator. One way is dia- Through the use of a test setup such as is
grammed in figure 23. The series resistors shown and the method described in the text
it is possible to determine the correct values
(R, and R2) should each be equal to 0.5 for a specified Alter characteristic in the built -
the value of the recommended plate -to -plate out modulation transformer.
304 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
tion or overload of the audio system. In
addition, if speech clipping is used, attenua-
tion of the lower audio frequencies before
the clipper will reduce phase shift and cant-
2 MIMMEillir ing of the clipper output.
, MMI5111/1 A simple method of bass suppression is to
reduce the size of the interstage coupling
capacitors in a resistance- coupled amplifier.
AMARECOMMENOEO CURVESfOR
Figure 24 shows the frequency characteris-
VO/C( COMMUN/CAT/ON tics caused by such a suppression circuit. A
, second simple bass -suppression circuit is to
place a small a -c /d -c type filter choke from
MIA 11
grid to ground in a speech -amplifier stage,
I_II.. 4

r =
RG= S00K
as shown in figure 25.

' Modulated -Amplifier


Distortion
The systems described
in the preceding para-
graphs will have no
100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 5000 effect in reducing a broad signal caused by
FREOUENCY(Hz)
nonlinearity in the modulated amplifier.
Even though the modulating waveform im-
pressed on the modulated stage may be dis-
Figure 24 tortion free, if the modulated amplifier is
BASS -ATTENUATION CHART
nonlinear,distortion will be generated in the
amplifier. The only way in which this type of
Frequency attenuation caused by various values distortion may be corrected is by making the
of coupling capacitor with a grid resistor of
0.S megohm in the following stage (R,/ modulated amplifier more linear. Degenera-
tive feedback which includes the modulated
amplifier in the loop will help in this regard.
very little modulation of the carrier wave Plenty of grid excitation and high grid
should be obtained. To obtain a check on
bias will go a long way toward making a
the effectiveness of the built -out modula- plate- modulated class -C amplifier linear, al-
tion transformer, the capacitors across the though such operating conditions will make
primary and secondary should be removed more difficult the problem of TVI reduction.
for the test. In most cases a marked deterior- If this still does not give adequate linearity,
ation in the waveform output of the modu- the preceding buffer stage may be modulated
lator will be noticed with frequencies in the SO percent or so at the same time and in the
voice range from 500 to 1500 Hz being fed
same phase as the final amplifier. The use of
into the speech amplifier. a grid resistor to obtain the majority of the
A filter system similar to that shown in
bias for a class -C stage will improve its
figure 17 may be used between the modula- linearity.
tor and the modulated circuit in a grid -
modulated or screen -modulated transmitter.
Lower -voltage capacitors and low- current
chokes may of course be employed.
Boss Suppression Most of the power repre-
sented by ordinary speech
(particularly the male voice) lies below 1000 i L- '/O HENRY- M- /OGET
Hz. If all frequencies below 400 or 500 Hz A-C/D-C FILTER CHOKE
(STANCOR C-1333)
are eliminated or substantially attenuated,
there is a considerable reduction in power Figure 25
but insignificant reduction in intelligibility.
This means that the speech level may be USE OF PARALLEL INDUCTANCE
increased considerably without overmodula- FOR BASS SUPPRESSION
HANDBOOK Bias -Shift Modulation 305

The linearity of a grid -bias modulated r -f


amplifier can be improved, after proper ad- +IP
justments of excitation, grid -bias, and anten-
na coupling have been made by modulating
the stage which excites the grid -modulated
amplifier. The preceding driver stage may I P (MAX SIGNAL)
be grid -bias modulated or it may be plate PLATE- CURRENT
modulated. Modulation of the driver stage EXCURSION

should be in the same phase as that of the I P (NO SIGNAL)


final modulated amplifier. EG +EG
CUTOFF
BIAS
13 -8 The Bias -Shift BIAS -SHIFT
EXCURSION
- P

Heising Modulator CLASS -A OPERATING


BIAS LINE
QUIESCENT
BIAS LINE

The simple class -A modulator is limited


to an efficiency of about 30 percent, and the
tube must dissipate the full power input dur- Figure 27
ing periods of quiescence. Class -AB and class - BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR
B audio systems have largely taken the place OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
of the old Heising modulator because of
this great waste of power. It is possible, how- Modulator is biased close to plate current
cutoff under no- signal, condition (B). On appli-
ever, to vary the operating bias of the class - cation of audio signal, the bias of the stage is
A modulator in such a way as to allow shifted toward the class -A operating point (A).
Bias -shift voltage is obtained from the audio
class -A operation only when an audio signal signal.
is applied to the grid of the tube. During
resting periods, the bias can be shifted to a are employed, the efficiency of the system is
higher value, dropping the resting plate cur- comparable to the popular class -B modulator.
rent and plate dissipation of the tube. When The characteristic curve for a class -A
voice waveforms having low average power modulator is shown in figure 26. Normal
bias is used, and the operating point is placed
in the middle of the linear portion of the
+1P
Eg-Ip curve. Maximum plate input is lim-

,
ited by the plate dissipation of the tube
under quiescent condition. The bias-shift
LINEAR PORTION
OF
CURVE
EG-1 P All PLATE
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
modulator is biased close to plate current
cutoff under no- signal condition (figure 27).
Resting plate current and plate dissipation

Ec
All! RESTING
PLATE
CURRENT

+EG
are therefore quite low. On application of an
audio signal, the bias of the stage is shifted
toward the class -A operating point, prevent-
CUTOFF
ing the negative peaks of the applied audio
BIAS voltage from cutting off the plate current of
RESTING BIAS VOLTAGE
-
the tube. As the audio voltage increases, the
-IP operating -bias point is shifted to the right
GRID INPUT on figure 27 until the class -A operating
SIGNAL
point is reached at maximum excitation.
Figure 26 The bias -shift voltage may be obtained
directly from the exciting signal by recti-
CHARACTERISTIC GRID-VOLTAGE fication, as shown in figure 28. A simple
PLATE-CURRENT CURVE FOR low -pass filter system is used that will pass
CLASS -A HEISING only the syllabic components of speech.
MODULATOR Enough negative bias is applied to the bias-
306 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
CLASS-C
AMPLIFIER circuit of the bias -shift modulator, and a
A
heavy -duty filter choke will serve as an im-
AUDIO BIAS -SHIFT pedance coupler for the modulated stage.
AMPLIFIER MODULATOR

Series and Parallel The bias -shift system


e+
Control Circuits may take one of several
BIAS-SHIFT
RECT FIER forms. A "series" control
circuit is shown in figure 29. Resting bias is
applied to the bias -shift modulator tube
BIAS -SHIFT
SYLLABIC
FILTER --a. CONTROL
TUBE
through the voltage divider R2/R,. The bias
control tube is placed across resistor R2.
I
NEGATIVE
Quiescent bias for the modulator is set by
BIAS
SUPPLY
adjusting R2. As the internal resistance of
the bias control tube is varied at a syllabic
rate the voltage drop across R2 will vary in
Figure 28
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
BIAS-SHIFT MODULATOR BN TO MOOULATED
SPE ECM BIAS -SHIFT R -F AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER MODULATOR

shift modulator to cut the resting plate


OJUST
current to the desired value, and the output PERA-

of the bias control rectifier is polarized so as


TING
DIAS -
BN
to "buck" the fixed bias voltage. No spuri-
ous modulation frequencies are generated,
since the modulator operates class -A through-
BIAS CONTROL
out the audio cycle. TUBE
NEGATIVE
This form of grid pulsing permits the MODULATOR
BIAS
modulator stage to work with an over -all ADJUST RESTING
BIAS
efficiency of greater than f O percent, com-
paring favorably with the class -B modulator.
The expensive class -B driver and output
Figure 30
transformers are not required, since resist-
ance- coupling may be used in the input PARALLEL CONTROL CIRCUIT
FOR BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR
e TO MODULATED
The resistance to ground of point A in the
SPEECH BIAS -SHIFT R -F AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER MODULATOR bias network is varied at a syllabic rate by
the bias control tube.

RI
unison. The modulator bias, therefore varies
+ at the same rate. Excitation for the bias
ADJUST
RESTING
8/AS
control tube is obtained from the audio sig-
nal through potentiometer R1 which regu-
BIAS CONTROL
TUBE
BIAS CONTROL
RECTIFIER lates the amplitude of the control signal.
The audio signal is rectified by the bias con-
NEGATIVE
trol rectifier, and filtered by network R3 -C1
MODULATOR BIAS in the grid circuit of the bias control tube.
The "parallel" control system is illustrated
Figure 29 in figure 30. Resting bias for the modulator
SERIES CONTROL CIRCUIT is obtained from the voltage divider R2 -R4.
FOR BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR Potentiometer R2 adjusts the resting bias
level, determining the static plate current of
Ti,. internal resistant* of the bias control tub* the modulator. Resistor R3 serves as a bias
is varied at a syllabic rat* to thong* the
operating bias of the modulator tube. resistor for the control tube, reducing its
HANDBOOK Bias -Shift Modulation 307

plate current to a low level. When an audio conjunction with bias resistor R3 form a syl-
signal is applied via R, to the grid of the labic filter for the control bias that is applied
control tube the internal resistance is low- to the modulator stage.
ered, decreasing the shunt resistance across A large value of plate dissipation is re-
R_. The negative modulator bias is therefore quired for the bias -shift modulator tube.
reduced. The bias axis of the modulator is For plate voltages below 1500, the 211
shifted from the cutoff region to a point on (VT -4C) may be used, while the 304 -TL is
the linear portion of the operating curve. suitable for voltages up to 3000. As with
The amount of bias -shift is controlled by the normal class-A amplifiers, low -p. tubes func-
setting of potentiometer R1. Capacitor C, in tion best in this circuit.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN

Frequency Modulation

Exciter systems for f -m and single -side- In this chapter various points of difference
band transmission are basically similar in between frequency- modulation and ampli-
that modification of the signal in accordance tude- modulation transmission and reception
with the intelligence to be transmitted is will be discussed and the advantages of
normally accomplished at a relatively low frequency -modulation for certain types of
level. Then the intelligence -bearing signal is communication pointed out. Since the dis-
amplified to the desired power level for ulti- tinguishing features of the two types of
mate transmission. True, amplifiers for the transmission lie entirely in the modulating
two types of signals are basically different; circuits at the transmitter and in the detec-
linear amplifiers of the class -A or class -B tor and limiter circuits in the receiver, these
type being used for SSB signals,while class -C parts of the communication system will re-
or nonlinear class-B amplifiers may be used ceive the major portion of attention.
for f -m amplification. But the principle of
low -level generation and subsequent amplifi- Modulation Modulation is the process of al-
cation is standard for both types of trans- tering a radio wave in accord
mission. with the intelligence to be transmitted. The
nature of the intelligence is of little impor-
tance as far as the process of modulation is
14 -1 Frequency concerned; it is the method, by which this
Modulation intelligence is made to give a distinguishing
characteristic to the radio wave which will
enable the receiver to convert it back into
The use of frequency modulation and the intelligence,that determines the type of mod-
allied system of phase modulation has become ulation being used.
of increasing importance in recent years. Figure 1 is a drawing of an r -f carrier
For amateur communication, frequency and amplitude- modulated by a sine-wave audio
phase modulation offer important advantages voltage. After modulation the resultant mod-
in the reduction of broadcast and TV inter- ulated r -f wave is seen still to vary about
ference and in the elimination of the costly the zero axis at a constant rate, but the
high -level modulation equipment most com- strength of the individual r -f waves is
monly employed with amplitude modulation. proportional to the amplitude of the mod-
For broadcast work frequency modulation ulation voltage.
offers an improvement in signal -to -noise Tn figure 2, the carrier of figure 1 is shown
ratio for the high field intensities available frequency- modulated by the same modula-
in the local -coverage area of f -m and TV ting voltage. Here it may be seen that mod-
broadcast stations. ulation voltage of one polarity causes the

www.americanradiohistory.com
Frequency Modulation 309

UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE

CARRIER

SIDE FREQUENCY SIDE FREQUENCY

FREQUENCY

Figure 3

J A -M SIDE FREQUENCIES
FIGURE t FIGURE 2
For each a -m modulating frequency, a pair of
side freq less is produced. The side frequen-
cies are spaced away from the carrier by an
amount equal to the modulation frequency, and
A -M AND F -M WAVES their amplitude is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulation. The amplitude of
Figure 1 shows a sketch of the scope pattern the carrier does not change under modulation.
of an amplitude -modulated wave at the bot-
tom. The center sketch shows the modulating
wave and the upper sketch shows the carrier
wave. output level that they are capable of produc-
Figure 2 shows at the bottom a sketch of a ing the additional output without distortion
frequency -modulated wave. in this case the
center sketch also shows the modulating wave in the low -level system. On the other hand,
and the upper sketch shows the carrier wave. a frequency- modulated transmitter requires
Note that the carrier wave and the modulating an insignificant amount of power from the
wave are the same in either case, but that
the waveform of the modulated wave is quite modulator and needs no provision for in-
different in the two cases. creased power output on modulation peaks.
All of the stages between the oscillator and
carrier frequency to decrease, as shown by the antenna may be operated as high-efficien-
the fact that the individual r -f waves of cy class -B or class -C amplifiers or frequency
the carrier are spaced farther apart. A mod- multipliers.
ulating voltage of the opposite polarity causes
the frequency to increase, and this is shown Currier -Wove The second characteristic of
by the r -f waves being compressed together to Distortion f -m and a -m waves revealed
allow more of them to be completed in a by figures 1 and 2 is that both
given time interval. types of modulation result in distortion of
Figures 1 and 2 reveal two very important the r-f carrier. That is, after modulation, the
characteristics about amplitude- and fre- r -f waves are no longer sine waves, as they
quency- modulated waves. First, it is seen would be if no frequencies other than the
that while the amplitude (power) of the sig- fundamental carrier frequency were present.
nal is varied in a -m transmission, no such It may be shown in the amplitude- modula-
variation takes place in frequency modula- tion case illustrated, that there are only two
tion. In many cases this advantage of fre- additional frequencies present, and these are
quency modulation is probably of equal or the familiar side frequencies, one located on
greater importance than the widely publi- each side of the carrier, and each spaced
cized noise- reduction capabilities of the sys- from the carrier by a frequency interval
tem. When 100 percent amplitude modula- equal to the modulation frequency. In regard
tion is obtained, the average power output to frequency and amplitude, the situation is
of the transmitter must be increased by SO as shown in figure 3. The strength of the
percent. This additional output must be carrier itself does not vary during modula-
supplied either by the modulator itself, in tion, but the strength of the side frequencies
the high -level system, or by operating one or depends on the percentage of modulation.
more of the transmitter stages at such a low At 100 percent modulation the power in the
310 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE


One of the great advantages of frequency
modulation over amplitude modulation is the
CARRIER
reduction in noise at the receiver which the
system allows. If the receiver is made re-
SI DE SI DE
sponsive only to changes in frequency, a
1.--A--,
FREQUENCIES FREQUENCIES

considerable increase in signal -to-noise ratio


is made possible through the use of fre-

IIII,i TE1 FREQUENCY


quency modulation, when the signal is of
greater strength than the noise. The noise -
reducing capabilities of frequency modula-
Figure 4 tion arise from the inability of noise to cause
appreciable frequency modulation of the
F -M SIDE FREQUENCIES noise -plus -signal voltage which is applied to
With frequency modulation, each modulation the detector in the receiver.
frequency component causes a large number
of side frequencies to be produced. The side F -M Terms
frequencies are separated from each other and Unlike amplitude modulation,
the carrier by an amount equal to the modu- the term percentage modulation
lation frog , but their amplitude varies
greatly as the amount of modulation is means little in f -m practice, unless the re-
changed. The carrier strength also varies ceiver characteristics are specified. There are,
greatly with frequency modulation. The side however; three terms, deviation, modulation
frequencies shown rep a case where the
deviation each side of the "carrier" frog y index, and deviation ratio, which convey
is equal to five times the modulating frequen- considerable information concerning the
cy. Other amounts of deviation with the same
modulation frog y would cause the relative character of the f -m wave.
strengths of the various sidebands to change Deviation is the amount of frequency
widely. shift each side of the unmodulated carrier
frequency which occurs when the transmit-
side frequencies is equal to one -half that of ter is modulated. Deviation is ordinarily
the carrier. measured in kilohertz, and in a properly
Under frequency modulation, the carrier operating f -m transmitter it will be directly
wave again becomes distorted, as shown in proportional to the amplitude of the modu-
figure 2. But, in this case, many more than lating signal. When a symmetrical modula-
two additional frequencies are formed. The ting signal is applied to the transmitter,
first two of these frequencies are spaced from equal deviation each side of the resting fre-
the carrier by the modulation frequency, and quency is obtained during each cycle of the
the additional side frequencies are located out modulating signal, and the total frequency
on each side of the carrier and are also spaced range covered by the f -m transmitter is
from each other by an amount equal to the sometimes known as the swing. If, for in-
modulation frequency. Theoretically, there stance, a transmitter operating on 1000 kHz
are an infinite number of side frequencies has its frequency shifted from 1000 kHz to
formed, but, fortunately, the strength of 1010 kHz, back to 1000 kHz, then to 990
those beyond the frequency swing of the kHz, and again back to 1000 kHz during
transmitter under modulation is relatively one cycle of the modulating wave, the de-
low. viation would be 10 kHz and the swing 20
One set of side frequencies that might be kHz.
formed by frequency modulation is shown The modulation index of an f -m signal is
in figure 4. Unlike amplitude modulation, the ratio of the deviation to the audio mod-
the strength of the component at the carrier ulating frequency, when both are expressed
frequency varies widely in frequency mod- in the same units. Thus, in the example
ulation and it may even disappear entirely above if the signal is varied from 1000 kHz
under certain conditions. The variation of to 1010 kHz to 990 kHz, and back to 1000
strength of the carrier component is useful kHz at a rate (frequency) of 2000 times a
in measuring the amount of frequency mod- second, the modulation index would be S,
ulation, and will be discussed in detail later since the deviation (10 kHz) is S times the
in this chapter. modulating frequency (2 kHz).
HANDBOOK F -M Terms 311

The relative strengths of the f -m carrier deviation ratio, however, the noise suppres-
and the various side frequencies depend sion becomes progressively better as the
directly on the modulation index, these rela- deviation ratio is increased.
tive strengths varying widely as the modula- For high -fidelity f -m broadcasting pur-
tion index is varied. In the preceding ex- poses, a deviation ratio of S is ordinarily
ample, for instance, side frequencies occur used, the maximum audio frequency being
on the high side of 1000 kHz at 1002, 1004, 1 5,000 Hz, and the peak deviation at full
1006, 1008, 1010, 1012, etc., and on the low modulation being 75 kHz. Since a swing of
frequency side at 998, 996, 994, 992, 990, 150 kHz is covered by the transmitter, it is
988, etc. In proportion to the unmodulated obvious that wide -band f -m transmission
carrier strength (100 percent) , these side must necessarily be confined to the vhf range
frequencies have the following strengths, as or higher, where room for the signals is avail-
indicated by a modulation index of S: 1002 able.
and 998 -33 percent; 1004 and 996 -5 per- In the case of television sound, the devia-
cent; 1006 and 994 -36 percent; 1008 and tion ratio is 1.67; the maximum modulation
992 -39 percent; 1010 and 990 -26 percent; frequency is 1 5,000 Hz, and the transmitter
1012 and 998 -13 percent. The carrier deviation for full modulation is 25 kHz. The
strength (1000 kHz) will be 18 percent of sound carrier frequency in a standard TV
its modulated value. Changing the amplitude signal is located exactly 4.5 MHz higher
of the modulating signal will change the than the picture carrier frequency. In the
deviation, and thus the modulation index intercarrier TV sound system, which is wide-
will be changed, with the result that the ly used, this constant difference between the
side frequencies, while still located in the picture carrier and the sound carrier is em-
same places, will have different strength ployed within the receiver to obtain an f -m
values from those given above. subcarrier at 4.5 MHz. This 4.S MHz sub -
The deviation ratio is similar to the modu- carrier then is demodulated by the f -m de-
lation index in that it involves the ratio tector to obtain the sound signal which
between a modulating frequency and devia- accompanies the picture.
tion. In this case, however, the deviation in
question is the peak frequency shift obtained Narrow -Band Narrow -band f -m trans-
under full modulation, and the audio fre- F -M Transmission mission has becomestand-
quency to be considered is the maximum ardized for use by the
audio frequency to be transmitted. When mobile services such as police, fire, and
the maximum audio frequency to be trans- taxicab communications, and is also au-
mitted is 5000 Hz, for example, a deviation thorized for amateur work in portions of
ratio of 3 would call for a peak deviation of each of the amateur radiotelephone bands.
3 X 5000, or 15 kHz at full modulation. A maximum deviation of 15 kHz has
The noise -suppression capabilities of frequen- been standardized for the mobile and com-
cy modulation are directly related to the mercial communication services, while a
deviation ratio. As the deviation ratio is in- maximum deviation of 3 kHz is authorized
creased, the noise suppression becomes better for amateur narrow -band f -m communica-
if the signal is somewhat stronger than the tion.
noise. Where the noise approaches the signal
in strength, however, low deviation ratios Bandwidth Required by As the above discus -
allow communication to be maintained in Frequency Modulation sion has indicated,
many cases where high- deviation -ratio fre- many side frequencies
quency modulation and conventional ampli- are set up when a radio- frequency carrier is
tude modulation are incapable of giving frequency modulated; theoretically, in fact,
service. This assumes that a narrow -band an infinite number of side frequencies is
f -m receiver is in use. For each value of r -f formed. Fortunately, however, the ampli-
signal -to -noise ratio at the receiver, there is a tudes of those side frequencies falling out-
maximum deviation ratio which may be used, side the frequency range over which the
beyond which the output audio signal -to- transmitter is swung are so small that most
noise ratio decreases. Up to this critical of them may be ignored. In f -m transmis-
312 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

AO FM BROADCAST DEVIATION - 75 kHz sounds is concentrated at low frequencies


MOO. FREQ.-15 kHz
MOD. INDEX -5
in the vicinity of 400 Hz.
The bandwidth required in an f -m receiver
f
is a function of a number of factors, both
B F _aR
`-'
i'
F .,
.p,
theoretical and practical. Basically, the band-
If lA I If MI f
-105 -90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15
. Id*
Ul ,. II.1 11
+15 +30 + .45 +60 +75 +90 +105
I l^ width required is a function of the deviation
ratio and the maximum frequency of modu-
lation, although the practical consideration
of drift and ease of receiver tuning also must
be considered. Shown in figure S are the
pB TV SOUND DEVIATION -25 kHz
MOD. FRED.- 15 kHz frequency spectra (carrier and sideband fre-
MOD. INDEX -1.67 quencies) associated with the standard f -m
a
W a broadcast signal, the TV sound signal, and
R Is an amateur -band narrow-band f -m signal
<
1 n U A
I ., with full modulation using the highest per-
-45 kHz -30 kHz -15 kHz +15 kHz +301Hz +45 kHz missible modulating frequency in each case.
It will be seen that for low deviation ratios
the receiver bandwidth should be at least
four times the maximum frequency devia-
CO AMATEUR NBFM DEVIATION- 3kHz tion, but for a deviation ratio of S the
MOD. REQ.- 3 kHz receiver bandwidth need be only about 2.5
MOD. INDEX -
times the maximum frequency deviation.
a
a

Is 9
19s
14-2 Direct F -M Circuits
-6 kHz -3 kHz +3 kHz + 6 kHz

Frequency modulation may be obtained


CENTER
FREQUENCY either by the direct method, in which the
frequency of an oscillator is changed directly
Figure 5 by the modulating signal, or by the indirect
EFFECT OF F -M MODULATION INDEX method which makes use of phase modula-
tion. Phase-modulation circuits will be dis-
Showing the side-frequency amplitude and cussed in section 14 -3.
distribution for the three most common modu-
lation indices used in f -m work. The maximum A successful frequency- modulated trans-
modulating frequency and maximum deviation mitter must meet two requirements: (1)
are shown in each case. The frequency deviation must be symmetri-
cal about a fixed frequency, for symmetrical
sion, when a complex modulating wave modulation voltage. (2) The deviation must
(speech or music) is used, still additional be directly proportional to the amplitude of
side frequencies resulting from a beating the modulation, and independent of the mod-
together of the various frequency compo- ulation frequency. There are several methods
nents in the modulating wave are formed. of direct frequency modulation which will
This is a situation that does not occur in fullfill these requirements. Some of these
amplitude modulation and it might be methods will be described in the following
thought that the large number of side fre- paragraphs.
quencies thus formed might make the fre-
quency spectrum produced by an f -m trans - Reactance-Tube One of the most practical
miter prohibitively wide. Analysis shows, Modulators ways of obtaining direct
however, that the additional side frequencies frequency modulation is
are of very small amplitude, and, instead of through the use of a reactance -tube modula-
increasing the bandwidth, modulation by a tor. In this arrangement the modulator plate -
complex wave actually reduces the effec- cathode circuit is connected across the oscil-
tive bandwidth of the f -m wave. This is lator tank circuit, and made to appear as
especially true when speech modulation is either a capacitive or inductive reactance by
used, since most of the power in voiced exciting the modulator grid with a voltage

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Direct F -M Circuits 313

AUDIO
IN OSCILLATOR IN
1.75- MN= RANGE

C3..00
AUDIO
- 0.1

470 N .006e +150-250 v.


IN REGULATED
+150 -200 V.
REGULATED

Figure 6 Figure 7

REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATOR ALTERNATIVE REACTANCE -TUBE


MODULATOR
This circuit is lent for direct frequency
modulation of an oscillator in the 1.75 -MHz This circuit is often preferable for use In the
range. Capacitor C, may be only the Input lower frequency range, although it may be
capacitance of the tube, or a small trimmer used at 1.75 MHz and above if desired. In the
capacitor may be included to permit a varia- schematic above the reactance tube is shown
tion in the sensitivity of the reactance tube. c ted across the voltage -divider capacitors
of a Clapp oscillator, although the modulator
circuit may be used with any common type of
which either leads or lags the oscillator tank oscillator.
voltage by 90 degrees. The leading or lagging
grid voltage causes a corresponding leading with the reactance of G, at the oscillator
or lagging plate current, and the plate - frequency, the current through the R -C:,
cathode circuit appears as capacitive or in- combination will be nearly in phase with the
ductive reactance across the oscillator tank voltage across the tank circuit, and the volt-
circuit. When the transconductance of the age across C;, will lag the oscillator tank
modulator tube is varied, by varying one of voltage by almost 90 degrees. The result of
the element voltages, the magnitude of the the 90- degree lagging voltage on the modu-
reactance across the oscillator tank is varied. lator grid is that its plate current lags the
By applying audio modulating voltage to one tank voltage by 90 degrees, and the react-
of the elements, the transconductance (and ance tube appears as an inductance in shunt
hence the frequency) may be varied at an with the oscillator inductance, thus raising
audio rate. When properly designed and the oscillator frequency.
operated, the reactance -tube modulator gives The phase- shifting capacitor (C.7) can con-
linear frequency modulation, and is capable sist of the input capacitance of the modu-
of producing large amounts of deviation. lator tube and stray capacitance between
There are numerous possible configura- grid and ground. However, better control of
tions of the reactance -tube modulator cir- the operating conditions of the modulator
cuit. The difference in the various arrange- may be had through the use of a variable
ments lies principally in the type of phase - capacitor as C,. Resistance R will usually
shifting circuit used to give a grid voltage have a value of between 4700 and 100,000
which is in phase quadrature with the r -f ohms.
voltage at the modulator plate. Either resistance or transformer coupling
Figure 6 is a diagram of one of the most may be used to feed audio voltage to the
popular forms of reactance -tube modulators. modulator grid. When a resistance coupling
The modulator tube, which is usually a pen- is used, it is necessary to shield the grid
tode such as a 6BA6, 6AU6, or 6CL6, has its circuit adequately, since the high- impedance
plate coupled through a blocking capacitor grid circuit is prone to pickup stray r -f and
(CO to the "hot" side of the oscillator grid low -frequency a -c voltage, and cause un-
circuit. Another blocking capacitor (C,) desired frequency modulation.
feeds r.f. to the phase -shifting network An alternative reactance-modulator cir-
(R-C,) in the modulator grid circuit. If the cuit is shown in figure 7. The operating
resistance of R is made large in comparison conditions are generally the same, except that
314 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

6AU6 500 A
Hew TO GRID OR CATHODE
OF V.F.O.

NOTE: ALL RES /STRS 0..3 WATT UNLESS


OTHERWISE NOTED
ALL CAPACITORS IN LF UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED

PR ADJUST FOR CORRECT


CURRENT

Figure 8

SIMPLE F -M REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATOR

the r -f excitation voltage to the grid of the Adjusting the One of the simplest methods
reactance tube is obtained effectively through Phase Shift of adjusting the phase shift to
reversing the R and C3 of figure 6. In this the correct amount is to place
circuit a small capacitance is used to couple a pair of earphones in series with the oscilla-
r.f. into the grid of the reactance tube, with tor cathode -to- ground circuit and adjust the
a relatively small value of resistance from phase -shift network until minimum sound is
grid to ground. This circuit has the advan- heard in the phones when frequency modula-
tage that the grid of the tube is at relatively tion is taking place. If an electron -coupled
low impedance with respect to r.f. However, or Hartley oscillator is used, this method re-
the circuit normally is not suitable for oper- quires that the cathode circuit of the oscilla-
ation above a few MHz due to the shunting tor be inductively or capacitively coupled to
capacitance within the tube from grid to the grid circuit, rather than tapped on the
ground. grid coil. The phones should be adequately
Either of the reactance -tube circuits may bypassed to r.f. of course.
be used with any of the common types of
oscillators. The reactance modulator of fig- Stabilization Due to the presence of the
ure 6 is shown connected to the high- imped- reactance -tube frequency mod-
ance point of a conventional hot -cathode ulator, the stabilization of an f -m oscillator
Hartley oscillator, while that of figure 7 is in regard to voltage changes is considerably
shown connected across the low- impedance more involved than in the case of a simple
capacitors of a series -tuned Clapp oscillator. self -controlled oscillator for transmitter fre-
There are several possible variations of the quency control. If desired, the oscillator it-
basic reactance -tube modulator circuits self may be made perfectly stable under
shown in figures 6 and 7. The audio input voltage changes, but the presence of the
may be applied to the suppressor grid, rather frequency modulator destroys the beneficial
than the control grid, if desired. Another effect of any such stabilization. It thus be-
modification is to apply the audio to a grid comes desirable to apply the stabilizing ar-
other than the control grid in a mixer or raneement to the modulator as well as the
pentagrid converter tube which is used as oscillator. If the oscillator itself is stable
the modulator. under voltage changes, it is only necessary to
Generally it will be found that the trans - apply voltage- frequency compensation to the
conductance variation per volt of control - modulator.
element voltage variation will be greatest
when the control (audio) voltage is applied Reactance -Tube Two simple reactance -tube
to the control grid. In cases where it is Modulators modulators that may be
desirable to separate completely the audio applied to an existing vfo
and r -f circuits, however, applying audio are illustrated in figures 8 and 9. The circuit
voltage to one of the other elements will of figure 8 is extremely simple, yet effective.
often be found advantageous despite the Only two tubes are used exclusive of the
somewhat lower sensitivity. voltage regulator tubes which perhaps may
HANDBOOK Direct F -M Modulation 315

I2AX7 D UST CAIN 6AL5 6CL6


500 PF
66PF TO GRID OR
%---CATNODEOF
vFO
A.7K CHIGA6O TRANS.
LPF -2 FILTER K
R FC
2.5 MN
AI

.01

NOTE -ALL CAPACITORS IN 1/F UNLESS ADJUST SOR


OTHERWISE NOTED CORRECT VR CURRENT
VR150 VRI50 ADJUST ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS
100 CL /PPINR OTHERWISE NOTED

Figure 9

F -M REACTANCE MODULATOR WITH SPEECH CLIPPER

be already incorporated in the vfo. A 6AU6 the best modulation level consistent with
serves as a high -gain voltage amplifier stage, minimum sideband splatter. Minimum clip-
and a 6CL6 is used as the reactance modula- ping occurs when the Adj. Clip. potentiome-
tor since its high value of transconductance ter is set for maximum voltage on the plates
will permit a large value of lagging current of the 6ALS clipper tube. As with the case
to be drawn under modulation swing. The of all reactance modulators, a voltage -regu-
unit should be mounted in close proximity to lated plate supply is required.
the vfo so that the lead from the 6CL6 to
the grid circuit of the oscillator can be as Linearity Test It
is almost a necessity to run
short as possible. A practical solution is to static test on the reactance -
a
mount the reactance modulator in a small tube frequency modulator to determine its
box on the side of the vfo cabinet. linearity and effectiveness, since small changes
By incorporating speech clipping in the in the values of components, and in stray
reactance modulator unit, a much more ef- capacitances will almost certainly alter the
fective use is made of a given amount of modulator characteristics. A frequency -
deviation. When the f -m signal is received versus- control -voltage curve should be plot-
on an a -m receiver by means of slope detec- ted to ascertain that equal increments in
tion, the use of speech clipping will be control voltage, both in a positive and a
noticed by the greatly increased modulation negative direction, cause equal changes in
level of the f -m signal, and the attenuation frequency. If the curve shows that the mod-
of the center frequency null of no modula- ulator has an appreciable amount of non-
tion. In many cases, it is difficult to tell a linearity, changes in bias, electrode voltages,
speech- clipped f -m signal from the usual r -f excitation, and resistance values may be
a -m signal. made to obtain a straight -line characteristic.
A more complex f -m reactance modulator
incorporating a speech clipper is shown in
TO MODULATOR
figure 9. A 12AX7 double- triode speech am- CONTROL CLEMENT

plifier provides enough gain for proper clip-


per action when a high -level crystal micro-
phone is used. A double -diode 6ALS speech
clipper is used, the clipping level being set
by the potentiometer controlling the plate
voltage applied to the diode. A 6CL6 serves
as the reactance modulator.
The reactance modulator may best be ad-
justed by listening to the signal of the vfo Figure 10
exciter at the operating frequency and ad-
justing the gain and clipping controls for REACTANCE -TUBE LINEARITY CHECKER
316 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

Figure 10 shows a method of connecting Fd = MD modulating frequency


two 4.5 -volt C batteries and a potentiometer
to plot the characteristic of the modulator. where,
It will be necessary to use a zero-center volt-
meter to measure the grid voltage, or else Fd is the frequency deviation one way
reverse the voltmeter leads when changing from the mean value of the carrier,
from positive to negative grid voltage. When M, is the phase deviation accompanying
a straight -line characteristic for the mod- modulation expressed in radians (a ra-
ulator is obtained by the static test method, dian is approximately 57.3 ).
the capacitances of the various bypass capac-
itors in the circuit must be kept small to Thus, to take an example, if the phase
retain this characteristic when an audio deviation is '/2 radian and the modulating
voltage is used to vary the frequency in frequency is 1000 Hz, the frequency devia-
place of the d -c voltage with which the tion applied to the carrier being passed
characteristic was plotted. through the phase modulator will be 500
Hz.
It is easy to see that an enormous amount
14 -3 Phase Modulation of multiplication of the carrier frequency is
required in order to obtain from a phase
modulator the frequency deviation of 75
By means of phase modulation (pm) it is kHz required for commercial f -m broad-
possible to dispense with self -controlled os- casting. However, for amateur and com-
cillators and to obtain directly crystal -con- mercial narrow -band f -m work (nbfm)
trolled frequency modulation. In the final only a quite reasonable number of multi-
analysis, phase modulation is simply frequen- plier stages are required to obtain a de-
cy modulation in which the deviation is viation ratio of approximately one.
directly proportional to the modulation fre- Actually, phase modulation of approxi-
quency. If an audio signal of 1000 Hz mately one -half radian on the output of a
causes a deviation of 0.5 kHz, for example, crystal oscillator in the 80 -meter band will
a 2000 -Hz modulating signal of the same give adequate deviation for 29 -MHz nbfm
amplitude will give a deviation of 1 kHz, radiotelephony. For example; if the crystal
and so on. To produce an f -m signal, it is frequency is 3700 kHz, the deviation in
necessary to make the deviation independent phase produced is %2 radian, and the modu-
of the modulation frequency, and propor- lating frequency is 500 Hz, the deviation in
tional only to the modulating signal. With the 80 -meter band will be 250 Hz. But
phase modulation this is done by including a when the crystal frequency is multiplied on
frequency- correcting network in the trans- up to 29,600 kHz the frequency deviation
mitter. The audio- correction network must will also be multiplied by 8 so that the
have an attenuation that varies directly with resulting deviation on the 10 -meter band
frequency, and this requirement is easily met will be 2 kHz either side of the carrier for
by a very simple resistance- capacitance net- a total swing in carrier frequency of 4 kHz.
work. This amount of deviation is quite adequate
The only disadvantage of phase modula- for nbfm work.
tion, as compared to direct frequency mod- Odd -harmonic distortion is produced when
ulation such as is obtained through the use frequency -modulation is obtained by the
of a reactance -tube modulator, is the fact phase- modulation method, and the amount
that very little frequency deviation is pro- of this distortion that can be tolerated is the
duced directly by the phase moduator. The limiting factor in determining the amount of
deviation produced by a phase modulator is phase modulation that can be used. Since the
independent of the actual carrier frequency aforementioned frequency- correcting net-
on which the modulator operates, but is work causes the lowest modulating frequency
dependent only on the phase deviation which to have the greatest amplitude, maximum
is being produced and on the modulation fre- phase modulation takes place at the lowest
quency. Expressed as an equation: modulating frequency, and the amount of

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Phase Modulation 317

REACTANCE
TUBE
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
TUBE
--yNExr STAGE
R-F INPUT
fo
6U6 PHASE- MODULATED
OUTPUT

LOW- C
TANA
CIRCUIT +B Zoo v.
01
AUDIO IN

RFC
XL ABOUT 1500 (, AT fo
XC ABOUT 750 R AT f0

AUDIO +6

Figure 11 Figure 13

REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATION OF CATHODE -FOLLOWER PHASE


CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR STAGE MODULATOR
The phase modulator Illustrated above h
distortion that can be tolerated at this fre- quite satis factory when the stage h to M
operated on a single frequency or over a nar-
quency determines the maximum deviation row range of free les.
that can be obtained by the p -m method.
For high- fidelity broadcasting, the deviation
produced by phase modulation is limited to phase modulation by connecting it to the
an amount equal to about one -third of the plate circuit of a crystal oscillator stage as
lowest modulating frequency. But for nbfm shown in figure 11.
work the deviation may be as high as 0.6 Another p -m circuit, suitable for opera-
of the modulating frequency before distor- tion on 20, 15, and 10 meters with the use
tion becomes objectionable on voice modula- of 80 -meter crystals is shown in figure 12.
tion. In other terms this means that phase A double- triode 12AX7 is used as a combina-
deviations as high as 0.6 radian may be used tion Pierce crystal oscillator and phase
for amateur and commercial nbfm transmis- modulator. C, should not be thought of as
a neutralizing capacitor, but rather as an
sion.
adjustment for the phase of the r -f voltage
Phase -Modulation A simple reactance mod - acting between the grid and plate of the
Circuits ulator normally used for 12AX7 phase modulator. C` acts as a phase -
f -m may also be used for angle and magnitude control, and both these

6C L6
250 PF r --Hi-_ .-TO DOUBLER STAGES

L I -BIT. 134,.1 SPACE( 7` APART ON PoRM


f
L2 -/S T. 036E. POWOER[O /RON COR
L3 -37T. 020E. CLOSE-SPACED J (/A.
et
300V.

NOTE, ALL RESISTORS as WATT UNLESS


OTNERWISE MOTEO.
ALL CAPAC /rois /N OF UNLESS
OTHERWISE ACTEO

Figure 12
REACTANCE MODULATOR FOR 10, 15, AND 20 METER OPERATION
318 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

capacitors should be adjusted for maximum when the modulation index has a value of
phase -modulation capabilities of the circuit. 2.405-in other words, when the deviation
Resonance of the circuit is established by is 2.405 times the modulation frequency.
the iron slug of coil L1 -L2. A 6CL6 is used For example, if a modulation frequency of
as a doubler to 7 MHz and delivers approxi- 1000 Hz is used, and the modulation is in-
mately 2 watts on this band. Additional creased until the first carrier null is obtained,
doubler stages may be added after the 6CL6 the deviation will then be 2.405 times the
stage to reach the desired band of operation. modulation frequency, or 2.405 kHz. If the
Still another p -m circuit, which is quite modulating frequency happened to be 2000
widely used commercially, is shown in figure Hz, the deviation at the first null would be
13. In this circuit L and C are made reso- 4.810 kHz. Other carrier nulls will be ob-
nant at a frequency which is 0.707 times the tained when the index is 5.52, 8.654, and
operating frequency. Hence at the operating at increasing values separated approximately
frequency the inductive reactance is twice by r. The following is a listing of the modu-
the capacitive reactance. A cathode -follower lation index at successive carrier nulls up to
tube acts as a variable resistance in series the tenth:
with L and C to make up the tank cir-
cuit. The operating point of the cathode fol-
lower should be chosen so that the effective Zero carrier Modulation
resistance in series with the tank circuit point no. index
(made up of the resistance of the cathode - 1 2.405
follower tube in parallel with the cathode 2 5.520
bias resistor of the cathode follower) is equal 3 8.654
to the capacitive reactance of the tank ca- 4 11.792
pacitor at the operating frequency. The 5 14.931
circuit is capable of about plus or minus %2 6 18.071
radian deviation with tolerable distortion. 7 21.212
8 24.353
Measurement When a single- frequency mod - 9 27.494
of Deviation ulating voltage is used with 10 30.635
an f -m transmitter the rela-
tive amplitudes of the various sidebands and
the carrier vary widely as the deviation is The only equipment required for making
varied by increasing or decreasing the amount the measurements is a calibrated audio oscil-
of modulation. Since the relationship be- lator of good wave form, and a communi-
tween the amplitudes of the various side - cation receiver equipped with a beat oscillator
bands and carrier to the audio modulating and crystal filter. The receiver should be
frequency and the deviation is known, a sim- used with its crystal filter set for minimum
ple method of measuring the deviation of bandwidth to exclude sidebands spaced from
a frequency- modulated transmitter is possi- the carrier by the modulation frequency.
ble. In making the measurement, the result The unmodulated carrier is accurately tuned
is given in the form of the modulation index on the receiver with the beat oscillator oper-
for a certain amount of audio input. As pre- ating. Then modulation from the audio oscil-
viously described, the modulation index is lator is applied to the transmitter, and the
the frequency of the audio modulation. modulation is increased until the first car-
The measurement is made by applying a rier null is obtained. This carrier null will
sine-wave audio voltage of known frequency correspond to a modulation index of 2.405,
to the transmitter, and increasing the mod- as previously mentioned. Successive null
ulation until the amplitude of the carrier points will correspond to the indices listed
component of the frequency -modulated wave in the table.
reaches zero. The modulation index for zero A volume indicator in the transmitter
carrier may then be determined from the audio system may be used to measure the
table below. As may be seen from the table, audio level required for different amounts of
the first point of zero carrier is obtained deviation, and the indicator thus calibrated
HANDBOOK F -M Reception 319

in terms of frequency deviation. If the The second requirement of the f -m re-


measurements are made at the fundamental ceiver is that it incorporate some sort of de-
frequency of the oscillator, it will be neces- vice for converting frequency changes into
sary to multiply the frequency deviation by amplitude changes, in other words, a detec-
the harmonic upon which the transmitter is tor operating on frequency variations rather
operating, of course. It will probably be than amplitude variations. The third require-
most convenient to make the determination ment, and one which is necessary if the full
at some frequency intermediate between that noise- reducing capabilities of the f -m system
of the oscillator and that at which the trans- of transmission are desired, is a limiting de-
mitter is operating, and then to multiply the vice to eliminate amplitude variations before
result by the frequency multiplication be- they reach the detector. A block diagram of
tween that frequency and the transmitter the essential parts of an f -m receiver is
output frequency. shown in figure 14.

The Frequency The simplest device for con -


14 -4 Reception of F -M Detector verting frequency variations
Signals to amplitude variations is an
"off-tune" resonant circuit, as illustrated in
A conventional communications receiver figure 15. With the carrier tuned in at point
may be used to receive narrow -band f -m A, a certain amount of r-f voltage will be
transmission, although performance will be developed across the tuned circuit, and, as
much poorer than can be obtained with an the frequency is varied either side of this
nbfm receiver or adapter. However, a re- frequency by the modulation, the r -f voltage
ceiver specifically designed for f -m recep- will increase and decrease to point C and B
tion must be used when it is desired to re- in accordance with the modulation. If the
ceive high deviation f -m such as used by voltage across the tuned circuit is applied
f -m broadcast stations, TV sound, and mo- to an ordinary detector, the detector output
bile communications. will vary in accordance with the modulation,
The f-m receiver must have, first of all, a the amplitude of the variation being propor-
bandwidth sufficient to pass the range of tional to the deviation of the signal, and
frequencies generated by the f -m transmit- the rate being equal to the modulation fre-
ter. And since the receiver must be super- quency. It is obvious from figure 15 that
heterodyne if it is to have good sensitivity only a small portion of the resonance curve
at the frequencies to which frequency mod- is usable for linear conversion of frequency
ulation is restricted, i -f bandwidth is an variations into amplitude variations, since
important factor in its design. the linear portion of the curve is rather

MIRCR I -r LIMITER --
rONCY
DCRCTCCUCTOq
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER AMP.
(DISCRIMINATOR)

OSCILLATOR
R C OUCNCY

Figure 14 Figure 15

F -M RECEIVER BLOCK DIAGRAM SLOPE DETECTION OF F -M SIGNAL


Up to the amplitude limiter stage, the f -m One side of the response characteristic of a
receiver is similar to an a-m receiver, except tuned circuit or of an i-f ampiifler may 6e
for a somewhat wider i-f bandwidth. The lim- used as shown to convert frequency varia-
iter removes any amplitude modulation, and tions of an incoming signal into amplitude
the frequency detector following the limiter variations.
its frequency variations into amplitude
variations.
320 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

short. Any frequency variation which ex- depend on the discriminator frequency, the
ceeds the linear portion will cause distortion Q of the tuned circuits, and the value of the
of the recovered audio. It is also obvious by diode load resistors. As the intermediate (and
inspection of figure 15 that an a -m receiver discriminator) frequency is increased, the
used in this manner is vulnerable to signals peaks must be separated further to secure
on the peak of the resonance curve and also good linearity and output. Within limits, as
to signals on the other side of the resonance the diode load resistance or the Q is reduced,
curve. Further, no noise -limiting action is the linearity improves, and the separation
afforded by this type of reception. This sys- between the peaks must be greater.
tem, therefore, is not recommended for f -m
reception, although it may be widely used by Foster -Seeley The most widely used form of
amateurs for occasional nbfm reception. Discriminator discriminator is that shown in
Travis Discriminator Another form of fre- figure 18. This type of dis-
quency detector or dis- criminator yields an output voltage- versus-
criminator, is shown in figure 16. In this frequency characteristic similar to that
arrangement two tuned circuits are used, one shown in figure 19. Here, again, the output
tuned on each side of the i -f amplifier fre- voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
quency, and with their resonant frequencies voltages developed across the load resistors of
spaced slightly more than the expected the two diodes, the resistors being connected
transmitter swing. Their outputs are com- in series to ground. However, this Foster -
bined in a differential rectifier so that the Seeley discriminator requires only two tuned
voltage across series load resistors R, and R, circuits instead of the three used in the pre-
is equal to the algebraic sum of the individ- vious discriminator. The operation of the
ual output voltages of each rectifier. When circuit results from the phase relationships
a signal at the i -f midfrequency is received, existing in a transformer having a tuned
the voltages across the load resistors are equal secondary. In effect, as a close examination
and opposite, and the sum voltage is zero. of the circuit will reveal, the primary cir-
As the r -f signal varies from the midfre- cuit is in series for r.f. with each half of
quency, however, these individual voltages the secondary to ground. When the received.
become unequal, and a voltage having the signal is at the resonant frequency of the
polarity of the larger voltage and equal to secondary, the r-f voltage across the second-
the difference between the two voltages ap- ary is 90 degrees out of phase with that
pears across the series resistors, and is applied across the primary. Since each diode is con-
to the audio amplifier. The relationship be- nected across one half of the secondary
tween frequency and discriminator output winding and the primary winding in series,
voltage is shown in figure 17. The separation the resultant r -f voltages applied to each are
of the discriminator peaks and the linearity equal, and the voltages developed across each
of the output voltage- versus - frequency curve diode load resistor are equal and of opposite

As its "center" frequen-


cy the discriminator pro-
duces zero output volt-
age. On either side of <
this frequency it gives
a voltage of a polarity
and magnitude which
depend on the direction
and amount of frequency FREQUENCY
Figure 16 shift.

TRAVIS DISCRIMINATOR Figure 17


This type of discriminator makes use of two
off -tuned resonant circuits coupled to a single DISCRIMINATOR VOLTAGE -FREQUENCY
primary winding. The circuit is capable of CURVE
excellent linearity, but is difficult to align.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK F -M Reception 321

Figure 18 SECONDARY VOLTAGE

FOSTER -SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

This discriminator is the most widely used


circuit since it is capable of excellent linearity
and is relatively simple to align when proper Figure 19
test equipment is available.
DISCRIMINATOR VECTOR DIAGRAM
polarity. Hence, the net voltage between the A signal at the resonant frequency of the
top of the load resistors and ground is zero. dory will cause the dary voltage to
be 90 degrees out of phase with the primary
This is shown vectorially in figure 19A voltage, as shown at A, and the resultant
where the resultant voltages R and R' which voltages R and R' are equal. If the signal fre-
quency changes, the phase relationship also
are applied to the two diodes are shown to changes, and the resultant voltages are no
be equal when the phase angle between pri- longer equal, as shown at B. A differential
mary and secondary voltages is 90 degrees. rectifier is used to give an output voltage pro-
portional to the diff between R and R'.
If, however, the signal varies from the reso-
nant frequency, the 90- degree phase relation-
ship no longer exists between primary and The circuit of the ratio detector appears
secondary. very similar to that of the more conven-
The result of this effect is shown in tional discriminator arrangement. However,
figure 19B where the secondary r -f voltage it will be noted that the two diodes in the
is no longer 90 degrees out of phase with ratio detector are polarized so that their d -c
respect to the primary voltage. The resultant output voltages add, as contrasted to the
voltages applied to the two diodes are now Foster -Seeley circuit wherein the diodes are
no longer equal, and a d -c voltage propor- polarized so that the d -c output voltages buck
tional to the difference between the r -f
voltages applied to the two diodes will exist
across the series load resistors. As the signal
frequency varies back and forth across the LAST
1F
resonant frequency of the discriminator, an
a -c voltage of the same frequency as the
original modulation, and proportional to the
deviation, is developed and passed on to the
audio amplifier.
Ratio One of the more recent types of A-P OUTPUT

Detector f -m detector circuits, called the


ratio detector is diagrammed in Figure 20
figure 20. The input transformer can be de-
RATIO- DETECTOR CIRCUIT
signed so that the parallel input voltage to
the diodes can be taken from a tap on the The parallel voltage to the diodes in a ratio
primary of the transformer, or this voltage detector may be obtained from a tap on the
primary winding of the transformer or from
may be obtained from a tertiary winding a third winding. Note that one of the diodes
coupled to the primary. The r-f choke used is reversed from the system used with the
Foster -Seeley discriminator, and that the out-
must have high impedance at the intermedi- put circuit is completely different. The ratio
ate frequency used in the receiver, although detector does not have to be preceded by a
this choke is not needed if the transformer limiter, but is more difficult to align for
distortion-free output than the c tional
has a tertiary winding. discriminator.
322 Frequency Modulation THE RADIO

each other. At the center frequency to which supplied with a large amount of signal, so
the discriminator transformer is tuned, the that the amplitude of its output will not
voltage appearing at the top of the 1- change for rather wide variations in ampli-
megohm potentiometer will be one -half the tude of the signal. Noise, which causes little
d -c voltage appearing at the avc output frequency modulation but much amplitude
terminal, since the contribution of each diode modulation of the received signal, is virtual-
will be the same. However, as the input ly wiped out in the limiter.
frequency varies to one side or the other of The voltage across the grid resistor varies
the tuned value (while remaining within the with the amplitude of the received signal.
passband of the i -f amplifier feeding the For this reason, conventional amplitude-
detector) the relative contributions of the modulated signals may be received on the
two diodes will be different. The voltage ap- f -m receiver by connecting the input of the
pearing at the top of the 1- megohm volume audio amplifier to the top of this resistor,
control will increase for frequency deviations rather than to the discriminator output.
in one direction and will decrease for fre- When properly filtered by a simple RC cir-
quency deviations in the other direction cuit, the voltage across the grid resistor may
from the mean or tuned value of the trans- also be used as avc voltage for the receiver.
former. The audio output voltage is equal to When the limiter is operating properly avc is
the ratio of the relative contributions of the neither necessary nor desirable, however, for
two diodes, hence the name ratio detector. f -m reception alone.
The ratio detector offers several advan-
tages over the simple discriminator circuit. Receiver Design One of the most important
The circuit does not require the use of a Considerations factors in the design of an
limiter preceding the detector since the cir- f -m receiver is the frequen-
cuit is inherently insensitive to amplitude cy swing which it is intended to handle. It
modulation on an incoming signal. This will be apparent from figure 17 that if the
factor alone means that the r -f and i -f gain straight portion of the discriminator circuit
ahead of the detector can be much less than covers a wider range of frequencies than
the conventional discriminator for the same those generated by the transmitter, the audio
over-all sensitivity. Further, the circuit pro- output will be reduced from the maximum
vides avc voltage for controlling the gain of value of which the receiver is capable.
the preceding r -f and i -f stages. The ratio In this respect, the term modulation per-
detector is, however, susceptible to variations centage is more applicable to the f -m re-
in the amplitude of the incoming signal as ceiver than it is to the transmitter, since the
in any other detector circuit except the modulation capability of the communication
discriminator with a limiter preceding it, system is limited by the receiver bandwidth
so that avc should be used on the stage pre- and the discriminator characteristic; full
ceding the detector. utilization of the linear portion of the char-
acteristic amounts, in effect, to 100 percent
Limiters The limiter of an f -m receiver modulation. This means that some sort of
using a conventional discriminator standard must be agreed on, for any particu-
serves to remove amplitude modulation and lar type of communication, to make it un-
pass on to the discriminator a frequency - necessary to vary the transmitter swing to
modulated signal of constant amplitude; a accommodate different receivers.
typical circuit is shown in figure 21. The Two considerations influence the receiver
limiter tube is operated as an i -f stage with bandwidth necessary for any particular type
very low plate voltage and with grid -leak of communication. These are the maximum
bias, so that it overloads quite easily. Up to audio frequency which the system will
a certain point the output of the limiter will handle, and the deviation ratio which will
increase with an increase in signal. Above be employed. For voice communication, the
this point, however, the limiter becomes maximum audio frequency is more or less
overloaded, and further large increases in fixed at 3000 to 4000 Hz. In the matter of
signal will not give any increase in output. deviation ratio, however, the amount of
To operate successfully, the limiter must be noise suppression which the f -m system will

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK F -M Receiver Design 323

6AU6 As mentioned previously, broadcast f -m


practice is to use a deviation ratio of 5.
When this ratio is applied to a voice -com-
munication system, the total swing becomes
30 to 40 kHz. With lower deviation ratios,
DISCRIM-
TO
such as are most frequently used for voice
INATOR
work, the swing becomes proportionally less,
until at a deviation ratio of 1 the swing is
Figure 21 equal to twice the highest audio frequency.
Actually, however, the receiver bandwidth
LIMITER CIRCUIT must be slightly greater than the expected
One, or sometimes two, limiter stages nor- transmitter swing, since for distortionless
mally precede the discriminator so that a reception the receiver must pass the complete
constant signal level will be fed to the f -m band of energy generated by the transmitter,
detector. This procedure eliminates amplitude
variations in the signal fed to the discrimi- and this band will always cover a range
nator, so that it will respond only to frequency somewhat wider than the transmitter swing.
changes.

Pre -Emphasis Standards in f-m broadcast


provide is influenced by the ratio chosen, and De- Emphasis and TV sound work call
since the improvement in signal -to -noise for the pre- emphasis of all
ratio which the f -m system shows over am- audio modulating frequencies above about
plitude modulation is equivalent to a con- 2000 Hz, with a rising slope such as would
stant multiplied by the deviation ratio. This be produced by a 75- microsecond RL net-
assumes that the signal is somewhat stronger work. Thus the f -m receiver should include
than the noise at the receiver, however, as a compensating de- emphasis RC network
the advantages of wideband frequency mod- with a time constant of 75 microseconds so
ulation in regard to noise suppression disap- that the over-all frequency response from
pear when the signal -to -noise ratio ap- microphone to speaker will approach linear-
proaches unity. ity. The use of pre- emphasis and de- emphasis
On the other hand, a low deviation ratio in this manner results in a considerable im-
is more satisfactory for strictly communica- provement in the over-all signal -to -noise
tion work, where readability at low signal - ratio of an f -m system. Appropriate values
to -noise ratios is more important than addi- for the de- emphasis network, for different
tional noise suppression when the signal is values of circuit impedance are given in
already appreciably stronger than the noise. figure 22.

A NBFM 455 -kHz The unit diagrammed in


*ROM
D SCRIMINATOR
Adapter Unit figure 23 is designed to
TO AUDIO GRID
provide nbfm reception
`T when attached to any communication re-
R.
ceiver having a 455 -kHz i -f amplifier. Al-
220R, C. 34037F
R=fooR. C= 750 PF though nbfm can be received on an a -m
R=47R, C= 1600 PF receiver by tuning the receiver to one side
R. 22R, C= 3400 PF or the other of the incoming signal, a tre-
mendous improvement in signal -to -noise ratio
Figure 22 and in signal to amplitude ratio will be
obtained by the use of a true f -m detector
75- MICROSECOND DE- EMPHASIS
system.
CIRCUIT The adapter uses two tubes. A 6AU6 is
The audio signal transmitted by f -m and TV used as a limiter, and a 6AL5 as a discrimi-
stations has received high -frequency pre - nator. The audio level is approximately 10
emphasis, so that a de- emphasis circuit should
be included between the output of the f -m volts peak for the maximum deviation which
detector and the input of the audio system. can be handled by a conventional 455 -kHz
324 Frequency Modulation

6U6 6AL5 of the receiver. The voltmeter should next


loon
be connected across the audio output termi-
SO PF
IOO AUDIO
PF OUT

ao K
nal of the discriminator. The receiver is now
a PF tuned back and forth across the frequency
455. MHz 100;i/
K
of the incoming signal, and the movement
bF IN
220K 100 of the voltmeter noted. When the receiver
is exactly tuned on the signal the voltmeter
PF vOLT-
- 0.1 39 N
2w T I-J.W. MILLER O/E-CS
METER
reading should t zero. When the receiver is
s.2wv.
AT 3 MA.
tuned to one side of center, the voltmeter
NOTE: ALL CAPACITORS IN JO' UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
reading should increase to a maximum value
ALL RESISTORS O. S WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED and then decrease gradually to zero as the
signal is tuned out of the passband of the
Figure 23 receiver. When the receiver is tuned to the
NBFM ADAPTER FOR 455 -kHz -F SYSTEM 1
other side of the signal the voltmeter should
increase to the same maximum value but
in the opposite direction or polarity, and
i -f system. The unit may be tuned by placing then fall to zero as the signal is tuned out
a high resistance d -c voltmeter across R, of the passband. It may be necessary to make
and tuning the trimmers of the i -f trans- small adjustments to C, and CL to make the
former for maximum voltage when an un- voltmeter read zero when the signal is tuned
modulated signal is injected into the i -f strip in the center of the passband.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN

Radioteletype Systems

Teleprinting is a form of intelligence based conveys information by changing from an


on a simple binary (on-off) code designed on to an off condition. Early RTTY circuits
for electromechanical transmission. The code employed MBK equipment, which is now
consists of d -c pulses generated by a special considered obsolete since it is less reliable
electric typewriter, which can be reproduced than the frequency -shift technique. Audio
at a distance by a separate machine. The frequency -shift keying employs a steady
pulses may be transmitted from one machine radio carrier modulated by an audio tone
to another by wire or by a radio circuit. which is shifted in frequency according to
When radio transmission is used, the system the RTTY pulses. Other forms of informa-
is termed radioteletype (RTTY). The name tion transmission may be employed by a
teletype is a registered trademark of Teletype RTTY system which also encompass trans-
Corporation and the term teleprinter is used lation of binary pulses into r -f signals.
in preference to the registered term.
The Teleprinter The teleprinter code con-
Code sists of 26 letters of the
15 -1 Radioteletype alphabet and additional char-
Systems acters that accomplish machine functions,
such as line feed, carriage return, bell, and
The d -c pulses that comprise the tele- upper- and lower -case shift. These special
printer signal may be converted into three characters are required for the complete
basic forms of emission suitable for radio automatic process of teleprinter operation
transmission. These are: (1) frequency-shift in printing received copy. Numerals, punc-
keying (FSK), designated as F1 emission; tuation, and symbols may be taken care of in
(2) make-break keying (MBK), designated the case shift, since all transmitted letters
as A emission; and (3) audio frequency-
1 are capitals.
shift keying (AFSK), designated as F2 The teleprinter code is made up of spaces
emission. and pulses, each of 22 milliseconds dura-
Frequency -shift keying is achieved by tion for radio amateur transmission at 60
varying the transmitted frequency of the words per minute. Each character is made
radio signal a fixed amount (usually 850 up of five elements, plus a 22 millisecond
Hertz or less) during the keying process. start space and a 31 millisecond stop pulse.
The shift is accomplished in discrete intervals All characters are equal in total transmission
designated mark and space. Both types of in- time to 163 milliseconds duration to achieve
tervals convey information to the teleprinter. machine synchronization at both ends of the
Make -break keying is analogous to simple RTTY circuit. Timing is usually accom-
c -w transmission in that the radio carrier plished by the use of synchronous motors in
326 Radioteletype Systems THE RADIO

MARK
r --
-,J
LETTER
^ -
*R" and made to print the letter corresponding
to the key pressed. Synchronization of ma-
chines is accomplished by means of start
and stop pulses transmitted with each char-
acter. An electromechanical device driven
by the motor of the teleprinter is released
SPACE
when a key is pressed and transmission of
22MS 22M5,22MS 22MS 22MS 22MS
the complete character is automatic.
163 MS
TIME -4. The receiving apparatus operates in re-
verse sequence, being set in operation by the
Figure 1 first pulse of a character sent by the trans-
mitter mechanism. While each character is
THE TELEPRINTER CODE sent at the speed of 60 w.p.m., actual trans-
Teleprinting is based on a simple binary code mission of a sequence of characters may be
made up of spaces and pulses, each of 22 much slower, depending on the speed of the
milliseconds duration. Normal transmission Is
at the rate of 60 w.p.m. The sequence of mark operator. A simplified diagram of a one -way
and space pulses for the lettir R are shown RTTY circuit is shown in figure 2.
here. Start space provides time for machine
synchronization and stop pulse provides time
for sending and receiving mechanisms to 15 -2 RTTY Reception
position themselves for transmission of the
following character.
The RTTY receiving mechanism must re-
spond to a sequence of pulses and spaces
the equipment, locked to the a -c line fre- transmitted by wire or radio. Frequency -shift
quency. The sequence of mark and space keying may be demodulated by a beat -fre-
pulses for the letter R is shown in figure 1. quency technique, or by means of a discrimi-
The start space provides time for synchro- nator as employed in f -m service. The re-
nization of the receiving machine with the ceived signal is converted into d -c pulses
sending machine. The stop pulse provides which are used to operate the printing mag-
time for the sending mechanism as well as nets in the teleprinter. Conversion of RTTY
the receiving mechanism to properly po- signals into proper pulses is accomplished by
sition themselves for transmission of the a receiving converter (terminal unit, abbrevi-
following character. ated TU) . RTTY converters may be either i -f
The FSK system normally employs the
higher radio frequency as the mark and the
lower frequency as the space. This relation- KEYBOARD

ship often holds true in the AFSK system


also. The lower audio frequency may be
2125 Hz and the higher audio frequency SYNCHRONIZED
BY 60 -HERTZ
297f Hz, giving a frequency difference or POWER SOURCE
shift of 850 Hz. Other, more narrow shifts
are gradually coming into popularity in radio
amateur RTTY work. PRINTER
TERMINAL
UNIT
- RECEIVER

The Teleprinter The teleprinter resembles a


Figure 2
typewriter in appearance,
having a keyboard, a type basket, a carriage, BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
and other familiar appurtenances. The key-
ONE -WAY -RTTY CIRCUIT
board, however, is not mechanically linked
to the type basket or printer. 'When a key is The teleprinter generates code sequence in
pressed on the keyboard of the sending ap- the form of on-off pulses for the alphabet and
additional special characters. Teleprinter code
paratus a whole code sequence for that char- is transmitted at rate of 60 w.p.m. by means
acter is generated in the form of pulses and of frequency-shift technique. The receiving
apparatus drives a mechanical printer that is
spaces. When this code sequence is received usually synchronized with the keyboard by
on a remote machine, a type bar is selected the common 60 -Hz power source.
HAN DBOOK Radioteletype Reception 327

TERMINAL UNIT TERMINAL UNIT


r 1
DISCRIM- MARK -SPACE
INATOR RECEIVER LIMITER FILTERS

AUDIO DISCR M-
FILTER INATOR

KEYER

PRINTER

Figure 3

A shows block diagram of i -f terminal unit employing f -m discriminator technique. -f 1

converter requires that selectivity and interference rejection be achieved by means of


selective tuned circuits of the receiver. 8 shows block diagram of audio- frequency terminal
unit. Mark and space filters are used ahead of audio discriminator, followed by a low -pass
audio filter. Beat oscillator of receiver is used to provide audio beat tones of 2125 and 2975
Hz required for nominal 850 -Hz shift system.

discriminator or audio discriminator units. A keyer. In its simplest form, the i -f converter
block diagram of an intermediate -frequency requires that adequate selectivity and inter-
converter is shown in figure 3A. The RTTY ference rejection be achieved by means of
signal in the i -f system of the receiver is the i -f system of the receiver.
considered to be a carrier frequency -modu- The schematic of a typical -f RTTY i

lated by a 22.8 -Hz square wave having converter is shown in figure 4.


a deviation of plus and minus 425 Hz A block diagram of an audio-frequency
(for 850 -Hz shift). Amplitude variations converter is shown in figure 3B. An audio
are removed by the limiter stage and the limiter is followed by mark -frequency and
discriminator stage converts the frequency space -frequency filters placed ahead of the
shift into a 22.8 -Hz waveform, applied discriminator stage. A low -pass filter and
to the teleprinter by means of an electronic electronic keyer provide the proper d -c sig-

12AU7 Ry
6BH6 DISCRIMINATOR D -C AMPLIFIER (W E-255.1)
LIMITER
IN54
55 kHz
I-F INPUT

e+250 V. TO LOOP SUPPLY


AND PRINTER
Figure 4

I -F RTTY CONVERTER

Typical i -f converter circuit illustrates this technique. Some type of indication that the RTTY
signal is properly tuned is required, particularly on the hf bands. With the i -f terminal
unit, a zero -center microammeter may be connected across discriminator load resistors (A -B).
328 Radioteletype Systems THE RADIO
12A7 RY
D-C AMPLIFIER (WE-ISSA)
12AT7 6C4 SCOPE DISCRIMINATOR
LIMITER AMP INPUT
AUDIO
1N64
INPUT 001

Bi 250V TO LOOP SUPPLY


ANO AMPLIFIER

Figure 5

AUDIO RTTY CONVERTER


Tho audio terminal unit usually has an oscilloscope presentation in the form of a cross,
with the horizontal input for "mark" and the vertical input for "space."

nal required by the teleprinter. The beat space intelligence of the RTTY code. Fre-
oscillator of the receiver is used to provide quency-shift keying (FSK) may be accom-
the beat tones of 212f and 297f Hz re- plished by varying the frequency of the
quired in the usual 850-Hz shift system. transmitter oscillator in a stable manner be-
Either frequency may be used for either tween two chosen frequencies. The amount
mark or space, and the signals may be easily of shift must be held within close tolerances
inverted by tuning the beat oscillator to the as the shift must match the frequency differ-
opposite side of the i -f passband of the re- ence between the selective filters in the
ceiver. The schematic of a simple audio - receiving terminal unit. The degree of fre-
frequency RTTY converter is shown in
figure 5.
Receiving converters of both types usually
include clipping and limiting stages which
hold the signal at constant amplitude and TO

converters occasionally include pulse- forming


circuits which help to overcome distortion
that occurs during transmission of the intel-
ligence.
Teleprinters are actuated by electromag-
nets which release the motor -driven mecha- PRINTER
MAGNET
nism driving the type bars. The magnets
require 20 or 60 milliamperes of current
which may be obtained from an electronic
keyer such as the one shown in figure 6. A Figure 6
single teleprinter may be run as an electric
ELECTRONIC KEYER FOR
typewriter on a local loop supply which cou-
ples the keyboard and typing mechanisms RTTY PRINTER
in a single circuit (figure 7). The polar relay may be eliminated and the
teleprinter mechanism driven directly by a
15 -3 Frequency -Shift keyer such as shown here. This circuit pro-
vides loop supply and keeps the printer mag-
Keying nets in the ground circuit. printer coils are
placed in series for 20-ma loop operation, or
The keyed d -c voltage from the teleprinter in parallel for 60-ma operation. Additional
is used to operate a keyer circuit to shift printer magnets are connected either in series
or parallel, to a limit of two or three hefare
the transmitter carrier back and forth in inductive effects of coils introduce undesirable
frequency in accord with the mark and side effects.
HANDBOOK Radioteletype Keying 329

KEYBOARD

KEYBOARD

Figure 7

LOCAL LOOP SUPPLY


Figure 8
FOR TELEPRINTER
DIODE KEYER FOR FREQUENCY -SHIFT
A single teleprinter may be run as electric
typewriter on local loop supply which couples
the keyboard and typing mechanism in a KEYING OF VFO
single circuit. Depending on how the machine
is wired, the keyboard and magnets can be A simple diode switch may be used to vary
on plugs, or connected in series internally, the frequency of the transmitter in a stable
with only one plug (usually "red") to the manner between two chosen frequencies. The
loop supply. amount of shifts must match the frequency
difference between the selective filters in the
receiving terminal unit.
quency shift of the oscillator is, of course,
multiplied by any factor of multiplication miller-distributor (T-D) unit. This is an
realized in succeeding doubler stages of the electromechanical device which senses per-
transmitter. A simple diode switch suitable forations in a teleprinter tape and translates
for many variable- frequency oscillators is this information into electrical impulses of
shown in figure 8. Older systems often made the five -unit teleprinter code at a constant
use of a reactance tube to obtain an adjust- speed (5 5 -65 w.p.m. in the amateur radio
able shift. service). The information derived from the
Auxiliary RTTY RTTY transmission by pre -
Equipment punched tape is made pos-
sible by means of a trans-
005 12AT7 a250v

DISTRIBUTOR SLIP RINGS


AND COMMUTATOR SYNC MOTOR
3

SPACE
CONTACTS

MARK
CONTACTS Figure 10

AFSK OSCILLATOR
Figure 9
Audio frequency -shift keying Is often used on
TRANSMITTER -DISTRIBUTOR (T -D) UNIT vhf bands to avoid problems of holding close
radio -frequency stability. The L -C, circuit is
T -D unit is electromechanical device which tuned to 2975 Hx (with keyboard open). Clos-
senses perforations in a teleprinter tape and ing the keyboard parallels capacitor CI and
translates this information into the ele of lowers the oscillator frequency to 2125 Hz. The
impulses of the teleprinter code. Information coil L is on 88 mH toroid (with about 44" of
derived from the tape by contact fingers is wire removed). Capacitors CI and C. are high
transmitted in proper time sequence by a quality paper or mylar. Compression mica ca-
commutator- distributor driven by a constant - pacitors may be used as padders to place the
speed motor. oscillator on the co frequencies.
330 Rad ioteletype Systems

punched tape by contact fingers is trans- to use by an audio converter of the type
mitted in the proper time sequence by a shown in figure 4. The beat oscillator in the
commutator -distributor driven at a constant receiver is not used for this form of recep-
speed by a synchronous motor (figure 9). tion. AFSK is permitted only on those ama-
Used in conjunction with the T -D is a teur bands on which A2 emission is author-
tape perforator which punches the teleprinter ized. A simple AFSK oscillator circuit is
code in a paper tape. The perforator operates shown in figure 10.
mechanically from a teleprinter keyboard
Obtaining Sources available to radio ama-
for originating messages. A reperf orator may
Teleprinter teurs include several nonprofit
be connected to receiving equipment to
"tape" an incoming message for storage or Machines RTTY societies, established in
retransmission. various areas of the United
States for the purpose of disposing of tele-
Audio Frequency- Audio frequency -shift key - printer equipment discarded by commercial
Shift Keying ing (AFSK) is often used services. These societies can be contacted
by radio amateurs on the through active RTTY amateurs. The com-
vhf bands in order to avoid the problems of mercial services, including the Bell Tele-
holding close radio- frequency stability. An phone Company, generally cannot dispose of
audio oscillator is employed to generate a used equipment directly to radio amateurs.
2125 -Hz tone (mark) and a 2975 -Hz tone Commercial services should not be contacted
(space) when driven by the keyboard of a regarding used teleprinters. Many radio ama-
teleprinter, or by a tape T -D unit. The teurs, active in RTTY, rebuild machines
audio signal is then applied to the modulator from junked or damaged equipment at nom-
of the vhf transmitter and the resulting am- inal cost. These amateurs are also an excel-
plitude- modulated signal is detected and put lent source of maintenance support.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER SIXTEEN

Sideband Transmission

While single -sideband transmission (SSB) The problem solved by the carrier system
has attracted significant interest on amateur was that of translating the 300- to 3000 -Hz
frequencies only in the past few years, the voice band of frequencies to a higher fre-
principles have been recognized and put to quency (for example, 40.3 to 43.0 kHz) for
use in various commercial applications for transmission on the toll wires, and then to
many years. Expansion of single-Sideband for reverse the translation process at the receiv-
both commercial and amateur communica- ing terminal. It was possible in some short -
tion has awaited the development of econom- haul equipment to amplitude modulate a 40-
ical components possessing the required kHz carrier with the voice frequencies, in
characteristics (such as sharp -cutoff filters which case the resulting signal would occupy
and high- stability crystals) demanded by a band of frequencies between 37 and 43
SSB techniques. The availability of such kHz. Since the transmission properties of
components and precision test equipment wires and cable deteriorate rapidly with in-
now makes possible the economical testing, creasing frequency, most systems required
adjustment, and use of SSB equipment on a the bandwidth conservation characteristics
wider scale than before. Many of the seem- of single -sideband transmission. In addition,
ingly insurmountable obstacles of past years the carrier wave was generally suppressed to
no longer prevent the amateur from achiev- reduce the power handling capability of the
ing the advantages of SSB for his class of repeater amplifiers and diode modulators. A
operation. large body of literature on the components
and techniques of SSB has been generated
16 -1 Commercial by the continuing development effort to pro-
Applications of SSB duce economical carrier telephone systems.
The use of SSB for overseas radiotelephony
Before discussion of amateur SSB equip- has been practiced for several years though
ment, it is helpful to review some of the the number of such circuits is small but
commercial applications of SSB in an effort growing. Moreover, the economic value of
to avoid problems that are already solved. such circuits has been great enough to war-
The first and only large scale use of SSB rant elaborate station equipment. It is from
has been for multiplexing additional voice these stations that the impression has been
circuits on long- distance telephone toll wires. obtained that SSB is too complicated for all
Carrier systems came into wide use during but a corps of engineers and technicians to
the 30's, accompanied by the development of handle. Components such as lattice filters
high -Q toroids and copper -oxide ring modu- with 40 or more crystals have suggested
lators of controlled characteristics. astronomical expense.
332 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

nier, and the upper and the lower sideband


group. These three portions always are pres-
ent in a conventional a -m signal. Of all these
portions the carrier is the least necessary and
LOWER UPPER the most expensive to transmit. It is an act-
SIOESAND SIGE SAND
CARRIER
IREO
ual fact, and it can be proved mathematical-
ly (and physically with a highly selective re-
IREOUENCT SPECTRUM WITH CARRIER ENVELOPE WITH ceiver) that the carrier of an a -m signal re-
COMPLEX MODULATING WAVE COUPLER MODULATING WAVE
mains unchanged in amplitude, whether it is
Figure 1 being modulated or not. Of course the car-
rier ap(rears to be modulated when we ob-
REPRESENTATION OF A serve the modulated signal on a receiving
CONVENTIONAL A -M SIGNAL system or indicator which passes a sufficiently
wide band that the carrier and the modula-
More recently, SSB techniques have been tion sidebands are viewed at the same time.
used to multiplex large numbers of voice
This apparent change in the amplitude of the
channels on a microwave radio band using carrier with modulation is simply the result
equipment principally developed for tele- of the sidebands beating with the carrier.
phone carrier applications. It should be noted However, if we receive the signal on a highly
that all production equipment employed in selective receiver, and if we modulate the
these services uses the filter method of gen- carrier with a sine wave of 3000 to f000 Hz,
we will readily see that the carrier, or either
erating the single -sideband signal, though
there is a wide variation in the types of fil- of the sidebands can be tuned in separately;
ters actually used. The SSB signal is gener- the carrier amplitude, as observed on a signal
ated it a low frequency and at a low level, strength meter, will remain constant, while
and then translated and linearly amplified to the amplitude of the side-bands will vary in
a high level at the operating frequency.
direct proportion to the modulation percent-
Considerable development effort has been age.
expended on high -level phasing -type trans- Elimination of It obvious from the pre -
is
mitters wherein the problems of linear ampli- the Carrier and vious discussion that the
fication are exchanged for the problems of One Sideband carrier is superfluous so far
accurately controlled phase shifts. Such as the transmission of in-
equipment has featured automatic tuning telligence is concerned. It is obviously a con-
circuits, servo - driven to facilitate frequency venience, however, since it provides a signal
changing, but no transmitter of this type has at the receiving end for the sidebands to beat
been sufficiently attractive to warrant ap- with and thus to reproduce the original mod-
preciable production. ulating signal. It is equally true that the
transmission of both sidebands under ordi-
16-2 Derivation of nary conditions is superfluous since identi-
Single -Sideband Signals cally the same intelligence is contained in
both sidebands. Several systems for carrier
and sideband elimination will be discussed in
The single -sideband method of communi- this chapter.
cation is, essentially, a procedure for obtain-
ing more efficient use of available frequency Power Advantage Single sideband is a very
spectrum and of available transmitter capa- of SSB over AMefficient form of voice
bility. As a starting point for the discussion communication by radio.
of single- sideband signals, let us take a con- The amount of radio -frequency spectrum
ventional a -m signal, such as shown in figure occupied can be no greater than the fre-
1, as representing the most common method quency range of the audio or speech signal
for transmitting complex intelligence such as transmitted, whereas other forms of radio
voice or music. transmission require from two to several
It will be noted in figure 1 that there are times as much spectrum space. The r -f power
three distinct portions to the signal: the car- in the transmitted SSB signal is directly pro-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Derivation 333

portional to the power in the original audio


signal and no strong carrier is transmitted.
Except for a weak pilot carrier present in t
some commercial usage, there is no r -f out- a
a 9
4
put when there is no audio input. 4
O 4108 4000101 4004101 3996101 4000108
The power output rating of an SSB trans- AUDIO SPECTRUM SSS SPECTRUM SSS SPECTRUM
(UPPER S/OEOANO) (LOWER S /DERAND)
mitter is given in terms of peak envelope
power (PEP). This may be defined as the 0
rms power at the crest of the modulation Figuro 2
envelope. The peak envelope power of a con-
RELATIONSHIP OF AUDIO AND
ventional amplitude -modulated signal at
SSB SPECTRUMS
100% modulation is four times the carrier
power. The average power input to an SSB The single- sideband components are the same
as the original audio components except that
transmitter is therefore a very small fraction the frequency of each is raised by the fre-
of the power input to a conventional ampli- quency of the carrier. The relative amplitude
tude- modulated transmitter of the same of the various components remains the same.
power rating.
Single sideband is well suited for long - sidered. In conventional amplitude modula-
range communications because of its spec- tion two sidebands are transmitted, each hav-
trum and power economy and because it is ing a peak envelope power equal to 1/4 car-
less susceptible to the effects of selective fad- rier power. For example, a 100 -watt a -m
ing and interference than amplitude modu- signal will have 25-watt peak envelope
lation. The principal advantages of SSB arise power in each sideband, or a total of $ 0
from the elimination of the high- energy car- watts. When the receiver detects this signal,
rier and from further reduction in sideband the voltages of the two sidebands are added
power permitted by the improved perform- in the detector. Thus the detector output
ance of SSB under unfavorable propagation voltage is equivalent to that of a 100 -watt
conditions. SSB signal. This method of comparison says
In the presence of narrow -band manmade that a 100 -watt SSB transmitter is just
interference, the narrower bandwidth of SSB equivalent to a 100 -watt a -m transmitter.
reduces the probability of destructive inter- This assumption is valid only when the re-
ference. A statistical study of the distribu- ceiver bandwidth used for SSB is the same as
tion of signals on the air versus the signal that required for amplitude modulation
strength shows that the probability of suc- (e.g., 6 kHz), when there is no noise or in-
cessful communication will be the same if terference other than broadband noise, and
the SSB power is equal to one -half the power if the a -m signal is not degraded by propaga-
of one of the two a -m sidebands. Thus SSB tion. By using half the bandwidth for SSB
can give from 0 to 9 db improvement under reception (e.g., 3 kHz) the noise is reduced
various conditions when the total sideband 3 db so the 100 -watt SSB signal becomes
power is equal in SSB and regular amplitude equivalent to a 200 -watt carrier a -m signal.
modulation. In general, it may be assumed It is also possible for the a -m signal to be de-
that 3 db of the possible 9 db advantage will graded another 3 db on the average due to
be realized on the average contact. In this narrow -band interference and poor propaga-
case, the SSB power required for equivalent tion conditions, giving a possible 4 to 1
performance is equal to the power in one of power advantage to the SSB signal.
the a -m sidebands. For example, this would It should be noted that 3 db signal -to-
rate a 100 -watt SSB and a 400 -watt (car- noise ratio is lost when receiving only one
rier) a -m transmitter as having equal per- sideband of an a -m signal. The narrower re-
formance. It should be noted that in this ceiving bandwidth reduces the noise by 3 db
comparison it is assumed that the receiver but the 6 db advantage of coherent detection
bandwidth is just sufficient to accept the is lost, leaving a net loss of 3 db. Poor propa-
transmitted intelligence in each case. gation will degrade this "one -sideband" re-
To help evaluate other methods of com- ception of an a -m signal less than double -
parison the following points should be con- sideband reception, however. Also under
334 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

SINGLE TONE TWO TONE


Figure 5 Figure 6

TWO -TONE SSB THREE -TONE SSB
Figur 3 ENVELOPE WHEN ENVELOPE WHEN
A SINGLE SINE -WAVE TONE INPUT TO ONE TONE HAS EQUAL TONES OF
AN S58 TRANSMITTER RESULTS IN A TWICE THE EQUAL FREQUENCY
STEADY SINGLE SINE WAVE R -F OUT- AMPLITUDE OF SPACINGS
PUT (A). TWO AUDIO TONES OF EQUAL THE OTHER ARE USED
AMPLITUDE BEAT TOGETHER TO PRO-
DUCE HALF -SINE WAVES AS SHOWN shows how the audio spectrum is simply
IN B moved up into the radio spectrum to give
the upper sideband. The lower sideband is
severe narrowband interference conditions the same except inverted, as shown in figure
(e.g., an adjacent strong signal) the ability 2C. Either sideband may be used. It is ap-
to reject all interference on one side of the parent that the carrier frequency of an SSB
carrier is a great advantage. signal can only be changed by adding or sub-
tracting to the original carrier frequency.
The Nature of an The nature of a single - This is done by heterodyning -using con-
SSB Signal sideband signal is easily verter or mixer circuits similar to those em-
visualized by noting that ployed in a superheterodyne receiver.
the SSB signal components are exactly the It is noted that a single sine -wave tone in-
same as the original audio components ex- put to an SSB transmitter results in a single
cept that the frequency of each is raised by steady sine -wave r -f output, as shown in
the frequency of the carrier. The relative figure 3A. Since it is difficult to measure the
amplitude of the various components remains performance of a linear amplifier with a
the same, however. (The first statement is single tone, it has become standard practice
only true for the upper sideband since the to use two tones of equal amplitude for test
lower sideband frequency components are purposes. The two radio frequencies thus
the difference between the carrier and the produced beat together to give the SSB en-
original audio signal). Figure 2A, B, and C velope shown in figure 3B. This figure has
the shape of half sine waves, and from one
null to the next represents one full cycle of
the difference frequency. How this envelope
is generated is shown more fully in figures
4A and 4B; f, and f2 represent the two tone
signals. When a vector representing the
lower- frequency tone signal is used as a ref-
erence, the other vector rotates around it as
shown, and this action generates the SSB en-
FREQUENCY I fa velope. When the two vectors are exactly
OF
CARRIER
opposite in phase, the output is zero and this
causes the null in the envelope. If one tone
Figure 4 has twice the amplitude of the other, the
envelope shape is shown in figure 5. Figure 6
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF shows the SSB envelope of three equal tones
TWO -TONI SSB ENVELOPE of equal frequency spacings and at one

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Derivation 335

speech signals is acceptable from an intelligi-


bility standpoint, but an error of the order
of 50 Hz seriously degrades the intelligibil-
ity. An error of 20 Hz is not acceptable for
I(
the transmission of music, however, because
w
the harmonic relationship of the notes would
be destroyed. For example, the harmonics of
220 Hz are 440, 660, 880, etc., but a 10 Hz
error gives 230, 460, 690, 920, etc., or 210,
420, 630, 840, etc., if the original error is on
the other side. This error would destroy the
Figure 7A Figure 7B original sound of the tones, and the harmony
between the tones.
FOUR TONE SSB ENVELOPE
Suppression of the carrier is common in
SSB ENVELOPE OF A SQUARE
amateur SSB work, so the combined fre-
When equal tones WAVE.
with equal frequency Peak of wave reaches
quency stabilities of all oscillators in both
spacings are used Infinite amplitude. the transmitting and receiving equipment
add together to give the frequency error
found in detection. In order to overcome
particular phase relationship. Figure 7A much of the frequency stability problem, it
shows the SSB envelope of four equal tones is common commercial practice to transmit
with equal frequency spacings and at one a pilot carrier at a reduced amplitude. This is
particular phase relationship. The phase re- usually 20 db below one tone of a two -tone
lationships chosen are such that at some in- signal, or 26 db below the peak envelope
stant the vectors representing the several power rating of the transmitter. This pilot
tones are all in phase. Figure 7B shows the carrier is filtered out from the other signals
SSB envelope of a square wave. A pure at the receiver and either amplified and used
square wave requires infinite bandwidth, so for the reinserted carrier or used to control
its SSB envelope requires infinite amplitude. the frequency of a local oscillator. By this
This emphasizes the point that the SSB en- means, the frequency drift of the carrier is
velope shape is not the same as the original eliminated as an error in detection.
audio wave shape, and usually bears no simi-
larity to it. This is because the percentage Advantage of SSB On long distance com-
difference between the radio frequencies is with Selective Fading munication circuits us-
very small, even though one audio tone may
ing amplitude modula-
be several times the other in terms of fre-
tion, selective fading often causes severe dis-
quency. Speech clipping as used in amplitude tortion and at times makes the signal unin-
modulation is of limited value in SSB be-
telligible. When one sideband is weaker than
cause the SSB r -f envelopes are so different
the other, distortion results; but when the
from the audio envelopes. A heavily clipped
wave approaches a square wave and a square
carrier becomes weak and the sidebands are
wave gives an SSB envelope with peaks of
strong, the distortion is extremely severe and
infinite amplitude as shown in figure 7B. the signal may sound like "monkey chatter."
This is because a carrier of at least twice the
Carrier Frequency- Reception of an SSB amplitude of either sideband is necessary to
Stability Requirements signal is accomplished demodulate the signal properly. This can be
by simply heterodyn- overcome by using exalted-carrier reception
ing the carrier down to zero frequency. in which the carrier is amplified separately
(The conversion frequency used in the last and then reinserted before the signal is de-
heterodyne step is often called the reinserted modulated or detected. This is a great help,
carrier) . If the SSB signal is not heterodyned but the reinserted carrier must be very close
down to exactly zero frequency, each fre- to the same phase as the original carrier. For
quency component of the detected audio example, if the reinserted carrier were 90
signal will be high or low by the amount of degrees from the original source, the a -m
this error. An error of 10 to 20 Hz for signal would be converted to phase modula-
336 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

MOD
SIDE-
BAND
POLTA.E oUTPUT

BRIDGE SHUNT -QUAD


PUSH -PULL MODULATOR MODULATOR
AUDIO IN

CAI IE 7 1

vOLTAGE

SIDE -

MOD. BAND
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
7

PUSH-PULL
AUDIO N RING
MODULATOR - DOUBLE-BALANCED
MODULATOR
Figure 8 I
GAPgIEP l

vOLTAGE
SHOWING TWO COMMON TYPES
Figure 9
OF BALANCED MODULATORS
Notice that a balanced modulator changes TWO TYPES OF DIODE BALANCED
the circuit condition from single ended to MODULATOR
push -pull, or vice versa. Choice of circuit de-
pends on external circuit conditions since Such balanced modulator circuits are com-
both the A and S arrangements can give monly used in carrier telephone work and In
satisfactory generation of a double -sideband single -sideband systems where the carrier
suppressed-carrier signal. frequency and modulating frequency are rela-
tively close together. Vacuum diodes, copper -
oxide rectifiers, or crystal diodes may be used
in the circuits.
tion and the usual a -m detector would de-
liver no output.
The phase of the reinserted carrier is of no phase, and with the carrier outputs in paral-
importance in SSB reception and by using a lel. The carrier will be balanced out of the
strong reinserted carrier, exalted- carrier re- output circuit, leaving only the two side -
ception is in effect realized. Selective fading bands. Such a circuit is called a balanced
with one sideband simply changes the ampli- modulator.
tude and the frequency response of the sys- Any nonlinear element will produce mod-
tem and very seldom causes the signal to be- ulation. That is, if two signals are put in,
come unintelligible. Thus the receiving tech- sum and difference frequencies as well as the
niques used with SSB are those which inher- original frequencies appear in the output.
ently greatly minimize distortion due to se- This phenomenon is objectionable in ampli-
lective fading. fiers and desirable in modulators or mixers.
In addition to the sum and difference fre-
16 -3 Carrier -Elimination quencies, other outputs (such as twice one
Circuits frequency plus the other) may appear. All
combinations of all harmonics of each input
Various circuits may be employed to elim- frequency may appear, but in general these
inate the carrier to provide a double -side- are of decreasing amplitude with increasing
band signal. A selective filter may follow the order of harmonic. These outputs are usually
carrier-elimination circuit to produce a rejected by selective circuits following the
single- sideband signal. modulator. All modulators are not alike in
Two modulated amplifiers may be con- the magnitude of these higher -order outputs.
nected with the carrier inputs 180 out of Balanced diode rings operating in the square-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Carrier Elimination 337

law region are fairly good and pentagrid Care must be taken in adapting this circuit
converters much poorer. Excessive carrier to minimize the carrier power that will be
level in tube mixers will increase the relative lost in these elements. The shunt and series
magnitude of the higher-order outputs. Two quad circuits are usable when the output
types of triode balanced modulators are frequencies are entirely different (i.e.: audio
shown in figure 8, and two types of diode and r.f.). The shunt quad (B) is used with
modulators in figure 9. Balanced modulators high source and load impedances and the
employing vacuum tubes may be made to series quad (C) with low source and load
work very easily to a point. Circuits may be impedances. These two circuits may be
devised wherein both input signals may be adapted to use only two diodes, substituting
applied to a high- impedance grid, simplifying a balanced transformer for one side of the
isolation and loading problems. The most bridge, as shown in figure 12. It should be
important difficulties with these vacuum - noted that these circuits present a half -wave
tube modulator circuits are: (1) Balance load to the carrier source. In applying any
is not independent of signal level. (2) Bal- of these circuits, r -f chokes and capacitors
ance drifts with time and environment. (3) must be employed to control the path of
The carrier level for low high -order output signal and carrier currents. In the shunt pair
is critical. (4) Such circuits have limited shown, a blocking capacitor is used to prevent
dynamic range. the r -f load from shorting the audio input.
A number of typical circuits are shown To a first approximation, the source and
in figure 10. Of the group the most satis- load impedances should be an arithmetical
factory performance is to be had from plate - mean of the forward and back resistances
modulated triodes. of the diodes employed. A workable rule of
thumb is that the source and load imped-
Diode Ring Modulation in telephone car- ances be ten to twenty times the forward
Modulators rier equipment has been very resistance for semiconductor rings. The high -
successfully accomplished with frequency limit of operation in the case of
copper -oxide double balanced ring modula- junction and copper -oxide diodes may be
tors. More recently, germanium diodes have appreciably extended by the use of very low
been applied to similar circuits. The basic source and load impedances.
diode ring circuits are shown in figure 11. Copper-oxide diodes suitable for carrier
The most widely applied is the double bal- work are normally manufactured to order.
anced ring (A). Both carrier and input are They offer no particular advantage to the
balanced with respect to the output, which amateur, though their excellent long -term
is advantageous when the output frequency stability is important in commercial appli-
is not sufficiently different from the inputs cations. Rectifier types intended to be used
to allow ready separation by filters. It should as meter rectifiers are not likely to have
be noted that the carrier must pass through the balance or high- frequency response de-
the balanced input and output transformers. sirable in amateur SSB transmitters.

00
o---I
OUT
e Rd
T
R-F
CAR-
IER
IN

PUSH-PULL B B PUSH -PULL


AUDIO IN AUDIO IN

O BALANCED TRIODE MODULATOR


PLATE MODULATED BALANCED WITH SINGLE ENDED INPUT CIRCUITS BALANCED PENTAGRID CON-
TRIODE MODULATOR VERTER MODULATOR
Figuro 10

BALANCED MODULATORS
338 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

HIGH -2 HIGH -Z
MODULAT. SIDESAND MODULATING SIDE SAND LOW -2 LOW -2
VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT MODULATING SIDE SAND
VOLTAGE OUTPUT
O

CARRIER VOLTAGE CARRIER VOLTAGE CARRIER VOLTAGE

DOUBLE- BALANCED RING MODULATOR SHUNT-QUAD MODULATOR SERIES -QUAD MODULATOR

Figure 11

DIODE RING MODULATORS

Vacuum diodes such as the 6AL5 may be


SHUNT -PAIR
used as modulators. Balancing the heater - MODULATING SIDE SAND MODULATOR
cathode capacitance is a major difficulty ex- VOLTAGE OUTPUT

cept when the 6AL5 is used at low source


and load impedance levels. In addition, con-
tact potentials of the order of a few tenths
of a volt may also disturb low -level applica- CARRIER VOLTAGE

tions (figure 13) .


The double -diode circuits appear attrac- o o
tive, but in general it is more difficult to SERIES -PAIR
MODULATOR
balance a transformer at carrier frequency MODULATING
VOLTAGE
SIDE SAND
OUTPUT
than an additional pair of diodes. Balancing
potentiometers may be employed, but the
actual cause of the unbalance is far more
subtile, and cannot be adequately corrected CARRIER VOLTAGE
with a single adjustment. Figure 12
A signal produced by any of the above DOUBLE-DIODE PAIRED MODULATORS
circuits may be classified as a double- sideband,
suppressed- carrier signal.
ponents and filters which normally would be
available to the amateur or experimenter.
16 -4 Generation of The output of the speech amplifier passes
Single -Sideband Signals through a conventional speech filter to limit
the frequency range of the speech to about
In general, there are two commonly used
200 to 3000 Hz. This signal then is fed to a
methods by which a single-sideband signal
balanced modulator along with a 50,000 -Hz
may be generated. These systems are: (1)
first carrier from a self- excited oscillator. A
the filter method, and (2) the phasing meth-
low -frequency balanced modulator of this
od. The systems may be used singly or in
type most conveniently may be made up of
combination, and either method, in theory, four diodes of the vacuum or crystal type
may be used at the operating frequency of
cross- connected in a balanced bridge or ring
the transmitter or at some other frequency modulator circuit. Such a modulator passes
with the signal at the operating frequency only the sideband components resulting from
being obtained through the use of mixers. the sum and difference between the two sig-
The Filter The filter method for obtaining nals being fed to the balanced modulator.
Method an SSB signal is the classic meth- The audio signal and the 50 -kHz carrier sig-
od which has been in use by the nal from the oscillator both cancel out in
telephone companies for many years both for the balanced modulator so that a band of
land -line and radio communications. The frequencies between 47 and SO kHz and
mode of operation of the filter method is another band of frequencies between SO and
diagramed in figure 14, in terms of com- 53 kHz appear in the output.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Generation of SSB 339
B*

6C4
AJDIO
IN

70

PUSI/ -PULL R-F


CARRIER N

DA SERIES- BALANCED DIODE MODULATOR


USING 6AL5 TUBE

6AL5 - -9 -2 -,
kHz DEVIATION
o I

Figure 15

BANDPASS CHARACTERISTIC OF A
LOW- FREQUENCY (50 kHz) SINGLE -
SIDEBAND FILTER

kHz. This sideband may be passed through


RING -DIODE MODULATOR USING 6ALS TUBE
a phase inverter to obtain a balanced output,
Figure 13 and then fed to a balanced mixer. A local
oscillator operating in the range of 1750 to
VACUUM DIODE MODULATOR CIRCUITS 1950 kHz is used as the conversion oscilla-
tor. Additional conversion stages may now
The signals from the first balanced modu- be added to translate the SSB signal to the
lator are then fed through the most critcial desired frequency. Since only linear ampli-
component in the whole system -the first fication may be used, it is not possible to use
sideband filter. It is the function of this frequency multiplying stages. Any frequency
sideband filter to separate the desired 47- to changing must be done by the beating oscil-
S0 -kHz sideband from the unneeded and lator technique. An operational circuit of
undesired 50- to 53 -kHz sideband. Hence this type of SSB exciter is shown in figure
this filter must have low attenuation in the 16.
region between 47 and 50 kHz, a very rapid A second type of filter- exciter for SSB
slope in the vicinity of 50 kHz, and a very may be built around the Collins Mechanical
high attenuation to the sideband components Filter. Such an exciter is diagramed in figure
falling between 50 and 53 kHz. The pass - 17. Voice frequencies in the range of 200 to
band of this filter is shown in figure 15. 3000 Hz are amplified and fed to a low -
Appearing, then, at the output of the impedance phase inverter to furnish balanced
filter is a single sideband of 47 kHz to 50 audio. This audio, together with a suitably

10 0-100 00 Z00-30001. 47.5000 47.5000


47 -50kH, IGm-O TUIIEDCIKIMT
SPCH
EE 101. SPEECH BALANCED SIDE BAND
PHASE BALANCED FOR OUTPUT IN
AMPLIFIER FILTER MODULATOR
FILTER INVERTER MODULATOR
I900- 2000 -kHz
BAND

50 kHz 1750-1950-M4
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR

Figure 14

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 50-kHz


SIDEBAND FILTER
340 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
6A6 2 12A7 6AL5 2 12AU7 6C4
SNUNr,O0E MODULATOR R -F AMPLIFIER PHASE INVERTER
.0I 0.1 75MM 250 SHIELD .01
S I(-Yrb (SOMM1) 14 --pp G
MIC. I.7R 250
i ISOMM,)
7

w
C R T'es
Mn .33R FILTER
3 e P---o B 111 ( J
.002 00 R
.05 71C .01
3 R .01
F.
,M

350
O
1350 V
SOMA.
OC3 PUSH -PULL /1-It TO BALANCED
SIC 20W MODULATOR FOR CONVERSION
TO 160 METERS

12AU7 NOTE, UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED;


50-Wir ow/LLAMA RESISTORS ARE 0.5 WATT.
2 7 CAPACITORS IN /JP

100 00M

Figure 16

OPERATIONAL CIRCUIT FOR SSB EXCITER USING A


50 -kHz SIDEBAND FILTER

chosen r -f signal, is mixed in a ring modu- Wave Filters The heart of a filter -type SSB
lator, made up of small germanium diodes. exciter is the sideband filter.
Depending on the choice of frequency of the Conventional coils and capacitors may be
r -f oscillator, either the upper or lower side - used to construct a filter based on standard
band may be applied to the input of the me- wave -filter techniques. The Q of the filter
chanical filter. The carrier, to some extent, inductances must be high when compared
has been rejected by the ring modulator. Ad- with the reciprocal of the fractional band-
ditional carrier rejection is afforded by the width. If a bandwidth of 3 kHz is needed at
excellent passband characteristics of the me- a carrier frequency of 50 kHz, the band-
chanical filter. For simplicity, the mixing width expressed in terms of the carrier fre-
and filtering operation usually takes place at quency is 3/50, or 6 percent. This is expressed
a frequency of 455 kHz. The single -sideband in terms of fractional bandwidth as 1/16.
signal appearing at the output of the me- For satisfactory operation, the Q of the
chanical filter may be translated directly to filter inductances should be 10 times the
a higher operating frequency. Suitable tuned reciprocal of this, or 160. Appropriate Q is
circuits must follow the conversion stage to generally obtained from toroidal inductances,
eliminate the signal from the conversion though there is some possibility of using
oscillator. iron -core solenoids between 10 and 20 kHz.

200 -3000 1 200-300011 453-456 270 453 -45660 395.300

SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
LOW-2
PHASE
INVERTER
SHUNT-QUAD
RING
MODULATOR
---- 455-MMa
MECHANICAL
FILTER
CONVERTER H RIT AMPLIFIER
LIFT -Q
WITH HIGH
CIRCUIT
FOR OUTPUT ON
3953- MHz
450- 4532Nr

3500-kHz
OSCILLATOR

Figure 17

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 455 -kHz


MECHANICAL FILTER FOR SIDEBAND SELECTION

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Generation of SSB 341
CNSO CHSO
r I -F TRANS I -F TRANS
r
I-F TRANS
-1 0

160.5 4605
kHz kHz 10
OUTI I IN
11

J 20
CH50 CNSO
FT -24I CHANNEL 19 CRYSTAL 461. I4Hz
0 30
FT -141 CHANNEL SO CRYSTAL a 462900
z *-CARRIER
Figure 18 o FREQUENCY
(7

CRYSTAL LATTICE FILTER Z so


w
Two pairs of identical crystals may be cted in a lattice Alter, F
N
and Alter stages cascaded, as shown. Inexpensive i-f transformers are a so
used as coupling units and the Alter passband is shown at the right.
Insertion loss of this configuration is about 15 db at the center of the TO
passband. For best results, matched pairs of crystals should be used. 456 440 461 462 483 464
FREQUENCY ( kHz)

A characteristic impedance below 1000 ohms The war -surplus low- frequency crystals
should be selected to prevent distributed may be adapted to this type of filter with
capacitance of the inductances from spoiling some success. Experimental designs usually
over -all performance. Paper capacitors in- synthesize a selectivity curve by grouping
tended for bypass work may not be trusted sharp notches at the side of the passband.
for stability or low loss and should not be Where the width of the passband is greater
used in filter circuits. Care should be taken than twice the spacing of the series and par-
that the levels of both accepted and rejected allel resonance of the crystals, special circuit
signals are low enough so that saturation of techniques must be used. A typical crystal
the filter inductances does not occur. filter using these surplus crystals, and its
approximate passband is shown in figure 18.
Crystal Filters The best known filter re-
Mechanical Filters Filters using mechanical
sponses have been obtained
with crystal filters. Types designed for pro- resonators have been
gram carrier service cut off 80 db in less studied by a number of companies and are
than SO Hz. More than 80 crystals are used offered commercially by the Collins Radio
in this type of filter. The crystals are cut to Co. They are available in a variety of band-
control reactance and resistance as well as widths at center frequencies of 250 and 455
the resonant frequency. The circuits used are kHz. The 250-kHz series is specifically in-
based on full lattices. tended for sideband selection. The selectivity
attained by these filters is intermediate be-
I
tween good LC filters at low center fre-
quencies and engineered quartz -crystal filt-
o--, ers. A passband of two 250 -kHz filters is
LOWER SIDE6AND UIERSIDE6AND
shown in figure 19. In application of the
10

20
CARRIER
-I
FREQUENCY
I mechanical filters some special precautions
are necessary. The driving and pickup coils
should be carefully resonated to the opera-
30-- ting frequency. If circuit capacitances are
1
unknown, trimmer capacitors should be used
40.
across the coils. Maladjustment of these
tuned coils will increase insertion loss and
SO
the peak -to- valley ratio. On high- impedance
AA
filters (ten- to twenty- thousand ohms) sig-
246 247 246 2,011 250 251 252 253 254 255
nals greater than 2 volts at the input should
FREQUENCY I kHz)
be avoided. Direct current should be blocked
Figure 19 out of the end coils. While the filters are
PASSBAND OF LOWER AND UPPER rated for S ma of coil current, they are not
SIDEBAND MECHANICAL FILTER rated for d -c plate voltage.
342 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
BALANCED
I MODULATOR
N 1
20Q ]000 AUDIO
SPEECH SPEECH PHASE - _ TO POWER AMPLIFIER STAGES
AMPLIFIER FILTER SPLITTING OR DIRECTLY TO ANTENNA SYSTEM
NETWORKS
BALANC ED
ZQ 2 MODULA
N'2
PHASE DIFFERENCE IErWEEN 01 AND e2' RD' 91 62
PRASE DIFFERENCE JETWEEN AND 02 r0
RADIO -FRED
PHASE -
SPLITTING
NETWORA

RADIO FRED.
SIGNAL At
CARRIER FRED.

Figure 20

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE "PHASING" METHOD


Tho phasing method of obtaining a single -sideband signal is simpler than the Alter system in
regard to the number of tubos and circuits required. The system Is also loss expensive in
regard to the components required, but is more critical is regard to adjustments for the
transmission of a puro single-sideband signal.

The Phasing There are a number of points order to obtain sideband at the desired out-
a
System of view from which the op- put frequency, the case with the filter
as in
eration of the phasing system method of sideband generation.
of SSB generation may be described. We Assuming that we feed a speech signal to
may state that we generate two double- the balanced modulators along with the
sideband suppressed -carrier signals, each in 3900 -kHz carrier we will obtain in the out-
its own balanced modulator, that both the put of the balanced modulators a signal
r-f phase and the audio phase of the two which is either the sum of the carrier signal
signals differ by 90 degrees, and that the and the speech band, or the difference be-
outputs of the two balanced modulators are tween the carrier and the speech band. Thus
added with the result that one sideband is if our speech signal covers the band from
increased in amplitude and the other one is 200 to 3000 Hz, we will obtain in the out-
cancelled. This, of course, is a true descrip- put a band of frequencies from 3900.2 to
tion of the action that takes place. But it is 3903 kHz (the sum of the two, or the "up-
much easier to consider the phasing system as per" sideband), or a band from 3897 to
a method simply of adding (or of subtract- 3899.8 kHz (the difference between the two,
ing) the desired modulation frequency and or the "lower" sideband). A further ad-
the nominal carrier frequency. The carrier vantage of the phasing system of sideband
frequency of course is not transmitted, as is generation is the fact that it is a very
the case with all SSB transmissions, but only simple matter to select either the upper side-
the sum or the difference of the modulation band or the lower sideband for transmission.
band from the nominal carrier is transmitted A simple double -pole double -throw revers-
(figure 20). ing switch in two of the four audio leads to
The phasing system has the obvious ad- the balanced modulators is all that is re-
vantage that all the electrical circuits which quired.
give rise to the single sideband can operate in
a practical transmitter at the nominal output High -Level The plate- circuit efficien-
frequency of the transmitter. That is to say Phasing Versus cy of the four tubes
that if we desire to produce a single sideband Low-Level Phasing usually used to make up
whose nominal carrier frequency is 3.9 MHz, the two balanced modu-
the balanced modulators are fed with a 3.9- lators of the phasing system may run as high
MHz signal and with the audio signal from as f0 to 70 percent, depending on the oper-
the phase splitters. It is not necessary to go ating angle of plate current flow. Hence it
through several frequency conversions in is possible to operate the double balanced
HAN DBOOK Generation of SSB 343

Balanced Illustrated in figure 8 are


Modulator Circuits the two basic balanced
modulator circuits which
give good results with a radio -frequency car-
rier and an audio modulating signal. Note
OUT
that one push -pull and one single -ended tank
circuit is required, but that the push -pull
circuit may be placed either in the plate or
the grid circuit. Also, the audio modulating
voltage always is fed into the stage in push -
pull, and the tubes normally are operated
class A.
When combining two balanced modulators
o 1e0170270
to make up a double balanced modulator as
FOUR-PHASE A F.
used in the generation of an SSB signal by
the phasing system, only one plate circuit is
required for the two balanced modulators.
However, separate grid circuits are required
since the grid circuits of the two balanced
modulators operate at an r -f phase difference
of 90 degrees. Shown in figure 21 are the
two types of double balanced modulator cir-
R.
oui cuits used for generation of an SSB signal.
Note that the circuit of figure 21A is de-
rived from the balanced modulator of figure
8A, and similarly figure 21B is derived from
figure 8B.
Another circuit that gives excellent per-

O.
1
FOUR -PHASE A F.

Figure 21
formance and is very easy to adjust is shown
in figure 22. The adjustments for carrier
balance are made by adjusting the potentio-
meter for voltage balance and then the small
variable capacitor for exact phase balance of
TWO CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -
the balanced carrier voltage feeding the diode
SIDEBAND GENERATION BY THE
modulator.
PHASING METHOD.
5+
Tho circuit of A offers the advantages of
simplicity in the single-ended input circuits
plus a push -pull output circuit. Circuit I re- AUDIO
0.2 VOLT
MECHANICAL
FILTER
quires double -ended input circuits but allows
all the plates to bo connected in parallel for
the output circuit. R 0.1 0.1 VOLT
OUTPUT
1
modulator directly into the antenna system 12A7
er
as the output stage of the transmitter. 0R
2.7R 10R
The alternative arrangement is to generate
the SSB signal at a lower level and then to
amplify this signal to the level desired by
means of class -A or class -B r -f power ampli-
R-F CARRIER
2.3 VOLTS Nl r.
fiers. If the SSB signal is generated at a level /2
01

2.7 R
of a few milliwatts it is most common to
make the first stage in the amplifier chain a
Figure 22
class -A amplifier, then to use one or more
class -B linear amplifiers to bring the output BALANCED MODULATOR FOR USE
up to the desired level. WITH MECHANICAL FILTER

www.americanradiohistory.com
344 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
. ISO V.

3900

0242209
TO SAL.
1.100. I
AUDIO
SIGNAL
7900

3900

TO SAL.
41OD. 2
00575 20 M

TS 3900
-$4121[ A F.
+150 v.

Figure 29
Figure 24
LOW -Q R -F PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK
DOME AUDIO- PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK
The r-f phase -shift system Illustrated above
is convenient le e case where It is desired to arrangement is convenient for ob-
This circuit
make small changes in the operating fre- taining the audio phase shift whew It is
quency of the system witheet the necessity desired to use a minimum of circuit cempo-
of being precise in the edustment of two neets and tube elements.
coupled circuits as used for r-f phase shift in
the circuit of Agar* 21.
The inductance chosen for use at L must
Rodio- Frequency A single -sideband genera - take into account the cancelling effect of the
Phasing for of the phasing type re- input capacitance of the tubes and the cir-
quires that the two bal- cuit capacitance; hence the inductance
anced modulators be fed with r -f signals should be variable and should have a lower
having a 90- degree phase difference. This r -f value of inductance than that value of in-
phase difference may be obtained through the ductance which would have the same react-
use of two loosely coupled resonant circuits, ance as resistor R. Inductor L may be con-
such as illustrated in figure 21A and 21B. sidered as being made up of two values of in-
The r-f signal is coupled directly or induc- ductance in parallel: (1) a value of induct-
tively to one of the tuned circuits, and the ance which will resonate at the operating
coupling between the two circuits is varied frequency with the circuit and tube capaci-
until, at resonance of both circuits, the r -f tances, and (2) the value of inductance
voltages developed across each circuit have which is equal in reactance to resistance R.
the same amplitude and a 90- degree phase In a network such as shown in figure 23,
difference. equal and opposite 45- degree phase shifts are
The 90- degree r-f phase difference also provided by the RL and RC circuits, thus
may be obtained through the use of a low -Q providing a 90- degree phase difference be-
phase- shifting network, such as illustrated in tween the excitation voltages applied to the
figure 23; or it may be obtained through the two balanced modulators.
use of a lumped- constant quarter -wave line.
The low -Q phase- shifting system has proved Audio -Frequency The audio- frequency phase -
quite practical for use in single -sideband Phasing shifting networks used in
systems, particularly on the lower frequen- generating a single -sideband
cies. In such an arrangement the two resist- signal by the phasing method usually are
ances (R) have the same value, usually in based on those described by Dome in an ar-
the range between 100 and a few thousand ticle in the December, 1946, Electronics. A
ohms. Capacitor C, in shunt with the input relatively simple network for accomplishing
capacitances of the tubes and circuit capaci- the 90- degree phase shift over the range
tances, has a reactance at the operating fre- from 160 to 3500 Hz is illustrated in figure
quency equal to the value of resistor R. Also, 24. The values of resistance and capacitance
inductor L has a net inductive reactance must be carefully checked to ensure mini-
equal in value at the operating frequency to mum deviation from a 90- degree phase shift
resistance R. over the 200- to 3000 -Hz range.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Generation of SSB 345

12A7 12A7 12AU7 TO DAL.


+,0S V. REGULATED 0.5 MOD.*I
1
1008
1%
PUSH -PULL
121]
AUDIO
INPUT TO SAL.
MOD.*2
133.3 R

0.5 2430 601

Figure 26

PASSIVE AUDIO -PHASE -SHIFT


NETWORK, USEFUL OVER RANGE
OF 300 TO 3000 Hz.

Figure 25
plexity with the filter method. The selective
A VERSION OF THE DOME
circuits for rejection of unwanted frequen-
AUDIO -PHASE -SHIFT cies operate at a relatively low frequency,
NETWORK are designed for this one frequency and have
a relatively high order of Q. Carrier rejec-
Another version of the Dome network is tion of the order of 50 db or so may be ob-
shown in figure 25. This network employs tained with a relatively simple filter and a
three 12AU7 tubes and provides balanced balanced modulator, and unwanted sideband
output for the two balanced modulators. As rejection in the region of 60 db is econom-
with the previous network, values of the ically possible.
resistances within the network must be held The phasing method of SSB generation ex-
to very close tolerances. It is necessary to changes the problems of high -Q circuits and
restrict the speech range to 300 to 3000 Hz linear amplification for the problems of ac-
with this network. Audio frequencies out- curately controlled phase -shift networks. If
side this range will not have the necessary the phasing method is employed on the act-
phase -shift at the output of the network and ual transmitting frequency, change of fre-
will show up as spurious emissions on the quency must be accompanied by a corres-
sideband signal, and also in the region of the ponding rebalance of the phasing networks.
rejected sideband. A low -pass 3500-Hz In addition, it is difficult to obtain a phase
speech filter, such as the Stancor Electron- balance with ordinary equipment within 2
ics Co. LPF -2 should be used ahead of this percent over a band of audio frequencies.
phase -shift network. This means that carrier suppression is limited
A passive audio phase -shift network that to a maximum of 40 db or so. However,
employs no tubes is shown in figure 26. This when a relatively simple SSB transmitter is
network has the same type of operating re- needed for spot- frequency operation, a phas-
strictions as those described above. Addi- ing unit will perform in a satisfactory man-
tional information concerning phase -shift ner.
networks will be found in The Single Side - Where a high degree of performance in
band Digest published by the American the SSB exciter is desired, the filter method
Radio Relay League. A comprehensive side- and the phasing method may be combined.
band review is contained in the December, Through the use of the phasing method in
1956 issue of Proceedings of the I.E.E.E. the first balanced modulator those undesired
sideband components lying within 1000 Hz
Comparison of Filter Either the filter or the of the carrier may be given a much higher
and Phasing Methods phasing method of degree of rejection than is attainable with
of SSB Generation single-sideband gener- the filter method alone, with any reasonable
ation is theoretically amount of complexity in the sideband filter.
capable of a high degree of performance. Then the sideband filter may be used in its
In general, it may be said that a high normal way to attain very high attenuation
degree of unwanted signal rejection may be of all undesired sideband components lying
attained with less expense and circuit corn- perhaps further than 500 Hz away from the
346 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
6BE6 2000 kHz as shown in figure 27, the output
2000-kHz
CONVERSION
may be tuned to select either 2250 or 1750
FREQUENCY TUNE TO SELECT
2000 +2S0.22501H7
kHz.
(2.sv) OR
2000- 25007504H, Not only is it necessary to select the de-
sired mixing product in the mixer output
250
SIGNAL
-IH, SSS but also the undesired products must be
(o.25v) highly attenuated to avoid having spurious
Figure 27
output signals from the transmitter. In gen-
eral, all spurious signals that appear within
PENTAGRID MIXER CIRCUIT FOR the assigned frequency channel should be at
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION least 60 db below the desired signal, and
those appearing outside of the assigned fre-
carrier, and to restrict the sideband width on quency channel at least 80 db below the
the desired side of the carrier to the specified signal level.
frequency limit. When mixing 250 kHz with 2000 kHz
as in the above example, the desired product
is the 2250 -kHz signal, but the 2000 -kHz
16 -5 Single -Sideband injection frequency will appear in the output
Frequency-Conversion Systems about 20 db stronger than the desired signal.
To reduce it to a level 80 db below the de-
In many instances the band of sideband sired signal means that it must be-attenuated
frequencies generated by a low -level SSB 100 db.
transmitter must be heterodyned up to the The principal advantage of using bal-
desired carrier frequency. In receivers the anced- modulator mixer stages is that the in-
circuits which perform this function are jection frequency theoretically does not ap-
called converters or mixers. In sideband work pear in the output. In practice, when a con-
they are usually termed mixers or modula- siderable frequency range must be tuned by
tors. the balanced modulator and it is not practi-
cal to trim the push -pull circuits and the
Mixer Stages One circuit which can be used tubes into exact amplitude and phase bal-
for this purpose employs a re- ance, about 20 db of injection- frequency
ceiving -type mixer tube, such as the 6BE6. cancellation is all that can be depended on.
The output signal from the SSB generator is With suitable trimming adjustments the can-
fed into the #1 grid and the conversion fre- cellation can be made as high as 40 db, how-
quency into the #3 grid. This is the reverse ever, in fixed -frequency circuits.
of the usual grid connections, but it offers
about 10 db improvement in distortion. The The Twin -Triode MixerThe mixer circuit
plate circuit is tuned to select the desired shown in figure 28
output frequency product. Actually, the has about 10 db lower distortion than the
output of the mixer tube contains all har- conventional 6BE6 converter tube. It has a
monics of the two input signals and all pos- lower voltage gain of about unity and a
sible combinations of the sum and difference
frequencies of all the harmonics. In order to
avoid distortion of the SSB signal, it is fed to
the mixer at a low level, such as 0.1 to 0.2 100
(--- -+ SSS OUTPUT
volts. The conversion frequency is fed in at 12A7
a level about 20 db higher, or about 2 volts. 2.0 VOLT
0.2 VOLT
CONVERSION
By this means, harmonics of the incoming SIGNAL INPUT 470 SIGNAL
SSB signal generated in the mixer tube will
be very low. Usually the desired output fre-
quency is either the sum or the difference of
the SSB generator carrier frequency and the Figure 28
conversion frequency. For example, using an
TWIN-TRIODE MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
SSB generator carrier frequency of 250 kHz
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
and a conversion injection frequency of
HANDBOOK Frequency Conversion 347

6.6.56 '3
IA LANCE

2N1225
0.1 SS,
OUTPUT
0.o1 VOLT
SSI SIG.
INPUT

120

-e1A3 CARRIER +120V 17 V. 0.1 V. CARP /ER IN


114 AT SUA.

Figure 29

BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUITS FOR SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION


A is a balanced modulator using 6S6 tubes with screen elements cross-connected for max-
imum carrier suppression. Sias potentiometer allows adjustment for variation in tube para-
meters. is a transistor balanced modulator. balance is achieved by varying the base bias
on the 2N1255 transistors.

lower output impedance which loads the first attenuation at 4000 kHz (which is only 250
tuned circuit and reduces its selectivity. In kHz away) is a practical example. Adding
some applications the lower gain is of no the requirement that this selective circuit
consequence but the lower distortion level is must tune from 2250 to 4250 kHz further
important enough to warrant its use in high complicates the basic requirement. The best
performance equipment. The signal- to -dis- solution is to cascade a number of tuned cir-
tortion ratio of this mixer is of the order of cuits. Since a large number of such circuits
70 db compared to approximately 60 db for may be required, the most practical solution
a 6BE6 mixer when the level of each of two is to use permeability tuning, with the cir-
tone signals is 0.5 volt. With stronger sig- cuits tracked together. An example of such
nals, the 6BE6 distortion increases very circuitry is found in the Collins 32S side -
rapidly, whereas the 12AU7 distortion is band transmitter.
comparatively much better. If an amplifier tube is placed between each
In practical equipment where the injection tuned circuit, the over-all response will be
frequency is variable and trimming adjust- the sum of one stage multipled by the num-
ments and tube selection cannot be used, it ber of stages (assuming identical tuned cir-
may be easier and more economical to obtain cuits). Figure 30 is a chart which may be
this extra 20 db of attenuation by using an used to determine the number of tuned cir-
extra tuned circuit in the output than by cuits required for a certain degree of at-
using a balanced modulator circuit. Two tenuation at some nearby frequency. The Q
balanced modulator circuits of interest are of the circuits is assumed to be 50, which is
shown in figure 29, providing a minimum of normally realized in small permeability-
20 db of carrier attenuation. tuned coils. The number of tuned circuits
Selective Tuned Circuits
with a Q of 50 required for providing 100
The selectivity re-
quirements of the db of attenuation at 4000 kHz while pass-
ing 4250 kHz may be found as follows:
tuned circuits following a mixer stage often
become quite severe. For example, using an
input signal at 250 kHz and a conversion in-
Of is 4250 - 4000 = 250 kHz
jection frequency of 4000 kHz the desired where,
output may be 4250 kHz. Passing the 4250 - fr is the resonant frequency (4250 kHz),
kHz signal and the associated sidebands
without attenuation and realizing 100 db of and,
348 Sideband Tronsmission THE RADIO
o
M..........M M.MM.......M.......I...........MMOMO... o
NONNI .....NNB......... Mira .......NN..
..i....n .. OEM IMO ..........r,NN.....NIMI.
11111111111111111111111111111111111'/NI111111111111111111

...OM..MM./..........
111111111111111111111111111 ,/ o
NNi.......1.......I......'/.......N..........N.P_
...1.NN1r...NN..INN.i.
1111111111111111111111111111111N1111111111111
111111111111111111111111911111111111111111111111j/I111

............
M..........
l
011rnOOIuNuvOOOipIIIIai
.................W...........r..I
I......
1./I..RRI....d...IN/..N J
111111111111111I 111111111111111r/11N11111111111/111

11111111111111111111111111111111111
' li'' II1''"
I .I ..111.I........r:..M.r!-
......r.........r.........r....
..1111 _.rill
1II
......,.....V/ .........N.r!i...Nr!..
.Id....ViN....ri...mC.yll ..!...rcam..
1111,1111111 P5I11 II1P 111111rd1111'."t_11Or!S i!i
1111/1111111111C.11111i111111!.1M1/.111I1..1P_
111'/111111,11111/.11I11:IIIIMIllealM11!l.:iIll
111111111111!III!!IIII!,!;,!,.,IIIIIIIII
r . .- r"1rr:iir--
,I,liil/1;;;;;:,
o
(I III,,
oN oIn
' o o
IC)
o(1) oN- oc0 o oo o o'
N

90
Figure 30

RESPONSE OF "N" NUMBER OF TUNED CIRCUITS,


ASSUMING EACH CIRCUIT Q IS 50

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN D B OO K Frequency Conversion 349

Of 250
0.059
fr 4250 f
- SIGNALDISTORTION
TO
The point on the chart where .059 inter- (vol RATION
sects 100 db is between the curves for 6 and
7 tuned circuits, so 7 tuned circuits are re-
quired.
Another point which must be considered
I l
in practice is the tuning and tracking error Sp-4g 4p-3q 3p 24 2p -g P 4 247 4.1:3P 5R4P
34-21.
of the circuits. For example, if the circuits
were actually tuned to 4220 kHz instead of

4250 kHz, the A


fr
would be
220
4220
or

0.0522. Checking the curves shows that 7


circuits would just barely provide 100 db of
attenuation. This illustrates the need for
very accurate tuning and tracking in cir-
cuits having high attenuation properties.
Coupled Tuned When as many as 7 tuned
Circuits circuits are required for pro-
per attenuation, it is not
necessary to have the gain that 6 isolating
amplifier tubes would provide. Several vac-
uum tubes can be eliminated by using two or
three coupled circuits between the amplifiers.
With a coefficient of coupling between cir-
cuits 0.5 of critical coupling, the over-all
response is very nearly the same as isolated
circuits. The gain through a pair of circuits
having 0.5 coupling is only eight- tenths that
of two critically coupled circuits, however.
If critical coupling is used between two
tuned circuits, the nose of the response curve
is broadened and about 6 db is lost on the
skirts of each pair of critically coupled cir-
cuits. In some cases it may be necessary to
broaden the nose of the response curve to Figure 31
avoid adversely affecting the frequency re- A shows SS! distortion products pictured up to
sponse of the desired passband. Another I
ninth order. shows SSE distortion products as
tuned circuit may be required to make up seen on a panoramic analyser. Third -order
products are 19 decibels below two -tone test
for the loss of attenuation on the skirts of signal and fifth -order products are 32 decibels
critically coupled circuits. In some cases it below the test signal. C illustrates that third-
may be necessary to broaden the nose of the order products are about 31 decibels below
test signal and higher -order products are bet-
response curve to avoid adversely affecting ter than 40 decibels down from test signal.
the frequency response of the desired pass -
band. Another tuned circuit may be required
to make up for the loss of attenuation on the signals appear near the desired frequency. A
critically coupled circuits. high -frequency SSB transmitter may be re-
quired to operate at any carrier frequency
Frequency ConversionThe example in the in the range of 1.7 to 30 MHz. The prob-
Problems previous section shows lem is to find a practical and economical
the difficult selectivity means of heterodyning the generated SSB
problem encountered when strong undesired frequency to any carrier frequency in this
350 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

FROM SSB
GENERATOR
GAIN CONTROL
PREAMPLIFIER
- POWER
AMPLIFIER
STAGE
-.TO ANT.
frequencies are generated. These represent all
of the possible combinations of the sum and
difference frequencies of all harmonics of the
R-F FROM P -A
PLATE CIRCUIT original frequencies. For purposes of test
and analysis, a two-tone test signal (two
CONTROL BIAS R F equal -amplitude tones) is used as the SSB
RECTIFIER,
source. Since the SSB radio -frequency ampli-
I fiers use tank circuits, all distortion products
DELAY BIAS VOLTAGE
FROM POWER SUPPLY are filtered out except those which lie close
to the desired frequencies. These are all odd -
Figure 32 order products; third order, fifth order, etc.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC The third -order products are 2p -q and
LOAD CONTROL (A.L.C.) SYSTEM 2q -p where p and q represent the two SSB
r -f tone frequencies. The fifth order products
range. There are many modulation products
in the output of the mixer and a frequency
- -
are 3p 2q and 3q 2p. These and some
higher order products are shown in figure 31
scheme must be found that will not have un- A, B, and C. It should be noted that the fre-
desired output of appreciable amplitude at quency spacings are always equal to the dif-
or near the desired signal. When tuning ference frequency of the two original tones.
across a frequency range some products may Thus when an SSB amplifier is badly over-
"cross over" the desired frequency. These loaded, these spurious frequencies can extend
undesired crossover frequencies should be at far outside the original channel width and
least 60 db below the desired signal to meet cause an unintelligible "splatter" type of in-
modern standards. The amplitude of the un- terference in adjacent channels. This is usu-
desired products depends on the particular ally of far more importance than the distor-
characteristics of the mixer and the particu- tion of the original tones with regard to
lar order of the product. In general, most intelligibility or fidelity. To avoid interfer-
products of the 7th order and higher will be ence in another channel, these distortion
at least 60 db down. Thus any crossover fre- products should be down at least 30 db below
quency lower than the 7th order must be the adjacent channel signal. Using a two -
avoided since there is no way of attenuating tone test, the distortion is given as the ratio
them if they appear within the desired pass - of the amplitude of one test tone to the
band. The book Single Sideband Principles amplitude of a third -order product. This is
and Circuits by Pappenfus, McGraw Hill called the signal -to- distortion ratio (Sm)
Book Co., Inc., N. Y., covers the subject of and is usually given in decibels. The use of
spurious products and incorporates a "mix feedback r -f amplifiers make S/D ratios of
selector" chart that is useful in determining greater than 40 db possible and practical.
spurious products for various different mix- Automatic Two means may be used to
ing schemes. Load Control keep the amplitude of these dis-
In general, for most applications when the
intelligence -bearing frequency is lower than
tortion products down to ac-
the conversion frequency, it is desirable that ceptable levels. One is to design the ampli-
fier for excellent linearity over its amplitude
the ratio of the two frequencies be between
S to 1 and 10 to 1. This a compromise or power range. The other is to employ a
means of limiting the amplitude of the SSB
between avoiding low -order harmonics of
envelope to the capabilities of the amplifier.
this signal input appearing in the output,
An automatic load control system (ALC)
and minimizing the selectivity requirements
may be used to accomplish this result. It
of the circuits following the mixer stage.
should be noted that the r -f wave shapes of
16-6 Distortion Products the SSB signal are always sine waves because
the tank circuits make them so. It is the
Due to Nonlinearity of change in gain with signal level in an ampli-
R -F Amplifiers fier that distorts the SSB envelope and gen-
When the SSB envelope of a voice or multi - erates unwanted distortion products. An
tone signal is distorted, a great many new ALC system may be used to limit the input

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Distortion Products 351

The ALC Circuit A block diagram of an


ALC circuit is shown in
figure 32. The compressor or gain control
part of this circuit uses one or two stages of
remote cutoff tubes such as 6BA6, operating
very similarly to the intermediate- frequency
stages of a receiver having automatic volume
control.
The grid bias voltage which controls the
gain of the tubes is obtained from a voltage
DB SIGNAL LEVEL INPUT detector circuit connected to the power am-
plifier tube plate circuit. A large delay bias
Figure 33
is used so that no gain reduction takes place
PERFORMANCE CURVE OF until the signal is nearly up to the full power
ALC CIRCUIT capability of the amplifier. At this signal
level, the rectified output overcomes the de-
signal to an amplifier to prevent a change in lay bias and the gain of the preamplifier is
gain level caused by excessive input level. reduced rapidly with increasing signal so
The ALC system is adjusted so the power that there is very little rise in output power
amplifier is operating near its maximum above the threshold of gain control.
power capability and at the same time is pro- When a signal peak arrives that would
tected from being over -driven. normally overload the power amplifier, it is
In amplitude-modulated systems it is desirable that the gain of the ALC amplifier
common to use speech compressors and be reduced in a few milliseconds to a value
speech clipping systems to perform this where overloading of the power amplifier is
function. These methods are not equally use- overcome. After the signal peak passes, the
ful in SSB. The reason for this is that the gain should return to the normal value in
SSB envelope is different from the audio en- about one -tenth second. These attack and
velope and the SSB peaks do not necessarily release times are commonly used for voice
correspond with the audio peaks as explained communications. For this type of work, a
earlier in this chapter. For this reason an r -f dynamic range of at least 10 db is desirable.
compressor of some sort located between the Input peaks as high as 20 db above the
SSB generator and the power amplifier is threshold of compression should not cause
most effective because it is controlled by loss of control although some increase in dis-
SSB envelope peaks rather than audio peaks. tortion in the upper range of compression
Such a "SSB signal compressor" and the can be tolerated because peaks in this range
means of obtaining its control voltage com- are infrequent. Another limitation is that the
prises a satisfactory ALC system. preceding SSB generator must be capable of
SSS OUTPUT
6BA6 6BA6 TO P -A 4810

Figure 34 WU

SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC
OF AUTOMATIC LOAD TO IAA

CONTROL AMPLIFIER.
OPERATING POINT OF ALC
CIRCUIT MAY BE SET
BY VARYING BLOCKING
BIAS ON CATHODE OF
6X4 SIGNAL RECTIFIER
SENS.
ALC ZERO
=COMPRESSION ADJ.
INDICATOR
352 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
to limit the range of the signal fed into the
SSB generator.
Figure 33 shows the effectiveness of the
ALC in limiting the output signal to the
capabilities of the power amplifier. An ad-
justment of the delay bias will place the
threshold of compression at the desired
power output. Figure 34 shows a simplified
schematic of an ALC system. This ALC uses
Figure 35
two variable -gain amplifier stages and the
JR. MODULATOR CIRCUIT
SSB
R-F and A -F sources ara applied in series to maximum over-all gain is about 20 db. A
balanced modulator. meter is incorporated which is calibrated in
db of compression. This is useful in adjust-
passing signals above full power output by ing the gain for the desired amount of load
the amount of compression desired. Since the control. A capacitance voltage divider is
signal level through the SSB generator should used to step down the r -f voltage at the
be maintained within a limited range, it is plate of the amplifier tube to about f 0 volts
unlikely that more than 12 db ALC action for the ALC rectifier. The output of the
will be useful. If the input signal varies more ALC rectifier passes through RC networks
than this, a speech compressor should be used to obtain the desired attack and release times
PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK TAL OR 12AU7

IIn
T2 V O
BLUE,. RED-wNIrE
It]
20 K AMr 13 YEd b 1.001
T M
II 7
,- C2A^ ,y77:11a2.

Z 12AU7 I: Re Ce
12AT7
AUDIO R9 Ce = y001
INPUT I I
kcF , M 250 + 10%
II E C10
ilE y 71 2 I I

30 L--R14-
1.6 K
L1
:2
* 5% *5% 20K L2
N\ 0_0,Q9 i< ir

RFC
0.SMH N, *10b
4
12AU7

12T7
R -F OUTPUT

TWIST RFC
0.5.
MN 6407

-10.5 V. +. B-
C+,13-
6.3 V.

C2A,B,C,D = EACH SECTION 20 UF, 450 V. ELECTROLYTIC a1,2,3,4= 1H52 GERMANIUM D100E OR EQUIVALENT
C7 =2430 PF (.002 UFO MICA *5% WITH 170 -760 PF TRIMMER) L I. L2= 33T. N 21 E. WIRE CLOSE WOUND ON MILLEN N.09046
C6 =4660 PF (0043 UFO MICA *514 WITH 170 -760 PF TRIMMER) IRON -CORE ADJUSTABLE SLUG COIL FORM. LINK OF 6
C9=1215 PF (.001 LIED MICA *S% WITH 50 -360 PF TRIMMER) TURNS OF HOOKUP WIRE WOUND ON OPEN END.
C10 =607.5 PF (500 PF MICA *5% WITH 9 -160 PF TRIMMER) L3 =16 T. NI9 E. WIRE SPACED TO PILL MILLEN N. 99046
C16 =350 PF 600V MICA * 10% (250 PF AND 100 PF PARALLEL) COIL FORM TAP AT 6 TURNS. OAK OF 1 TURN AT CENTER.
R7,RIO= 133.300 OHMS, 1/2 WATT * 11b L4 =SAME AS Li EXCEPT NO LINK USED.
R6,R9= 100.000 OHMS, 1/2 WATT * 1% L5= 26 T. OF N19 E. WIRE. LINK ON END TO MATCH LOAD.
T1= SrANCOR A -53C TRANSFORMER (4 TURN LINK MATCHES 72 OHM LOAD)
T2,T3= UC R -384 TRANSFORMER.
51 =OPOT TOGGLE SWITCH *= MOUNTING ENO OF COILS

Figure 36

SCHEMATIC, SSB, JR. FOR 80 METERS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK SSB Exciters 353

and through r-f filter capacitors. The 3.3K tuning L2, however, will be degraded side-
resistor and 0.1 -fd capacitors across the band suppression.
rectifier output stabilize the gain around the Power requirements of the SSB, Jr. are 300
ALC loop to prevent "motorboating." volts at 60 ma, and -10.5 volts at 1 ma.

The "Ten -A" The Model 10 -A phasing ex-


16 -7 Sideband Exciters
Exciter citer is an advanced version
Some of the most popular sideband ex- of the SSB, Jr. incorporating
citers in use today are variations of the extra features such as vfo control, voice op-
simple phasing circuit introduced in the eration, and multiband operation. A simpli-
November, 1950 issue of General Electric fied schematic of the Model 10A is shown
Ham News. Employing only three tubes, the in figure 37. The 12AX7 two -stage speech
SSB, Jr. is a classic example of sideband gen- amplifier excites a transformer -coupled LA-
eration reduced to its simplest form. 12BH7 low -impedance driver stage and a
voice operated (VOX) relay system employ-
The SSB, Jr. This phasing exciter employs ing a 12AX7 and a 6ALS. A transformer -
audio and r -f phasing circuits coupled 12AT7 follows the audio phasing
to produce an SSB signal at one spot fre- network, providing two audio channels hav-
quency. The circuit of one of the balanced ing a 90- degree phase difference. A simple
modulator stages is shown in figure 3S. The 90- degree r -f phase shift network in the
audio signal and r-f source are applied in plate circuit of the 9 -MHz crystal oscillator
series to two germanium diodes serving as stage works into the matched, balanced mod-
balanced modulators having a push -pull out- ulator consisting of four 1N48 diodes.
put circuit tuned to the r -f carrier frequen- The resulting 9 -MHz SSB signal may be
cy. The modulator drives a linear amplifier converted to the desired operating frequency
directly at the output frequency. The com- in a 6BA7 mixer stage. Eight volts of r -f
plete circuit of the exciter is shown in figure from an external vfo injected on grid #1 of
36. the 6BA7 is sufficient for good conversion
The first tube, a 12AU7, is a twin triode efficiency and low distortion. The plate cir-
serving as a speech amplifier and a crystal cuit of the 6BA7 is tuned to the sum or dif-
oscillator. The second tube is a 12AT7, act- ference mixing frequency and the resulting
ing as a twin -channel audio amplifier follow- signal is amplified in a 6AG7 linear amplifier
ing the phase -shift audio network. The linear stage. Two "tweet" traps are incorporated in
amplifier stage is a 6AG7, capable of a peak the 6BA7 stage to reduce unwanted responses
power output of S watts. of the mixer which are apparent when the
Sideband switching is accomplished by the unit is operating in the 14 -MHz band. Band
reversal of audio polarity in one of the audio changing is accomplished by changing coils
channels (switch S1), and provision is made L. and L and the frequency of the external
fer equalization of gain in the audio channels mixing signal. Maximum power output is of
(R12). This adjustment is necessary in order the order of S watts at any operating fre-
to achieve normal sideband cancellation, quency.
which may be of the order of 35 db or
better. Phase -shift network adjustment may A Transistorized A transistorized SSB filter
be achieved by adjusting potentiometer R5. SSB Filter exciter is illustrated in Fig -
Stable modulator balance is achieved by the Exciter ure 38. It is designed for
balance potentiometers (R.,; and R17) in operation in the 2- to 30-
conjunction with the germanium diodes. MHz range and makes use of a 9 -MHz
The SSB, Jr. is designed for spot- frequency crystal filter. A GE -1 transistor crystal os-
operation. Note that when changing fre- cillator provides the carrier for the balanced
quency L1, L_, L,, L,, and L; should be read- modulator via a link- coupled circuit. Ca-
justed, since these circuits constitute the pacitive and resistive carrier -balance controls
tuning adjustments of the rig. The principal provide over 30 decibels carrier suppression.
effect of mistuning L3, L1, and L; will be The balanced modulator is of the configura-
lower output. The principal effect of mis- tion shown in Figure 35. A two -stage speech
354 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

n 00009-o000
.3
z _

Figure 37

SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF "TEN -A" EXCITER


HANDBOOK SSB Reception 355

CARRIER OSC. MIXER


GE-1 GE-1
Lt 301 1N34A Ti Ta .ot 0.1 V. L2
.00eV.

LOW-2
MIC. +
2
GE -2 GE -2
SPEECH AMPLIFIER

Figure 38

TRANSISTOR SSB EXCITER USING 9 -MHz CRYSTAL FILTER


This simple SSE exciter employs "entertainment- type" transistors and a packaged 9 -MHz
crystal filter. Transistors are General Electric types. Transformers T, and T. may be supplied
by Alter manufacturer and vary according to filter design. Selection of sideband is accom-
plished by choice of crystal oscillator frequency, placing the carrier oscillator crystal (Y) on
the proper slope of the sideband filter.

amplifier provides ample gain for use of a a carrier null indication on the S meter of a
low- impedance dynamic microphone. Audio receiver coupled to the output of the side-
gain is controlled by varying the base bias band filter.
on the second speech amplifier stage. A crystal is now placed in the conversion
The 9 -MHz SSB signal from the filter is oscillator and proper operation is checked by
beat to the desired operating frequency in a monitoring the conversion frequency with
transistor mixer stage. Typical r -f voltages the nearby receiver. The mixer stage is final-
in the mixer stage are indicated in the sche- ly adjusted for maximum output at the de-
matic. The collector of the mixer is tapped sired frequency.
down on the output tank circuit to provide
optimum impedance match. Output of the 16 -8 Reception of
mixer stage is about 0.1 volt.
Selection of the upper or lower sideband is Single -Sideband Signals
accomplished by placing the carrier oscillator
on the proper slope of the sideband filter. Single- sideband signals may be received,
The oscillator should be set at approximately after a certain degree of practice in the tech-
the 20- decibel suppression point of the pass - nique, in a quite adequate and satisfactory
band for best operation. If the oscillator is manner with a good communications re-
closer in frequency to the filter passband ceiver. However, the receiver must have
than this, carrier rejection will suffer. If the quite good frequency stability both in the
oscillator is moved further away in frequen- high- frequency oscillator and in the beat
cy from the passband, the lower voice fre- oscillator. For this reason, receivers which
quencies will be attenuated and the SSB sig- use a crystal -controlled first oscillator are
nal will sound high -pitched and tinny. The likely to offer a greater degree of satisfaction
two carrier- balance controls are adjusted for than the self -controlled oscillator type.
356 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO

Beat- oscillator stability in most receivers creased for good signal level, or until the
is usually quite adequate, but many receivers point is reached where best oscillator injec-
do not have a sufficient amplitude of beat os- tion becomes insufficient and the signal be-
cillator injection to allow reception of strong gins to distort.
SSB signals without distortion. In such re-
ceivers it is necessary either to increase the Single -Sideband Greatly simplified tuning,
amount of beat -oscillator injection into the Receivers and coupled with strong atten-
diode detector, or the manual gain control of Adapters uation of undesired sig-
the receiver must be turned down quite low. nals, can be obtained
The tuning procedure for SSB signals is as through the use of a single -sideband receiv-
follows: The SSB signals may first be located er or receiver adapter. The exalted- carrier
by tuning over the band with receiver set principle usually is employed in such receiv-
for the reception of c -w; that is, with the ers, with a phase- sensitive system sometimes
manual gain at a moderate level and with the included for locking the local oscillator to
beat oscillator operating. By tuning in this the frequency of the carrier of the incoming
manner SSB signals may be located when signal. In order for the locking system to
they are far below the amplitude of conven- operate, some carrier must be transmitted
tional a -m signals on the frequency band. along with the SSB signal. Such receivers and
With the beat oscillator on the wrong side adapters include a means for selecting the
of the sideband, the speech will sound in- upper or lower sideband by the simple oper-
verted; that is to say that low- frequency ation of a switch. For the reception of a
modulation tones will have a high pitch and single-sideband signal the switch obviously
high- frequency modulation tones will have must be placed in the correct position. But
a low pitch -and the speech will be quite for the reception of a conventional a -m or
unintelligible. With the beat oscillator on phase-modulated signal, either sideband may
the correct side of the sideband but too far be selected, allowing the sideband with the
from the correct position, the speech will least interference to be used.
have some intelligibility but the voice will The Product Detector An unusually satis-
sound quite high pitched. Then as the correct factory form of de-
setting for the beat oscillator is approached modulator for SSB service is the product de-
the voice will begin to sound natural but tector, shown in one form in figure 39. This
will have a background growl on each syl- circuit is preferred since it reduces intermod-
lable. At the correct frequency for the beat ulation products and does not require a large
oscillator the speech will clear completely local carrier voltage, as contrasted to the
and the voice will have a clean, crisp, qual- more common diode envelope detector. This
ity. It should also be mentioned that there is product detector operates much in the same
a narrow region of tuning of the beat oscilla- manner as a multigrid mixer tube. The SSB
tor a small distance on the wrong side of the
sideband where the voice will sound quite 6BE6 RFC
,AUDIO
bassy and difficult to understand. SIGNAL
SOO -kN,
With a little experience it will be possible CARRIER
INJECTION
to identify the sound associated with im-
proper settings of the beat -oscillator control
so that corrections in the setting of the con-
trol can be made. Note that the main tuning
control of the receiver is not changed after SSO
SIGNAL }}
FROM
the sideband once is tuned into the passband IF AMP.

of the receiver. All the fine tuning should


be done with the beat oscillator control.
Also, it is very important that the r -f gain Figure 39
control be turned to quite a low level during A PRODUCT DETECTOR
the tuning process. Then after the signal has The above configuration resembles a pentagrid
been tuned properly the r -f gain may be in- converter circuit.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK SSB Reception 357

Since the cathode current of the tube is con-


trolled by the simultaneous action of the two
7360 D58
OUT
grids, the current will contain frequencies
equal to the sum and difference between the
sideband signal and the carrier. Other fre-
quencies are suppressed by the low -pass r -f
SO o
filter in the plate circuit of the stage, while
R.F H the audio frequency is recovered from the r-f
IN
470K sideband signal.
An interesting development in the single -
sideband field is the beam deflection tube
(type 7360). This miniature tube employs a
simple electron "gun" which generates, con-
trols, and accelerates a beam of electrons di-
rected toward identical plates. The total
plate current is determined by the voltages
applied to the control grid and screen grid
of the "gun." The division of plate current
- PUSH-PULL AUDIO-
between the two plates is determined by the
difference in voltage between two deflecting
electrodes placed between the "gun" and the
Figure 40 plates. R -f voltage is used to modulate the
BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUIT
control grid of the electron "gun" and the
electron stream within the tube may be
USING 7360 BEAM DEFLECTION TUBE.
switched between the plates by means of an
audio signal applied to the deflecting elec-
signal is applied to the control grid of the trodes. The 7360 makes an excellent bal-
tube and the locally generated carrier is im- anced modulator (figure 40) or product de-
pressed on the other control grid. The de- tector having high- impedance input circuits,
sired audio output signal is recovered across low distortion, and excellent carrier suppres-
the plate resistance of the demodulator tube. sion.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

Transmitter Design

The performance of a transmitter is a knowledge of the limitations of the com-


function of the design, and is dependent on ponents, and with a basic concept of the ac-
the execution of the design and the proper tions of ground currents, the average ama-
choice of components. This chapter deals teur will be able to build equipment that will
with the study of transmitter circuitry and work "just like the book says."
the basic components that go to make up The twin problems of TVI and parasitics
this circuitry. Modern components are far are an outgrowth of the major problem of
from faultless. Resistors have inductance and over all circuit design. If close attention is
distributed capacity. Capacitors have induct- paid to the cardinal points of circuitry de-
ance and resistance, and inductors have re- sign, the secondary problems of TVI and
sistance and distributed capacitance. None of parasitics will in themselves be solved.
these residual attributes show up on circuit
diagrams, yet they are as much responsible
for the success or failure of the transmitter 17 -1 Resistors
as are the necessary and vital bits of resist-
ance, capacitance, and inductance. Because The resistance of a conductor is a function
of these unwanted attributes, the job of of the material, the form the material takes,
translating a circuit on paper into a working the temperature of operation, and the fre-
piece of equipment often becomes an impos- quency of the current passing through the
sible task to those individuals who disregard resistance. In general, the variation in re-
such important trivia. Rarely do circuit dia- sistance due to temperature is directly pro-
grams show such pitfalls as ground loops and portional to the temperature change. With
residual inductive coupling between stages. most wirewound resistors, the resistance in-
Parasitic resonant circuits are seldom visible creases with temperature and returns to its
from a study of the schematic. Too many original value when the temperature drops to
times radio equipment is rushed into service normal. So called composition or carbon re-
before it has been entirely checked. The im- sistors have less reliable temperature /resist-
mediate and only too apparent results of this ance characteristics. They usually have a
enthusiasm are transmitter instability, diffi- positive temperature coefficient, but the re-
culty of neutralization, r.f. wandering all trace curve as the resistor is cooled is often
over the equipment, and a general "touch- erratic, and in many cases the resistance does
iness" of adjustment. Hand in glove with not return to its original value after a heat
these problems go the more serious ones of cycle. It is for this reason that care must be
TVI, keyclicks, and parasitics. By paying at- taken when soldering composition resistors in
tention to detail, with a good working circuits that require close control of the

www.americanradiohistory.com
Resistors 359
+3 +3

+4 +4
W
+3 +3
z
W
V +2 +2
F
z N
<+I +1
N_ W
v1 0 CC 0
W z
Z W
.J 2 UZ 2

2
a -) IU -3
I
J 4 f! 4

!
_30 40 70 0 10 100
-20 -IO 0 10 20 30 40 SO O 70 !0 90 100 -20 - 0 0 10 20 30 30 60
DEGREES CENTIGRADE DEGREES CENTIGRADE

Figure 1

HEAT CYCLE OF UNCONDITIONED HEAT CYCLE OF CONDITIONED


COMPOSITION RESISTORS COMPOSITION RESISTORS

resistance value. Matched resistors used in sirable amounts of inductance and distrib-
phase- inverter service can be heated out of uted capacitance. These quantities are illus-
tolerance by the act of soldering them into trated in figure 2A, the general equivalent
the circuit. Long leads should be left on the circuit of a resistor. This circuit represents
resistors and long -nose pliers should grip the the actual impedance network of a resistor at
lead between the iron and the body of the any frequency. At a certain specified fre-
resistor to act as a heat block. General tem- quency the impedance of the resistor may be
perature characteristics of typical carbon thought of as a series reactance (X,) as
resistors are shown in figure 1. The behavior shown in figure 211. This reactance may be
of an individual resistor will vary from these either inductive or capacitive depending on
curves depending on the manufacturer, the whether the residual inductance or the dis-
size and wattage of the resistor, etc. tributed capacitance of the resistor is the
dominating factor. As a rule, skin effect
Inductance of Every resistor because of its tends to increase the reactance with fre-
Resistors physical size has in addition to quency, while the capacitance between turns
its desired resistance, less de- of a wirewound resistor, or capacitance be-

Figure 2

C-
RDC
0
L
01 -+-o

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR

p---rn- x , --0
10

FREQUENCY MHz

Figure 3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR FREQUENCY EFFECTS ON SAMPLE
AT A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY COMPOSITION RESISTORS
360 Transmitter Design THE RADIO
60
R SHUNT
R=aa000n

`
WOWalli
SO
yp p \--y'y"y"o
C L RSERiEa

DO MEMINIMI Figure 5

IMMILIIM EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CAPACITOR

MINFAMM tain frequency the series inductive reactance

11. a io ia 20
of the capacitor and the capacitive reactance
are equal and opposite, and the capacitor is
in itself series resonant at this frequency. As
FREQUENCY UM: the operating frequency of the circuit in
which the capacitor is used is increased above
Figure 4 the series -resonant frequency, the effective-
CURVES OF THE IMPEDANCE OF WIRE - ness of the capacitor as a bypassing element
WOUND RESISTORS AT RADIO deteriorates until the unit is useless.
FREQUENCIES
Bypass The usual forms of bypass ca-
tween the granules of a composition resistor
Capacitors pacitors have dielectrics of paper,
tends to cause the reactance and resistance to mica, or ceramic. For audio
drop with frequency. The behavior of var- work, and low- frequency r -f work up to
ious types of composition resistors over a perhaps 2 MHz or so, the paper capacitors
large frequency range is shown in figure 3. are satisfactory as their relatively high in-
By proper component design, noninductive ternal inductance has little effect on the
resistors having a minimum of residual re- proper operation of the circuit. The actual
actance characteristics may be constructed. amount of internal inductance will vary
Even these have reactive effects that cannot widely with the manufacturing process, and
be ignored at high frequencies. some types of paper capacitors have satis-
Wirewound resistors act as low -Q in- factory characteristics up to a frequency of
ductors at radio frequencies. Figure 4 shows f MHz or so.

typical curves of the high- frequency char- When considering the design of transmit-
acteristics of cylindrical wirewound resistors. ting equipment, it must be remembered that
In addition to resistance variations wire - while the transmitter is operating at some
wound resistors exhibit both capacitive and relatively low frequency (for example, 7
inductive reactance, depending on the type MHz), there will be harmonic currents flow-
of resistor and the operating frequency. In ing through the various bypass capacitors of
fact, such resistors perform in a fashion as the order of 10 to 20 times the operating
low -Q r -f chokes below their parallel self - frequency. A capacitor that behaves properly
resonant frequency. at 7 MHz however, may offer considerable
impedance to the flow of these harmonic
currents. For minimum harmonic generation
17 -2 Capacitors and radiation, it is obviously of greatest im-
portance to employ bypass capacitors having
The inherent residual characteristics of ca- the lowest possible internal inductance.
pacitors include series resistance, series in- Mica -dielectric capacitors have much less
ductance and shunt resistance, as shown in internal inductance than do most paper ca-
figure S. The series resistance and inductance pacitors. Figure 6 lists self -resonant fre-
depend to a large extent on the physical con- quencies of various mica capacitors having
figuration of the capacitor and on the ma- various lead lengths. It can be seen from in-
terial from which it is composed. Of great spection of this table that most mica ca-
interest to the amateur constructor is the pacitors become self -resonant in the 12- to
series inductance of the capacitor. At a cer- 50-MHz region. The inductive reactance
HANDBOOK Capacitors 361

CAPACITOR LEAD LENGTHS RESONANT FREQ. hibits piezoelectric effects, and capacitors
.02 fd MICA NONE 44.5 MHz
employing it for a dielectric will tend to
.002 fd MICA NONE 23.5 MHz "talk- back" when a -c voltages are applied
.01 fd MICA %4n 10 MHz across them. When these capacitors are used
.0009 fd MICA 140 55 MHz as plate bypass units in a modulated trans-
.002 fd CERAMIC s/e" 24 MHz
.001 fd CERAMIC '4" 55 MHz
mitter they will cause acoustical noise.
300 pfd BUTTON NONE 220 MHz Otherwise they are excellent for general r -f
.0005 fd CERAMIC 1'4/n 90 MHz work.
.01 fd CERAMIC % 'f 14.5 MHz A recent addition to the varied line of ca-
pacitors is the coaxial, or Hypass, type of
Figure 6
capacitor. These capacitors exhibit superior
SELF -RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF bypassing qualities at frequencies up to 200
VARIOUS CAPACITORS WITH MHz and the bulkhead type are especially
RANDOM LEAD LENGTH effective when used to filter leads passing
through partition walls between two stages.
they would offer to harmonic currents of 100
Variable Air Even though air is the perfect
MHz, or so, would be of considerable magni-
tude. In certain instances it is possible to Capacitors dielectric, air capacitors exhibit
deliberately series- resonate a mica capacitor losses because of the inherent
to a certain frequency somewhat below its resistance of the metallic parts that make up
normal self -resonant frequency by trimming the capacitor. In addition, the leakage loss
the leads to a critical length. This is some- across the insulating supports may become of
times done for maximum bypassing effect in some consequence at high frequencies. Of
the region of 40 to 60 MHz. greater concern is the inductance of the ca-
The button -mica capacitors shown in fig- pacitor at high frequencies. Since the capaci-
ure 7 are especially designed to have ex- tor must be of finite size, it will have tie rods,
tremely low internal inductance. Certain metallic braces, and end plates; all of which
types of button -mica capacitors of small contribute to the inductance of the unit.
physical size have a self- resonant frequency The actual amount of the inductance will
in the region of 600 MHz. depend on the physical size of the capacitor
Ceramic-dielectric capacitors in general
have the lowest amount of series inductance
per unit of capacitance of these three univer-
sally used types of bypass capacitors. Typical
resonant frequencies of various ceramic units
are listed in figure 6. Ceramic capacitors are
available in various voltage and capacitance
ratings and different physical configurations.
Standoff types such as shown in figure 7 are
useful for bypassing socket and transformer
terminals. Two of these capacitors may be
mounted in close proximity on a chassis and
connected together by an r-f choke to form
a highly effective r -f filter. The inexpensive
disc type of ceramic capacitor is recom-
mended for general bypassing in r -f cir-
cuitry, as it is effective as a bypass unit to
well over 100 MHz. Figure 7
The large TV doorknob capacitors are
useful as by -pass units for high voltage lines. TYPES OF CERAMIC AND MICA CAPACI-
These capacitors have a value of 500 pf, and TORS SUITABLE FOR HIGH -FREQUENCY
are available in voltage ratings up to 40,000 BYPASSING
volts. The dielectric of these capacitors is The Centrale', 8SBS (1000 pi) Is recommended
usually titanium dioxide. This material ex- for screen and plate circuits of tetrads) tubes.
362 Transmitter Design THE RADIO

and the method used to make contact to the wire ten inches long (a not uncommon
stator and rotor plates. This inductance may length for a plate lead in a transmitter) can
be cut to a minimum value by using as small have a self -inductance of 0.15 microhenrys.
a capacitor as is practical, by using insulated This inductance and that of the plate tuning
tie rods to prevent the formation of closed capacitor together with the plate -to- ground
inductive loops in the frame of the unit, and capacity of the vacuum tube can form a
by making connections to the centers of the resonant circuit which may lead to parasitic
plate assemblies rather than to the ends as is
oscillations in the vhf regions. To keep the
commonly done. A large transmitting ca- self -inductance at a minimum, all r -f carry-
pacitor may have an inherent inductance as ing leads should be as short as possible and
large as 0.1 microhenry, making the capaci-
should be made out of as heavy material as
tor susceptible to parasitic resonances in the possible.
50- to 150 -MHz range of frequencies.
At the higher frequencies, solid enameled
The question of optimum C/L ratio and
copper wire is most efficient for r -f leads.
capacitor plate spacing is covered in Chapter Tinned or stranded wire will show greater
Eleven. For all -band operation of a high
losses at these frequencies. Tank -coil and
power stage, it is recommended that a capaci- tank -capacitor leads should be of heavier
tor just large enough for 40 -meter phone wire than other r -f leads.
operation be chosen. (This will have suffi- The best type of flexible lead from the en-
cient capacitance for phone operation on all velope of a tube to a terminal is thin copper
higher- frequency bands.) Then use fixed
strip, cut from thin sheet copper. Heavy,
padding capacitors for operation on 80 met-
rigid leads to these terminals may crack the
ers. Such padding capacitors are available in
envelope glass when a tube heats or cools.
air, ceramic, and vacuum types.
Wires carrying only audio frequencies or
Specially designed variable capacitors are
direct current should be chosen with the volt-
recommended for uhf work; ordinary ca-
age and current in mind. Some of the low -fila-
pacitors often have "loops" in the metal
ment -voltage transmitting tubes draw heavy
frame which may resonate near the operating
frequency. current, and heavy wire must be used to
avoid voltage drop. The voltage is low, and
Variable Vacuum Variable vacuum capacitors hence not much insulation is required. Fila-
ment and heater leads are usually twisted
Capacitors because of their small phy-
together. An initial check should be made on
sical size have less inherent
the filament voltage of all tubes of 25 watts
inductance per unit of capacity than do
or more plate dissipation rating. This voltage
variable air capacitors. Their losses are ex-
should be measured right at the tube sockets.
tremely low, and their dielectric strength is
If it is low, the filament -transformer volt-
high. Because of increased production the
age should be raised. If this is impossible,
cost of such units is now within the reach of
heavier or parallel wires should be used for
the designer of amateur equipment, and their
filament leads, cutting down their length if
use is highly recommended in high -power
possible.
tank circuits.
Coaxial cable may be used for high -volt-
age leads when it is desirable to shield them
17 -3 Wire and Inductors from r -f fields. RG -8/U cable may be used
at d -c potentials up to 8000 volts, and the
Any length of wire, no matter how short, lighter RG -17/U may be used to potentials
has a certain value of inductance. This prop- of 3000 volts. Spark plug -type high- tension
erty is of great help in making coils and in- wire may be used for unshielded leads, and
ductors, but may be of great hindrance when will withstand 10,000 volts.
it is not taken into account in circuit design If this cable is used, the high -voltage leads
and construction. Connecting circuit ele- may be cabled with filament and other low -
ments (themselves having residual induct- voltage leads. For high -voltage leads in low -
ance) together with a conductor possessing power exciters, where the plate voltage is not
additional inductance can often lead to puz- over 450 volts, ordinary radio hookup wire
zling difficulties. A piece of No. 10 copper of good quality will serve the purpose.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK

Rc L Rc

Figure 8
L

C DISTRISUT[D

ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF R -F CHOKE AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES


"
R..cC
Inductors

L
363

No r -f leads should be cabled; in fact it is nated to the operating frequency, will often
better to use enameled or bare copper wire permit satisfactory coupling.
for r -f leads and rely on spacing for insula-
Coil Placement For best Q a coil should be
tion. All r-f joints should be soldered, and
the joint should be a good mechanical junc- in the form of a solenoid with
tion before solder is applied. length from one to two times the diameter.
The efficiency and Q of air coils com- For minimum interstage coupling, coils
monly used in amateur equipment is a factor should be made as small physically as is
of the shape of the coil, the proximity of the practicable. The coils should then be placed
coil to other objects (including the coil so that adjoining coils are oriented for min-
form), and the material from which the coil imum mutual coupling. To determine if this
is made. Dielectric losses in so- called "air - condition exists, apply the following test:
wound " coils are low and the Q of such the axis of one of the two coils must lie
coils runs in the neighborhood of 300 to 500 in the plane formed by the center turn of
at medium frequencies. Unfortunately, most the other coil. If this condition is not met,
of the transmitting -type plug -in coils on the there will be appreciable coupling unless the
market designed for link coupling have far unshielded coils are very small in diameter
too small a pickup link for proper opera- or are spaced a considerable distance from
tion at 3.5 and 7 MHz. The coefficient of each other.
coupling of these coils is about 0.5, and ad- Insulation On frequencies above 7 MHz,
ditional means must be employed to provide ceramic, polystyrene, or Mycalex
satisfactory coupling at these low fre- insulation is to be recommended. Cold flow
quencies. Additional inductance in series must be considered when using polystyrene
with the pickup link, the whole being reso- (Amphenol 912, etc.). Bakelite has low losses
on the lower frequencies but should never be
used in the field of high- frequency tank cir-
24 cuits.
x
0
u
MIL Lucite (or Plexiglas), which is available
in rods, sheets, or tubing, is satisfactory for

Ii1Uiil. . E
:
use at all radio frequencies where the r -f
voltages are not especially high. It is very
easy to work with ordinary tools and is not

lasormon
Z o

expensive. The loss factor depends to a con-



siderable extent on the amount and kind of
plasticizer used.
o The most important thing to keep in mind
_
u .1
regarding insulation is that the best insula-
10 IS 20 as w tion is air. If it is necessary to reinforce air -
FREQUENCY MHz
wound coils to keep turns from vibrating or
Figure 9 touching, use strips of Lucite or polystyrene
cemented in place with Amphenol 912 coil
FREQUENCY- IMPEDANCE CHARACTERIS- dope. This will result in lower losses than
TICS FOR TYPICAL PIE -WOUND the commonly used celluloid ribs and Disco
R -F CHOKES cement.
364 Transmitter Design THE RADIO
of series resonance may easily be found by
shorting the terminals of the r -f choke in
question with a piece of wire and exploring
the windings of the choke with a grid -dip
oscillator. Most commercial transmitting -
type chokes have series resonances in the
vicinity of 11 or 24 MHz.
17 -4 Grounds
At frequencies of 30 MHz and below, a
chassis may be considered as a fixed ground
reference, since its dimensions are only a
fraction of a wavelength. As the frequency
is increased above 30 MHz, the chassis must
be considered as a conducting sheet on which
there are points of maximum current and
potential. However, for the lower amateur
frequencies, an object may be assumed to
be at ground potential when it is affixed to
Figure 10 the chassis.
In transmitter stages, two important cur-
GROUND LOOPS IN AMPLIFIER STAGES
rent loops exist. One loop consists of the grid
A. Using chassis return circuit and chassis return, and the other loop
B. Common ground point consists of the plate circuit and chassis re-
turn. These two loops are shown in figure
Radio-Frequency R -f chokes may be consid- 10A. It can be seen that the chassis forms a
Chokes ered to be special induct- return for both the grid and plate circuits,
ances designed to have a and that ground currents flow in the chassis
high value of impedance over a large range towards the cathode circuit of the stage. For
of frequencies. A practical r -f choke has in- some years the theory has been to separate
ductance, distributed capacitance, and resist- these ground currents from the chassis by
ance. At low frequencies, the distributed returning all ground leads to one point,
capacitance has little effect and the electrical usually the cathode of the tube for the stage
equivalent circuit of the r -f choke is as in question. This is well and good if the
shown in figure 8A. As the operating fre- ground leads are of minute length and do
quency of the choke is raised the effect of not introduce cross couplings between the
the distributed capacitance becomes more leads. Such a technique is illustrated in figure
evident until at some particular frequency IOB. wherein all stage components are
the distributed capacitance resonates with grounded to the cathode pin of the stage
the inductance of the choke and a parallel - socket. However, in transmitter construction
resonant circuit is formed. This point is the physical size of the components prevent
shown in figure 8B. As the frequency of such close grouping. It is necessary to spread
operating is further increased the over -all the components of such a stage over a fairly
reactance of the choke becomes capacitive, large area. In this case it is best to ground
and finally a point of series resonance is items directly to the chassis at the nearest
reached (figure 8C). This cycle repeats possible point, with short, direct grounding
itself as the operating frequency is raised leads. The ground currents will flow from
above the series -resonant point, the imped- these points through the low inductance
ance of the choke rapidly becoming lower on chassis to the cathode return of the stage.
each successive cycle. A chart of this action Components grounded on the top of the
is shown in figure 9. It can be seen that as chassis have their ground currents flow
the r -f choke approaches and leaves a condi- through holes to the cathode circuit which
tion of series resonance, the performance of is usually located on the bottom of the chas-
the choke is seriously impaired. The condition sis, since such currents travel on the surface
HANDBOOK Grounds 365

EXTERNAL FIELD
TINAN BOTTOM WITH
FLUTED EDGE PRESSED
AGAINST PANEL
RUBBER GROMMET HOLES FOR COAX IAL SOCKET
METER STUDS
METER NUT

00I CERAMIC
LEAD
RFC

001 CERAMIC GROUND CURRENTS IN SOX


ENTER
CONDUCTOR
ANEL
PANEL
METER
LEAD
- FLUTEDELECTRICAL MAKE
GOOD
EDGES TO
CON-
RIGHT
METER TACT WITH PANEL

Figure 11A
-OPEN- SOX
SIMPLE METER SHIELD
HOLE EXTERNAL
FIELD

of the chassis. The usual "top to bottom"


ground path is through the hole cut in the INTERNAL
CURRENTS
chassis for the tube socket. When the gain
per stage is relatively low, or there are only OEXELL IR lXL
CURRENTS

a small number of stages on a chassis this


WRONG
universal grounding system is ideal. It is
only in high gain stages (i -f strips) where Figure 11 B
the "gain per inch" is very high that circula-
ting ground currents will cause operational Usa of coaxial connocfors on oloctrkally tight
box p fs escape of ground c Ms from
instability. interior of box. At IM same time external
fields are not conducted into tbe interior of
Intercoupling of It is important to prevent the box.
Ground Currents intercoupling of various dif-
ferent ground currents when
properly screened. Perforated metal stock
the chassis is used as a common ground re-
having many small, closely spaced holes is the
turn. To keep this intercoupling at a mini-
best screening material. Copper wire screen
mum, the stage should be completely shield-
may be used provided the screen wires are
ed. This will prevent external fields from
bonded together every few inches. As the
generating spurious ground currents, and pre-
wire corrodes, an insulating film prevents
vent the ground currents of the stage from
upsetting the action of nearby stages. Since contact between the individual wires, and
the attenuation of the screening suffers. The
the ground currents travel on the surface of
screening material should be carefully
the metal, the stage should be enclosed in an
soldered to the box, or bolted with a spacing
electrically tight box. When this is done, all
of not less than two inches between bolts.
ground currents generated inside the box will
Mating surfaces of the box and the screening
remain in the box. The only possible means
should be clean.
of escape for fundamental and harmonic
A screened ventilation opening should be
currents are imperfections in this electrically
rughly three times the size of an equivalent
tight box. Whenever we bring a wire lead
into the box, make a ventilation hole, or unscreened opening, since the screening rep-
resents about a 70 percent coverage of the
bring a control shaft through the box we
area. Careful attention must be paid to
create an imperfection. It is important that
equipment heating when an electrically tight
the effect of these imperfections be reduced
box is used.
to a minimum.
Commercially available panels having
17 -5 Holes, Leads, and half -inch ventilating holes may be used as
Shafts part of the box. These holes have much less
attenuation than does screening, but will
Large size holes for ventilation may be put perform in a satisfactory manner in all but
in an electrically tight box provided they are the areas of weakest TV reception. If it is
366 Transmitter Design THE RADIO
shield may be made out of the end of a tin
FIELD STRENGTH
TEST
NO
IN LV SHIELDED OSCILLATOR or aluminum can of correct diameter, cut to

2
I 12000

10000
s.
yir-SMALL HOLE IN SHIELD
r
cl
' TO
osc.
fit the depth of the meter. This complete
shield assembly is shown in figure 11A.
3

s
630

00
Iso
11e
iCI
"-
RFC
C2
1172
Careful attention should be paid to leads
entering and leaving the electrically tight
box. Harmonic currents generated inside the
box can easily flow out of the box on power
'`I 2

7
70

140
1C1
CS
3MIt1
I

rFNCI
r* CIRI
C2
or control leads, or even on the outer shields
of coaxially shielded wires. Figure 11B illus-
trates the correct method of bringing
00 shielded cables into a box where it is desired
110 to preserve the continuity of the shielding.
CI RfC RFC
10 50
I

Unshielded leads entering the box must be


I 25
C4 RfC C4 RfC carefully filtered to prevent fundamental
3 wilt
2 and harmonic energy from escaping down

L----
I
I
I2 TRACE
C2_ the lead. Combinations of r -f chokes and low -
inductance bypass capacitors should be used
R -
1000 A CARSON C2 -.005 DISC CERAMIC
I

RTC- OHM ITE 2 -50 C3 - .01 SPRAGUE 1/11 -PASS


in power leads. If the current in the lead is
Cu - 75 CERAM IC
F EDTPF HROUGH
C4 - 4305 CERAMIC
FECDTHROUGH
high, the chokes must be wound of large -
gauge wire. Composition resistors may be
substituted for the r -f chokes in high -im-
Figure 12
pedance circuits. Bulkhead or feedthrough
LEAD LEAKAGE WITH VARIOUS type capacitors are preferable when passing
LEAD -FILTERING SYSTEMS a lead through a shield partition. A summary
of lead leakage with various filter arrange-
desired to reduce leakage from these panels ments is shown in figure 12.
to a minimum, the back of the grill must Internal Leads Leads
be covered with screening tightly bonded to
that connect two points
the panel. within an electrically tight
Doors may be placed in electrically tight box may pick up fundamental and harmonic
boxes provided there is no r -f leakage around currents if they are located in a strong field
the seams of the door. Electronic weather- of flux. Any lead forming a closed loop with
stripping or metal "finger stock" may be itself will pick up such currents, as shown
in figure 13. This effect is enhanced if the
used to seal these doors. A long, narrow slot
lead happens to be self -resonant at the fre-
in a closed box has the tendency to act as a
slot antenna and harmonic energy may pass
quency of the exciting energy. The solution
more readily through such an opening than
for all of this is to bypass all internal power
leads and control leads at each end, and to
it would through a much larger circular hole.
shield these leads their entire length. All
Variable- capacitor or switch shafts may
filament, bias, and meter leads should be so
act as antennas, picking up currents inside
treated. This will make the job of filtering
the box and re- radiating them outside of the
the leads as they leave the box much easier,
box. It is necessary either to ground the
since normally "cool" leads within the box
shaft securely as it leaves the box, or else to
will not have picked up spurious currents
make the shaft of some insulating material.
from nearby "hot" leads.
A two- or three -inch panel meter causes a
large leakage hole if it is mounted in the
wall of an electrically tight box. To mini- 17 -6 Parasitic Resonances
mize leakage, the meter leads should be by-
passed and shielded. The meter should be en- Filament leads within vacuum tubes may
cased in a metal shield that makes contact to resonate with the filament bypass capacitors
the box entirely around the meter. The con- at some particular frequency and cause in-
necting studs of the meter may project stability in an amplifier stage. Large tubes
through the back of the metal shield. Such a of the 810 and 250TH type are prone to this

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillations 367

Figure 13 the full tank circuit. The cure for such a


double resonance is the inclusion of an r -f
SHIELDED
COUPARTILNT
SHIELDED
COIIPARTUENT
choke in the center -tap lead to the split coil.

\j
RADIATION
FIELD \

ICKUP
LOOP
ywADIAT
LOOP
HOLE
I
RE- RADIATED
FIELD
WRONG
Chassis Material From a point of view of
electrical properties, alumi-
num is a poor chassis material. It is difficult
to make a soldered joint to it, and all grounds
must rely on a pressure joint. These pressure
^w,PAS3
GPACITOR j TBY
PASS
uMCITOR joints are prone to give trouble at a later
date because of high resistivity caused by
ILLUSTRATION OF HOW A SUPPOSEDLY the formation of oxides from electrolytic
GROUNDED POWER LEAD CAN COUPLE action in the joint. However, the ease of
ENERGY FROM ONE COMPARTMENT working and forming the aluminum material
TO ANOTHER far outweighs the electrical shortcomings,
and aluminum chassis and shielding may be
used with good results provided care is taken
hECTRICALLY TIGHT
UPARTNIENT
ELECTRICALLY TIGHT
COUPARIUE NT
in making all grounding connections. Cad-
mium and zinc plated chassis are preferable
RADIATION
FIELD \ BULKHEAD TYPE from a corrosion standpoint, but are much
(BYPASS CANCITOR
R IGHT more difficult to handle in the home work-
shop.
>P

T 17 -7 Parasitic Oscillation
in R -F Amplifiers
ILLUSTRATION OF LEAD ISOLATION BY
PROPER USE OF BULKHEAD BYPASS Parasitics (as distinguished from self -oscil-
CAPACITOR lation on the normal tuned frequency of the
amplifier) are undesirable oscillations either
spurious effect. In particular, a push -pull 810 of very-high or very-low frequencies which
amplifier using .001 -pfd filament bypass ca- may occur in radio- frequency amplifiers.
pacitors had a filament resonant loop that They may cause spurious signals (which
fell in the 7 -MHz amateur band. When the are often rough in tone) other than normal
amplifier was operated near this frequency harmonics, hash on each side of a modulated
marked instability was noted, and the fila- carrier, key clicks, voltage breakdown or flash-
ments of the 810 tubes increased in brilliance
when plate voltage was applied to the ampli-
fier, indicating the presence of r.f. in the
filament circuit. Changing the filament by-
pass capacitors to .01 fd lowered the fila-
ment resonance frequency to 2.2 MHz and
cured this effect. A ceramic capacitor of
.01 fd used as a filament bypass capacitor
on each filament leg seems to be satisfactory
from both a resonant and a TVI point of
view. Filament bypass capacitors smaller in
WRONG RIGHT
value than .01 fd should be used with
caution.
Various parasitic resonances are also Figure 14
found in plate and grid tank circuits. Push - DOUBLE RESONANCE EFFECTS IN PUSH -
pull tank circuits are prone to double reson- PULL TANK CIRCUIT MAY BE ELIMI-
ances, as shown in figure 14. The parasitic NATED BY THE INSERTION OF AN
resonance circuit is usually several MHz R -F CHOKE IN THE COIL CENTER

higher than the actual resonant frequency of TAP LEAD


368 Transmitter Design THE RADIO

L2

RFCi
RFC i: _ .RFCt GM()
fANM
F-3

R-F CIRCUIT PARASITIC CIRCUIT FOR CURE


LOW-FREQ. OSCILLATION

Figure 15

LOW- FREQUENCY PARASITIC SUPPRESSION


A- Low- Irequency parasitic circuit is formed by grid and plate r -I chokes and associated by-
pass capacitors, as shown at I. Fundamental -frequency tank circuits have little effect on
parasitic frequency. C- Parasitic circuits are "de -Q'ed" by addition of either series or parallel
resistance until circuit will not sustain oscillation.

over, instability or inefficiency, and short- Low-Frequency One type of unwanted


ened life or failure of the tubes. They may Parasitic Oscillations
oscillation often occurs
be damped and stop by themselves after key- in shunt -fed circuits in
ing or modulation peaks, or they may be which the grid and plate chokes resonate,
undamped and build up during ordinary coupled through the tube's interelectrode
unmodulated transmission, continuing if the capacitance. This also can happen with series
excitation is removed. They may result from feed. This oscillation is generally at a much
series- or parallel -resonant circuits of all lower frequency than the operating frequen-
types. Due to neutralizing lead length and cy and will cause additional carriers to ap-
the nature of most parasitic circuits, the pear, spaced from perhaps twenty to a few
amplifier usually is not neutralized for the hundred kHz on either side of the main
parasitic frequency. wave. Such a circuit is illustrated in figure
Sometimes the fact that the plate supply 15. In this case, RFC, and RFC.: form the
is keyed will obscure parasitic oscillations in grid and plate inductances of the parasitic
a final amplifier stage that might be very oscillator. The neutralizing capacitor, no
severe if the plate voltage were left on and longer providing out -of -phase feedback to
the excitation were keyed. the grid circuit, actually enhances the low -
In some cases, an all -wave receiver will frequency oscillation. Because of the low Q
prove helpful in locating vhf spurious oscil- of the r -f chokes, they will usually run
lations, but it may be necessary to check warm when this type of parasitic oscillation
from several hundred MHz downward in is present and may actually char and burn
frequency to the operating range. A normal up. A neon bulb held near the oscillatory
harmonic is weaker than the fundamental circuit will glow a bright yellow, the color
but of good tone; a strong harmonic or a appearing near the glass of the neon bulb
rough note at any frequency generally indi- and not between the electrodes.
cates a parasitic. One cure for this type of oscillation is to
In general, the cure for parasitic oscilla- change the type of choke in either the plate
tion is twofold: The oscillatory circuit is or the grid circuit. This is a marginal cure,
damped until sustained oscillation is impos- because the amplifier may again break into
sible, or it is detuned until oscillation ceases. the same type of oscillation when the plate
An examination of the various types of para- voltage is raised slightly. The best cure is to
sitic oscillations and of the parasitic oscilla- remove the grid r -f choke entirely and re-
tory circuits will prove handy in applying place it with a wirewound resistor of suffi-
the correct cure. cient wattage to carry the amplifier grid cur-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillations 369

rent. If the inclusion of such a resistor upsets It may be said in general that the presence
the operating bias of the stage, an r -f choke of low -frequency parasitics indicates that
may be used, with a 100 -ohm 2 -watt carbon somewhere in the oscillating circuit there is
resistor in series with the choke to lower the an impedance which is high at a frequency
operating Q of the choke. If this expedient in the upper-audio or low r -f range. This
does not eliminate the condition, and the impedance may include one or more r -f
stage under investigation uses a beam -tetrode chokes of the conventional variety, power
tube, negative resistance can exist in the supply chokes, modulation components, or
screen circuit of such tubes. Try larger and the high- impedance may be presented simply
smaller screen bypass capacitors to determine by an RC circuit such as might be found in
whether or not they have any effect. If the the screen -feed circuit of a beam -tetrode.
condition is coming from the screen circuit
an audio choke with a resistor across it in 17 -8 Elimination of VHF
series with the screen -feed lead will often
eliminate the trouble. Parasitic Oscillations
Low -frequency parasitic oscillations can
often take place in the audio system of an Vhf parasitic oscillations are often diffi-
a -m transmitter, and their presence will not cult to locate and difficult to eliminate since
be known until the transmitter is checked on their frequency often is only moderately
a receiver. It is easy to determine whether or above the desired frequency of operation.
not the oscillations are coming from the But it may be said that vhf parasitics al-
modulator simply by switching off the ways may be eliminated if the operating
modulator tubes. If the oscillations are com- frequency is appreciably below the upper
ing from the modulator, the stage in which frequency limit for the tubes used in the
they are being generated can be determined stage. However, the elimination of a persist-
by removing tubes successively, starting ent parasitic oscillation on a frequency only
with the first speech amplification stage, un- moderately higher than the desired operating
til the oscillation stops. When the stage has frequency will involve a sacrifice in either
been found, remedial steps can be taken on the power output or the power sensitivity of
that stage. the stage, or in both.
If the stage causing the oscillation is a Beam -tetrode stages, particularly those
low -level speech stage it is possible that the using 807 type tubes, will almost invariably
have one or more vhf parasitic oscillations
trouble is coming from r -f or power -supply
unless adequate precautions have been taken
feedback, or it may be coming about as a
in advance. Many of the units described in
result of inductive coupling between two the constructional section of this edition
transformers. If the oscillation is taking had parasitic oscillations when first con-
place in a high -level audio stage, it is pos- structed. But these oscillations were elimi-
sible that inductive or capacitive coupling is nated in each case; hence, the expedients used
taking place back to one of the low -level in these equipments should be studied. Vhf
speech stages. It is also possible, in certain parasitics may be readily identified, as they
cases, that parasitic push -pull oscillation can cause a neon lamp to have a purple glow
take place in a class -B or class-AB modulator close to the electrodes when it is excited by
as a result of the grid -to -plate capacitance the parasitic energy.
within the tubes and in the stage wiring. Parasitic Oscillations Triode stages are less
This condition is more likely to occur if with Triodes subject to parasitic os-
capacitors have been placed across the sec- cillations primarily be-
ondary of the driver transformer and across cause of the much lower power sensitivity of
the primary of the modulation transformer such tubes as compared to beam tetrodes.
to act in the reduction of the amplitude of But such oscillations can and do take place.
the higher audio frequencies. Relocation of Often, however, it is not necessary to in-
wiring or actual neutralization of the audio corporate suppressors as normally is the
stage in the manner used for r -f stages may case with beam tetrodes, unless the triodes
be required. are operated quite near to their upper fre-
370 Transmitter Design THE RADIO

Sometimes parasitic oscillations can be elimi-


nated by using iron or nichrome wire for the
neutralizing leads. But in any event it will
always be found best to make the neutraliz-
ing leads as short and of as heavy conductor
as ispracticable.
In cases where it has been found that in-
creased length in the grid leads for an ampli-
fier is required, this increased length can
PC' I T /I
E. ON /OOJL. EW
CARRON RESISTOR
often be wound into the form of a small
coil and still obtain the desired effect. Wind-
ing these small coils of iron or nichrome
Figure 16
wire may sometimes be of assistance.
To increase losses at the parasitic frequen-
GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSORS IN PUSH - cy, the parasitic coils may be wound on 100 -
PULL TRIODE STAGE ohm 2 -watt resistors. These "lossy" suppres-
sors should be placed in the grid leads of the
tubes close to the grid connection, as shown
quency limit, or the tubes are characterized in figure 16.
by a relatively high transconductance. Triode
vhf parasitic oscillations normally may be Porosities with Where beam -tetrode tubes are
eliminated by adjustment of the lengths and Beam Tetrodes used in the stage which has
effective inductance of the leads to the ele- been found to be generating
ments of the tubes. the parasitic oscillation, all the foregoing
In the case of triodes, vhf parasitic oscil- suggestions apply in general. However, there
lations often come about as a result of in- are certain additional considerations involved
ductance in the neutralizing leads. This is in elimination of parasitics from beam -tet-
particularly true in the case of push-pull rode amplifier stages. These considerations
amplifiers. The cure for this effect will involve the facts that a beam - tetrode ampli-
usually be found in reducing the length of fier stage has greater power sensitivity than
the neutralizing leads and increasing their an equivalent triode amplifier, such a stage
diameter. Both the reduction in length and has a certain amount of screen -lead induct-
increase in diameter will reduce the induct- ance which may give rise to trouble, and
ance of the leads and tend to raise the para- such stages have a small amount of feedback
sitic oscillation frequency until it is out of capacitance.
the range at which the tubes will oscillate. Beam - tetrode stages often will require the
The use of straightforward circuit design inclusion of a neutralizing circuit to elimi-
with short leads will assist in forestalling nate oscillation on the operating frequency.
this trouble at the outset. However, oscillation on the operating fre-
Vhf parasitic oscillations may take place
as a result of inadequate bypassing or long
bypass leads in the filament, grid -return, and
plate- return circuits. Such oscillations also
can take place when long leads exist between
the grids and the grid tuning capacitor or
between the plates and the plate tuning ca- z x RFC
pacitor. The grid and plate leads should be
kept short, but the leads from the tuning PC=ST.I/IE.ON
SEA,EW. CAR-
RON RESISTOR
capacitors to the tank coils can be of any RFCONr/TE 2-300R
reasonable length insofar as parasitic oscilla- EQUIVALENT

tions are concerned. In an amplifier where


oscillations have been traced to the grid or
Figure 17
plate leads, their elimination can often be
effected by making the grid leads much SCREEN PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIR-
longer than the plate leads or vice versa. CUIT FOR TETRODE TUBES
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillations 371

employ screen bypass capacitors whose d -c


working voltage is equal to twice the maxi-
mum applied screen voltage.
The grid- screen oscillations may occasion-
ally be eliminated through the use of a para-
sitic suppressor in series with the grid lead
of the tube. The screen -plate oscillations
may also be eliminated by inclusion of a
parasitic suppressor in series with the plate
lead of the tube. A suitable grid suppressor
may be made of a 22 -ohm 2 -watt Ohmite
or Allen- Bradley resistor wound with 8 turns
of no. 18 enameled wire. A plate- circuit sup-
pressor is more of a problem, since it must
dissipate a quantity of power that is depend-
ent on just how close the parasitic frequency
is to the operating frequency of the tube. If
the two frequencies are close, the suppressor
will absorb some of the fundamental plate -
circuit power. For kilowatt stages operating
no higher than 30 MHz a satisfactory plate -
circuit suppressor may be made of five 570 -
Figure 18 ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors in parallel,
PHOTO OF APPLICATION OF SCREEN shunted by 5 turns of no. 16 enameled wire,
PARASTIC SUPPRESSION CIRCUIT !'a inch diameter and %2 inch long (figure
OF FIGURE 17 19A and B) .
The parasitic suppressor for the plate cir-
quency normally is not called a parasitic cuit of a small tube such as the 5763, 2E26,
oscillation, and different measures are re- 807, 6146 or similar type normally may con-
quired to eliminate the condition. sist of a 47 -ohm carbon resistor of 2 -watt
Basically, parasitic oscillations in beam - size with 6 turns of no. 18 enameled wire
tetrode amplifier stages fall into two classes: wound around the resistor. However, for
cathode -grid- screen oscillations, and cathode - operation above 30 MHz, special tailoring of
screen -plate oscillations. Both these types of the value of the resistor and the size of the
oscillation can be eliminated through the use coil wound around it will be required in
of a parasitic suppressor in the lead between order to attain satisfactory parasitic suppres-
the screen terminal of the tube and the sion without excessive power loss in he
screen bypass suppressor, as shown in figure parasitic suppressor.
17. Such a suppressor has negligible effect
on the bypassing effect on the screen at the Tetrode Screening Isolation between the grid
operating frequency. The method of con- and plate circuits of a
necting this suppressor to tubes having dual tetrode tube is not perfect. For maximum
screen leads is shown in figure 18. At the stability, it is recommended that the tetrode
higher frequencies at which parasitics occur, stage be neutralized. Neutralization is abso-
the screen is no longer at ground potential. lutely necessary unless the grid and plate cir-
It is therefore necessary to include an r -f cuits of the tetrode stage are each completely
choke bypass capacitor filter in the screen isolated from each other in electrically tight
lead after the parasitic suppressor. The screen boxes. Even when this is done, the stage will
lead, in addition, should be shielded for best show signs of regeneration when the plate
results. and grid tank circuits are tuned to the same
During parasitic oscillations, considerable frequency. Neutralization will eliminate this
r -f voltage appears on the screen of a tetrode regeneration. Any of the neutralization cir-
tube, and the screen bypass capacitor can cuits described in the chapter Generation of
easily be damaged. It is best, therefore, to R -F Energy may be used.
372 Transmitter Design THE RADIO

PC

FOR 807, ETC.


PC= ar.e /IL ONI7A,,EW
COMPOSITION RESISTOR

FOR 4 -250A, ETC.


PC'3 -37o /, ZW COMPOSITION
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL WITH
ST /AE. I /I'
O/A.

Figure 19

PLATE AND GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSION IN TETRODE TUBES


RC -type parasitic chokes are placed in grid (A) or plate (8) lead of teMOde and pentode tubes
as shown above. Too few turns on the parasitic choke will not completely suppress the par-
asitic, whereas too many turns will permit the shunt resistor to absorb too much funda-
mental power. Five turns for the shunt coil will work well to 14MHz. For 21 and 28 MHz, the
shunt coil should be reduced to three turns.

17 -9 Checking for Parasitic creases during a period of parasitic oscilla-

Oscillations tion, the voltage drop across the lamp


increases, and the effective plate voltage
It is an unusual transmitter which har- drops. Bulbs of various sizes may be tried to
bors no parasitic oscillations when first con- adjust the voltage under testing conditions
structed and tested. Therefore it is always to the correct amount. If a Varias or Power -
wise to follow a definite procedure in check- slat is at hand, it may be used in place of
ing a new transmitter for parasitic oscilla- the bulbs for smoother voltage control.
tions. Don't test for parasitics unless some type of
Parasitic oscillations of all types are most voltage control is used on the high -voltage
easily found when the stage in question is supply! When a stage breaks into parasitic
running by itself, with full plate (and oscillations, the plate current increases vio-
screen) voltage, sufficient protective bias to lently and some protection to the tube
limit the plate current to a safe value, and under test must be used.
no excitation. One stage should be tested at 2. The r-f excitation to the tube should
a time, and the complete transmitter should now be removed. When this is done, the grid,
never be put on the air until all stages have screen, and plate currents of the tube should
been thoroughly checked for parasitics. drop to zero. Grid and plate tuning capaci-
To protect tetrode tubes during tests for
parasitics, the screen voltage should be ap-
plied through a series resistor which will AMPLIFIER STAGE
limit the screen current to a safe value in EXCITER TO BE TESTED
FOR PARASI TICS
DUMMY
case the plate voltage of the tetrode is sud- LOAD

denly removed when the screen supply is on.


The correct procedure for parasitic testing is E XC
L1
ITER CONTROL
SWITCH
as follows (figure 20) :
1. The stage in question should be coupled
to a dummy load, and tuned up in correct BIAS SUPPLY
HIGH-VOLTAGE
POWERSUPLY
d YARIAC OR
LIGHT BULBS
operating shape. Sufficient protective bias SUPPLY

should be applied to the tube at all times. For


protection of the stage under test, a lamp Figure 20
bulb should be added in series with one leg
of the primary circuit of the high voltage SUGGESTED TEST SETUP FOR PARASITIC
power supply. As the plate- supply load in- TESTS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillations 373

tors should be tuned to minimum capacity.


No change in resting grid, screen, or plate SIGNAL GENERATOR
current should be observed. If a parasitic is -
100 kHz 200 MHz

present, grid current will flow, and there will


be an abrupt increase in plate current. The
size of the lamp bulb in series with the high -
voltage supply may be varied until the stage
can oscillate continuously, without exceed-
ing the rated plate or screen dissipation of
the tube.
3. The frequency of the parasitic may
now be determined by means of an absorp- Figure 21
tion wavemeter, or a neon bulb. Low -fre- PARASITIC GAIN MEASUREMENT
quency oscillations will cause a neon bulb
to glow yellow. High- frequency oscillations Grid-dip oscillator and vacuum tube voltmeter
may bo used to measure parasitic stage gain
will cause the bulb to have a soft, violet over 1001(M- 200MHz region.
glow.
4. When the stage can pass the above test
with no signs of parasitics, the bias supply of troublesome oscillations showing up in pro-
the tube in question should be decreased duction units. The reason for this is that the
until the tube is dissipating its full plate equipment has a parasitic tendency that re-
rating when full plate voltage is applied, mains below the verge of oscillation until
with no r -f excitation. Excitation may now some change in a component, tube gain, or
be applied and the stage loaded to full input operating condition raises the gain of the
into a dummy load. The signal should now parasitic circuit enough to start oscillation.
be monitored in a nearby receiver which has In most high- frequency transmitters there
the antenna terminals grounded or otherwise are a great many resonances in the tank cir-
shorted out. A series of rapid dots should be cuits at frequencies other than the desired
sent, and the frequency spectrum for several operating frequency. Most of these parasitic
MHz each side of the carrier frequency care- resonant circuits are not coupled to the tube
and have no significant tendency to oscillate.
fully searched. If any vestige of parasitic is
A few, however, are coupled to the tube in
left, it will show up as an oscasional "pop" some form of oscillatory circuit. If the re-
on a keyed dot. This "pop" may be enhanced generation is great enough, oscillation at the
by a slight detuning of the grid or plate. parasitic frequency results. Those spurious
5. If such a parasitic shows up, it means circuits existing just below oscillation must
that the stage is still not stable, and further be found and suppressed to a safe level.
measures must be applied to the circuit. Par- One test method is to feed a signal from a
asitic suppressors may be needed in both grid -dip oscillator into the grid of a stage
screen and grid leads of a tetrode, or per- and measure the resulting signal level in the
haps in both grid and neutralizing leads of plate circuit of the stage, as shown in figure
a triode stage. As a last resort, a 10,000 -ohm 21. The test is made with all operating volt-
25-watt wirewound resistor may be shunted ages applied to the tubes. Class -C stages
across the grid coil, or grid tuning capacitor should have bias reduced so a reasonable
of a high powered stage. This strategy re- amount of static plate current flows. The
moved a keying "pop" that showed up in a grid -dip oscillator is tuned over the range of
commercial transmitter, operating at a plate 100 kHz to 200 MHz, the relative level of
voltage of 5000. the r -f voltmeter is watched, and the fre-
quencies at which voltage peaks occur are
Test for Parasitic It
is common experience noted. Each significant peak in voltage gain
Tcndency in Tetradsto develop an engineer- in the stage must be investigated. Circuit
Amplifiers ing model of a new changes or suppression must then be added
equipment that is ap- to reduce all peaks by 10 db or more in am-
parently free of parasitics and then find plitude.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Television and Broadcast


Interference

The problem of interference to television the emissions from an amateur transmitter.


reception is best approached by the philoso- These types of interference are:
phy discussed in Chapter Seventeen. By cor- 1. Overloading of the TV set by the
rect design procedure, spurious harmonic transmitter fundamental
generation in low- frequency transmitters 2. Impairment of the picture by spurious
may be held to a minimum. The remaining emissions
problem is twofold: to make sure that the 3. Impairment of the picture by the ra-
residual harmonics generated by the trans- diation of harmonics
mitter are not radiated, and to make sure
that the fundamental signal of the transmit- TV -Set Even if the amateur transmit -
ter does not overload the television receiver Overloading ter were perfect and had no
by reason of the proximity of one to the harmonic radiation or spurious
other. emissions whatever, it still would be likely to
In an area of high TV- signal field inten- cause overloading to TV sets whose antennas
sity the TVI problem is capable of complete were within a few hundred feet of the trans-
solution with routine measures both at the mitting antenna. This type of overloading is
amateur transmitter and at the affected re- essentially the same as the common type of
ceivers. But in fringe areas of low TV- signal BCI encountered when operating a medium -
field strength the complete elimination of power or high -power amateur transmitter
TVI is a difficult and challenging problem. within a few hundred feet of the normal
The fundamentals illustrated in Chapter broadcast receiver. The field intensity in
Seventeen must be closely followed, and ad- the immediate vicinity of the transmitting
ditional antenna filtering of the transmitter antenna is sufficiently high so that the ama-
is required. teur signal will get into the BC or TV set
either through overloading of the front end,
or through the i -f, video, or audio systems.
18 -1 Types of Television A characteristic of this type of interference
Interference is that it always will be eliminated when the
transmitter temporarily is operated into a
There are three main types of TVI which dummy antenna. Another characteristic of
may be caused singly or in combination by this type of overloading is that its effects

www.americanradiohistory.com
Types of TV I 375

SHORT
300-OHM TOINPUT 300 OHM LEADS
LINE FROM TERMINALS TO
LINE FROM ANTENNA
ANTENNA OF TV SET ANTENNA TERM ON
TV SET

pA FOR 300 -OHM LINE, SHIELDED OR UNSHIELDED

TO TV ANTENNA
COAX COAX
FITTING FITTING

TOANTENNA
TERMINALS
OF TV SET

FOR 50 -75 OHM COAXIAL LINE

Figure 1 Figure 2
TUNED TRAPS FOR THE TRANSMITTER HIGH -PASS TRANSMISSION LINE FILTERS
FUNDAMENTAL
The arrangement at A will stop the passing of
The arrangement at A has proven to be ef- all signals below about 45 MHz from the an-
fective in eliminating the condition of general tenna transmission line into the TV set. Coils
L, are each 1.2 microhenrys (17 turns No. 24
blocking as caused by a 28 -MHz transmitter in enam. closewound on 14 -inch dia. polystyrene
the vicinity of a TV receiver. The tuned circuits rod) with the center tap grounded. It will be
L C; are resonated separately to the fre- found best to scrape, twist, and solder the
quency of transmission. The adjustment may center tap before winding the coil. The number
be done at the station, or it may be accom- of turns each side of the tap may then be
plished at the TV receiver by tuning for mini- varied until the tap is in the exact center of
mum interference on the TV screen. Shown at the winding. Coil L. is 0.6 microhenry (72 turns
B is an alternative arrangement with a series - No. 24 enam. closewound on 14 -inch dia. poly-
tuned circuit across the antenna terminals of styrene rod). The capacitors should be about
the TV set. The tuned circuit should be reso- 16.5 pf, but either 15- or 20 -pf ceramic capaci-
nated to the operating frequency of the trans- tors will give satisfactory results. A similar
mitter. This arrangement gives less attenuation filter for coaxial antenna transmission line is
shown at B. Both coils should be 0.12 micro -
of the interfering signal than that at A; the henry (7 turns No. 18 enam. spaced to 7'2 inch
circuit has proven effective with interi on 14 -inch dia. polystyrene rod). Capacitors
from transmitters on the 50 -MHz band, and C, should be 75 -pf midget ceramics, while C
with low -power 28 -MHz transmitters. should be a 40-pf ceramic.

will be substantially continuous over the en- reception, work may then be begun on or in
tire frequency coverage of the BC or TV re- the vicinity of the transmitter toward elim-
ceiver. Channels 2 through 13 will be af- inating the other two types of interference.
fected in approximately the same manner.
With the overloading type of interference, Taking Out More or less standard BCI-
the problem is simply to keep the funda- the Fundamental type practice is most com-
mental of the transmitter out of the affected monly used in taking out
receiver. Other types of interference may or fundamental interference. Wavetraps and
may not show up when the fundamental is filters are installed, and the antenna system
taken out of the TV set (they probably will may or may not be modified so as to offer
appear), but at least the fundamental must less response to the signal from the amateur
be eliminated first. transmitter. In regard to a comparison be-
The elimination of the transmitter funda- tween wavetraps and filters, the same con-
mental from the TV set is normally the only siderations apply as have been effective in
operation performed on or in the vicinity of regard to BCI for many years; wavetraps are
the TV receiver. After the fundamental has quite effective when properly installed and
been eliminated as a source of interference to adjusted, but they must be readjusted when-
376 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

ever the band of operation is changed, or


even when moving from one extreme end of
a band to the other. Hence, wavetraps are
not recommended except when operation will
be confined to a relatively narrow portion of
one amateur band. However, figure 1 shows C3 c]
two of the most common signal -trapping
Figure 3
arrangements.
High -Pass Filters SERIES -DERIVED HIGH -PASS FILTER
High -pass filters in the an-
tenna lead of the TV set This filter for use in the 300 -ohm
is designed
transmission line from the TV antenna to the
have proven to be quite satisfactory as a TV receiver. Nominal cut -off frequency is 36
means of eliminating TVI of the overloading MHz and maximum rejection is at about 29
MHz.
type. In many cases when the interfering C,,C, -15 -pf zero-coefficient ceramic
transmitter is operated only on the bands C.,C,,C,,C 20
-pf zero-coefficient ceramic
below 7.3 MHz, the use of a high -pass filter L, L; -2.0 h. About 24 turns No. 28 d.c.c. wound
to s/e" on 1/4" diameter polystyrene rod. Turns
in the antenna lead has completely eliminated should be adjusted until the coil resonates to
all TVI. In some cases the installation of a 29 MHz with the associated 15 -pf capacitor.
L 0.66h. 14 turns No. 28 d.c.c. wound to s/s"
highpass filter in the antenna transmission on 1/4" dia. polystyrene rod. Adjust turns to
line and an a -c line filter of a standard resonate externally to 20 MHz with an auxili-
variety has proven to be completely effective ary 100 -pf capacitor whose value is accurately
known.
in eliminating the interference from a trans-
mitter operating in one of the lower -fre-
quency amateur bands. signal on the 50 -MHz band will ride through
In general, it is suggested that commer- with little attenuation. Also, the normal TV
cially manufactured high -pass filters be pur- antenna will have quite a large response to
chased. Such units are available from a num- a signal in the 50 -MHz band, since the lower
ber of manufacturers at a relatively moderate limit of channel 2 is 54 -MHz.
cost. However, such units may be home High -pass filters of the normal type sim-
constructed; suggested designs are given in ply are not capable of giving sufficient at-
figures 2 and 3. Types for use both with tenuation to a signal whose frequency is so
coaxial and with balanced transmission lines close to the necessary passband of the filter.
have been shown. In most cases the filters Hence, a resonant circuit element, as illus-
may be constructed in one of the small shield trated in figure 1, must be used to trap out
boxes which are on the market. Input and the amateur field at the input of the TV set.
output terminals may be standard connec- The trap must be tuned, or the section of
tors, or the inexpensive type of terminal transmission line cut, if a section of line is
strips usually used on BC and TV sets may to be used for a particular frequency in the
be employed. Coaxial terminals should of 50 -MHz band. This frequency will have to
course be employed when a coaxial feed line be near the lower frequency limit of the 50-
is used to the antenna. In any event, the MHz band to obtain adequate rejection of
leads from the filter box to the TV set the amateur signal while still not materially
should be very short, including both the an- affecting the response of the receiver to
tenna lead and the ground lead to the box channel 2.
itself. If the leads from the box to the set
Elimination of All spurious emissions
have much length, they may pick up enough
signal to nullify the effects of the high -pass
Spurious Emissions from amateur transmit-
filter. ters (ignoring harmonic
signals for the time being) must be elim-
Blocking from Operation on the 50 -Mc. inated to comply with FCC regulations. But
50 -MHz Signals amateur band in an area in the past many amateur transmitters have
where channel 2 is in use for emitted spurious signals as a result of key
TV imposes a special problem in the matter clicks, parasitics, and overmodulation trans-
of blocking. The input circuits of most TV ients. In most cases the operators of the
sets are sufficiently broad so that an amateur transmitters were not aware of these emis-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Harmonic Radiation 377

JW
2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH 6TH 7TH 8TH 9TH 10TH

zO Z
f- u.

7.0- 21 -21.9 42 -44 56 -58.4 63 -65.7 70 -73


7.3 TV I.F. TV I.F. CHANNEL CHANNEL CHANNEL
O O
14.0- 42 -43 56-57.6 70-72 84 -86.4 98 -100.8
14.35 TV I.F. CHANNEL CHANNEL CHANNEL F -M
0 o BROADCAST

21.0- 63 -64.35 84 -85.8 105- 107.25 189-193 210 -214.5


21.45 CHANNEL CHANNEL F -M CHANNELS CHANNEL
(TV I.F.) Qa BROADCAST (
28.0
29.7
- 56 -59.4
CHANNEL
84 -89.1
CHANNEL
168 -178.2 196 -207.9
CHANNEL CHANNELS
O O g 0g
50.0- 100 -108 200 -216 450- 486 500 -540
54.0 F -M CHANNELS POSSIBLE INTERFERENCE
BROADCAST u g (i? TO UHF CHANNELS

Figure 4

HARMONICS OF THE AMATEUR BANDS


Shown are the harmonic frequency ranges of the amateur bands between 7 and 54 MHz, with
the TV channels (and TV i -f systems) which are most likely to receive inter, from these
harmonics. Under certain conditions amateur signals in the 1.8- and 3.5 -MHz bands can
cause interference as a result of direct pickup in the video systems of TV receivers which are
not adequately shielded.

sions since they were radiated only for


a short First it is well to become familiar with the
distance and hence were not brought to his TV channels presently assigned, with the TV
attention. But with one or more TV sets in intermediate frequencies commonly used, and
the neighborhood it is probable that such with the channels which will receive inter-
spurious signals will be brought quickly to ference from harmonics of the various ama-
the attention of the operator. teur bands. Figures 4 and 5 give this infor-
mation.
18 -2 Harmonic Radiation Even a short inspection of figures 4 and S
will make obvious the seriousness of the in-
After any condition of blocking at the terference which can be caused by har-
TV receiver has been eliminated, and when monics of amateur signals in the higher fre-
the transmitter is completely free of trans- quency bands. With any sort of reasonable
ients and parasitic oscillations, it is probable precautions in the design and shielding of
that TVI will be eliminated in certain cases. the transmitter it is not likely that har-
Certainly general interference should be monics higher than the 6th will be en-
eliminated, particularly if the transmitter is countered. For this reason, the most fre-
a well -designed affair operated on one of the quently found offenders in the way of
lower frequency bands, and the station is in harmonic interference will almost invari-
a high -signal TV area. But when the trans- ably be those bands above 14 MHz.
mitter is to be operated on one of the higher
frequency bands, and particularly in a mar- Nature of Investigations into the
ginal TV area, the job of TVI- proofing will Harmonic Interference nature of the interfer-
just have begun. The elimination of har- ence caused by ama-
monic radiation from the transmitter is a teur signals on the TV screen, assuming that
difficult and tedious job which must be done blocking has been eliminated as described
in an orderly manner if completely satis- earlier in this chapter, have revealed the fol-
factory results are to be obtained. lowing facts:
I!j I\
378 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

VIDEO

54
t
I

!CHANNEL'

I
TV

O
SOI+ND

O

1

60
+
1

'CHANNEL

1
Tv

O
V

6e
I

I
J

I
I TV
'CHANNEL

I
O
F
I

72
I OTHER

LOW BAND
76
t
I
'CHANNEL

I
TV

O
I

e2
O

I
'CHANNEL

1
TV

O
IF
ee toe

VIDEO SOIIIND
N
V e .

N
I
I Tv

1

I
NJ
t
Tv
v
t.
I
N
1

i TV
1

I
1

I TV
I

I
t
I TV
I

I
.
I TV I
-. N

I TV

.
I

'CHANNEL'
1

CHANNEL CHANNEL ICHANNELI 'CHANNEL! 'CHANNEL' ICHANNELI


I

I
0 I

I
I
I
I
I
I

1
O I
I
1

I
@ I

1
I

1
11 I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
1.41 I
I

174 180 166 192 196 204 210 216

HIGH BAND

Flgur* 5
FREQUENCIES OF THE VHF TV CHANNELS
Showing the frequency ranges of TV channels 2 through 13, with the picture carrier and sound
carrier frequencies also shown.

1. An unmodulated carrier, such as a c -w measures have been taken, operate the trans-
signal with the key down or an a -m mitter on a frequency such that the interfer-
signal without modulation, will give a ing harmonic will fall as far as possible from
crosshatch or herringbone pattern on the picture carrier. The worst possible inter-
the TV screen. This same general type ference to the picture from a continuous car-
of picture also will occur in the case rier will be obtained when the interfering
of a narrow -band f -m signal either signal is very close in frequency to the video
with or without modulation. carrier.
2. A relatively strong a -m or SSB signal Isolating Throughout the testing pro-
will give in addition to the herringbone the Source of cedure it will be necessary to
a very serious succession of light and the Interference have some sort of indicating
dark bands across the TV picture. device as a means of deter-
3. A moderate strength c -w signal with-
mining harmonic field intensities. The best
out transients, in the absence of over- indicator for field intensities some distance
loading of the TV set, will result from the transmitting antenna will probably
merely in the turning on and off of be the TV receiver of some neighbor with
the herringbone on the picture. whom friendly relations are still maintained.
To discuss condition 1 above, the herring- This person will then be able to give a check,
bone is a result of the beat note between the occasionally, on the relative nature of the
TV video carrier and the amateur harmonic. interference. But it will probably be neces-
Hence the higher the beat note the less ob- sary to go periodically and personally check
vious will be the resulting crosshatch. Fur- the results obtained, since the neighbor
ther, it has been shown that a much stronger probably will not be able to give any sort
signal is required to produce a discernible of a quantitative analysis of the progress
herringbone when the interfering harmonic which has been made.
is as far away as possible from the video car- An additional device for checking relative-
rier, without running into the sound carrier. ly high field intensities in the vicinity of the
Thus, as a last resort, or to eliminate the last transmitter will be almost a necessity. A sim-
vestige of interference after all corrective ple crystal -diode wavemeter, shown in fig-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Low -Pass Filters 379

ure 6, will accomplish this function. Also, it one rated at a kilowatt is only a matter of
will be very helpful to have a receiver, with about 17 db. Yet the degree of harmonic at-
an S meter, capable of covering at least the tenuation required to eliminate interference
50- to 100 -MHz range and preferably the caused by harmonic radiation is from 80 to
range to 216 -MHz. This device may consist 120 db, depending on the TV signal strength
merely of a station receiver and a simple con- in the vicinity. This is not to say that it is
verter using the two halves of a 6J6 as not a simpler job to eliminate harmonic in-
oscillator and mixer. terference from a low -power transmitter
The first check can best be made with the than from a kilowatt equipment. It is simp-
neighbor who is receiving the most serious ler to suppress harmonic radiation from a
or the most general interference. Turn on the low -power transmitter simply because it is a
transmitter and check all channels to deter- much easier problem to shield a low -power
mine the extent of the interference and the unit, and the filters for the leads which enter
number of channels affected. Then discon- the transmitter enclosure may be constructed
nect the antenna and substitute a group of less expensively and smaller for a low -power
100 -watt lamps as a dummy load for the unit.
transmitter. Experience has shown that eight
100 -watt lamps series- connected in two 18 -3 Low -Pass Filters
groups of four in parallel will take the out-
put of a kilowatt transmitter on 28 MHz
if connections are made symmetrically to the After the transmitter has been shielded,
and all power leads have been filtered in such
group of lamps. Then note the interference.
a manner that the transmitter shielding has
Now remove plate voltage from the final
amplifier and determine the extent of inter- not been rendered ineffective, the only re-
ference caused by the exciter stages. maining available exit for harmonic energy
lies in the antenna transmission line. Hence
In the average case, when the final ampli-
fier is a beam -tetrode stage and the exciter is
the main burden of harmonic attenuation
will fall on the low -pass filter installed be-
relatively low powered and adequately shield-
tween the output of the transmitter and the
ed, it will be found that the interference
drops materially when the antenna is re-
antenna system.
moved and a dummy load substituted. It will Experience has shown that the low -pass
also be found in such an average case that
filter can best be installed externally to the
the interference will stop when the exciter main transmitter enclosure, and that the
transmission line from the transmitter to the
only is operating.
lowpass filter should be of the coaxial type.
Transmitter It should be made clear at this Hence the majority of low -pass filters are
Power Level point that the level of power designed for a characteristic impedance of 52
used at the transmitter is not of chms, so that RG -8 /U cable (or RG -58 /U
great significance in the basic harmonic re- for a small transmitter) may be used be-
duction problem. The difference in power tween the output of the transmitter and the
level between a 20 -watt transmitter and antenna transmission line or the antenna
tuner.
Transmitting -type low -pass filters for
10' PICKUP WIRE amateur use usually are designed in such a
manner as to pass frequencies up to about
sT.ISE. 30 MHz without attenuation. The nominal
QS' DIA., O.! LONG COYFAAiE S!-iI0MHz
1 N34 cutoff frequency of the filters is usually be-
I TURN tween 38 and 45 MHz, and m- derived sec-
o-I tions with maximum attenuation in channel
2 usually are included. Well- designed filters
capable of carrying any power level up to
one kilowatt are available commercially from
Figure 6 several manufacturers. Alternatively, filters
Crystal -diode wavemeter suitable for chocking in kit form are available from several manu-
high -intensity harmonics in TV region. facturers at a somewhat lower price. Effec-
380 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

Construction of Figures 7, 8, and 9 illustrate


Low -Pass Filters high - performance low - pass
filters which are suitable for
home construction. All are constructed in
slip -cover aluminum boxes (ICA No.
29110) with dimensions of 17 by 3 by 2%B
inches. Five aluminum baffle plates have been
installed in the chassis to make six shielded
sections within the enclosure. Feedthrough
bushings between the shielded sections are
Johnson No. 135-55.
Both the A and B filter types are designed
for a nominal cutoff frequency of 45 MHz,
with a frequency of maximum rejection at
about 57 MHz as established by the termi-
nating half- sections at each end. Characteris-
Figure 7 tic impedance is 52 ohms in all cases. The
alternative filter designs diagramed in fig-
LOW -PASS FILTER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS ure 7B have provision for an additional re-
The filter illustrated at A uses m- derived jection trap in the center of the filter unit
terminating half sections at each end, with which may be designed to offer maximum re-
three constant-k midsections. The filter at B is jection in channel 2, 4, 5, or 6, depending on
essentially the same except that the center
section has been changed to act as an m -de- which channel is likely to be received in the
rived section which can be designed to offer area in question. The only components which
maximum attenuation to channels 2, 4, 5, or
6 in accord with the constants given below.
must be changed when changing the fre-
Cutoff frequency is 45 MHz in all cases. All quency of the maximum rejection notch in
coils, except L in B above, are wound 12" i.d. the center of the filter unit are inductors L:,,
with 8 turns per inch.
The A Filter L,, and L.; and capacitor C3. A trimmer ca-
C , C -41.5 pf (40 pf will be found suitable.) pacitor has been included as a portion of C:,
C C , C -136 pf (130 to 140 pf may be used.)
so that the frequency of maximum rejection
,

L,, L -0.2 ph; 3t /2 t. No. 14


L,L- 0.3ph; 5f.No. 12 can be tuned accurately to the desired value.
L , L -0.37 ph; 61/2 t. No. 12 Reference to figure 4 and S will show the
The B Filter with midsection tuned to Channel
2 (58 MHz) amateur bands which are most likely to
CC -41.5 ,.fd cause interference to specific TV channels.
C,C -136pf
C -87 pf (50 pf fixed and 75 pf variable in
Either high-power or low -power compo-
parallel.) nents may be used in the filters diagramed
L, l -0.2 uh; 312 t. No. 14 in figure 7. With the small zero -coeffi-
L, L,L,L -0.3 ph; 5 t. No. 12
L -0.09 ph; 2 t. No. 14, 12 dia. by 14- long cient ceramic capacitors used in the filter
The B Filter with midsection tuned to Channel units of figure 7A or figure 7B, power levels
4 (71 MHz). All components same except that:
C -106 pf
up to 200 watts output may be used without
L , L -0.33 uh; 6 t. No. 12
L -0.05 :h; 1, 2 1. No. 14, 28" dia. by 28" long.
The B Filter with midsection tuned to Channel
5 (81 MHz). Change the following:
C -113 pf
L , L-0.34 ph; 6 t. No. 12
L -0.033 ph; t. No. 14, 28" dia.
1

The B Filter with midsection tuned to Channel


6 (86 MHz). All components are essentially the M 1

same except that the theoretical value of L


is changed to 0.03 ,.h, and the capacitance of
C, is changed to i 17 pf.

tive filters may be home constructed, if the Figure 8


test equipment is available and if sufficient
care is taken in the construction of the as- PHOTOGRAPH OF THE B FILTER WITH
sembly. THE COVER IN PLACE

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Low -Pass Filters 381

Figure 9
PHOTOGRAPH OF THE B FILTER WITH COVER REMOVED
The midsection in this filter adjusted for maximum rejection of channel 4. Note that the
is
main coils of the filter are mounted at on angle of about 45 degrees so that there will be
minimum inductive coupling from one section to the next through the holes in the aluminum
partitions. Mounting the coils in this manner was found to give a measurable improvement
in the attenuation characteristics of the filter.

danger of damage to the capacitors, provided portion of C;, can be tuned until resonance at
the filter is feeding a 52 -ohm resistive load. the correct frequency has been obtained.
It may be practical to use higher levels of Note that there is so little difference between
power with this type of ceramic capacitor in the constants of this intermediate section for
the filter, but at a power level of 200 watts channels 5 and 6 that variation in the setting
on the 28 -MHz band the capacitors run just of C:, will tune to either channel without
perceptibly warm to the touch. As a point materially changing the operation of the
of interest, it is the current rating which is filter.
of significance in the capacitors used in filters The coils in the intermediate sections of
such as illustrated. Since current ratings for the filter (L_, L3, La, and L, in figure 7A,
small capacitors such as these are not readily and L2, L;,, L,, and L,; in figure 7B) may be
available, it is not possible to establish an checked most conveniently outside the filter
accurate power rating for such a unit. The unit with the aid of a small ceramic capaci-
high -power unit illustrated in figure 9, tor of known value and a grid -dip meter.
which uses Centralab type 850S and 854S The ceramic capacitor is paralleled across the
capacitors, has proven quite suitable for small coil with the shortest possible leads.
power levels up to one kilowatt. Then the assembly is placed on a cardboard
Capacitors C,, C_, C1, and C7 can be box and the resonant frequency checked with
standard manufactured units with normal 5 a grid -dip meter. A reactance slide rule may
percent tolerance. The coils for the end sec- be used to ascertain the correct resonant fre-
tions can be wound to the dimensions given quency for the desired LC combination and
L,,, and L,) . Then the resonant fre- the coil altered until the desired resonant fre-
quency of the series -resonant end sections quency is attained. The coil may then be in-
should be checked with a grid -dip meter, stalled in the filter unit, making sure that
after the adjacent input or output terminal it is not squeezed or compressed as it is being
has been shorted with a very short lead. The installed. However, if the coils are wound ex-
coils should be squeezed or spread until actly as given under figure 7, the filter may
resonance occurs at 57 MHz. be assembled with reasonable assurance that
The intermediate m- derived section in the it will operate as designed.
filter of figure 7B may also be checked with
a grid -dip meter for resonance at the cor- Using Low -Pass The low -pass filter con -
rect rejection frequency, after the hot end Filters netted in the output trans-
of L, has been temporarily grounded with a mission line of the transmit-
low- inductance lead. The variable -capacitor ter is capable of affording an enormous de-
382 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO
been discussed in the previous section. Sec-
ondly, the filter must be operated into a load
impedance approximately equal to its design
characteristic impedance. The filter itself
will have very low losses (usually less than
0.5 db) when operated into its nominal
value of resistive load. But if the filter is
Figure 10 not terminated correctly, its losses will be-
come excessive, and it will not present the
SCHEMATIC OF THE SINGLE -SECTION correct value of load impedance to the trans-
HALF -WAVE FILTER mitter.
The constants given below are for a character- If a filter, being fed from a high-power
istic impedance of 52 ohms, for use with transmitter, is operated into an incorrect ter-
RG -8 /U and RG -58 /U cable. Coil L, should be
checked for resonance at the operating fre- mination it may be damaged; the coils may
quncy with C,, and the same with L, and C. be overheated and the capacitors destroyed
This check can be made by soldering a low -
inductance grounding strap to the lead be- as a result of excessive r-f currents. Hence
tween L, and L, where it posses through the it is wise when first installing a low -pass
shield. When the coils have been trimmed to filter, to check the standing -wave ratio of
resonance with a grid -dip meter, the ground-
ing strap should of course be removed. This the load being presented to the output of the
filter type will give an attenuation of about
30 db to the second harmonic, about 48 db to
the third, about 60 db to the fourth, 67 to the FROM TRANS. TO RECEIVER
fifth, etc., increasing at a rate of about 30 db
per octave.
C,, C, C , C,- Silver mica or small ceramic for Rr
low power, transmitting type ceramic for L l! La L4
MI T vvv AN,

r
high power. Capacitance for cliff
given below.
t bands is
5o
C
TLx
100 60 60
I 1 60
Ls
203MH
MHZ
160 meters -1700
80 meters- 850
40 meters- 440
pf
pf
pf
ca c
PF f a E
T60
TT C 6 2114 PF

20 meters- 220 pf
10 meters- 110 pf 30
6 meters- 60 pf m
O 40
L -May made up of sections of 8&W
be z
Miniductor for power levels below 250 watts, o 50
or of No. 12 enam. for power up to one kilo-
watt. Approximate dimensions for the coils are so
g iven below, but the coils should be trimmed z
w
te resonate at the proper freq y with a f- 70
g rid -dip meter as discussed above All coils
except the ones for 160 meters are wound 8 eo
t per inch. loo 150 200 250 300 400
160 meters -4.2 ph; 22 turns No. 16 enam. 1" F (MHZ)
dia. 2" long
80 meters -2.1 ph; 13 t. dia. (No. 3014 Mini -
1 Figure 11
ductor or No. 12)
40 meters -1.1 ph; 8 t. 1" dia. (No. 3014 or No. SIX METER TVI FILTER
12 at 8 t.p.i.)
20 meters -0.55 ph; 7 t. 3/4" dia. (No. 3010 or C, -50 -pf Centralab 8505 -50Z. Resonates with
No. 12 at 8 t.p.I.) L, to 200 MHz.
10 meters-0.3 ph; 6 t. !_" dia. (No. 3002 or C,, C -4-pf piston capacitor. HD type 1/C -40.
No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.) C , C ,C C, -60 pf. Three 20 -pf capacitors
. in
6 meters -0.17 ph; 4 t. '2" dia. (No. 3002 or parallel. Centralab 853A -20Z.
No. 12 at 8 t.p.i.) I.,-Copper strap, I/2" wide, 21/4" long, 1,4"
between mounting holes, approximately 0.01"
thick. Strap is bent in U -shape around capaci-
gree of harmonic attenuation. However, the tor and bolted to capacitor terminals.
L. -11 turns # 18 enam. wire, 1/4" diameter,
filter must be operated in the correct manner 1/4" long, airwound. Resonates to 100 MHz with
or the results obtained will not be up to ex- capacitor C..
L., 1, -3 turns 3/16" tubing, 11/4" i.d., spaced
pectations. to occupy about 21/7 ". Turns are adjusted to
In the first place, all direct radiation from resonate each section at 50 MHz.
L -6 turns #18 enom. wire, 1/4" diameter,
the transmitter and its control and power 5/6" long, oirwound. Resonates to 200 MHz
leads must be suppressed. This subject has with capacitor C..

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Low -Pass Filters 383

Figure 12

INTERIOR VIEW OF SIX -METER FILTER


The input compartment of the filter is at the left. The series coil is wound of copper tubing,
and the connection to the output section (right) is made by a length of tubing which passes
through a hole in the center shield. Series elements carry less current and employ wirewound
coils. At right is antenna relay, with power leads bypassed as they leave filter compartment.
Filter is set to correct frequency by adjusting the inductance of the tubing coils.

filter with a standing -wave meter of any of ment in series with the input is tuned to
the conventional types. Then the antenna 200 MHz to provide additional protection
termination or the antenna coupling should to television channels 11, 12, and 13.
be adjusted, with low power on the transmit- The filter (figure 12) is built in an alumi-
ter, until the s.w.r. of the load being pre- num box measuring 4" x 4" x 10" and uses
sented to the filter is less than 2.0, and pre- type -N coaxial fittings. The half -wave filter
ferably below 1.5. coils are wound of 3/16 -inch diameter cop-
Half -Wave Filters A half -wave filter is an per tubing and have large copper lugs sol-
effective device for TVI dered to the ends. The 60 -pf capacitors are
suppression and is easily built. It offers the made up of three 20 -pf, Sky ceramic units
advantage of presenting the same value of in parallel. A small sheet of copper is cut in
impedance at the input terminal as appears triangular shape and joins the capacitor
as a load across the output terminal. The terminals and a coil lug is attached to the
filter is a single -band unit, offering high at- center of the triangle with heavy brass bolts.
tenuation to the second- and higher -order The parallel -tuned 200 -MHz series filter
harmonics. Design data for high- frequency element at the input terminal is made of a
half -wave filters is given in figure 10. length of copper strap shunted across a 50-
pf, Sky ceramic capacitor. In this particular
A High -Power The second and higher har- filter, the parallel circuit was affixed to the
Filter for monics of a six -meter trans- output capacitor of the pi- network tank cir-
Six Meters mitter fall directly into the cuit of the transmitter and does not show in
f -m and uhf and vhf tele- the photograph.
vision bands. An effective low -pass filter is The filter is adjusted by removing the
required to adequately suppress unwanted connections from the ends of the half -wave
transmitter emissions falling in these bands. sections and adjusting each section to 50
Described in this section is a six -meter TVI MHz by spreading the turns of the coil with
filter rated at the two -kilowatt level which a screwdriver while monitoring the resonant
provides better than 75 decibels suppression frequency with a grid -dip oscillator. The
of the second harmonic and better than 60 next step is to ground the top end of each
decibels suppression of higher harmonics of series -tuned section (C,, L, and C;, L5) with
a six -meter transmitter (figure 11) . The a heavy strap. The input section is tuned to
unit is composed of a halfwave filter with 100 MHz and the output section to 200
added end sections which are tuned to 100 MHz. When tuning adjustments are com-
MHz and 200 MHz. An auxiliary filter ele- pleted, the straps are removed and the top
384 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

of the filter box is held in place with sheet - result in much less interference to broadcast
metal screws. reception than either amplitude- modulated
telephony, SSB, or straight keyed c.w. This is
true because, insofar as the broadcast receiver
18 -4 Broadcast is concerned, the amateur f -m transmission
Interference will consist of a plain unmodulated carrier.
There will be no key clicks or voice reception
Interference to the reception of signals in picked up by the broadcast set (unless it
the broadcast band (540 to 1600 kHz) or in happens to be an f -m receiver which might
the f -m broadcast band (88 to 108 MHz) pick up a harmonic of the signal), although
by amateur transmissions is a serious mat- there might be a slight click when the trans-
ter to those amateurs living in densely popu- mitter is put on or taken off the air.
lated areas. Although broadcast interference
Interference Depending on whether it is
has recently been overshadowed by the
Classifications traceable directly to causes
seriousness of television interference, the con-
dition of BCI is still present. within the station or within
In general, signals from a transmitter the receiver, broadcast interference may be
operating properly are not picked up by re- divided into two main classes. For example,
ceivers tuned to other frequencies unless the that type of interference due to transmitter
receiver is of inferior design, or is in poor overmodulation is at once listed as being
condition. Therefore, if the receiver is of caused by improper operation, while an inter-
good design and is in good repair, the burden fering signal that tunes in and out with a
of rectifying the trouble rests with the broadcast station is probably an indication of
cross modulation or image response in the re-
owner of the interfering station. Phone and
c -w stations both are capable of causing
ceiver, and the poorly designed input stage
broadcast interference, key -click annoyance of the receiver is held liable. The various
from the code transmitters being particularly types of interference and recommended cures
objectionable. will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
A knowledge of each of the several types Blanketing This is not a tunable effect, but
of broadcast interference, their cause, and atotal blocking of the receiver.
methods of eliminating them is necessary A more or less complete "washout" covers
for the successful disposition of this trouble. the entire receiver range when the carrier is
An effective method of combating one vari- switched on. This produces either a com-
ety of interference is often of no value plete blotting out of all broadcast stations,
whatever in the correction of another type. or else knocks down their volume several
Broadcast interference seldom can be cured decibels-depending on the severity of the
by "rule -of- thumb" procedure. interference. Voice modulation of the carrier
Broadcast interference, as covered in this causing the blanketing will be highly dis-
section refers primarily to standard (ampli- torted or even unintelligible. Keying of the
tude- modulated, 550 -1600 kHz) broadcast. carrier which produces the blanketing will
Interference with f -m broadcast reception is cause an annoying fluctuation in the volume
much less common, due to the wide separa- of the broadcast signals.
tion in frequency between the f -m broad- Blanketing generally occurs in the imme-
cast band and the more popular amateur diate neighborhood (inductive field) of a
bands, and due also to the limiting action powerful transmitter, the affected area being
which exists in all types of f -m receivers. directly proportional to the power of the
Occasional interference with f -m broadcast transmitter. Also it is more prevalent with
by a harmonic of an amateur transmitter has transmitters which operate in the 160 -meter
been reported; if this condition is encount- and 80 -meter bands, as compared to those on
ered, it may be eliminated by the procedures the higher frequencies.
discussed in the first portion of this chapter The remedies are to (1) shorten the re-
under Television Interference. ceiving antenna and thereby shift its reso-
The use of frequency -modulation trans- nant frequency, (2) remove it to the interior
mission by an amateur station is likely to of the building, (3) change the direction of

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Broadcast Interference 385

1.8 MHz 1 inch No. 30 enam. 75-pf var.


closewound on 1" form
3.5 MHz 42 turns No. 30 enam. 50-pf var.
dosewound on 1" form
7.0 MHz 23 turns No. 24 enam. 30 -pf var.
dasewound on 1" form
14 MHz 10 turns No. 24 enam. 30 -pf vor.
closewound on 1" form
21 MHz 7 turns No. 24 enam. 30 -pf var.
closewound on 1" form
28 MHz 4 turns No. 24 enam. 25-pf var.
closewound on 1" form
50 MHz 3 turns No. 24 enam. 25-pf var.
spaced 1/2" on 1" form

Figure 13
Figure 14
HIGH -ATTENUATION WAVETRAP
COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE FOR
CIRCUIT
AMATEUR -BAND WAVETRAPS
The two circuits may be tuned to the same fre-
quency for highest attenuation of a strong
signal, or the two traps may be tuned sep- frequency range and must be readjusted for
arately for different bands of operation.
other frequencies.
The wavetrap must be installed as close
either the receiving or transmitting antenna to the receiver antenna terminal as practica-
to minimize their mutual coupling, or, (4) ble, hence it should be as small in size as
keep the interfering signal from entering the possible. The variable capacitor may be a
receiver input circuit by installing a wave - midget air -tuned trimmer type, and the coil
trap tuned to the signal frequency (see fig- may be wound on a 1 -inch dia. form. The
ure 12) or a low -pass filter as shown in fig- table of figure 14 gives winding data for
ure 21. wavetraps built around standard variable
A suitable wavetrap is quite simple in con- capacitors. For best results, both a shunt and
struction, consisting only of a coil and mid- a series trap should be employed as shown.
get variable capacitor. When the trap circuit Figure 11 shows a two -circuit coupled
is tuned to the frequency of the interfering wavetrap which is somewhat sharper in tun-
signal, little of the interfering voltage ing and more efficient. The specifications for
reaches the grid of the first tube. Commer- the secondary coil (L1) may be obtained
cially manufactured wavetraps are available from the table of figure 14. The primary coil
from several concerns, including the J. W.
Miller Co. in Los Angeles. However, the
majority of amateurs prefer to construct the
traps from spare components selected from
the junk box.
The circuit shown in figure 13 is particu-
larly effective because it consists of two
traps. The shunt trap blocks or rejects the
frequency to which it is tuned, while the
series trap across the antenna and ground
terminals of the receiver provides a very -
low- impedance path to ground at the fre-
quency to which it is tuned and bypasses the
signal to ground. In moderate interference Figuro 15
cases, either the shunt or series trap may be
MODIFICATION OF THE FIGURE 13
used alone, while similarly, one trap may be
CIRCUIT
tuned to one of the frequencies of the inter-
fering transmitter and the other trap to a In this circuit arrangement the parallel -tuned
different interfering frequency. In either tank is inductively coupled to the antenna
lead with a 3 to 6 turn link instead of being
case, each trap is effective over but a small placed directly in series with the antenna lead.
386 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

able -s tube is used in the input stage of the


CAPACITIVE receiver.
COUPLING LOOP
Where the receiver does not incorporate
such a tube, and is probably poorly shielded
at the same time, it will be better to attach
a wavetrap of the type shown in figure 12
rather than to attempt rebuilding the re-
ceiver. The addition of a good ground and a
shield can over the input tube often adds to
AVC
the effectiveness of the wavetrap.
Figure 16 Transmission via A small amount of ca-
Capacitive Coupling pacitive coupling is now
CAPACITIVE BOOST COUPLING
widely used in receiver
CIRCUIT
r -f and antenna transformers as a gain
Such circuits, included within the broadcast booster at the high- frequency end of the
receiver to bring up the stags gain at the tuning range. The coupling capacitance is
high -frequency end of the tuning range, hove
a tendency to increase the susceptibility of obtained by means of a small loop of wire
the receiver to interference from amateur - cemented close to the grid end of the second-
band transmissions. ary winding, with one end directly con-
nected to the plate or antenna end of the
of the shunt trap consists of 3 to 6 close - primary winding. (See figure 16.)
wound turns of the same size wire wound in
It is easily seen that a small capacitor at
the same direction on the same form as L, this position will favor the coupling of the
higher frequencies. This type of capacitive
and separated from the latter by %s inch.
coupling in the receiver coils will tend to
pass amateur high- frequency signals into a
Overmodulation A carrier modulated in excess receiver tuned to broadcast frequencies.
of 100 percent acquires sharp The amount of capacitive coupling may be
cutoff periods which give rise to transients. reduced to eliminate interference by moving
These transients create a broad signal and the coupling turn further away from the sec-
generate spurious responses. Transients caused ondary coil. However, a simple wavetrap of
by overmodulation of a radiotelephone signal the type shown in figure 12, inserted at the
may at the same time bring about impact or antenna input terminal, will generally ac-
shock excitation of nearby receiving antennas complish the same result and is more to be
and power lines, generating interfering sig- recommended than reducing the amount of
nals in that manner. capacitive coupling (which lowers the re-
Broadcast interference due to overmodula- ceiver gain at the high- frequency end of the
tion is frequently encountered. The remedy broadcast band). Should the wavetrap alone
is to reduce the modulation percentage or to not suffice, it will be necessary to resort to a
use a clipper -filter system or a high -level reduction in the coupling capacitance.
splatter suppressor in the speech circuit of In some simple broadcast receivers, capaci-
the transmitter. tive coupling is obtained by closely coupled
primary and secondary coils, or as a result of
Cross Cross modulation or crosstalk is running a long primary or antenna lead close
Modulation characterized by the amateur to the secondary coil of an unshielded anten-
signal riding in on top of a na coupler.
strong broadcast signal. There is usually no
heterodyne note, the amateur signal being Phantoms With two strong local carriers
tuned in and out with the program carriers. applied to a nonlinear imped-
This effect is due frequently to a faulty ance, the beat note resulting from cross
input stage in the affected receiver. Modulat- modulation between them may fall on some
tion of the interfering carrier will swing the frequency within the broadcast band and
operating point of the input tube. This type will be audible at that point. If such a
of trouble is seldom experienced when a vari- "phantom" signal falls on a local broadcast

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN D BO O K Broadcast Interference 387

frequency, there will be heterodyne interfer- If the mixing or rectification is taking


ence as well. This is a common occurrence place in the receiver itself, a phantom signal
with broadcast receivers in the neighborhood may be eliminated by removing either one of
of two amateur stations, or an amateur and the contributing signals from the receiver
a police station. It also sometimes occurs input circuit. A wavetrap of the type shown
when only one of the stations is located in in figure 12, tuned to either signal, will do
the immediate vicinity. the trick. If the rectification is taking place
As an example: an amateur signal on 3514 outside the receiver, the wavetrap should be
kHz might beat with a local 2414 kHz tuned to the frequency of the phantom, in-
police carrier to produce a 1100 -kHz phan- stead of to one of its components. I -f wave -
tom. If the two carriers are strong enough traps may be built around a 2.5-millihenry
in the vicinity of a circuit which can cause r -f choke as the inductor, and a compres-
rectification, the 1100 -kHz phantom will be sion -type mica padding capacitor. The ca-
heard in the broadcast band. A poor contact pacitor should have a capacitance range of
between two oxidized wires can produce 250 -525 pf for the 175- and 260 -kHz inter-
rectification. mediate frequencies; 65 -175 pf for 260 kHz
Two stations must be transmitting simul- and other intermediates lying between 250
taneously to produce a phantom signal; when and 400 -kHz; and 17 -80 pf for 456, 465,
either station goes off the air the phantom 495, and 500 kHz. Slightly more capacitance
disappears. Hence, this type of interference will be required for resonance with a 2.1
is apt to be reported as highly intermittent millihenry choke.
and might be difficult to duplicate unless a
test oscillator is used "on location" to simul- Spurious This sort of interference arises
late the missing station. Such interference Emissions from the transmitter itself. The
cannot be remedied at the transmitter, and radiation of any signal (other than
often the rectification takes place some dis- the intended carrier frequency) by an ama-
tance from the receivers. In such occurrences teur station is prohibited by FCC regulations.
it is most difficult to locate the source of the Spurious radiation may be traced to imper-
trouble. fect neutralization, parasitic oscillations in
It will also be apparent that a phantom the r-f or modulator stages, or to "broad-
might fall on the intermediate frequency of cast- band" variable- frequency oscillators or
a simple superhet receiver and cause inter- e.c.o.'s.
ference of the untunable variety if the man- Low -frequency parasitics may actually oc-
ufacturer has not provided an i -f wavetrap cur on broadcast frequencies or their near
in the antenna circuit. subharmonics, causing direct interference to
This particular type of phantom may, in programs. An all -wave monitor operated in
addition to causing i -f interference, generate the vicinity of the transmitter will detect
harmonics which may be tuned in and out these spurious signals.
with heterodyne whistles from one end of The remedy will be obvious in individual
the receiver dial to the other. It is in this cases. Elsewhere in this book are discussed
manner that birdies often result from the methods of complete neutralization and the
operation of nearby amateur stations. suppression of parasitic oscillations in r -f
When one component of a phantom is a and audio stages.
steady unmodulated carrier, only the intelli- A -c /d-c Receivers Inexpensive table - model
gence presence on the other carrier is con - a -c /d -c receivers are par-
. eyed to the broadcast receiver. ticularly susceptible to interference from
Phantom signals almost always may be amateur transmissions. In fact, it may be
identified by the suddenness with which they said with a fair degree of assurance that the
are interrupted, signaling withdrawal of majority of BCI encountered by amateurs
one party of the union. This is especially operating in the 1.8- to 29 -MHz range is a
baffling to the inexperienced interference result of these inexpensive receivers. In most
:ocater, who observes that the interference cases the receivers are at fault; but this does
suddenly dissapears, even though his own not absolve the amateur of his responsibility
transmitter remains in operation. in attempting to eliminate the interference.
388 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO

Stray Receiver In most cases of interference In many a -c /d -c receivers there is no r -f


Rectification to inexpensive receivers, par- bypass included across the plate- supply recti-
ticularly those of the a -c 'd -c fier for the set. If there is an appreciable
type, it will be found that stray receiver level of r -f signal on the power line feeding
rectification is causing the trouble. The of- the receiver, r -f rectification in the power
fending stage usually will be found to be a rectifier of the receiver can cause a particu-
high -p triode as the first audio stage follow- larly bad type of interference which may be
ing the second detector. Tubes of this type received on other broadcast receivers in the
are quite nonlinear in their grid character- vicinity in addition to the one causing the
istic, and hence will readily rectify any r -f rectification. The soldering of a 0.01 -pfd
signal appearing between grid and cathode. disc ceramic capacitor directly from anode
The r -f signal may get to the tube as a result to cathode of the power rectifier (whether it
of direct signal pickup due to the lack of is of the vacuum -tube or silicon- rectifier
shielding, but more commonly will be fed type) usually will bypass the r -f signal across
to the tube from the power line as a result the rectifier and thus eliminate the difficulty.
of the series heater string. "Floating" Volume- Several sets have been
The remedy for this condition is simply to Control Shafts encountered where there
ensure that the cathode and grid of the was only a slight in-
high -p audio tube (usually a 6AV6 or equiv-
terfering signal; but, on placing one's hand
alent) are at the same r -f potential. This is
to the volume control, the signal would
accomplished by placing an r -f bypass capac-
greatly increase. Investigation revealed that
itor with the shortest possible leads directly
the volume control was installed with its
from grid to cathode, and then adding an
shaft insulated from ground. The control
impedance in the lead from the volume con-
itself was connected to a critical part of a
trol to the grid of the audio tube. The
circuit, in many instances to the grid of a
impedance may be an amateur band r -f
high -gain audio stage. The cure is to install
choke (such as a National R -100U) for best
a volume control with all the terminals in-
results, but for a majority of cases it will
sulated from the shaft, and then to ground
be found that a 47,000 -ohm V2 -watt resistor
the shaft.
in series with this lead will give satisfactory
operation. Suitable circuits for such an oper-
RAND COIL, I. CAPACITOR, C
ation on the receiver are given in figure 17.
17 turns
3.5 MHz No. 14 enameled 100 -pf ver.
3 -inch diameter
HIGH -u TUBE 21/4-inch length
SUCH AS 6AV6
11 turns
7.0 MHz No. 14 enameled 100 -pf vor.
TO VOLUME 21 -inch diameter
CONTROL 11/2-inch length
4 turns
14 and No. 10 enameled 100 -pf ver.
21 MHz 3 -inch diameter
1t/einch length
3 turns
t/4 -in o.d.
28 MHz copper tubing 100 -pf var.
2 -inch diameter
1 -inch length

Figure 18

COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE


FOR A -C LINE TRAPS

Power -Line When radio-frequency energy


Figure 17 Pickup from a radio transmitter enters a
broadcast receiver through the
CIRCUITS FOR ELIMINATING AUDIO - a -c power lines, it has either been fed back
STAGE RECTIFICATON into the lighting system by the offending
HANDBOOK Wave Traps 389

METAL BOX The wavetraps used in the power lines at


L- SHIELD BRAID- transmitter or receiver must be capable of
t_04)4).
passing relatively high current. The coils are
TO A -C c TO TRANSMITTER
accordingly wound with heavy wire. Figure
LINE c OR RECEIVER 18 lists the specifications for power -line

CV69
L_ -_ wavetrap coils, while figure 19 illustrates
SHIELD BRAID the method of connecting these wavetraps.
J Observe that these traps are enclosed in
a shield box of iron or aluminum, well

Figure 19
grounded.
Image Interference In addition to those types
RESONANT POWER -LINE
of interference already
WAVE -TRAP CIRCUIT
discussed, there are two more which are com-
The resonant type of power -line Alter is more mon to superhet receivers. The prevalence of
effective than the more c tional "brute
force" type of line Biter, but requires tuning these types is of great concern to the ama-
to the operating frequency of the transmitter. teur, although the responsibility for their
existence more properly rests with the broad-
transmitter, or picked up from the air by cast receiver.
overhead power lines. Underground lines are The mechanism whereby image production
seldom responsible for spreading this inter- takes place may be explained in the following
ference. manner: when the first detector is set to the
To check the path whereby the interfering frequency of an incoming signal, the high -
signals reach the line, it is only necessary to frequency oscillator is operating on another
replace the transmitting antenna with a frequency which differs from the signal by
dummy antenna and adjust the transmitter the number of kHz of the intermediate
for maximum output. If the interference frequency. Now, with the setting of these
then ceases, overhead lines have been picking two stages undisturbed, there is another
up the energy. The trouble can be cleared up signal which will beat with the high -fre-
by installing a wavetrap or a commercial quency oscillator to produce an i -f signal.
line filter in the power lines at the receiver. This other signal is the so- called image,
If the receiver is reasonably close to the which is separated from the desired signal
transmitter, it is very doubtful that chang- by twice the intermediate frequency.
ing the direction of the transmitting an- Thus, in a receiver with a 175 -kHz inter-
tenna to right angles with the overhead lines mediate frequency tuned to 1000 kHz; the
will eliminate the trouble. h -f oscillator is operating on 1175 kHz, and
If, on the contrary, the interference con- a signal on 1350 kHz (1000 kHz plus 2 X
tinues when the transmitter is connected to 175 kHz) will beat with this 1175 kHz
the dummy antenna, radio- frequency energy oscillator frequency to produce the 175 -kHz
is being fed directly into the power line by i -f signal. Similarly, when the same receiver
the transmitter, and the station must be is tuned to 1450 kHz, an amateur signal on
inspected to determine the cause. 1800 kHz can come through.
One of the following reasons for the trou- If the image appears only a few Hz or
ble will usually be found: (1) the r -f stages kHz from a broadcast carrier, heterodyne
are not sufficiently bypassed and /or choked, interference will be present as well. Other-
(2) the antenna coupling system is not per- wise, it will be tuned in and out in the
forming efficiently, (3) the power trans- manner of a station operating in the broad-
formers have no electrostatic shields; or, if cast band. Sharpness of tuning will be com-
shields are present, they are ungrounded, (4) parable to that of broadcast stations produc-
power lines are running too close to an an- ing the same avc voltage at the receiver.
tenna or r -f circuits carrying high currents. The second variety of superhet interfer-
If none of these causes apply, wavetraps ence is the result of harmonics of the receiver
must be installed in the power lines at the high- frequency oscillator beating with ama-
transmitter to remove r-f energy passing teur carriers to produce the intermediate
back into the lighting system. frequency of the receiver. The amateur
390 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO
transmitter will always be found to be on task of removing amateur frequencies from
a frequency equal to some harmonic of the broadcast receivers.
receiver hf oscillator, plus or minus the A good low -pass filter designed for maxi-
intermediate frequency. mum attenuation around 1700 kHz will pass
As an example: when a broadcast superhet all broadcast carriers, but will reject signals
with 465 -kHz intermediate frequency is originating in any amateur band. Naturally
tuned to 1000 kHz, its high- frequency oscil-
lator operates on 1465 kHz. The third har-
monic of this oscillator frequency is 4395
kHz, which will beat with an amateur signal
on 3930 kHz to send a signal through the
i -f amplifier. The 3930 kHz signal would be
tuned in at the 1000 -kHz point on the dial. INPUT OUTPUT

Some oscillator harmonics are so related o T T


to amateur frequencies that more than one CONSTANT -k TYPE
FREQUENCY
point of interference will occur on the re-
ceiver dial. Thus, a 3500 -kHz signal may be
tuned in at six points on the dial of a nearby
broadcast superhet having a 175 -kHz inter-
mediate frequency and no r -f stage.
Insofar as remedies for image and harmon-
ic superhet interference are concerned, it is
well to remember that if the amateur signal
did not in the first place reach the input m- DERIVED TYPE FREQUENCY
stage of the receiver, the annoyance would
not have been created. It is therefore good
Figure 20
policy to try to eliminate it by means of a
wavetrap or low -pass filter. Broadcast super - TYPES OF LOW -PASS FILTERS
hets are not always the acme of good shield-
Filters such as those may be used in the
ing, however, and the amateur signal is apt circuits between the antenna and the input of
to enter the circuit through channels other the receiver.
than the input circuit. If a wavetrap or filter
will not cure the trouble, the only alterna- such a device should be installed only in
tive will be to attempt to select a transmitter standard broadcast receivers, never in all -
frequency such that neither image nor har- wave sets.
monic interference will be set up on favorite Two types of low -pass filter sections are
stations in the susceptible receivers. The shown in figure 20. A composite arrange-
equation given earlier may be used to deter- ment comprising a section of each type is
mine the proper frequencies. more effective than either type operating
alone. A composite filter composed of one
Low -Pass FiltersThe greatest drawback of k- section and one shunt -derived m- section
the wavetrap is the fact is shown in figure 21, and is highly recom-
that it is a single- frequency device; i.e., it mended. The m- section is designed to have
may be set to reject at one time only one maximum attenuation at 1700 kHz, and for
frequency (or, at best, an extremely narrow that reason C:, should be of the close- toler-
band of frequencies). Each time the fre- ance variety. Likewise, C:, should not be
quency of the interfering transmitter is stuffed down inside L in the interest of
changed, every wavetrap tuned to it must be compactness, as this will alter the inductance
retuned. A much more satisfactory device is of the coil appreciably, and likewise the reso-
the wave filter which requires no tuning. nant frequency.
One type, the low -pass filter, passes all fre- If a fixed 150 -pf mica capacitor of 5 per-
quencies below one critical frequency, and cent tolerance is not available for C,, a com-
eliminates all higher frequencies. It is this pression trimmer covering the range of 125-
property that makes the device ideal for the 175 pf may be substituted and adjusted to

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK H i-Fi Interference 391

ANT. LI L2 transmitter. In most cases, the interference is


TO RECEIVER ANT. POST
caused by stray pickup of the r -f signal by
the interconnecting leads of the hi -fi system
1E2 /IC3 and audio rectification in the low -level stages
1`I TC4 O TO RECEIVER ONO. POST of the amplifier. The solution to this diffi-
O.
culty, in general, is to bypass and filter
Figure 21 all speaker and power leads to the hi -fi
COMPOSITE LOW -PASS FILTER amplifier and preamplifier. A combination
CIRCUIT of a vhf choke and 500 -pf ceramic disc ca-
pacitors in each power and speaker lead will
This filter is highly effective in reducing broad- eliminate r -f pickup in the high -level section
cast interi from all high -frequency sta-
tions, and requires no tuning. Constants for of the amplifier. A filter such as shown in
400 -ohm terminal impedance and 1600 kHz figure 17A placed in the input circuit of the
cutoff are as follows: L,. 65 turns No. 22 d.c.c. first audio stage of the preamplifier will re-
closewound on 11/2 in. dia. form. L,, 41 turns
ditto, not coupled to L,. CI, 250 -pf fixed mica duce the level of the r -f signal reaching the
capacitor. C,, 400 -pf fixed mica capacitor. C input circuit of the amplifier. To prevent
and C,, 150 -pf fixed mica capacitors, former
of 5% tolerance. With some receivers, better loss of the higher audio frequencies it may
results will be obtained with a 200 -ohm carbon be necessary to decrease the value of the
resistor inserted between the filter and an- grid bypass capacitor to 50 pf or so.
tenna post on the receiver. With other re-
ceivers the effects ss will be improved with Shielded leads should be employed between
a 600 -ohm carbon resistor placed from the the amplifier and the turntable or f -m tuner.
antenna post to the ground post on the re-
ceiver. The filter should be placed as close to The shield should be grounded at both ends
the receiver terminals as possible. of the line to the chassis of the equipment,
and care should be taken to see that the line
does not approach an electrical half -wave-
give maximum attenuation at about 1700
length of the radio signal causing the inter-
kHz.
ference. In some instances, shielding the
power cable to the hi -fi equipment will aid
18 -5 Hi -Fi Interference in reducing interference. The framework of
The rapid growth of high -fidelity sound the phonograph turntable should be grounded
systems in the home has brought about many to the chassis of the amplifier to reduce stray
cases of interference from a nearby amateur r -f pickup in the turntable equipment.
CHAPTER NINETEEN

Transmitter Keying and Control

19 -1 Power Systems quired. Since the usual home outlet is de-


signed to handle only about 600 watts
It is probable that the average amateur maximum, the transmitter, unless it is of
station that has been in operation for a num- relatively low power, should be powered
ber of years will have at least two trans- from another source. This procedure is de-
mitters available for operation on different sirable in any event so that the voltage sup-
frequency bands, at least two receivers or plied to the receiver, frequency control, and
one receiver and a converter, at least one frequency monitor will be substantially con-
item of monitoring or frequency- measuring stant with the transmitter on or off the air
So we come to two general alternative
equipment and probably two, a vfo, a speech
amplifier, a desk light, and a clock. In addi- plans with their variations. Plan A is the
tion to the above 8 or 10 items, there must more desirable and also the most expensive
be an outlet available for a soldering iron and
since it involves the installation of two sep-
there should be one or two additional outlets arate lines from the meter box to the oper-
available for plugging in one or two pieces ating position either when the house is
of equipment which are being worked on. constructed or as an alteration. One line,
It thus becomes obvious that 10 or 12 with its switch, is for the transmitters and
outlets connected to the 115 -volt a -c line the other line and switch is for receivers and
should be available at the operating desk. It auxiliary equipment. Plan B is the more prac-
may be practical to have this number of out- tical for the average amateur, but its use
lets installed as an outlet strip along the
requires that all cords be removed from the
baseboard at the time a new home is being outlets whenever the station is not in use in
planned and constructed. Or it might be order to comply with the electrical codes.
well to install the outlet strip on the oper- Figure 1 shows a suggested arrangement
ating desk so as to have the flexibility of for carrying out Plan A. In most cases an
moving the operating desk from one position installation such as this will require approval
to another. Alternatively, the outlet strip of the plans by the city or county electrical
might be wall mounted just below the desk inspector. Then the installation itself will
also require inspection after it has been com-
top.
pleted. It will be necessary to use approved
Power Drain When the power drain of all outlet boxes at the rear of the transmitter
Per Outlet the items of equipment, other where the cable is connected, and also at the
than transmitters, used at the operating bench where the other BX cable
operating position is totalled, you probably connects to the outlet strip. Also, the con-
will find that 350 to 600 watts will be re- nectors at the rear of the transmitter will

www.americanradiohistory.com
Power Systems 393

xMTR xMTR
a
OUTLET
STRIP
DESK

USE
XMTR
AND
mTE
DESK

'NMI
MAIN CONDUIT
FUSE BOX 7
AND =__ TO OTHER
SWITCH _= HOUSE CIRCUITS

_IJ
FROM LINE PLAN OA
SHORT COROS FROM
RECEIVER VFO..CLOCK,
FRED. METER, TO
Figure 1 PLAN OUTLET STRIP.

THE PLAN -A POWER SYSTEM


Figure 2
A-c line power from the main fuse box in the
house is run separately fo the receiving
equipment and to the transmitting equipment. THE PLAN -B POWER SYSTEM
Separate switches and fuse blocks then are This system is less convenient than the plan -A
available for the transmitters and for the system, but does not require extensive re-
auxiliary equipment. Since the fuses in the wiring of the electrical system within the
boxes at the operating room will be in series house to accommodate the arrangement. Thus
with those at the main fuse box, those in the it is better for a temporary or semiperma-
operating room should have a lower rating nent installation. In most cases it will be
than those at the main fuse box. Then it will necessary to run an extra conduit front the
always be possible to replace blown fuses main fuse box to the outlet from which the
without leaving the operating room. The fuss transmitter is powered, since the standard ar-
boxes can c iently be located alongside rangement in most houses is to run all the
one another on the wall of the operating outlets in one room (and sometimes all in the
room. house) from a single pair of fuses and leads.

have to be of an approved type. It is possible Whether the general aspects of plans A or


also that the BX cable will have to be per- B are used it will be necessary to run a num-
manently affixed to the transmitter with the ber of control wires, keying, and audio leads,
connector at the fuse -box end. These details and an excitation cable from the operating
may be worked out in advance with the elec- desk to the transmitter. Control and keying
trical inspector for your area. wires can best be grouped into a multiple -
The general aspects of Plan B are shown wire rubber -covered cable between the desk
in figure 2. The basic difference between the and the transmitter. Such an arrangement
two plans is that A represents a permanent gives a good appearance, and is particularly
installation even though a degree of mobility practical if cable connectors are used at each
is allowed through the use of BX for power end. High -level audio at a moderate imped-
leads, while plan B is definitely a temporary ance level (600 ohms or below) may be run
type of installation as far as the electrical in the same control cable as the other leads.
inspector is concerned. While it will be However, low -level audio can best be run
permissible in most areas to leave the trans- in a small coaxial cable. Small coaxial cable
mitter cord plugged into the outlet even such as RG -18 /U or RG -59 /U also is quite
though it is turned off, the Fire Insurance satisfactory and quite convenient for the
Underwriters codes will make it necessary signal from the vfo to the r-f stages in the
that the cord which runs to the group of transmitter. Coaxial -cable connectors of the
outlets at the back of the operating desk UG series are quite satisfactory for the ter-
be removed whenever the equipment is not minations both for the vfo lead and for any
actually in use. low -level audio cables.
394 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

Checking on To make sure that an outlet may be inserted in the outlet strip through-
Outlet with a will stand the full load of the out its length. In many cases it will be de-
Heavy Load entire transmitter, plug in an sirable to reduce the equipment cord lengths
electric heater rated at about so that they will plug neatly into the outlet
50 percent greater wattage than the power strip without an excess to dangle behind the
you expect to draw from the line. If the line desk.
voltage does not drop more than f volts
(assuming a 115 -volt line) under load and Contactors and The use of power- control
the wiring does not overheat, the wiring is Relays contactors and relays often
adequate to supply the transmitter. About will add considerably to the
600 watts total drain is the maximum that operating convenience of the station instal-
should be drawn from a 115 -volt lighting lation. The most practical arrangement usu-
outlet or circuit. For greater power, a sep- ally is to have a main a -c line switch on the
arate pair of heavy conductors should be front of the transmitter to apply power to
run right from the meter box. For a 1 -kw. the filament transformers and to the power-
phone transmitter the total drain is so great control circuits.
that a 230 -volt "split" system ordinarily It also will be found quite convenient to
will be required. Most of the newer homes have a single a -c line switch on the operating
are wired with this system, as are homes desk to energize or cut the power from the
utilizing electricity for cooking and heating. outlet strip on the rear of the operating
With a three -wire system, be sure there is desk. Through the use of such a switch it
no fuse in the neutral wire at the fuse box. is not necessary to remember to switch off
A neutral fuse is not required if both "hot" a large number of separate switches on each
legs are fused, and, should a neutral fuse of the items of equipment on the operating
blow, there is a chance that damage to the desk.
radio transmitter will result. The alternative arrangement, and that
If you have a high -power transmitter and which is approved by the Underwriters, is
do a lot of operating, it is a good idea to to remove the plugs from the wall both for
check on your local power rates if you are the transmitter and for the operating -desk
on a straight lighting rate. In some cities a outlet strip when a period of operation has
lower rate can be obtained (but with a been completed.
higher "minimum ") if electrical equipment While the insertion of plugs or operation
such as an electric heater drawing a specified of switches usually will be found best for
amount of current is permanently wired in. applying the a -c line power to the equip-
It is not required that you use this equip- ment, the changing over between transmit
ment, merely that it be permanently wired and receive can best be accomplished through
into the electrical system. Naturally, how- the use of relays. Such a system usually in-
ever, there would be no saving unless you volves three relays, or three groups of relays.
expect to occupy the same dwelling for a
considerable length of time.
The relays and their functions are: (1)
power- control relay for the transmitter
applies 115 -volt line to the primary of the
-
Outlet Strips The outlet strips which have
been suggested for installation
in the baseboard or for use on the rear of a
high -voltage transformer and turns on the
exciter; (2) control relay for the receiver
makes the receiver inoperative by any one of
-
desk are obtainable from the large electrical - a number of methods when closed, also may
supply houses. If such a house is not in the apply power to the vfo and to a keying or a
vicinity it is probable that a local electrical phone monitor; and (3) the antenna change-
contractor can order a suitable type of strip over relay -connects the antenna to the
from one of the supply -house catalogs. These transmitter when the transmitter is energized
strips are quite convenient in that they are and to the receiver when the transmitter is
available in varying lengths with provision not operating. Several circuits illustrating
for inserting a -c line plugs throughout their the application of relays to such control ar-
length. The a -c plugs from the various items rangement are discussed in the paragraphs
of equipment on the operating desk then to follow in this chapter.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power Systems 395

TO EXCITER POWER SUPPLIES acts as the exciter for the higher -powered
stage when full power output is required.
But the majority of the amateurs using high -
s power equipment have some provision for
reducing the plate voltage on the high -level
stages when reduced power output is desired.
IIS V.A.C.
LINE One of the most common arrangements
for obtaining two levels of power output
K
NI -LO
POWER RELAY
involves the use of a plate transformer hav-
ing a double primary for the high -voltage
e POWER - CONTROL RELAY
power supply. The majority of the high -
power plate transformers of standard manu-
TO FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS facture have just such a dual -primary ar-
rangement. The two primaries are designed
for use with either a 115 -volt or 230 -volt
line. When such a transformer is to be
operated from a 115 -volt line, operation of
both primaries in parallel will deliver full
output from the plate supply. Then when
the two primaries are connected in series and
still operated from the 115 -volt line the out-
put voltage from the supply will be reduced
approximately to,one half. In the case of the
230 V.A C
normal class -C amplifier, a reduction in plate
SINGLE PHASE
WITH GROUNDED
NEUTRAL voltage to one half will reduce the power
input to the stage to one quarter.
If the transmitter is to be operated from a
TRANSFORMERS 230 -volt line, the usual procedure is to op-
erate the filaments from one side of the line,
Figure 3
the low -voltage power supplies from the
FULL -VOLTAGE /HALF -VOLTAGE other side, and the primaries of the high -
SYSTEM OF POWER CONTROL voltage transformer across the whole line
circuit at A is for use with a 11S -volt
Tho
for full power output. Then when reduced
lino. Transformer T is of the standard type
a -c power output is required, the primary of
having two IIS-volt primaries; these primaries the high- voltage plate transformer is oper-
are connectod in series for half -voltage output
when the power -control relay K, is energised ated from one side to center tap rather than
but the hi-lo relay (K,) is not operated. When across the whole line. This procedure places
both relays are ised the full output volt- 115 volts across the 230 -volt winding the
age is obtained. At S is a circuit for use with
a standard 230 -volt residence line with same as in the case discussed in the previous
grounded neutral. The two relays control the paragraph. Figure 3 illustrates the two stand-
output of the power supplies the same as at A.
ard methods of power reduction with a plate
transformer having a double primary; A
Controlling Transmitter It is necessary, in shows the connections for use with a 115-
Power Output order to comply with volt line and B shows the arrangement for a
FCC regulations, that 230 -volt a -c power line to the transmitter.
transmitter power output be limited to the The full -voltage /half -voltage methods for
minimum amount necessary to sustain com- controlling the power input to the transmit-
munication. This requirement may be met ter, as just discussed, are subject to the limi-
in several ways. Many amateurs have two tation that only two levels of power input
transmitters; one is capable of relatively high (full power and quarter power) are obtain-
power output for use when calling, or when able. In many cases this will be found to be a
interference is severe, and the other is capa- limitation to flexibility. When tuning the
ble of considerably less power output. In transmitter, the antenna coupling network,
many cases the lower -powered transmitter or the antenna system itself it is desirable to
396 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

TO EXCITER POWER SUPPLIES

TO H.V.
POWER SUPPLY
INTERLOCKS
IN TRANSMITTER
11 A.C. F
LINE POWER CONTROL
RELAY
TRANSMITTER
GREEN FILAMENT
PLUG FOR PILOT TRANSFORMERS
ABLE TO
ARIAC OR
POWERSTAT
DUMMY PLUG FOR
STRAIGHT OPERATION
115 V. TO EXCITER AND
RED HIGH -VOLTAGE RELAYS.
AND TO RECEIVER CON-
TO FILAMENT PI LOT
TROL AND ANTENNA -
TRANSFORMERS CHANGEOVER RELAYS
L sa J
EXTERNAL VARIAC Figure 5
OR POWERSTAT

Figure 4 PROTECTIVE CONTROL CIRCUIT


With this circuit arrangement either switch
CIRCUIT WITH VARIABLE -RATIO may be closed first to light the heaters of
AUTOTRANSFORMER all tubes and the filament pilot light. Then
when the second switch is closed the high
When the dummy plug is inserted Into the re- voltage will be applied to the transmitter and
ceptacle on the equipment, closing of the the red pilot will light. With a 30- second
power-control relay will apply full voltage delay between the closing of the first switch
to the primaries. With the cable from the and the closing of the second, the rectifier
Variac or Powerstat plugged into the socket tubes will be adequately protected. Similarly,
the voltage output of the high -voltage power the opening of either switch will remove
supply may be varied from zero to about 15 plate voltage from the rectifiers while the
percent above normal. heaters remain lighted.

be able to reduce the power input to the capable of about 1500 to 1800 watts. The
final stage to a relatively low value, and it maximum power- output capability of these
is further convenient to be able to vary the units is available only at approximately the
power input continuously from this rela- nominal line voltage, and must be reduced to
tively low input up to the full power capa- a maximum current limitation when the out-
bilities of the transmitter. The use of a put voltage is somewhat above or below the
variable -ratio autotransformer in the circuit input line voltage. This, however, is not an
from the line to the primary of the plate important limitation for this type of appli-
transformer will allow a continuous varia- cation since the output voltage seldom will
tion in power input from zero to the full be raised above the line voltage, and when
capability of the transmitter. the output voltage is reduced below the line
Variable -Ratio voltage the input to the transmitter is re-
There are several types of
Autotransformers duced accordingly.
variable -ratio autotrans-
One convenient arrangement for using a
formers available on the
Variac or Powerstat in conjunction with the
market. Of these, the most common are the
high -voltage transformer of a transmitter is
Variac manufactured by the General Radio
illustrated in figure 4. In this circuit a heavy
Company, and the Powerstat manufactured
three -wire cable is run from a plug on the
by the Superior Electric Company. Both these
types of variable -ratio transformers are ex-
transmitter to the Variac or Powerstat. The
cellently constructed and are available in a Variac or Powerstat then is installed so that
wide range of power capabilities. Each is it is accessible from the operating desk so that
capable of controlling the line voltage from the input power to the transmitter may be
zero to about 15 percent above the nominal controlled during operation. If desired, the
line voltage. Each manufacturer makes a cable to the Variac or Powerstat may be un-
single -phase unit capable of handling an out- plugged from the transmitter and a dummy
put power of about 175 watts, one capable plug inserted in its place. With the dummy
of about 750 to 800 watts, and a unit plug in place the transmitter will operate at

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transmitter Control 397

normal plate voltage. This arrangement al- where it is only necessary to speak into the
lows the transmitter to be wired in such a microphone or touch the key to change both
manner that an external Variac or Powerstat transmitter and receiver over to the transmit
may be used if desired, even though the unit condition. Most amateur stations are inter-
is not available at the time that the trans- mediate between the two extremes in the
mitter is constructed. control provisions and use some relatively
Notes on the Use
simple system for transmitter control.
Plate voltage to the modu- In figure 5 is shown an arrangement which
of the Voriac lators may be controlled at
or Powerstat
protects mercury-vapor rectifiers against pre-
the same time as the plate mature application of plate voltage without
voltage to the final ampli- resorting to a time -delay relay. No matter
fier is varied if the modulator stage uses
which switch is thrown first, the filament
beam -tetrode tubes; variation in the plate will be turned on first and off last. However,
voltage on such tubes used as modulators
double -pole switches are required in place of
causes only a moderate change in the stand-
the usual single -pole switches.
ing plate current.
When assured time delay of the proper
Since the final amplifier plate voltage is
interval and greater operating convenience
being controlled simultaneously with the
are desired, a group of inexpensive a -c relays
modulator plate voltage, the conditions of
may be incorporated into the circuit to give
impedance match will not be seriously up-
a control circuit such as is shown in figure
set. In several high -power transmitters using
6. This arrangement uses a 115-volt thermal
this system, and using beam - tetrode modu-
(or motor -operated) time-delay relay and a
lator tubes, it is possible to vary the plate
input from about 50 watts to one kilowatt dpdt 115 -volt control relay. Note that the
protective interlocks are connected in series
without a change other than a slight in-
with the coil of the relay which applies high
crease in audio distortion at the adjustment
voltage to the transmitter. A tune -up switch
which gives the lowest power output from
has been included so that the transmitter
the transmitter.
may be tuned up as far as the grid circuit of
With triode tubes as modulators it usually
the final stage is concerned before application
will be found necessary to vary the grid bias
at the same time that the plate voltage is
cf high voltage to the final amplifier. Pro-
visions for operating an antenna -changeover
changed. This will allow the tubes to be
relay and for cutting the plate voltage to
cperated at approximately the same relative
the receiver when the transmitter is operat-
point on their operating characteristic when
ing have been included.
the plate voltage is varied. When the mod-
A circuit similar to that of figure 6 but
ulator tubes are operated with zero bias at
full plate voltage, it will usually be possible incorporating push- button control of the
to reduce the modulator voltage along with transmitter is shown in figure 7. The circuit
features a set of START -STOP and TRANS-
the voltage on the modulated stage, with no
MIT- RECEIVE buttons at the transmitter
apparent change in the voice quality. How-
and a separate set at the operating position.
ever, it will be necessary to reduce the audio
The control push buttons operate independ-
gain at the same time that the plate voltage
is reduced.
ently so that either set may be used to con-
trol the transmitter. It is only necessary to
push the START button momentarily to
19 -2 Transmitter Control light the transmitter filaments and start the
Methods time -delay relay in its cycle. When the
standby light comes on it is only necessary to
Almost everyone, when getting a new touch the TRANSMIT button to put the
transmitter on the air, has had the experience transmitter on the air and disable the re-
of having to throw several switches and pull ceiver. Touching the RECEIVE button will
or insert a few plugs when changing from turn off the transmitter and restore the re-
receive to transmit. This is one extreme in ceiver. After a period of operation it is only
the direction of how not to control a trans- necessary to touch the STOP button at
mitter. At the other extreme we find systems either the transmitter or the operating posi-
398 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

115 VOLT SUPPLY FOR


ENTIRE TRANSMITTER

USCS

SAFETY SWITCH
(SEC Fm.* )

RECEIVER POWER
\SI HUSKY TOGGLE SWITCH
ON TRANSMITTER
TRANSFORMER C.T.

THCRMAL PROTECTIVE
TIMO -DEL AY INTERLOCKS
RCLAY O O

-o TRANSMIT -
RECEIVE SWITCH

HIGH-VOLT.
(I15-V.)
011S-V. ANTENNA-
CHANGEOVER
o`o o
TUNO -UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH

JAL ..400/ ()SQ/

ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS e.3 V. EXCITER H -V HIGH- VOLTAGE


TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

Figure 6

TRANSMITTER CONTROL CIRCUIT


Closing S, lights all filaments in the transmitter and starts the time -delay in its cycle. When
the time -delay relay has operated, closing the transmit-receive switch at the operating position
will apply plate power to the transmitter and disable the receiver. A tune -up switch has been
provided so that the exciter stages may be tuned without plate voltage on the Anal amplifier.

tion to shut down the transmitter. This type structing a transmitter, the following safety
of control arrangement is called an elec- considerations should be given attention.
trically locking push-to- transmit control Grounds For the utmost in protection, every-
system. Such systems are frequently used in thing of metal on the front panel of
industrial electronic control. a transmitter capable of being touched by
the operator should be at ground potential.
19 -3 Safety Precautions This includes dial set screws, meter zero -
The best way for an operator to avoid adjustment screws, meter cases if of metal,
serious accidents from the high voltage sup- meter jacks, everything of metal protruding
plies of a transmitter is for him to use his through the front panel or capable of being
head, act only with deliberation, and not touched or nearly touched by the operator.
take unnecessary chances. However, no one This applies whether or not the panel itself is
is infallible, and chances of an accident are
of metal. Do not rely on the insulation of
greatly lessened if certain factors are taken meter cases or tuning knobs for protection.
into consideration in the design of a trans- The B negative or chassis of all plate power
mitter, in order to protect the operator in supplies should be connected together, and to
the event of a lapse of caution. If there are an external ground such as a waterpipe.
too many things one must "watch out for" Exposed Wires It
not necessary to resort
is
or keep in mind there is a good chance that and Components to
rack- and -panel con-
sooner or later there will be a mishap; and struction in order to pro-
it only takes one. When designing or con- vide complete enclosure of all components

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Safety Precautions 399

11S-VOLT SUPPLY FOR


ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
AT OPERATING POSITION

FUSE STOP TRANSMIT RECEIVE I

SAP ET Y SWITCH
-o o- .DFlo- Ong -I
(SEE FIG.12)

PROTECTIVE
INTERLOCKS

OVERLOAD"'
RELAY
CONTACTS

O RECEIVER POWER
o TRANSFORMER C.T.
THERMAL
TIME-DELAY
RELAY

HIGH.VOLT.
FILS ON STANDBY (11S-V.)
15-V. ANTENNA -
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
TUNE -UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
900, lOOO,
III
ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS EXCITER H -V HIGH- VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

Figure 7

PUSH -BUTTON TRANSMITTER -CONTROL CIRCUIT


Pushing the START button either at the transmitter or at the operating position will light all
filaments and start the time -delay relay in its cycle. When the cycle has been completed, a
touch of the TRANSMIT button will put the transmitter on the air and disable the receiver.
Pushing the RECEIVE button will disable the transmitter and restore the receiver. Pushing the
STOP button will instantly drop the entire transmitter from the a -c line. If desired, a switch
may be placed in series with the lead from the RECEIVE button to the protective interlocks;
opening the switch will make it impossible for any person accidentally to put the transmitter
on the air. Various other safety provisions, such as the protective -interlock arrangement
described in the text have been incorporated. With the circuit arrangement shown for the
overload -relay contacts, it is only necessary to use a simple normally closed d -e relay with a
variable shunt across the coil of the relay. When the current through the coil becomes great
enough to open the normally closed contacts the hold circuit on the plate -voltage relay will
be broken and the plate voltage will be removed. If the overload is only momentary, such
as a modulation peak or a tank flashover, merely pushing the TRANSMIT button will again
put the transmitter on the air. This simple circuit provision eliminates the requirement for
expensive overload relays of the mechanically latching type, but still gives excellent overload
protection.

and wiring of the transmitter. Even with when changing coils, neutralizing, adjusting
metal -chassis construction it is possible to coupling, or troubleshooting. The latter pro-
arrange things so as to incorporate a protec- cedure can be made safe by making it pos-
tive shielding housing which will not inter- sible for the operator to be absolutely certain
fere with ventilation yet will prevent con- that all voltages have been turned off and
tact with all wires and components carrying that they cannot be turned on either by
high voltage d.c. or a.c., in addition to short circuit or accident. This can be done
offering shielding action. by incorporation of the following system of
If everything on the front panel is at main primary switch and safety signal lights.
ground potential (with respect to external
ground) and all units are effectively housed Combined Safety The common method of
with protective covers, then there is no Signal and Switch using red pilot lights to
danger except when the operator must reach show when a circuit is on
into the interior part of the transmitter, as is useless except from an ornamental stand-
400 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

!.S V.
TO GREEN PILOT LIGHTS ON behind green bezels or dipped in green
FRONT PANEL AND ON EACH CHASSIS
lacquer. One should be placed on the front
.11.J
panel of the transmitter; others should be
FIL. placed so as to be easily visible when chang-
ing coils or making adjustments requiring
the operator to reach inside the transmitter.
For 100 percent protection, just obey the
MAIN IIS V SUPPLY O- -1(0 POT SWITCH
following rule: never work on the transmit-
ter or reach inside any protective cover ex-
111S -V A C TO ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
cept when the green pilots are glowing. To
avoid confusion, no other green pilots should
be used on the transmitter; if you want an
Figure 8
indicator jewel to show when the filaments
COMBINED MAIN SWITCH AND are lighted, use amber instead of green.
SAFETY SIGNAL
Safety Bleeders Filter capacitors of good
When shutting down the transmitter, throw
the main switch to neutral. If work is to be quality hold their charge for
done on the transmitter, throw the switch all some time, and when the voltage is more
the way to "pilot," thus turning on the green than 100 volts it is just about as dangerous
pilot lights on the panel and on each chassis,
and ensuring that no voltage can exist on the to get across an undischarged 4 -td filter
primary of any transformer, even by virtue capacitor as it is to get across a high -voltage
of a short or accidental ground.
supply that is turned on. Most power sup-
plies incorporate bleeders to improve regula-
point. When the red pilot is not lit it usually tion, but as these are generally wirewound
means that the circuit is turned off, but it resistors, and as wirewound resistors occa-
can mean that the circuit is on but the lamp sionally open up without apparent cause, it is
is burned out or not making contact. desirable to incorporate an auxiliary safety
To enable you to touch the tank coils in bleeder across each heavy -duty bleeder. Car-
your transmitter with absolute assurance bon resistors will not stand much dissipation
that it is impossible for you to obtain a and sometimes change in value slightly with
shock except from possible undischarged age. However, the chance of their opening
filter capacitors (see following topic for up when run well within their dissipation
elimination of this hazard), it is only neces- rating is very small.
sary to incorporate a device similar to that To make sure that all capacitors are bled,
of figure 8. It is placed near the point where it is best to short each one with an insulated
the main 115 -volt leads enter the room (pre- screwdriver. However, this is sometimes awk-
ferably near the door) and in such a position ward and always inconvenient. One can be
as to be inaccessible to small children. Notice virtually sure by connecting auxiliary car-
that this switch breaks both leads; switches bon bleeders across all wirewound bleeders
that open just one lead do not afford com- used on supplies of 1000 volts or more. For
plete protection, as it is sometimes possible to every 500 volts, connect in series a 500,000 -
complete a primary circuit through a short ohm 1 -watt carbon resistor. The drain will
or accidental ground. Breaking just one side be negligible (1 ma) and each resistor will
of the line may be all right for turning the have to dissipate only 0.5 watt. Under these
transmitter on and off, but when you are conditions the resistors will last indefinitely
going to place an arm inside the transmitter, with little chance of opening up. For a
both 115 -volt leads should be broken. 1500 -volt supply, connect three 500,000 -ohm
When you are all through working your resistors in series. If the voltage exceeds an
transmitter for the time being, simply throw integral number of 500 -volt divisions, as-
the main switch to neutral. sume it is the next higher integral value; for
When you find it necessary to work on instance, assume 1800 volts as 2000 volts and
the transmitter or change coils, throw the use four resistors.
switch so that the green pilots light up. Do not attempt to use fewer resistors by
These can be ordinary 6.3 -volt pilot lamps using a higher value for the resistors; not

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transmitter Keying 401

over 500 volts should appear across any a 150 -volt circuit under certain circum-
single 1 -watt resistor. stances. The 150 -volt limit usually will
In the event that the regular bleeder opens mean that grid -bias packs as well as high -
up, it will take several seconds for the auxil- voltage packs should have their primary cir-
iary bleeder to drain the capacitors down to cuits opened when any interlock is opened.
a safe voltage, because of the very high re-
sistance. Therefore it is best to allow 10 or
15 seconds to elapse after turning off the
19 -4 Transmitter Keying
plate supply before attempting to work on
the transmitter. The carrier from a c -w telegraph trans-
If a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter is at hand, it mitter must be broken into dots and dashes
may be connected in series with the auxiliary for the transmission of code characters. The
bleeder to act as a high- voltage voltmeter. carrier signal is of constant amplitude while
"Hot" Adjustments Some amateurs contend the key is closed, and is entirely removed
that it is almost impossi- when the key is open. When code characters
are being transmitted, the carrier may be
ble to make certain adjustments, such as
considered as being modulated by the keying.
coupling and neutralizing, unless the trans-
mitter is running. The best thing to do is to If the change from the no- output condition
to full -output, or vice versa, occurs too
make all neutralizing and coupling devices
rapidly, the rectangular pulses which form
adjustable from the front panel by means of
flexible control shafts which are broken with
the keying characters contain high -fre-
insulated couplings to permit grounding of quency components which take up a wide
frequency band as sidebands and are heard
the panel bearing.
as clicks.
If your particular transmitter layout is
such that this is impractical and you refuse To be capable of transmitting code char-
to throw the main switch to make an adjust- acters and at the same time not splitting the
ment -throw the main switch -take a read- eardrums of neighboring amateurs, the c -w
ing-throw the main switch-make an ad- transmitter must meet two important speci-
justment -and so on, then protect yourself fications.
by making use of long adjustment rods made 1. It must have no parasitic oscillations
from 1/4-inch dowel sticks which have been either in the stage being keyed or in
wiped with oil when perfectly free from any succeeding stage.
moisture. 2. It must have some device in the keying
Protective Interlocks With the increasing ten- circuit capable of shaping the leading
dency toward construc- and trailing edge of the waveform.
tion of transmitters in enclosed steel cabinets Both these specifications must be met be-
a transmitter becomes a particularly lethal fore the transmitter is capable of c -w opera-
device unless adequate safety provisions have tion. Merely turning a transmitter on and off
been incorporated. Even with a combined by the haphazard insertion of a telegraph
safety signal and switch as shown in figure 8 key in some power lead is an invitation to
it is still conceivable that some person un- trouble.
familiar with the transmitter could come in The two general methods of keying a
contact with high voltage. It is therefore transmitter are those which control the ex-
recommended that the transmitter, when- citation to the keyed amplifier, and those
ever possible, be built into a complete metal which control the plate or screen voltage ap-
housing or cabinet and that all doors or ac- plied to the keyed amplifier.
cess covers be provided with protective inter-
locks (all interlocks must be connected in Key -Click Key -click elimination is accom-
series) to remove the high voltage whenever Elimination plished by preventing a too -rapid
these doors or covers are opened. The term make and break of power to the
"high voltage" should mean any voltage antenna circuit, thus rounding off the keying
above approximately 150 volts, although it characters so as to limit the sidebands to a
is still possible to obtain a serious burn from value which does not cause interference to
402 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

adjacent channels. Too much lag will pre- waveform. A heavily excited doubler stage or
vent fast keying, but fortunately key clicks class -C stage acts as a peak clipper, tending
can be practically eliminated without limit- to square up a rounded keying impulse, and
ing the speed of manual (hand) keying. the cumulative effect of several such stages
Some circuits which eliminate key clicks in- cascaded is sufficient to square up the keyed
troduce too much time lag and thereby add waveform to the point where bad clicks are
tails to the dots. These tails may cause the reimposed on a clean signal.
signals to be difficult to copy at high speeds. A good rule of thumb is to never key back
farther than one stage removed from the
Location of Considerable thought should be final amplifier stage, and never key closer
Keyed Stage given as to which stage in a than one stage removed from the frequency -
transmitter is the proper one to controlling oscillator of the transmitter.
key. If the transmitter is keyed in a stage Thus there will always be one isolating stage
close to the oscillator, the change in r -f load- between the keyed stage and the oscillator,
ing of the oscillator will cause the oscillator and one isolating stage between the keyed
to shift frequency with keying. This will stage and the antenna. At this point the
cause the signal to have a distinct chirp. waveform of the keyed signal may be most
The chirp will be multiplied as many times easily controlled.
as the frequency of the oscillator is multi-
plied. A chirpy oscillator that would be pass- Keyer Circuit In the first place it may be es-
able on 80 meters would be unusable on 28- Requirements tablished that the majority of
MHz c.w. new design transmitters, and
Keying the oscillator itself is an excellent many of those of older design as well, use a
way to run into keying difficulties. If no medium power beam tetrode tube either as
key -click filter is used in the keying circuit, the output stage or as the exciter for the
the transmitter will have bad key clicks. If a output stage of a high power transmitter.
key -click filter is used, the slow rise and de- Thus the transmitter usually will end up
cay of oscillator voltage induced by the filter with a tube such as type 2E26, 807, 6146,
action will cause a keying chirp. This action 813, 4 -61A, 4E27/5-125B, 4 -125A or simi-
is true of all oscillators, whether electron lar, or one of these tubes will be used as the
coupled or crystal controlled. stage just ahead of the output stage.
The more amplifier or doubler stages that Second, it may be established that it is un-
follow the keyed stage, the more difficult it desirable to key further down in the trans-
is to hold control of the shape of the keyed mitter chain than the stage just ahead of the
final amplifier. If a low -level stage, which is
followed by a series of class -C amplifiers, is
keyed, serious transients will be generated in
the output of the transmitter even though
the keyed stage is being turned on and off
very smoothly. This condition arises as a re-
sult of pulse sharpening, which has been dis-
cussed previously.
Third, the output from the stage should
be completely cut off when the key is up,
and the time constant of the rise and decay
Figure 9 of the keying wave should be easily con-
trollable.
CENTER-TAP KEYING WITH CLICK
Fourth, it should be possible to make the
FILTER
rise period and the decay period of the key-
The constants shown above are suggested as ing wave approximately equal. This type of
starting values; considerable variation in these keying envelope is the only one tolerable for
values can be expected for optimum keying of
amplifiers of different operating conditions. It commercial work, and is equally desirable for
is suggested that a keying relay be substituted
for the key in the circuit above wh obtaining clean -cut and easily readable sig-
practical. nals in amateur work.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Cathode Keying 403

TO
CATHODE R -F TUBE
SOMA SILICON- lu BREAK) 1M(MAKE)
RECTIFIER
O
471W 47K,2W O 1
- frRF
120V.
10
150 V.
2.SMN O
100 IDO
W KEY M

TO %MTR
GRID.

STANCOR PAl421

2A3
OR6AS7

21( 2W 470K,1W 1M 470K,05 W

350 -0350
50 MA.
80
70 K
IW
- 4
teJO v

K Y
RFC
2.5 MN

100 . 1
e-
.00

N105
4
H-v SUPPLY

E-41.

Figure 10

VACUUM -TUBE KEYERS FOR CENTER -TAP KEYING CIRCUIT


The type -A keyer is suitable for keying stages running up to 1250 volts on the plate.
Two 2A3's or a 6AS7 tube can safely key 160 milliamperes of cathode current. The simple 6Y6
keyer in figure 6 is for keying stages running up to 650 volts on the plate. A single 6Y6
can key 80 milliamperes. Twe in parallel may be used for plate currents under 160 ma. If
softer keying is desired, the .005 fd mica capacitor should be increased to .01 Add.

Fifth, it is desirable that the keying circuit the backwave that might otherwise leak
be usable without a keying relay, even when through the keyed stage.
a high -power stage is being keyed. The simplest cathode keying circuit is il-
Last, for the sake of simplicity and safety, lustrated in figure 9, where a key -click filter
it should be possible to ground the frame of is employed, and a hand key is used to break
the key, and yet the circuit should be such the circuit. This simple keying circuit is not
that placing the fingers across the key will recommended for general use, as consider-
not result in an electrical shock. In other able voltage will be developed across the key
words, the keying circuit should be inher- when it is open.
ently safe. An electronic switch can take the place of
All these requirements have been met in the hand key. This will remove the danger
the keying circuits to be described. of shock. At the same time, the opening
and closing characteristics of the electronic
19 -5 Cathode Keying switch may easily be altered to suit the par-
ticular need at hand. Such an electronic
The lead from the cathode or center -tap switch is called a vacuum -tube keyer. Low
connection of the filament of an r-f amplifier internal resistance triode tubes such as the
can be opened and closed for a keying cir- 2A3 or 6AS7 are used in the keyer. These
cuit. Such a keying system opens the plate tubes act as a very high resistance when
voltage circuit and at the same time opens sufficient blocking bias is applied to them,
the grid bias return lead. For this reason, the and as a very low resistance when the bias is
grid circuit is blocked at the same time the removed. The desired amount of lag or
plate circuit is opened. This helps to reduce cushioning effect can be obtained by em-
404 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

NI -.y_ TRIODE
(811 -A ETC.)

-BLOCKING +L. V. +H.V.


B As

Figure 11 +N.V.

SIMPLE BLOCKED -GRID KEYING SYSTEM Figure 12


The blocking bias must be sufficient to cut
off plate current to the amplifier stage in the SELF -BLOCKING KEYING SYSTEM FOR
presence of the excitation voltage. R, is nor- HIGH -MU TRIODE
mal bias resistor for the tube. R. and C,
should be adjusted for co keying wave- R, and C, adjusted for co keying wave-
form. form. R, is bias resistor of tube.

ploying suitable resistance and capacitance as cathode bias on the keyed tube, assuming
values in the grid of the keyer tube(s). Be- the bias return is made to ground, and should
cause very little spark is produced at the key, be taken into consideration when providing
due to the small amount of power in the key bias.
circuit, sparking clicks are easily suppressed. Some typical cathode circuit vacuum -tube
One type 6AS7 tube (both sections) keying units are shown in figure 10.
should be used for every 250 ma of plate cur-
rent. Type 2A3 tubes may also be used; allow
one 2A3 tube for every 80 ma of plate cur- 19 -6 Grid -Circuit Keying
rent.
Because of the series resistance of the keyer Grid- circuit, or blocked -grid keying is an-
tubes, the plate voltage at the keyed tube other effective method of keying a c -w trans-
will be from 30 to 60 volts less than the mitter. A basic blocked -grid keying circuit is
power supply voltage. This voltage appears shown in figure 11. The time constant of the
keying is determined by the RC circuit,
807,6146. ETC. which also forms part of the bias circuit of
the tube. When the key is closed, operating
bias is developed by the flow of grid current
LOW rowER BUFFER through R1. When the key is open, sufficient
(SAG? ETC.) fixed bias is applied to the tube to block it,
preventing the stage from functioning. If
an un- neutralized tetrode is keyed by this
method, there is the possibility of a consider-
able backwave caused by r -f leakage through
RFC the grid -plate capacitance of the tube.
2.5 MN
O KEY Certain high-ji. triode tubes, such as the
00T 1 811 -A and the 3-400Z, automatically block
themselves when the grid- return circuit is
6.3V. TO 6C4
opened. It is merely necessary to insert a key
fool and associated key -click filter in the grid -re-
turn lead of these tubes. No blocking bias
Figure 13 supply is needed. This circuit is shown in
TWO -STAGE BLOCKED -GRID KEYER
figure 12.
A more elaborate blocked-grid keying sys-
A separate filament transformer must be used tem using a 6C4 and VR -150 is shown in
for the tube, as its filament is at a potential
of -400 volts. figure 13. Two stages are keyed, preventing
HANDBOOK Grid -Circuit Keying 405

when the screen grid of a tetrode tube is


807, ETC.
brought to zero potential, the tube still de-
livers considerable output. Thus it is nec-
EXC.
essary to place a negative blocking voltage
on the screen grid to reduce the backwave
through the tube. A suitable keyer circuit
which will achieve this is shown in figure 14.
A 6L6 is used as a combined clamper tube
and keying tube. When the key is closed, the
6L6 tube has blocking bias applied to its
control grid. This bias is obtained from the
rectified grid bias of the keyed tube. Screen
voltage is applied to the keyed stage through
a screen dropping resistor and a VR -105 reg-
ulator tube. When the key is open, the 6L6
is no longer cutoff, and conducts heavily.
Figure 14
The voltage drop across the dropping resistor
SINGLE -STAGE SCREEN -GRID KEYER caused by the heavy plate current of the
FOR TETRODE TUBES 6L6 lowers the voltage on the VR -105 tube
until it is extinguished, removing the screen
voltage from the tetrode r -f tube. At the
any backwave emission. The first keyed stage same time, rectified grid bias is applied to
may be the oscillator, or a low -powered the screen of the tetrode through the 1
buffer. The last keyed stage may be the megohm resistor between screen and key.
driver stage to the power amplifier, or the This voltage effectively cuts off the screen
amplifier itself. Since the circuit is so pro - of the tetrode until the key is closed again.
pertioned that the lower- powered stage The RC circuit in the grid of the 6L6 tube
comes on first and goes off last, any keying determines the keying characteristic of the
chirp in the oscillator is not emitted on the tetrode tube.
air. Keying lag is applied to the high -powered
A more elaborate screen -grid keyer is
keyed stage only.
shown in figures 15 and 16. This keyer is
designed to block -grid key the oscillator or
19 -7 Screen -Grid Keying a low- powered buffer stage, and to screen -
key a medium -powered tetrode tube such as
The screen circuit of a tetrode tube may an 807, 2E26 or 6146. The unit described
be keyed for c -w operation. Unfortunately, includes a simple dual -voltage power supply

Figure 15

TOP VIEW OF SCREEN -


GRID KEYER SHOWN IN
FIGURE 16
A
406 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

LOW POWER SUPPER


6A67,6CL6,ETC

?N.V.

KEYER UNIT
ILOCA/NIfA/O VOLTASE OurPY/r 7O SCFEENOr
/
IOr
O POINT KEY UP KEY DOWN

VOLTS
I
0

TIME
-\
- VOLTS
TIME
A
B

C
-35
-110

-110
340
O

0
0 375 375
6K6
E -275 -275

KEY 21K

470 K
2W

470K,I W

ION, SOMA.
SY3
5
SAX! /K/ NTR.
2AU
6AX3-GT I

4.7K,2W

350-0-350
50 MA.

IISV.ti

Figure 16

TWO -STAGE SCREEN -GRID KEYER UNIT

for the positive screen voltage of the tetrode, 19 -8 Differential Keying


and a negative supply for the keyer stages. A
6K6 is used as the screen keyer, and a 12AU7
Circuits
is used as a cathode follower and grid -block Excellent waveshaping may be obtained by
keyer. As in the figure 13 circuit, this keyer a differential keying system whereby the
turns on the exciter a moment before the master oscillator of the transmitter is turned
tetrode stage is turned on. The tetrode stage on a moment before the rest of the stages
goes off on instant before the exciter does. are energized, and remains on a moment
Thus any keying chirp of the oscillator is longer than the other stages. The chirp, or
effectively removed from the keyed signal. frequency shift, associated with abrupt
By listening in the receiver one can hear switching of the oscillator is thus removed
the exciter stop operating a fraction of a from the emitted signal. In addition, the
second after the tetrode stage goes off. In differential keyer can apply waveshaping to
fact, during rapid keying, the exciter may be the amplifier section of the transmitter, elim-
heard as a steady signal in the receiver, as it inating the click caused by rapid keying of
has appreciable time lag in the keying circuit. the latter stages.
The clipping effect of following stages has The ideal keying system would perform as
a definite hardening effect on this, however. illustrated in figure 17. When the key is

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Differential Keying 407

D .
o 6AL5 TO CATHODE
BLOCKING DIODES
O
V l
U

7
ti
D
rr
I-
3
CIRCUIT
KEYED STAGE
OF

. U
a
I70K
.

< r
O -250 V VACUUM-
TUBE
t CUTOFF VALVE KEYER
a. AMPLIFIER .oOl - ( F/G. lo )

O
1 KEY
CUTOFF
VALUE
OSC.
Figure 18
BLOCKING DIODES EMPLOYED TO VARY
TIME CONSTANT OF "MAKE" AND "BREAK"
j.--- KEY IS DEPRESSED -.
)

DURING THIS TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF VACUUM -TUBE


)

-PI
1

w-TRANSMITTER IS `ON THE KEYER


AIR DURING THIS TIME.

Figure 17 The rates of charge and decay in a typical


TIME SEQUENCE OF A RC keying circuit may be varied independ-
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER ently of each other by the blocking -diode
system of figure 18. Each diode permits the
charging current of the timing capacitor to
closed, the oscillator reaches maximum out- flow through only one of the two variable
put almost instantaneously. The following potentiometers, thus permitting independent
stages reach maximum output in a fashion adjustment of the "make" and "break" char-
determined by the waveshaping circuits of acteristics of the keying system.
the keyer. When the key is released, the out-
A practical differential keying system
put of the amplifier stages starts to decay in
a predetermined manner, followed shortly
making use of this differential technique is
thereafter by cessation of the oscillator. The shown in figure 19. A 6ALf switch tube
over -all result of these actions is to provide turns the oscillator on before the keying
relatively soft "make" and "break" to the action starts, and holds it on until after the
keyed signal, meanwhile preventing oscilla- keying sequence is completed. Time con-
tor frequency shift during the keying se- stant of the keying cycle is determined by
quence. values of C and R. When the key is open, a

OSCILLATOR BUFFER I BUFFER 2

6AL5
ZERO
BEAT
+300 V.
sI 7
1
ttOK 50 K
2w
OUTPUT
CONTROL
RI
100
2w

Figure 19

DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM WITH


OSCILLATOR SWITCHING DIODE
408 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO

V, V2 V3
OSCILLATOR BUFFER DRIVER

+300 V.
100 M 100 K
500 V4 0
I!
12A7 MEYER TUBE
6

KEY HI'
.005

R3 005

100 M 100K 47 M IOOM 330M _


VFO NOLO,
-50V.

Figure 20

DIFFERENTIAL KEYER USING A 12A7 DOUBLE TRIODE

cutoff bias of about -110 volts is applied vfo between marks of keyed characters, thus
to the screen -grid circuits of the keyed allowing rapid break -in operation.
stages. When the key is closed, the screen -
grid voltage rises to the normal value at a 19 -9 VOX Circuitry
rate determined by the time constant (RC).
On opening the key again, the screen volt-
age returns to cutoff value at the predeter- A form of VOX ( voice- operated trans-
mined rate. mission) is often employed in SSB operation.
The potentiometer (R1) serves as an out- The VOX circuitry makes use of a trans-
put control, varying the minimum internal mitter control relay that is actuated by the
resistance of the 12BH7 keyer tube, and is a operator's voice and is held open by an anti-
vox circuit actuated by the audio system of
useful device to limit power input during
the station receiver. Voice -controlled break -
tuneup periods. Excitation to the final amp-
in operation is thus made possible without
lifier stage may be controlled by the screen
annoying feedback from the receiver speaker.
potentiometer (R,) in the second buffer
stage. An external bias source of approxi-
mately -120 volts at 10 ma is required for PROM SPEECH VIA VON
ro CONTROL
MPLIFIER
operation of the kever, in addition to the ,412AT7
}
.01
6AL5
V3A
300 -volt screen supply. 2 2,6 1_ 100 12AT7
,00 K VF
Blocking voltage may be removed from vol
GAIN
100K
1001
the oscillator for zeroing purposes by closing R

switch S1, rendering the diode switch in- #,K


operative.
A second popular keying system is shown
in figure 20. Grid -block keying is used X110

on tubes V2 and V,. A waveshaping filter 1K NOOK VOS


we BALS
consisting of R2, R3, and C7 is used in - 12T7 2

the keying control circuit of V2 and V,. To 100 K 1


ANrI 2.2N
avoid chirp when the oscillator (V1) is VOl 00T
EAIN
keyed, the keyer tube V, allows the oscillator 10K
.0
0K
+200 V.

to start quickly-before V2 and V, start -%,f) OM


conducting -and then continue operating
until after V2 and V, have stopped con-
5n
FROM VOICE COIL
7 =
OF RECEIVER
ducting. Potentiometer R, adjusts the "hold" Figure 21
time for vfo operation after the key is
opened. This may be adjusted to cut off the A REPRESENTATIVE VOX CIRCUIT
HANDBOOK VOX Circuitry 409

A representative VOX system is illustrated in The antivox signal voltage is derived from
figure 21. The VOX signal voltage is taken the speaker circuit of the receiver, adjusted
from the speech amplifier of the SSB trans- to the proper amplitude by the antivox -gain
mitter and adjusted to the proper amplitude potentiometer and rectified by diode V_B to
by means of VOX -gain potentiometer. The provide a negative voice impulse which
signal is rectified by diode V2A and the posi- biases the vox diode (V_A) to a noncon-
tive voice impulses are applied to the grid of ducting state. The relay is held in a cut -off
the VOX relay tube (V,A) which is normal- position until a positive override signal from
ly biased to cutoff. An RC network in the the VOX circuit defeats the antivox signal
VOX rectifier circuit permits rapid relay ac- taken from the station receiver. The relay
tion yet delays the opening of the relay so tube may also be actuated by the manual
that VOX action is sustained during syl- switch which drops the bias level, causing
lables and between words. Delay periods of the tube to draw a heavy plate current and
up to 0.5 second are common. trip the VOX relay.
CHAPTER TWENTY

Radiation, Propagation,
and Transmission Lines

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurs at the open end of a wire. Therefore,
similar in nature to, but much lower in fre- a dipole has a great mismatch at each end,
quency than, light waves or heat waves. Such producing a high degree of reflection. We
waves represent electric energy traveling say that the ends of a dipole are terminated
through space. Radio waves travel in free in an infinite impedance.
space with the velocity of light and can be A returning wave which has been reflected
reflected and refracted much the same as meets the next incident wave, and the volt-
light waves. age and current at any point along the an-
tenna are the vector sum of the two waves.
20 -1 Radiation from an At the ends of the dipole, the voltages add,
Antenna while the currents of the two waves cancel,
thus producing high voltage and low current
Alternating current passing through a con- at the ends of the dipole or half -wave section
ductor creates an alternating electromagnetic of wire. In the same manner, it is found that
field around that conductor. Energy is alter- the currents add while the voltages cancel
nately stored in the field, and then returned at the center of the dipole. Thus, at the
to the conductor. As the frequency is raised, center there is high current but low voltage.
more and more of the energy does not return Inspection of figure 1 will show that the
to the conductor, but instead is radiated off current in a dipole decreases sinusoidally
into space in the form of electromagnetic toward either end, while the voltage similar-
waves, called radio waves. Radiation from a ly increases. The voltages at the two ends of
wire, or wires, is materially increased when- the antenna are 180 out of phase, which
ever there is a sudden change in the electrical means that the polarities are opposite, one
constants of the line. These sudden changes being plus while the other is minus at any
produce reflection, which places standing instant. A curve representing either the volt-
waves on the line. age or current on a dipole represents a stand-
When a wire in space is fed radio -fre- ing wave on the wire.
quency energy having a wavelength of ap-
proximately 2.1 times the length of the wire Radiation From Radiation can and does take
in meters, the wire resonates as a half -wave Sources Other place from sources other
dipole antenna at that wavelength or fre- Than Antennas than antennas. Undesired ra-
quency. The greatest possible change in the diation can take place from
electrical constants of a line is that which open -wire transmission lines, both from sin-

www.americanradiohistory.com
Antenna Characteristics 411

`.. __ '
VOLTAGE electrostatic lines of force will be vertical.
cwlwf't'"
CE-+_NTER
Likewise, a simple horizontal antenna will
waeKr radiate horizontally polarized waves.
.' \. `. Because the orientation of a simple linear
I
`
l

.
radiator is the same as the polarization of
the waves emitted by it, the radiator itself
IULLI-WAVE ANTENNA
is referred to as being either vertically or
horizontally polarized. Thus, we say that a
SHOWING HOW STANDING WAVES
MST ON A HORIZONTAL ANTENNA. horizontal antenna is horizontally polarized.
VOLTAGE
CURRENT IS hIAXIIPLISI AT CENTER.
VOLTAGE IS MAJUWUNI AT DIOS. Figure 2A illustrates the fact that the
polarization of the electric field of the radi-
Figure 1 ation from a vertical dipole is vertical.
Figure 2B, on the other hand, shows that
STANDING WAVES ON A RESONANT the polarization of electric -field radiation
ANTENNA from a vertical slot radiator is horizontal.
This fact has been utilized in certain com-
gle -wire lines and from lines comprised of mercial f -m antennas where it is desired to
more than one wire. In addition, radiation have horizontally polarized radiation but
can be made to take place in a very efficient where it is more convenient to use an array
manner from electromagnetic horns, from of vertically stacked slot arrays. If the me-
plastic lenses or from electromagnetic lenses tallic sheet is bent into a cylinder with the
made up of spaced conducting planes, from slot on one side, substantially omnidirection-
slots cut in a piece of metal, from dielectric al horizontal coverage is obtained with hor-
wires, or from the open end of a waveguide. izontally polarized radiation when the cyl-
inder with the slot in one side is oriented
Directivity of The radiation from any phys- vertically. An arrangement of this type is
Radiation ically practical radiating sys- shown in figure 2C. Several such cylinders
tm is directive to a certain may be stacked vertically to reduce high -
degree. The degree of directivity can be en- angle radiation and to concentrate the radi-
hanced or altered when desirable through the ated energy at the useful low radiation
combination of radiating elements in a pre- angles.
scribed manner, through the use of reflec- In any event the polarization of radiation
ting planes or curved surfaces, or through from a radiating system is parallel to the
the use of such systems as mentioned in the electric field as it is set up inside or in the
preceding paragraph. The construction of vicinity of the radiating system.
directive antenna arrays is covered in detail
in the chapters which follow. 20 -2 General Character-
Polarization Like light waves, radio waves istics of Antennas
can have a definite polarization. All antennas have certain general char-
In fact, while light waves ordinarily have to acteristics to be enumerated. It is the result
be reflected or passed through a polarizing of differences in these general characteristics
medium before they have a definite polari- which makes one type of antenna system
zation, a radio wave leaving a simple radi- most suitable for one type of application
ator will have a definite polarization, the and another type best for a different appli-
polarization being indicated by the orienta- cation. Six of the more important charac-
tion of the electric -field component of the teristics are: (1) polarization, (2) radiation
wave. This, in turn, is determined by the resistance, (3) horizontal directivity, (4)
orientation of the radiator itself, as the vertical directivity, (f) bandwidth, and
magnetic -field component is always at right (6) effective power gain.
angles to a linear radiator, and the electric - The polarization of an antenna or radi-
field component is always in the same plane ating system is the direction of the electric
as the radiator. Thus we see that an antenna field and has been defined in Section 20 -1.
that is vertical with respect to the earth will The radiation resistance of an antenna
transmit a vertically polarized wave, as the system is normally referred to the feed point
412 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

Figure 2

ANTENNA POLARIZATION
The polarization (electric field) of
the radiation from a resonant di-
pole such as shown at A is par-
allel to the length of the radia-
I ELECTRIC
FIELD
(POLARIZATION)
VERTICAL
tor. In the case of a resonant slot
cut in a sheet of metal and used as
a radiator, the polarization (of the
electric field) is perpendicular to the
2 O
length of the slot. In both cases,
however, the polarization of the
radiated field is parallel to the po-
tential gradient of the radiator; in ELECTRIC FIELD
the case of the dipole the electric (POLARIZATION)
lines of force are from end to end, HORIZONTAL
while in the case of the slot the
field is across the sides of the slot.
The metallic sheet containing the TO POINTS Al
FEEDERS CCOOKCT

Nil DE CYLINDER
slot may be formed into a cylinder
to make up the radiator shown at
C. With this type of radiator the
radiated field will be horizontally
polarized even though the radiator
Is mounted vertically.

in an antenna fed at a current loop, or it is may be expressed either as an actual power


referred to a current loop in an antenna ratio, or as is more common, the power ratio
system fed at another point. The radiation may be expressed in decibels.
resistance is that value of resistance which,
when substituted for the antenna at a Physical Length If the cross section of the
current loop, would dissipate the same ener- of a Half -Wave conductor which makes up
gy as is actually radiated by the antenna if Antenna the antenna is kept very
the antenna current at the feed point were small with respect to the
to remain the same. antenna length, an electrical half wave is a
The horizontal and vertical directivity fixed percentage shorter than a physical
can best be expressed as a directive pattern half wavelength. This percentage is approxi-
which is a graph showing the relative radi- mately f percent. Therefore, most linear
ated field intensity against azimuth angle half -wave antennas are close to 95 percent
for horizontal directivity and field intensity of a half wavelength long physically. Thus,
against elevation angle for vertical direc- a half -wave antenna resonant at exactly 80
tivity. meters would be one -half of 0.95 times 80
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure meters in length. Another way of saying
of its ability to operate within specified the same thing is that a wire resonates at a
limits over a range of frequencies. Band- wavelength of about 2.1 times its length in
width can be expessed as either operating fre- meters. If the diameter of the conductor be-
quency plus or minus a specified percent of gins to be an appreciable fraction of a wave-
operating frequency, or operating frequency length, as when tubing is used as a vhf
plus or minus a specified number of MHz radiator, the factor becomes slightly less
for a certain standing- wave -ratio limit on than 0.95. For the use of wire and not tub-
the transmission line feeding the antenna ing on frequencies below 30 MHz, however,
system. the figure of 0.95 may be taken as accurate.
The effective power gain or directive gain This assumes a radiator removed from sur-
of an antenna is the ratio between the power rounding objects, and with no bends.
required in the specified antenna and the Simple conversion into feet can be ob-
power required in a reference antenna (usu- tained by using the factor 1.56. To find the
ally a half -wave dipole) to attain the same physical length of a half -wave 80 -meter an-
field strength in the favored direction of the tenna, we multiply 80 times 1.56, and get
antenna under measurement. Directive gain 124.8 feet for the length of the radiator.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Characteristics 413

It is more common to use frequency than


wavelength when indicating a specific spot
in the radio spectrum. For this reason, the
relationship between wavelength and fre-
quency must be kept in mind. As the
velocity of radio waves through space is
constant at the speed of light, it will be seen
that the more waves that pass a point per
second (higher frequency), the closer to-
gether the peaks of those waves must be
(shorter wavelength). Therefore, the higher 40 20 b m 100 200 300 400 200 2G01000 2000 2000

RATIO LENGTH TO DIAMETER


the frequency, the lower will be the wave- OF

length. Figure 3
A radio wave in space can be compared to CHART SHOWING SHORTENING OF A RESO-
a wave in water. The wave, in either case,
NANT ELEMENT IN TERMS OF RATIO OF
has peaks and troughs. One peak and one LENGTH TO DIAMETER
trough constitute a full wave, or one wave-
length. The use of this chart is based on the basic
formula where radiator length in feet is
Frequency describes the number of wave equal to 468 /frequency in MHz. This formula
cycles or peaks passing a point per second. applies to fr ties below perhaps 30 MHz
when the radiator is made from wire. On
Wavelength describes the distance the wave higher frequencies, or on 14 and 28 MHz when
travels through space during one cycle or the radiator is made of large-diameter tubing,
the radiator is shortened from the value ob-
oscillation of the antenna current; it is the tained with the above formula by an amount
distance in meters between adjacent peaks or determined by the ratio of length to diameter
adjacent troughs of a wave train. of the radiator. The amount of this shortening
is obtainable from the chart shown above.
As a radio wave travels 300,000,000
meters a second (speed of light), a fre-
quency of 1 cycle per second (1 Hz) cor- Length of a half -wave radiator made from
responds to a wavelength of 300,000,000 wire (No. 14 to No. 10):
meters. So, if the frequency is multiplied by 3.5 -MHz to 30 -MHz bands
a million, the wavelength must be divided
by a million, in order to maintain their cor-
rect ratio.
Length in feet - 468
Freq. in MHz
A frequency of 1,000,000 cycles per sec-
ond (1000 kHz) equals a wavelength of
300 meters. Multiplying frequency by 10 50 -MHz band
and dividing wavelength by 10, we find: a
frequency of 10,000 kHz equals a wave- -
Length in feet
460
Freq. in MHz
length of 30 meters. Multiplying and divid-
ing by 10 again, we get: a frequency of
Length in inches -
5600
100,000 kHz equals 3 meters wavelength. Freq. in MHz
Therefore, to change wavelength to fre-
quency (in kilohertz), simply divide 300,-
000 by the wavelength in meters (X). 144 -MHz band
300,000 5500
Fkll> = X
Length in inches
Freq. in MHz
= 300,000 Length -to- Diameter a half -wave radi-
When
FkH. Ratio ator is constructed from
Now that we have a simple conversion tubing or rod whose
formula for converting wavelength to fre- diameter is an appreciable fraction of the
quency and vice versa, we can combine it length of the radiator, the resonant length
with our wavelength -versus-antenna length of a half-wave antenna will be shortened.
formula, and we have the following: The amount of shortening can be deter-
414 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO
mined with the aid of the chart of figure 3.
In this chart the amount of additional short-
- (K -.05) X 492
Freq. in MHz
ening over the values given in the previous
paragraph is plotted against the ratio of the where,
length to the diameter of the half -wave K equals number of %2 waves on antenna,
radiator. L equals length in feet.
The length of a wave in free space is Under conditions of severe current atten-
somewhat longer than the length of an an-
uation, it is possible for some of the nodes,
tenna for the same frequency. The actual or loops, actually to be slightly greater than
free -space half wavelength is given by the
a physical half wavelength apart. Practice
following expressions:
has shown that the most practical method of
Half wavelength - Freq. 492
in MHz
in feet
resonating a harmonically operated antenna
accurately is by cut and try, or by using a
feed system in which both the feedline and
Half wavelength -
5905
in inches antenna are resonated at the station end as
Freq. in MHz an integral system.
Harmonic A wire in space can resonate at A dipole or half -wave antenna is said to
Res more than one frequency. The operate on its fundamental or first harmonic.
lowest frequency at which it A full -wave antenna, 1 wavelength long,
resonates is called its fundamental frequency, operates on its second harmonic. An antenna
and at that frequency it is approximately a with five half wavelengths on it would be
half wavelength long. A wire can have two, operating on its fifth harmonic. Observe that
three, four, five, or more standing waves on the fifth harmonic antenna is 21/2 wave-
it, and thus it resonates at approximately lengths long, not 5 wavelengths.
the integral harmonics of its fundamental
Antenna Most types of antennas operate
frequency. However, the higher harmonics
Resonance most efficiently when tuned, or
are not exactly integral multiples of the
lowest resonant frequency as a result of end resonated, to the frequency of
effects. operation. This consideration of course does
A harmonic -operated antenna is somewhat
not apply to the rhombic antenna and to the
longer than the corresponding integral num- parasitic elements of Yagi arrays. However,
ber of dipoles, and for this reason, the dipole
length formula cannot be used simply by 000
multiplying by the corresponding harmonic. DI .4

The intermediate half -wave sections do not


have end effects. Also, the current distribu-
*NI
tion is disturbed by the fact that power
can reach some of the half -wave sections
only by flowing through other sections, the
latter then acting not only as radiators, but 1

Di -,
also as transmission lines. For the latter rea-
son, the resonant length will be dependent Figure 4
to an extent on the method of feed, as there
will be less attenuation of the current along EFFECT OF SERIES INDUCTANCE AND CA-
the antenna if it is fed at or near the center PACITANCE ON THE LENGTH OF A HALF -
than if fed toward or at one end. Thus, the WAVE RADIATOR
antenna would have to be somewhat longer The top antenna has been electrically length-
if fed near one end than if fed near the ened by placing a coil in series with the cen-
ter. In other words, an antenna with a lumped
center. The difference would be small, how- inductance in its center can be made shorter
ever, unless the antenna were many wave- for a given frequency than a plain wire radia-
tor. The bottom antenna has been capacitive-
lengths long. ly shortened electrically. In other words, an
The length of a center -fed harmonically antenna with a capacitor in series with it must
be made longer for a given frequency since its
operated doublet may be found from the effective electrical length as compared to plain
formula: wire is shorter.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Radiation Resistance 415
10000 +6000
IJDIAMETER= T5650

6000 +5000

DIAMETER-
000 +4000

7000- +7000

r:I
_
h
6000
+2
_
5000. 2 +1

,/am
u
4000
DI
2

u
% DIAMETLR' -,
_

I/m I/
10
3000 1000
O:
1-
2000 z 2000

1000
0 3000
W
4
0
0.15A 05) LOA 1.51 2.0) 2.51
OVER -ALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
5000
Figure 5

FEED -POINTRESISTANCE OF A CENTER - 6


0151 0.5) 1.01 1.51 2.01 251
DRIVEN RADIATOR AS A FUNCTION OF OVER -ALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
PHYSICAL LENGTH IN TERMS CF FREE Figure 6
SPACE WAVELENGTH
REACTIVE COMPONENT OF THE FEED -POINT
IMPEDANCE OF A CENTER -DRIVEN RADIA-
n practically every other case it will be TOR AS A FUNCTION OF PHYSICAL LENGTH
found that increased efficiency results when IN TERMS OF FREE -SPACE WAVELENGTH
the entire antenna system is resonant,
whether it be a simple dipole or an elaborate
array. The radiation efficiency of a resonant ciency; it simply indicates a sharper reso-
wire is many times that of a wire which is nance curve.
not resonant.
If an antenna slightly too long, it can
is
20 -3 Radiation Resistance
be resonated by series insertion of a variable and Feed -point Impedance
capacitor at a high -current point. If it is
slightly too short, it can be resonated by In many ways, a half -wave antenna is
means of a variable inductance. These two like a tuned tank circuit. The main differ-
methods, illustrated schematically in figure ence lies in the fact that the elements of
4, are generally employed when part of the inductance, capacitance, and resistance are
antenna is brought into the operating room. lumped in the tank circuit, and are distri-
With an antenna array, or an antenna fed buted throughout the length of an antenna.
by means of a transmission line, it is more The center of a half -wave radiator is effec-
common to cut the elements to exact reso- tive at ground potential as far as r -f voltage
nant length by "cut- and -try" procedure. is concerned, although the current is highest
Exact antenna resonance is more important at that point.
when the antenna system has low radiation When the antenna is resonant, and it al-
resistance; an antenna with low radiation ways should be for best results, the imped-
resistance has higher Q (tunes sharper) than ance at the center is substantially resistive,
an antenna with high radiation resistance. and is termed the radiation resistance. Radi-
The higher Q does not indicate greater effi- ation resistance is a fictitious term; it is that
416 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines

value of resistance (referred to the current


loop) which would dissipate the same
amount of power as being radiated by the
antenna, when fed with the current flowing
at the current loop.
The radiation resistance depends on the
antenna length and its proximity to nearby
objects which either absorb or re- radiate
power, such as the ground, other wires, etc.
The Marconi
Antenna
Before going too far with the
discussion of radiation resist-
ance, an explanation of the
Marconi (grounded quarter-wave) antenna
is in order. The Marconi antenna is a special
type of Hertz antenna in which the earth
acts as the "other half" of the dipole. In
other words, the current flows into the earth
instead of into a similar quarter -wave sec-
tion. Thus, the current loop of a Marconi
antenna is at the base rather than in the
center.
A half -wave dipole far from ground and
other reflecting objects has a radiation re-
sistance at the center of about 73 ohms. A
Marconi antenna is simply one -half of a
dipole. For that reason, the radiation resist-
ance is roughly half the 73 -ohm impedance
of the dipole, or 36i ohms. The radiation
resistance of a Marconi antenna, such as a
mobile whip, will be lowered by the prox-
imity of the automobile body.
Antenna
Impedance
Because the power throughout
the antenna is the same, the im-
pedance of a resonant antenna
at any point along its length merely expresses
the ratio between voltage and current at
that point. Thus, the lowest impedance oc-
curs where the current is highest, namely, at
the center of a dipole, or a quarter wave
from the end of a Marconi. The impedance
0
t
\\'I\
/1i
112:11
.23

II\v7
I11
.1

\NV\2101
N';;ii'f^

15\U/!i1
11i
=11
11
1111NImrI
IM11PW111
1111
. .2
.
.4

.1 .4
THE RADIO

HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF CENTER OF VERTICAL


HALF -WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND

111
.5

WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND

Figure 7

EFFECT OF HEIGHT ON THE RADIATION RE-


SISTANCE OF A DIPOLE SUSPENDED ABOVE
PERFECT GROUND

ground, since the height determines the


phase and amplitude of the wave reflected
from the ground back to the antenna. Thus
S

the resultant current in the antenna for a


given power is a function of antenna height.
Center -Fed When a linear radiator is series
Feed -Point fed at the center, the resistive
Impedance and reactive components of the
.1

.7

HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF HORIZONTAL HALF -

driving -point impedance are de-


pendent on both the length and diameter of
the radiator expressed in wavelengths. The
manner in which the resistive component
varies with the physical dimensions of the
radiator is illustrated in figure S. The man-
ner in which the reactive component varies
is illustrated in figure 6.
.1
.7

.a
.73

1A

rises uniformly toward each end, where it Several interesting things will be noted
is about 2000 ohms for a dipole remote from with respect to these curves. The reactive
ground, and about twice as high for a verti- component disappears when the over -all
cal Marconi. physical length is slightly less than any num-
If a vertical half -wave antenna is set up ber of half waves long, the differential in-
so that its lower end is at the ground level, creasing with conductor diameter. For over-
the effect of the ground reflection is to in- all lengths in the vicinity of an odd number
crease the radiation resistance to approxi- of half wavelengths, the center feed point
mately 100 ohms. When a horizontal half - looks like a series -resonant lumped circuit to
wave antenna is used, the radiation resist- the generator or transmission line, while
ance (and, of course, the amout of energy for over -all lengths in the vicinity of an
radiated for a given antenna current) de- cien number of half wavelengths, it looks
pends on the height of the antenna above like a parallel- resonant or antiresonant

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Impedance 417

lumped circuit. Both the feed -point resist- The radiation resistance of an antenna
ance and the feed -point reactance change generally increases with length, although
more slowly with over -all radiator length this increase varies up and down about a
(or with frequency with a fixed length) as constantly increasing average. The peaks and
the conductor diameter is increased, indi- dips are caused by the reactance of the an-
cating that the effective Q is lowered as the tenna, when its length does not allow it to
diameter is increased. However, in view of resonate at the operating frequency.
the fact that the damping resistance is
nearly all radiation resistance rather than Antenna Antennas have a certain loss re-
loss resistance, the lower Q does not repre- Efficiency sistance as well as a radiation re-
sent lower efficiency. Therefore, the lower Q sistance. The loss resistance defines
is desirable, because it permits use of the the power lost in the antenna due to ohm-
radiator over a wider frequency range with- ic resistance of the wire, ground resistance
out resorting to means for eliminating the (in the case of a Marconi), corona dis-
reactive component. Thus, the use of a charge, and insulator losses.
large diameter conductor makes the over -all The approximate effective radiation effi-
system less frequency sensitive. If the diam- ciency (expressed as a decimal) is equal to:
eter is made sufficiently large in terms of
wavelengths, the Q will be low enough to Ra
qualify the radiator as a broadband anten- N` R. + Rr.
na.
The curves of figure 7 indicate the theo- where,
retical center -point radiation resistance of a R;, equals the radiation resistance,
half -wave antenna for various heights above R1, equals loss resistance of antenna.
perfect ground. These values are of im- The loss resistance will be of the order of
portance in matching untuned radio -fre- 0.25 ohm for large- diameter tubing con-
auency feeders to the antenna, in order to ductors such as are most commonly used in
obtain a good impedance match and an ab- multi -element parasitic arrays, and will be of
sence of standing waves on the feeders. the order of 0.5 to 2.0 ohms for arrays of
normal construction using copper wire.
Ground Losses Above average ground, the When the radiation resistance of an an-
actual radiation resistance of tenna or array is very low, the current at a
a dipole will vary from the exact value of voltage node will be quite high for a given
figure 7 since the latter assumes a hypothet- power. Likewise, the voltage at a current
ical, perfect ground having no loss and per- node will be very high. Even with a heavy
fect reflection. Fortunately, the curves for conductor and excellent insulation, the losses
the radiation resistance over most types of due to the high voltage and current will be
earth will correspond rather closely with appreciable if the radiation resistance is suf-
those of the chart, except that the radiation ficiently low.
resistance for a horizontal dipole does not Usually, it is not considered desirable to
fall off as rapidly as is indicated for heights use an antenna or array with a radiation re-
below an eighth wavelength. However, with sistance of less than approximately 5 ohms
the antenna so close to the ground and the unless there is sufficient directivity, com-
soil in a strong field, much of the radiation pactness, or other advantage to offset the
resistance is actually represented by ground losses resulting from the low radiation re-
loss; this means that a good portion of the sistance.
antenna power is being dissipated in the
earth, which, unlike the hypothetical perfect Ground The radiation resistance of a
ground, has resistance. In this case, an ap- Resistance Marconi antenna, especially,
preciable portion of the radiation resistance should be kept as high as pos-
actually is loss resistance. The type of soil sible. This will reduce the antenna current
also has an effect upon the radiation pattern, for a given power, thus minimizing loss re-
especially in the vertical plane, as will be sulting from the series resistance offered by
seen later. the earth connection. The radiation resist-
418 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

ance can be kept high by making the Mar- A half -wave resonant doublet, because of
coni radiator somewhat longer than a quar- its different current distribution and signifi-
ter wave, and shortening it by series ca- cant length, exhibits slightly more free -space
pacitance to an electrical quarter wave. This power gain as a result of directivity than
reduces the current flowing in the earth con- does the infinitesimal dipole, for reasons
nection. It also should be removed from which will be explained in a later section.
ground as much as possible (vertical being The space- directivity power gain of a half -
ideal). Methods of minimizing the resistance wave resonant doublet is 1.63 (or 2.15 db)
of the earth connection will be found in the referred to an isotropic radiator.
discussion of the Marconi antenna.
Horizontal When choosing and orienting an
20-4 Antenna Directivity Directivity antenna system, the radiation
All practical antennas radiate better in patterns of the various common
some directions than others. This character- types of antennas should be given careful
istic is called directivity. The more directive consideration. The directional characteristics
an antenna is, the more it concentrates the are of still greater importance when a di-
radiation in a certain direction, or direc- rective antenna array is used.
tions. The more the radiation is concen-
trated in a certain direction, the greater will
be the field strength produced in that direc-
tion for a given amount of total radiated
power. Thus the use of a directional an-
tenna or array produces the same result in
the favored direction as an increase in the
power of the transmitter.
The increase in radiated power in a cer-
tain direction with respect to an antenna in
free space as a result of inherent directivity
is called the free -space directivity power gain
II Er
or just space directivity gain of the antenna
(referred to a hypothetical isotropic radiator
II 51111111
which is assumed to radiate equally well in
all directions). Because the fictitious iso-
tropic radiator is a purely academic antenna,
`MEW/MIME M
not physically realizable, it is common prac-
tice to use as a reference antenna the sim-
plest ungrounded resonant radiator, the half - .s
wave dipole, or resonant doublet. As a half - .3
wave doublet has a space directivity gain of .1

2.15 db over an isotropic radiator, the use of o


14 12 g 2 0
a resonant dipole as the comparison antenna WAVE ANGLE IN DEGREES
reduces the gain figure of an array by 2.15
db. However, it should be understood that Figure 8
power gain can be expressed with regard to VERTICAL -PLANE DIRECTIONAL CHARAC-
any antenna, just so long as it is specified. TERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTI-
As a matter of interest, the directivity of CAL DOUBLETS ELEVATED 0.6 WAVE-
an infinitesimal dipole provides a free -space LENGTH AND ABOVE TWO TYPES OF
directivity power gain of 1.5 (or 1.76 db) GROUND
over an isotropic radiator. This means that
H, represents a horizontal doublet over typi-
in the direction of maximum radiation the cal farmland. H, over salt water. V, is a verti-
infinitesimal dipole will produce the same cal pattern of radiation from a vertical doub-
field of strength as an isotropic radiator let over typical farmland, V, over salt water.
A salt water ground Is the closest approach to
which is radiating 1.5 times as much total an extensive ideally perfect ground that will
power. be met In actual practice.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Directivity 419

Horizontal directivity is always desirable points. This means, of course, that more
on any frequency for point -to -point work. than one angle of radiation can be used. If
However, it is not always attainable with no elevation directivity is being used under
reasonable antenna dimensions on the lower th;s condition of propagation, selective fad-
frequencies. Further, when it is attainable, as ing will take place because of interference
on the frequencies above perhaps 7 MHz, between the waves arriving over the dif-
with reasonable antenna dimensions, oper- ferent paths.
ating convenience is greatly furthered if the On the 28 -MHz band it is by far the
maximum lobe of the horizontal directivity most common condition that only one mode
is controllable. It is for this reason that ro- of propagation will be possible between two
tatable antenna arrays have come into such points at any one time. This explains, of
common usage. course, the reason why rapid fading in gen-
Considerable horizontal directivity can be eral and selective fading in particular are
used to advantage when: (1) only point -to- almost absent from signals heard on the 28-
point work is necessary, (2) several arrays MHz band (except for fading caused by
are available so that directivity may be local effects).
changed by selecting or reversing antennas, Measurements have shown that the angles
(3) a single rotatable array is in use. Signals useful for communication on the 14 -MHz
follow the great- circle path, or within 2 or band are from 3 to about 30 , angles
3 degrees of that path under all normal above about 15 being useful only for local
propagation conditions. However, under work. On the 28 -MHz band, measurements
turbulent ionospheric conditions, or when have shown that the useful angles range
unusual propagation conditions exist, the from about 3 to 180; angles above about
deviation from the great- circle path for 12 being useful only for local (less than
greatest signal intensity may be as great as 3000 miles) work. These figures assume
90. Making the array rotatable overcomes normal propagation by virtue of the F_
these difficulties, but arrays having extremely layer.
high horizontal directivity become too cum-
bersome to be rotated, except perhaps when Angle of Radiation It now becomes of in-
desiened for operation on frequencies above of Typical Antennas terest to determine the
50 MHz. and Arrays amount of radiation
Vertical Vertical directivity is of the available at these useful
Directivity greatest importance in obtain- lower angles of radiation from commonly
used antennas and antenna arrays. Figure 8
ing satisfactory communication
shows relative output voltage plotted against
above 14 MHz whether or not horizontal
directivity is used. This is true simply be- elevation angle (wave angle) in degrees
above the horizontal, for horizontal and
cause only the energy radiated between
certain definite elevation angles is useful for vertical doublets elevated 0.6 wavelength
communication. Energy radiated at other above two types of ground. It is obvious by
elevation angles is lost and performs no use- inspection of the curves that a horizontal
ful function. dipole mounted at this height above ground
(20 feet on the 28 -MHz band) is radiating
Optimum Angle The optimum angle of ra- only a small amount of energy at angles use-
of Radiation diation for propagation of ful for communication on the 28 -MHz
signals between two points band. Most of the energy is being radiated
is dependent on a number of variables. uselessly upward. The vertical antenna above
Among these significant variables are: (1) a good reflecting surface appears much bet-
height of the ionosphere layer which is pro- ter in this respect -and this fact has been
viding the reflection, (2) distance between proven many times by actual installations.
the two stations, (3) number of hops for It might immediately be thought that the
propagation between the two stations. For amount of radiation from a horizontal or
communication on the 14 -MHz band it is vertical dipole could be increased by raising
often possible for different modes of propa- the antenna higher above the ground. This is
gation to provide signals between two true to an extent in the case of the hori-
420 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

Figure 9

VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns for half -wave antennas
(or collinear half -wave or ex-
tended half -wave antennas) at
dill heights above average
ground and perfect ground. Note
that such antennas one- quarter
wave above ground concentrate
most of the radiation at the
very high angles which are use-
ful for communication only on
the lower- frequency bands. An-
tennas one -half wave above
ground are not shown, but the
POWER OUTPUT elevation pattern shows one
lobe on each side at an angle
of 30 above horizontal.

zontal dipole; the low -angle radiation does radiation to high -angle radiation it is neces-
increase slowly after a height of 0.6 wave- sary to place the antenna high above ground,
length is reached but at the expense of and in addition it is necessary to use addi-
greatly increased high -angle radiation and tional means for suppressing high -angle ra-
the formation of a number of nulls in the diation.
elevation pattern. No signal can be trans-
mitted or received at the elevation angles Suppression of High -angle radiation can be
where these nulls have been formed. Tests High -ongle suppressed, and this radiation
have shown that a center height of 0.6 Radiation can be added to that going
wavelength for a vertical dipole (0.35 wave- out at low angles, only
length to the bottom end) is about optimum through the use of some sort of directive
for this type of array. antenna system. There are three general
Figure 9 shows the effect of placing a types of antenna arrays composed of dipole
horizontal dipole at various heights above elements commonly used which concentrate
ground. It is easily seen by reference to fig- radiation at the lower more effective angles
ure 9 (and figure 10 which shows the radi- for high- frequency communication. These
ation from a dipole at 3/4 wave height) that types are: (1) The close -spaced out -of -phase
a large percentage of the total radiation system as exemplified by the "flat -top"
from the dipole is being radiated at relative- beam, or WBJK array. Such configurations
ly high angles which are useless for commu- are classified as end -fire arrays . (2) The wide -
nication on the 14 -MHz and 28 -MHz bands. spaced in -phase arrays, as exemplified by the
Thus we see that in order to obtain a worth- "Lazy H" antenna. These configurations are
while increase in the ratio of low -angle classified as broadside arrays. (3) The close-

Figure 10

VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing vertical -plane radiation
patterns of a horizontal single-
section flat-top beam with one-
eighth wave spacing (solid
curves) and a horizontal half -
wave antenna (dashed curves)
when both are 0.S wavelength
(A) and 0.75 wavelength (D)
above ground.
GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Bandwidth 421

Figure 11

COMPARATIVE VERTICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns of a horizontal single -
section flat -top beam (A), an ar-
ray of two stacked horizontal
in -phase half -wave elements -
half of a "Lazy H " -(S), and a
horizontal dipole (C). In each
case the top of the antenna sys-
tem is 0.75 wavelength above
ground, as shown to the left of
the curves.
1.0 1. 2.0 z.s

spaced parasitic systems, as exemplified by its bandwidth will be greater than that of a
the three -element rotary beam. similar array constructed of single wires.
A comparison between the radiation from The radiation resistance of antenna arrays
a dipole, a "flat -top beam" and a pair of of the types mentioned in the previous para-
dipoles stacked one above the other (half of graphs may be increased through the use of
a "lazy H "), in each case with the top of wider spacing between elements. With in-
the antenna at a height of 3/4 wavelength is creased radiation resistance in such arrays
shown in figure 11. The improvement in the the radiation efficiency increases since the
amplitude of low -angle radiation at the ex- ohmic losses within the conductors become a
pense of the useless high -angle radiation with smaller percentage of the radiation resist-
these simple arrays as contrasted to the ance, and the bandwidth is increased pro-
dipole is quite marked. portionately.
Figure 12 compares the patterns of a 3-
element beam and a dipole radiator at a 20 -6 Propagation of
height of 0.75 wavelength. It will be noticed Radio Waves
that although there is more energy in the The preceding sections have discussed the
lobe of the beam as compared to the dipole, manner in which an electromagnetic -wave
the axis of the beam is at the same angle
above the horizontal. Thus, although more
Nsw \
radiated energy is provided by the beam at
low angles, the average angle of radiation of A-DIPOLE
the beam is no lower than the average angle B-3- ELEMENT
PARASITIC ARRAY
of radiation of the dipole.

20 -5 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna or an an-
tenna array is a function primarily of the
radiation resistance and of the shape of the
conductors which make up the antenna
system. For arrays of essentially similar con- .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.S SA z.s 4.0
struction the bandwidth (or the deviation GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
in frequency which the system can handle Figure 12
without mismatch) is increased with in- VERTICAL RADIATION PATTERNS
creasing radiation resistance, and the band- Showing vertical radiation patterns of a hori-
width is increased with the use of con- zontal dipole (A) and a horizontal 3- element
parasitic array (B) at a height above ground
ductors of large diameter (smaller ratio of of 0.75 wavelength. Note that the axes of the
length to diameter) . This is to say that main radiation lobes are at the same angle
if an array of any type is constructed above the horizontal. Note also the suppres-
sion of high angle radiation by the parasitic
of large diameter tubing or spaced wires, array.

www.americanradiohistory.com
422 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

known as an ionospheric wave or a sky wave.


DIRCCT WAVE Such waves make possible long distance
radio communication. Propagation of radio
signals by ionospheric waves is discussed in
(CCRDUND-RCFLCCTCD
WAVE
detail in Section 20 -8.
S'

0SURFACE WAVE 20 -7 Ground -Wave


Communication
Figure 13
As stated in the preceding paragraph, the
GROUND -WAVE SIGNAL PROPAGATION term ground wave applies both to the cur -
The illustration above shows the three com- face wave and to the space wave (the resul-
ts of the ground wave: A, the surface
wave; e, the direct wave; and C, the tant wave from the combination of the
ground -reflected wave. The direct wave and direct wave and the ground -reflected wave)
the ground- reflected wave combine at the re- or to a combination of the two. The three
ceiving antenna to make up the space wave.
waves which may combine to make up the
ground wave are illustrated in figure 13.
or radio -wave field may be set up by a radi- The Surface Wave The surface wave is that
ating system. However, for this field to be wave which we normally
useful for communication it must be propa- receive from a standard broadcast station.
gated to some distant point where it can be It travels directly along the ground and
received, or where it may be reflected so terminates on the earth's surface. Since the
that it can be received at some other point. earth is a relatively poor conductor, the sur-
Radio waves may be propagated to a remote face wave is attenuated quite rapidly. The
point by either or both of two general meth- surface wave is attenuated less rapidly as it
ods. Propagation may take place as a result passes over sea water, and the attenuation
of the ground wave, or as a result of the decreases for a specific distance as the fre-
sky wave or ionospheric wave. quency is decreased. The rate of attenuation
with distance becomes so large as the fre-
The Ground Wove The term ground wave quency is increased above about 3 MHz that
actually includes several the surface wave becomes of little value for
different types of waves which usually are communication.
called: (1) the surface wave, (2) the direct The Space Wave The resultant wave or space
wave, and (3) the ground-reflected ware. wave is illustrated in fig-
The latter two waves combine at the re- ure 13 by the combination of B and C. It
ceiving antenna to form the resultant wave is this wave path, which consists of the
or the space ware. The distinguishing char- combination of the direct wave and the
acteristic of the components of the ground ground -reflected wave at the receiving an-
wave is that all travel along or over the tenna, which is the normal path of signal
surface of the earth, so that they are af- propagation for line -of -sight or near line -of-
fected by the conductivity and terrain of sight communication or f -m and TV recep-
the earth's surface. tion on frequencies above about 40 MHz.
Below line -of -sight over plane earth or
The Ionospheric Wove Intense bombardment water, when the signal source is effectively
or Sky Wave of the upper regions at the horizon, the ground- reflected wave
of the atmosphere by does not exist, so that the direct wave is the
radiations from the sun results in the for- only component which goes to make up the
mation of ionized layers. These ionized lay- space wave. But when both the signal source
ers, which form the ionosphere, have the and the receiving antenna are elevated with
capability of reflecting or refracting radio respect to the intervening terrain, the
waves which impinge on them. A radio wave ground- reflected wave is present and adds
which has been propagated as a result of one vectorially to the direct wave at the receiv-
or more reflections from the ionosphere is ing antenna. The vectorial addition of the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Ground -Wave Communication 423

two waves, which travel over different path refraction and diffraction of the signal
lengths (since one of the waves has been around the spherical earth cause a smaller
reflected from the ground) results in an reduction in field strengththan would oc-
interference pattern. The interference be- cur in the absence of such bending, so that
tween the two waves brings about a cyclic the average radio horizon is somewhat be-
variation in signal strength as the receiving yond the geometrical horizon. The equation
antenna is raised above the ground. This d = 1.4 V H is sometimes used for deter-
effect is illustrated in figure 14. From this mining the radio horizon.
figure it can be seen that best spacewave
reception of a vhf signal often will be ob- Tropospheric Propagation by signal bending
tained with the receiving antenna quite close Propagation in the lower atmosphere, called
to the ground. tropospheric propagation, can
The distance from an elevated point to result in the reception of signals over a
the geometrical horizon is given by the ap- much greater distance than would be the
proximate equation: d = 1.22-V H where case if the lower atmosphere were homo-
distance d is in miles and antenna height H geneous. In a homogeneous or well -mixed
is in feet. This equation must be applied
lower atmosphere, called a normal, or stand-
separately to the transmitting and receiving ard, atmosphere, there is a gradual and uni-
antennas and the results added. However, form decrease in index of refraction with
height. This effect is due to the combined
effects of a decrease in temperature, pressure,
TRANSMITTING and water -vapor content with height.
ANTENNA DI ,DIRECT WAVES
This gradual decrease in refractive index
with height causes waves radiated at very
low angles with respect to the horizontal to
be bent downward slightly in a curved path.
RECEIVING
The result of this effect is that such waves
GROUND - REFLECTED
WAVES
Da Da ANTENNA
AT DIFFERENT
will be propagated beyond the trite, or geo-
HEIGHTS metrical, horizon. In a so- called standard
atmosphere the effect of the curved path is
Figure 14 the same as though the radius of the earth
WAVE INTERFERENCE WITH HEIGHT
were increased by approximately one -third.
This condition extends the horizon by ap-
When the source of a horizontally -polarized proximately 30 percent for normal propa-
space -wave signal is above the horizon, the
received signal at a distant location will go gation, and the extended horizon is known
through a cyclic variation as the antenna as the radio -path horizon, mentioned before.
height is progressively raised. This is due to
the diff in total path length between Conditions Leading to When the tempera -
the direct wave and the ground -reflected Tropospheric
wave, and to the fact that this path length ture, pressure, or wa-
diff changes with antenna height. Stratification ter -vapor content of
When the path length diff is such that
the two waves arrive at the receiving anten-
the atmosphere does
na with a phase diff f 360 or some not change smoothly with rising altitude, the
multiple of 360 , the two waves will appear discontinuity or stratification will result in
to be in phase as far as the antenna is con -
d and maximum signal will be obtained. the reflection or refraction of incident vhf
On the other hand, when the antenna height sienils. Ordinarily this condition is more
is such that the path length difference for the prevalent at night and in the summer. In
two waves causes the waves to arrive with a
phase difference of an odd multiple of 180 certain areas, such as along the west coast
the two waves will substantially cancel, and a of North America, it is frequent enough to
null will be obtained at that antenna height.
The diff between D, and D. plus D, is be considered normal. Signal strength de-
the path-length difference. Note also that creases slowly with distance and, if the
there is an additional 180 phase shift in the favorable condition in the lower atmosphere
ground -reflected wave at the point where it is
reflected from the ground. It is this latter covers sufficient area, the range is limited
phase shift which causes the space -wave field only by the transmitter power, antenna gain,
intensity of a horizontally polarized wave to
be zero with the receiving antenna at ground receiver sensitivity, and signal -to -noise ratio.
level. There is no skip distance. Usually, transmis-
424 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

sion due to this condition is accompanied by 15). However, such ducts usually are formed
slow fading, although fading can be violent only on an over -water path. The depth of
at a point where direct waves of about the the duct over the water's surface may be
same strength are also received. only 20 to 50 feet, or it may be 1000 feet
Bending in the troposphere, which refers deep or more. Ducts exhibit a low- frequency
to the region from the earth's surface up to cutoff characteristic similar to a waveguide.
about 10 kilometers, is more likely to occur The cutoff frequency is determined by depth
on days when there are stratus clouds than of the duct and by the strength of the dis-
on clear, cool days with a deep blue sky. continuity in refractive index at the upper
The temperature or humidity discontinuities surface of the duct. The lowest frequency
may be broken up by vertical convection that can be propagated by such a duct sel-
currents over land in the daytime but are dom goes below 50 MHz, and usually will
more likely to continue during the day over not be greater than 450 MHz even along
water. This condition is in some degree pre- the Pacific Coast.
dictable from weather information several
days in advance. It does not depend on the Stratospheric Communication by virtue of
sunspot cycle. Like direct communication, Reflection stratospheric reflection can be
best results require similar antenna polariza- brought about during magnetic
tion or orientation at both the transmitting storms, aurora borealis displays, and during
and receiving ends, whereas in transmission meteor showers. DX communication during
via reflection in the ionosphere (that part extensive meteor showers is characterized by
of the atmosphere between about 50 and frequent bursts of great signal strength fol-
500 kilometers high) it makes little differ- lowed by a rapid decline in strength of the
ence whether antennas are similarly polar- received signal. The motion of the meteor
ized. forms an ionized trail of considerable extent
Duct Formation When bending conditions are which can bring about effective reflection of
particularly favorable they signals. However, the ionized region persists
may give rise to the formation of a duct only for a matter of seconds so that a shower
which can propagate waves with very little of meteors is necessary before communica-
attenuation over great distances in a manner tion becomes possible.
similar to the propagation of waves through The type of communication which is pos-
a waveguide. Guided propagation through
sible during visible displays of the aurora
a duct in the atmosphere can give quite re-
borealis and during magnetic storms has
markable transmission conditions (figure been called aurora-type DX. These condi-
tions reach a maximum somewhat after the
sunspot cycle peak, possibly because the spots
on the sun are nearer to its equator (and
more directly in line with the earth) in the
latter part of the cycle. Ionospheric storms
generally accompany magnetic storms. The
INVERS-ION
I

_t _ normal layers of the ionosphere may be


D T
churned or broken up, making radio trans-
mission over long distances difficult or im-
INVERSION AND DUCT possible on high frequencies. Unusual condi-
tions in the ionosphere sometimes modulate
REFRACTIVE INDEX vhf waves so that a definite tone or noise
modulation is noticed even on transmitters
Figure 15 located only a few miles away.
ILLUSTRATING DUCT TYPES A peculiarity of this type of auroral prop-
agation of vhf signals in the northern hem-
Showing two types of variation in refractive
index with height which will give rise to the isphere is that directional antennas usually
formation of a duct. An elevated duct is must be pointed in a northerly direction for
shown at A, and a ground -based duct is
shown at B. Such ducts can propagate ground-
best results for transmission or reception. re-
wave signals far beyond their normal range. gardless of the direction of the other station

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Ionospheric Propagation 425

being contacted. Distances out to 700 or the earth. Thus we see that high- frequency
800 miles have been covered during magnetic radio waves may travel over short distances
storms, using 30- and S0 -MHz transmitters, in a direct line from the transmitter to the
with little evidence of any silent zone be- receiver, or they can be radiated upward into
tween the stations communicating with each the ionosphere to be bent downward in an
other. Generally, voice- modulated transmis- indirect ray, returning to earth at consider-
sions are difficult or impossible due to the able distance from the transmitter. The
tone or noise modulation on the signal. Most wave reaching a receiver via the ionosphere
of the communication of this type has route is termed a sky wave. The wave reach-
taken place by c.w. or by tone -modulated ing a receiver by traveling in a direct line
waves with a keyed carrier. from the transmitting antenna to the re-
ceiving antenna is commonly called a ground
20 -8 Ionospheric wave.
The amount of bending at the ionosphere
Propagation which the sky wave can undergo depends
on its frequency, and the amount of ioniza-
Propagation of radio waves for communi- tion in the ionosphere, which is in turn de-
cation on frequencies between perhaps 3 and pendent on radiation from the sun. The sun
30 MHz is normally carried out by virtue of increases the density of the ionosphere layers
ionospheric reflection or refraction. Under (figure 16) and lowers their effective height.
conditions of abnormally high ionization in For this reason, the ionosphere acts very dif-
the ionosphere, communication has been ferently at different times of day, and at
known to have taken place by ionospheric different times of the year.
reflection on frequencies higher than SO The higher the frequency of a radio wave,
MHz. the farther it penetrates the ionosphere, and
The ionosphere consists of layers of ion- the less it tends to be bent back toward the
ized gas located above the stratosphere, and earth. The lower the frequency, the more
extending up to possibly 300 miles above easily the waves are bent, and the less they
penetrate the ionosphere. 160 -meter and 80-
200 meter signals will usually be bent back to
F2 earth even when sent straight up, and may
150 be considered as being reflected rather than
F1
MIDDAY refracted. As the frequency is raised beyond
100 about 5000 kHz (dependent on the critical
E frequency of the ionosphere at the moment),
y1 50
J it is found that waves transmitted at angles
D
higher than a certain critical angle never
_ zooo return to earth. Thus, on the higher fre-
F2
_ quencies, it is necessary to confine radiation
V 150
W to low angles, since the high -angle waves
S
MIDNIGHT simply penetrate the ionosphere and are lost.
100

so The F: Layer The higher of the two major


reflection regions of the iono-
sphere is called the F_ layer. This layer has
IONIZATION DENSITY -w a virtual height of approximately 175 miles
Figure 16 at night, and in the daytime it splits up into
two layers, the upper one being called the F2
IONIZATION DENSITY IN THE IONO- laver and the lowerbeing called the F, layer.
SPHERE The height of the F_ layer during daylight
Showing typical ionization density of the iono- hours is normally about 250 miles on the
sphere in midsummer. Note that the F, and average and the F, layer often has a height
D layers disappear at night, and that the den-
sity of the E layer falls to such a low value of as low as 140 miles. It is the F_ layer
that it is ineffective. which supports all nighttime DX communi-
426 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

cation and nearly all daytime DX propaga- x


tion. 32
30
The E LayerBelow the F2 layer is another 2 WINTER
SUNSPOT
MAXIMUM
layer, called the E layer, which 2S

is of importance in daytime communication


24 -
22
over moderate distances in the frequency
range between 3 and 8 MHz. This layer has
u
I
20

I SUMMER
-
an almost constant height of about 70 miles. z
SUNSPOT
MINIMUM
14
Since the recombination time of the ions at W
D 12
this height is rather short, the E layer dis- a
W IN. ....._+"...-
appears almost completely a short time after cr

local sunset.
The D Layer Below the E layer at a height 2

of about 35 miles is an absorb- 0 2 10 12 14 II 18 20 22 24


ing layer, called the D layer, which exists in LOCAL TIME
the middle of the day in the summertime. Figure 17
The layer also exists during midday in
winter during periods of high solar activity, TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING CHANGE IN
but the layer disappears completely at night. M.U.F. AT MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
it is this layer which causes high absorption POINTS IN SUNSPOT CYCLE
of signals in the medium- and high -fre-
quency range during the middle of the day.
The m.u.f. often drops to frequencies be-
Critical Frequency The critical frequency of low 10 MHz in the early morning hours.
an ionospheric layer is the The high m.u.f. in the middle of the day is
highest frequency which will be reflected brought about by reflection from the F,
when the wave strikes the layer at vertical layer. M.u.f. data is published periodically in
incidence. The critical frequency of the the magazines devoted to amateur work, and
most highly ionized layer of the ionosphere the m.u.f. can be calculated with the aid of
may be as low as 2 MHz at night and as Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, CRPL-
high as 12 to 13 MHz in the middle of the D, published monthly by the Government
day. The critical frequency is directly of in- Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
terest in that a skip- distance zone will exist
Absorption and The optimum working
on all frequencies greater than the highest
critical frequency at that time. The critical Optimum Working frequency for any par -
Frequency ticular direction and dis-
frequency is a measure of the density of
ionization of the reflecting layers. The tance is usually about 15
higher the critical frequency the greater the percent less than the m.u.f. for contact with
density of ionization. that particular location. The absorption by
the ionosphere becomes greater and greater
Maximum Usable The maximum usable fre- as the operating frequency is progressively
Frequency quency or m. u. f. is of lowered below the m.u.f. It is this condition
great importance in long- which causes signals to increase tremendous-
distance communication since this frequency ly in strength on the 14- and 28 -MHz bands
is the highest that can be used for com- just before the signals drop completely out.
munication between any two specified areas. At the time when the signals are greatest in
The m.u.f. is the highest frequency at which amplitude the operating frequency is equal
a wave projected into space in a certain to the m.u.f. Then as the signals drop out
direction will be returned to earth in a the m.u.f. has become lower than the oper-
specified region by ionospheric reflection. ating frequency.
The m.u.f. is highest at noon or in the early
afternoon and is highest in periods of great- Skip Distance The shortest distance from a
est sunspot activity, often going to fre- transmitting location at which
quencies higher than 30 MHz. (figure 17). signals reflected from the ionosphere can be

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 1 1 -Year Sunspot Cycle 427

returned to the earth is called the skip dis-


tance. As was mentioned above under criti- MAXIMUM 1110.3
cal frequency, there is no skip distance for 00
a frequency below the critical frequency of
the most highly ionized layer of the ionos- 50
phere at the time of transmission. However,
the skip distance is always present on the ..
14 -MHz band and is almost always present
00
o
-- o
a
-----T-
on the 3.5 and 7 MHz bands at night. The
actual measure of the skip distance is the
distance between the point where the ground
50 a
i
i
wave falls to zero and the point where the 0
sky wave begins to return to earth. This 54 54 33 00 32 eA 33 ss
YEAR
distance may vary from 40 to 50 miles on
Figure 18
the 3.5 -MHz band to thousands of miles on
the 28 -MHz band. THE YEARLY TREND OF THE SUNSPOT
The Sporadic -E CYCLE. RADIO CONDITIONS IN GENERAL
Occasional patches of ex-
Loyer WILL IMPROVE DURING 1966 -1969
tremely high ionization den-
AS THE CYCLE INCREASES
sity appear at intervals
throughout the year at a height approxi-
mately equal to that of the E layer. These 11 -year cycle which is a cycle in sunspot
patches, called the sporadic-E layer may be activity. The effects of these cycles are super-
very small or may be up to several hundred imposed insofar as ionosphere activity is
miles in extent. The critical frequency of concerned. Also, the cycles are subject to
the sporadic -E layer may be greater than short term variations as a result of magnetic
twice that of the normal ionosphere layers storms and similar terrestrial disturbances.
which exist at the same time. The most recent minimum of the 11 -year
It is this sporadic -E condition which pro- sunspot cycle occurred during the winter of
vides "short- skip" contacts from 400 to per- 1964 -1965, and we are currently moving
haps 1200 miles on the 28 -MHz band in along the slope of a new cycle, the max-
the evening. It is also the sporadic -E condi- imum of which will occur probably during
tion which provides the more common type 1969. The current cycle is pictured in figure
of "band opening" experienced on the 50- 18.
MHz band when very loud signals are re-
ceived from stations from 400 to 1200 miles Fading The lower the angle of radiation of
distant. the wave, with respect to the hori-
zon, the farther away will the wave return
Cycles in The ionization density of to earth, and the greater the skip distance.
Ionosphere Activity the ionosphere is deter- The wave can be reflected back up into the
mined by the amount of ionosphere by the earth, and then be re-
radiation (probably ultraviolet) which is flected back down again, causing a second
being received from the sun. Consequently, skip distance area. The drawing of figure 19
ionosphere activity is a function of the shows the multiple reflections possible. When
amount of radiation of the proper char- the receiver receives signals which have
acter being emitted by the sun and is also a traveled over more than one path between
function of the relative aspect of the regions transmitter and receiver, the signal impulses
in the vicinity of the location under discus- will not all arrive at the same instant, since
sion to the sun. There are four main cycles they do not all travel the same distance.
in ionosphere activity. These cycles are: the When two or more signals arrive in the same
daily cycle which is brought about by the phase at the receiving antenna, the resulting
rotation of the earth, the 27 -day cycle signal in the receiver will be quite strong.
which is caused by the rotation of the sun, On the other hand, if the signals arrive 180
the seasonal cycle which is caused by the out of phase, so they tend to cancel each
movement of the earth in its orbit, and the other, the received signal will drop -perhaps
428 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

Scattering occurs in the ionosphere at all


times, because of irregularities in the medi-
um (which result in "patches" correspond-
ing to the water droplets) and because of
random -phase radiation due to the collision
or recombination of free electrons. How-
ever, the nature of the scattering varies
widely with time, in a random fashion. Scat-
TRANSMITTER
tering is particularly prevalent in the E
region, but scattered reflections may occur
at any height, even well out beyond the
Figure 19 virtual height of the F2, layer.
IONOSPHERE -REFLECTION WAVE PATHS There is no "critical frequency" or "low-
est perforating frequency" involved in the
Showing typical ionosphere -reflection wave scattering mechanism, though the intensity
paths during daylight hours when ionization
density is such that it ties as high as 28 of the scattered reflections due to typical
MHz will be returned to earth. The distance scattering in the E region of the ionosphere
between ground -wave range and that range decreases with frequency.
where the ionosphere-reflected wave of a
specific frequency first will be returned to When the received signal is due primarily
earth is called the skip distance. to scattered reflections, as is the case in the
skip zone or where the great circle path does
not provide a direct sky wave (due to low
to zero if perfect cancellation occurs. This critical or perforation frequency, or to an
explains why high- frequency signals are sub- ionosphere storm) very bad distortion will
ject to fading. be evident, particularly a "flutter fade" and
Fading can be greatly reduced on the high a characteristic "hollow" or echo effect.
frequencies by using a transmitting antenna Deviations from a great circle path are es-
with sharp vertical directivity, thus cutting pecially noticeable in the case of great circle
down the number of possible paths of signal paths which cross or pass near the auroral
arrival. A receiving antenna with similar zones, because in such cases there often is
characteristics (sharp vertical directivity) complete or nearly complete absorption of
will further reduce fading. It is desirable, the direct sky wave, leaving off -path scat-
when using antennas with sharp vertical tered reflections the only mechanism of
directivity, to use the lowest vertical angle propagation. Under such conditions the pre-
consistent with good signal strength for the dominant wave will appear to arrive from a
frequency used. direction closer to the equator, and the sig-
nal will be noticeably, if not considerably,
Scattered Scattered reflections are random, weaker than a direct sky wave which is re-
Reflections diffused, substantially isotropic ceived under favorable conditions.
reflections which are partly re- Irregular reflection of radio waves from
sponsible for reception within the skip zone, "scattering patches" is divided into two
and for reception of signals from directions categories: short scatter and long scatter.
off the great circle path. Short scatter is the scattering that occurs
In a heavy fog or mist, it is difficult to when a radio wave first reaches the scatter-
see the road at night because of the bright ing patches or media. Ordinarily it is of no
glare caused by scattered reflection of the particular benefit, as in most cases it only
headlight beam by the minute droplets. In serves to fill in the inner portion of the
fact, the road directly to the side of the car skip zone with a weak, distorted signal.
will be weakly illuminated under these con- Long scatter occurs when a wave has been
ditions, whereas it would not on a clear refracted from the F, layer and strikes scat-
night (assuming flat, open country). This is tering patches or media on the way down.
a good example of propagation of waves by When the skip distance exceeds several hun-
scattered reflections into a zone which other- dred miles, long scatter is primarily respon-
wise would not be illuminated. sible for reception within the skip zone, par-
HANDBOOK Transmission Lines 429

ticularly the outer portion of the skip zone. reached by the transmitter. After a period
Distortion is much less severe than in the of from 10 to 40 seconds, recombination
case of short scatter, and while the signal is and diffusion have progressed to the point
likewise weak, it sometimes can be utilized where the effect of a single fairly large
for satisfactory communication. meteor is not perceptible. However, there
During a severe ionosphere disturbance in are many small meteors impinging on earth's
the north auroral zone, it sometimes is pos- atmosphere every minute, and the aggregate
sible to maintain communication between effect of their transient ionized trails, in-
the Eastern United States and Northern cluding the small amount of residual ioni-
Europe by the following mechanism: That zation that exists for several minutes after
portion of the energy which is radiated in the original flash but is too weak and dis-
the direction of the great circle path is com- persed to prolong a "burst," is believed to
pletely absorbed on reaching the auroral contribute to the existence of the nighttime -
zone. However, the portion of the wave E layer, and perhaps also to sporadic-E
leaving the United States in a southeasterly patches.
direction is refracted downward from the While there are many of these very small
F.: layer and encounters scattering patches meteors striking the earth's atmosphere every
or media on its downward trip at a distance minute, meteors of normal size (sufficiently
of approximately 2000 miles from the trans- large to produce individual "bursts ") do
mitter. There it is reflected by "long scatter" not strike nearly so frequently except during
in all directions, this scattering region acting some of the comparatively rare meteor
like an isotropic radiator fed with a very "showers." During one of these displays a
small fraction of the original transmitter "quivering" ionized layer is produced which
power. The great circle path from this is intense enough to return signals in the
southerly point to northern Europe does not lower vhf range with good strength, but
encounter unfavorable ionosphere conditions, with a type of "flutter" distortion which is
and the wave is propagated the rest of the characteristic of this type of propagation.
trip as though it had been radiated from the
scattering region. 20 -9 Transmission Lines
Another type of scatter is produced when For many reasons it is desirable to place
a sky wave strikes certain areas of the earth. an antenna or radiating system as high and
On striking a comparatively smooth surface in the clear as is physically possible, utilizing
such as the sea, there is little scattering, the some form of nonradiating transmission line
wave being shot up again by what could be to carry energy with as little loss as possible
considered specular, or mirror, reflection. from the transmitter to the radiating anten-
But on striking a mountain range, for in- na, and conversely from the antenna to the
stance, the reradiation or reflected energy is receiver.
scattered, some of it being directed back There are many different types of trans-
toward the transmitter, thus providing an- mission lines and, generally speaking, practi-
other mechanism for producing a signal cally any type of transmission line or feeder
within the skip zone. system may be used with any type of anten-
na. However, mechanical or electrical con-
Meteors end When a meteor strikes the siderations often make one type of trans-
"Bursts" earth's atmosphere, a cylindrical mission line better adapted for use to feed a
region of free electrons is particular type of antenna than any other
formed at approximately the height of the E type.
layer. This slender ionized column is quite Transmission lines for carrying r -f energy
long, and when first formed is sufficiently are of two general types: nonresonant and
dense to reflect radio waves back to earth resonant. A nonresonant transmission line
most readily, including vhf waves which is one on which a successful effort has been
are not ordinarily returned by the F_ layer. made to eliminate reflections from the ter-
The effect of a single meteor, or normal mination (the antenna in the transmitting
size, shows up as a sudden "burst" of signal case and the receiver for a receiving anten-
of short duration at points not ordinarily na) and hence one on which standing waves
430 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO
do not exist or are relatively small in mag-
nitude. A resonant line, on the other hand,
is a transmission line on which standing
waves of appreciable magnitude do appear,
either through inability to match the char-
acteristic impedance of the line to the termi-
/
/.dIorioi/ ,oraup..
w%
di
nation or through intentional design.
The principal types of transmission line in
_
o
:%=:i%%%11:ililll
use or available at this time include the %I:i1%E'/_E2/111111111
open -wire line (two -wire and four -wire
types), two -wire solid -dielectric line (twin -
I:iMiM- = 111111111
lead and similar ribbon or tubular types),
two -wire polyethylene -filled shielded line,
., , I i 3 f
INCHES, CENTER TO CENTER
7 q a is

coaxial line of the solid -dielectric, beaded, Figure 20


stub -supported, or pressurized type, rectang-
ular and cylindrical waveguide, and the CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF
single -wire feeder operated against ground. TYPICAL TWO -WIRE OPEN LINES
Th? significant characteristics of the more
popular types of transmission line available Speaking in electrical terms, the charac-
at this time are given in the chart of figure teristic impedance of a transmission line is
21. simply the ratio of the voltage across the line
20 -10 Nonresonant to the current which is flowing, the same as
is the case with a simple resistor: Z = E /I.
Transmission Lines Also, in a substantially lossless line (one
A nonresonant or untuned transmission whose attenuation per wavelength is small)
line is a line with negligible standing waves. the energy stored in the line will be equally
Hence, a nonresonant line is a line carrying divided between the electric field and the
r -f power only in one direction -from the magnetic field which serve to propagate the
source of energy to the load. energy along the line. Hence the character-
Physically, the line itself should be iden- istic impedance of a line may be expressed as:
tical throughout its length. There will be a
smooth distribution of voltage and current Z. = JL /C.
throughout its length, both tapering off very Two -Wire A two -wire transmission system
slightly towards the load end of the line as a Open Line is easy to construct. Its surge
result of line losses. The attenuation (loss) in impedance can be calculated
certain types of untuned lines can be kept quite easily, and when properly adjusted and
very low for line lengths up to several thou- balanced to ground, with a conductor spac-
sand feet. In other types, particularly where ing which is negligible in terms of the wave-
the dielectric is not air (such as in the length of the signal carried, undesirable
twisted -pair line) , the losses may become feeder radiation is minimized; the current
excessive at the higher frequencies, unless flow in the adjacent wires is in opposite
the line is relatively short. directions, and the magnetic fields of the
Transmission -Line
two wires are in opposition to each other.
All transmission lines When a two -wire line is terminated with the
Impedance have distributed induct- equivalent of a pure resistance equal to the
ance, capacitance, and characteristic impedance of the line, the line
resistance. Neglecting the resistance, as it is
becomes a nonresonant line.
of minor importance in short lines, it is
Expressed in physical terms, the charac-
found that the inductance and capacitance teristic impedance of a two -wire open line
per unit length determine the characteristic is equal to:
or surge impedance of the line. Thus, the
surge impedance depends upon the nature 2S
and spacing of the conductors, and the di- Z= 276 log,,,
electric separating them.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transmission Lines 431

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TRANSMISSION LINES


f
Attenuation
db,100 feet
VSWR 1.0
Vela- pf REMARKS
30 100 300 city per
MHz MHz MHz factor ft.
V

Open wire line, No. 12 0.15 0 3 0 8 0.96- - Based on 4" spacing below 50 MHz; 2" spacing above
copper. 0.99 50 MHz. Radiation losses included. Clean, low -loss ceram-
ic insulation assumed. Radiation high above 150 MHz.
Ribbon line, rec. type, For clean dry line, wet weather performance rather
300 ohms. poor, best line is slightly convex. Avoid line that has
(7, 28 conductors) 0.86 2.2 5.3 0.82' 6' concave dielectric. Suitable for low -power transmitting
applications. Losses increase as line weathers. Handles
4lxl watts at 30 MHz if SWR is low.
Tubular "twin -lead" Characteristics similar to receiving -type ribbon Iwe
rec. type, 300 ohms, - - -- - - except for much better wet -weather performance.
5. 16" O.D., (Amphenol
type 14 -271)
Ribbon line, trans. Characteristics vary somewhat with manufacturer, but
type, 300 ohms. - - -- - - approximate those of receiving -type ribbon except for
greater power -handling capability and slightly better
wer weather performance.
Tubular "twin- lead" For use where receiving -type tubular "twin -lead" does
trans. type, 7,16 O.D. 0.85 2.3 5.4 0.79 6.1 not have sufficient power -handling capability. Will
l.smphenol 14 -076) handle 1 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low.
Ribbon line, receive 1.1 2.7 6.0 0.77' 10' Useful for quarter -wave matching sections. No longer
type, 150 ohms. widely used as a line.
Ribbon line, receive Useful mainly in the hf range because of excessive
type, 75 ohms. 2.0 5.0 11 0.68' 19' losses at vnt and uhf. Less atfectea by weather than
300 -ohm ribbon.
Ribbon line, trans. Very satisfactory for transmitting applications below
type, 75 ohms. 1.5 3.9 8.0 0.71 18 ;sI MHz at powers up to 1 kw. Not significantly af-
fected by wer weather.
RG -8 U coax (52 ohms) 1.0 2.1 4.2 0.66 29.5 Will handle 2 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.4" O.D.
7, 21 conouctor.
RG -11. U coax (75 ohms) 0.94 1.9 3.8 0.66 20.5 Will handle 1.4 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.4"
0.D. 7 26 conductor.
RG -17 U coax (52 ohms) 0.38 0.85 1.8 0.66 29.5 Will handle 7.8 kw at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.87"
0.D. 0.19" dia. conductor.
RG -58 U coax (53 ohms) 1.95 4.1 8.0 0.66 28.5 Will handle 430 watts at 30 MHz if SWR is low. 0.2"
U.D. No. 20 conductor.
RG -59 U coax (73 ohms) 1.9 3.8 7.0 0.66 21 Will handle 680 watts at 30 MHz if SWR is low.
0.24" U.D. No. 22 conductor.
TV -59 coax (72 ohms) 2.0 4.0 7.0 0.66 22 "Commercial" version of RG -59 U for less exacting ap-
plications. Less expensive.
RG 22. U shielded 1.7 3.0 5.5 0.66 16 For shielded, balanced -to- ground applications. Very
pair (95 ohms) low noise pickup. 0.4" O.D.
K -111 shielded pair Designed for TV lead -in in noisy locations. Losses higher
(300 ohms) 2.0 3.5 6.1 - 4 than regular 300 -ohm ribbon, but do not increase as
much from weathering.

' Approximate. Exact figure varies slightly with manufacturer.

FIGURE 21

Older type coaxial lines have a useful life of three to six years after which the cable at-
tenuation gradually rises, especially under conditions of heat. Newer cables (designated by
the suffix A: RG -8A /U for example) have useful life up to twelve years or so. The 52 -ohm
series cables have been recently replaced with 50 -ohm cables, RG -8A /U now being designated
RG- 213/U. Long-life versions of the RG -58 family are: RG -58B /U (53.5 -ohm) and RG-58C/U
(50 -ohm).

where,
Since expresses ratio only, the units
S is the exact distance between wire cen- d a

ters in some convenient unit of measure- of measurement may be centimeters, milli-


ment, meters, or inches. This makes no difference
r/ is the diameter of the wire measured in in the answer, so long as the substituted
the same units as the wire spacing, S. values for S and d are in the same units.
432 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO
The equation is accurate so long as the a stranded or solid inner conductor with the
wire spacing is relatively large as compared outer conductor made up of one or two
to the wire diameter. wraps of copper shielding braid.
Surge impedance values of less than 200 In the type of cable most popular for mili-
ohms are seldom used in the open -type two - tary and noncommercial use the inner con-
wire line, and, even at this rather high value ductor consists of a heavy stranded wire, the
of Z the wire spacing S is uncomfortably outer conductor consists of a braid of copper
close, being only 2.7 times the wire diameter. wire, and the inner conductor is supported
Figure 20 gives in graphical form the surge within the outer by means of a semisolid
impedance of practical two -wire lines. The dielectric of exceedingly low -loss character-
chart is self -explanatory, and is sufficiently istics called polyethylene. The Army-Navy
accurate for practical purposes. designation on one size of this cable suitable
for power levels up to one kilowatt at fre-
Ribbon and Instead of using spacer in- quencies as high as 30 MHz is RG -8 /u.
Tubular Trans- sulators placed periodically The outside diameter of this type of cable is
mission Line along the transmission line approximately one -half inch. The character-
it is possible to mold the istic impedance of this cable type is 52 ohms,
line conductors into a ribbon or tube of flex- but other similar types of greater and smaller
ible low -loss dielectric material. Such line, power -handling capacity are available in im-
with polyethylene dielectric, is used in enor- pedances of 52, 75, and 95 ohms.
mous quantities as the lead -in transmission When using solid dielectric coaxial cable
line for f -m and TV receivers. The line is it is necessary that precautions be taken to
available from several manufacturers in the ensure that moisture cannot enter the line. If
ribbon and tubular configuration, with char- the better grade of connectors manufactured
acteristic impedance values from 75 to 300 for the line are employed as terminations,
ohms. Receiving types, and transmitting

Ill/
this condition is automatically satisfied. If
types of power levels up to one kilowatt in connectors are not used, it is necessary that

IIII
the hf range, are listed with their pertinent some type of moisture -proof sealing corn-
characteristics, in the table of figure 21.

111
Coaxial Line Several types of coaxial cable 204
have come into wide use for ZO 134 LOGp
feeding power to an antenna system. A
g111/I
/.III
170

iiPii`liz
COAXIAL OR
cross -sectional view of a coaxial cable (some- 11111i=ig111IIM111 CONCENTRIC LINC

tIII
%III
times called concentric cable or line) is
shown in figure 22.
1311

MiMiDi1=
=111111111111MI1
As in the parallel -wire line, the power lost 100
in a properly terminated coaxial line is the M1111M1III=1111M1
MIIIIII01111==
lllIMIII
sum of the effective resistance losses along 70
DI.1 NSIDC DIAMETER Of
OUTER CONDUCTOR
the length of the cable and the dielectric 32 IIIiF/I10011I1
MIdl1111I= D .o1.1r310E DIANETEA Or
losses between the two conductors.
Of the two losses, the effective resistance
loss is the greater; since it is largely due to
10


IMlEIII
.M1g111
rNII111=IMINI
2.311.121 5 7 10 15 30
INNER CONOUCTOR

the skin effect, the line loss (all other condi-


tions the same) will increase directly as the RATIO OF DIAMETERS
square root of the frequency.
Figure 22
Figure 22 shows that, instead of having
two conductors running side by side, one cf CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF
the conductors is placed inside the other. AIR- FILLED COAXIAL LINES
S;nce the outside conductor completely
If the filling of the line is a dielectric material
shields the inner one, no radiation takes place. other than air, the characteristic impedance of
The conductors may both be tubes, one the line will be reduced by a factor propor-
within the other; the line may consist of a tional to the square -root of the dielectric con-
stant of the material used as a dielectric with-
solid wire within a tube, or it may consist of in the line.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tuned Lines 433

pound be applied to the end of the cable even when used in an untuned system.
where it will be exposed to the weather. Strictly speaking, a line is untuned, or non -
Nearby metallic objects cause no loss, and resonant, only when it is perfectly flat, with
coaxial cable may be run up air ducts or ele- a standing -wave ratio of 1 (no standing
vator shafts, inside walls, or through metal waves). However, some mismatch can be
conduit. Insulation troubles can be forgot- tolerated with open -wire untuned lines, so
ten. The coaxial cable may be buried in the long as the reactance is not objectionable,
ground or suspended above ground. or is eliminated by cutting the line to ap-
Standing Waves proximately resonant length.
Standing waves on a trans-
mission line always are the
result of the reflection of energy. The only 20 -11 Tuned or
significant reflection which takes place in Resonant Lines
a normal installation is that at the load end
of the line. But reflection can take place If a transmission line is terminated in its
from discontinuities in the line, such as characteristic surge impedance, there will be
caused by insulators, bends, or metallic ob- no reflection at the end of the line, and the
jects adjacent to an unshielded line. current and voltage distribution will be uni-
When a uniform transmission line is ter- form along the line. If the end of the line is
minated in an impedance equal to its surge either open- circuited or short -circuited, the
impedance, reflection of energy does not oc- reflection at the end of the line will be 100
cur, and no standing waves are present. percent, and standing waves of very great
Thus, for proper operation of an untuned amplitude will appear on the line. There will
line (with standing waves eliminated), some still be practically no radiation from the line
form of impedance- matching arrangement if it is closely spaced, but voltage nodes will
must be used between the transmission line be found every half wavelength, the voltage
and the antenna, so that the radiation resist- loops corresponding to current nodes (fig-
ance of the antenna is reflected back into the ure 23).
line as a nonreactive impedance equal to the If the line is terminated in some value of
line impedance. resistance other than the characteristic surge
The termination at the antenna end is the impedance, there will be some reflection, the
only critical characteristic about the untuned amount being determined by the amount of
line fed by a transmitter. It is the reflection mismatch. With reflection, there will be
from the antenna end which starts waves standing waves (excursions of current and
moving back toward the transmitter end. voltage) along the line, though not to the
When waves moving in both directions along same extent as with an open -circuited or
a conductor meet, standing waves are set up. short -circuited line. The current and voltage
loops will occur at the same points along the
Semiresonant A well -constructed open - line as with the open- or short -circuited line,
Parallel -Wire Lines wire line has acceptably and as the terminating impedance is made to
low losses when its length approach the characteristic impedance of the
than about two wavelengths even when
is less line, the current and voltage along the line
the voltage standing -wave ratio is as high as will become more uniform. The foregoing
10 to 1. A transmission line constructed of assumes, of course, a purely resistive (non -
ribbon or tubular line, however, should have reactive) load. If the load is reactive, stand-
the standing -wave ratio kept down to not ing waves also will be formed. But with a
more than about 3 to 1 both to reduce reactive load the nodes will occur at different
power loss and because the energy dissipation locations from the node locations encount-
on the line will be localized, causing over- ered with improper resistive termination.
heating of the line at the points of maximum A well built 500- to 600 -ohm transmission
current. line may be used as a resonant feeder for
Because moderate standing waves can be lengths up to several hundred feet with very
tolerated on open -wire lines without much low loss, so long as the amplitude of the
loss, a standing -wave ratio of 2/1 or 3/1 is standing waves (ratio of maximum to mini-
considered acceptable with this type of line, mum voltage along the line) is not too great.
434 Radiation, Propagation, and Lines THE RADIO

Zo the line no longer is negligible. Hence, co-


t ZL

axial line or close- spaced parallel -wire line


is recommended for vhf work.
,.o If a transmission line is not perfectly
matched, it should be made resonant, even
o
SWR,.o ZL Zo though the amplitude of the standing waves
(voltage variation) is not particularly great.
,.0 - - - - - - -
,:
This prevents reactance from being coupled
into the final amplifier. A feed system having
o
moderate standing waves may be made to
SWR 1.3 ZL,.3 On 0.07 ZO present a nonreactive load to the amplifier
either by tuning or by pruning the feeders
to approximate resonance.
Usually it is preferable with tuned feeders
1.3 to have a current loop (voltage minimum)
o
3.0
la' at the transmitter end of the line. This
SWR Zt. 3.0 OR 0.33 ZO means that when voltage- feeding an antenna,
the tuned feeders should be made an odd
number of quarter wavelengths long, and
when current- feeding an antenna, the feed-
ers should be made an even number of quar-
ter wavelengths long. Actually, the feeders
SWR m ZLoon0 are made about 10 percent of a quarter wave
Figure 23 longer than the calculated value (the value
given in the tables) when they are to be
STANDING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION series tuned to resonance by means of a ca-
LINE pacitor, instead of being trimmed and pruned
As shown at A, the voltage and current are to resonance.
constant on a transmisson line which is ter- When tuned feeders are used to feed an
minated in its characteristic impedance, as-
suming that losses are small enough so that antenna on more than one band, it is neces-
they may be neglected. B shows the variation sary to compromise and make provision for
in t or in voltage on a line terminated
in a load with a reflection coefficient of 0.2 so both series and parallel tuning, inasmuch
that a standing -wave ratio of 1.5 to 1 is set as it is impossible to cut a feeder to a length
up. At C the reflection coefficient has been in- that will be optimum for several bands. If a
creased to 0.5, with the formation of a 3 -to-1
standing -wave ratio on the line. At D the line voltage loop appears at the transmitter end
has been terminated in a load which has a re- of the line on certain bands, parallel tuning
flection coefficient of 1.0 (short, open circuit, or
a pure reactance) so that all the energy is re- of the feeders will be required in order to get
flected with the formation of an infinite stand- a transfer of energy. It is impossible to trans-
ing -wave ratio.
fer energy by inductive coupling unless cur-
rent is flowing. This is effected as a voltage
The amplitude, in turn, depends on the mis- loop by the presence of the resonant tank
match at the line termination. A line of circuit formed by parallel tuning of the an-
No. 12 wire, spaced 6 inches with good tenna coil.
ceramic or plastic spreaders, has a surge im-
pedance of approximately 600 ohms, and 20 -12 Line Discontinuities
makes an excellent tuned feeder for feeding
anything between 60 and 6000 ohms (at fre- In the previous discussion we have assumed
quencies below 30 MHz) . If used to feed a a transmission line which was uniform
load of higher or lower impedance than this, throughout its length. In actual practice,
the standing waves become great enough in this is usually not the case.
amplitude that some loss will occur unless Whenever there is any sudden change in
the feeder is kept short. At frequencies above the characteristic impedance of the line,
30 MHz, the spacing becomes an appreciable partial reflection will occur at the point of
fraction of a wavelength, and radiation from discontinuity. Some of the energy will be

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Broadband Balun 435

transmitted and some reflected, which is es-


50-OHM
sentially the same as having some of the UNBALANCED
I NPUT
energy absorbed and some reflected in so far GROUND
as the effect on the line from the generator JUMPER

to that point is concerned. The discontinuity INPUT COIL


can be ascribed a reflection coefficient just
as in the case of an unmatched load.
In a simple case, such as a finite length of
SO-OH M
uniform line having a characteristic imped- BALANCED SHORTED
ance of 500 ohms feeding into an infinite OUTPUT COIL
length of uniform line having a character-
istic impedance of 100 ohms, the behavior
is easily predicted. The infinite 100 -ohm line
will have no standing waves and will accept
the same power from the 500 -ohm line as
would a 100 -ohm resistor, and the rest of the
energy will be reflected at the discontinuity
to produce standing waves from there back to
the generator. However, in the case of a Figure 24
complex discontinuity placed at an odd dis-
tance down a line terminated in a complex AN EFFECTIVE BROADBAND BALUN
impedance, the picture becomes complicated, FOR MULTIBAND BEAMS
especially when the discontinuity is neither
sudden nor gradual, but intermediate be- This lumped -constant balun is self -reso-
tween the two. This is the usual case with nant near the center design frequency which,
amateur lines that must be erected around in this case, is about 15 MHz. The balun coil
buildings and trees. is made of a 16'8 " -length of 50 -ohm coaxial
In any case, when a discontinuity exists line (RG -213/U or RG -8 /AU) closewound
somewhere on a line and is not a smooth, into a coil of 9 turns having an inside diam-
gradual change embracing several wave- eter of 61/4 inches. At one end of the coil the
lengths, it is not possible to avoid standing inner and outer conductors of the line are
waves throughout the entire length of the shorted together and grounded to the com-
line. If the discontinuity is sharp enough and mon ground point of the antenna assembly.
is great enough to be significant, standing The unbalanced coaxial transmission line is
waves must exist on one side of the discon- attached to the other end of the coil and a
tinuity, and may exist on both sides in many ground jumper is run between the outer ends
cases. of the braided conductor. At the center of
the winding, the outer braid of the coaxial
20 -13 A Broadband line is severed for a distance of about one
50 -Ohm Balun inch, and a connection is made to the inner
conductor at this point. In addition, the
Many triband high -frequency beam anten- inner conductor is jumpered to the outer
nas feature a balanced input system having braid of the shorted coil section. A second
a 50 -ohm feed point. In order to reduce line connection is made to the outer braid of the
discontinuities and to provide a better match input coil section, as shown in the illustra-
between the antenna and an unbalanced tion. These connections are wrapped with
transmission line, a balun (balance to unbal- vinyl tape and coated with an aerosol plastic
ance) r -f transformer should be used. Shown spray to protect the joint against the weath-
in figure 24 is a broadband balun that is er. A coaxial plug may be attached to the
effective over the range of 6 to 30 MHz. input terminals of the balun. Connection to
The balun is an inexpensive coil made of a the balanced antenna element is made at the
length of coaxial cable and is designed to be center connections of the balun coil, using
installed directly at the terminals of the an- low- impedance copper straps about TA inch
tenna. wide.
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

Antennas and Antenna Matching

Antennas for the lower- frequency portion it is sometimes justifiable to bring part of
of the high- frequency spectrum (from 1.8 the radiation system directly to the trans-
to 7.0 MHz), and temporary or limited -use mitter, feeding the antenna without benefit
antennas for the upper portion of the high - of a transmission line. This is permissible
frequency range, usually are of a relatively when (1) there is insufficient room to erect
simple type in which directivity is not a a 75- or 80 -meter horizontal dipole and feed
prime consideration. Also, it often is desir- line, (2) when a long wire is also to be
able, in amateur work, that a single anten- operated on one of the higher- frequency
na system be capable of operation at least bands on a harmonic. In either case, it is
on the 3.5- and 7.0 -MHz ranges, and pre- usually possible to get the main portion of
ferably on other frequency ranges. Con- the antenna in the clear because of its
sequently, the first portion of this chapter length. This means that the power lost by
will be devoted to a discussion of such an- bringing the antenna directly to the trans-
tenna systems. The latter portion of the mitter is relatively small.
chapter is devoted to the general problem Even so, it is not best practice to bring
of matching the antenna transmission line the high- voltage end of an antenna into the
to antenna systems of the fixed type. Match- operating room because of the increased
ing the antenna transmission line to the difficulty in eliminating BCI and TVI. For
rotatable directive array is discussed in this reason one should dispense with a feed
Chapter Twenty-four. line in conjunction with a Hertz antenna
only as a last resort.
21 -1 End -Fed Half-Wave
Horizontal Antennas End -Fed The end -fed antenna has no form
Antennas of transmission line to couple it
The half -wave horizontal dipole is the to the transmitter, but brings the
most common and the most practical an- radiating portion of the antenna right down
tenna for the 3.5- and 7 -MHz amateur to the transmitter, where some form of
bands. The form of the dipole, and the coupling system is used to transfer energy
manner in which it is fed are capable of a to the antenna.
large number of variations. Figure 2 shows Figure 1 shows two common methods of
a number of practical forms of the simple feeding the Fuchs antenna,or end-fed Hertz.
dipole antenna along with methods of feed. Some harmonic- attenuating provision (in
Usually a high- frequency doublet is addition to the usual low -pass TVI filter)
mounted as high and as much in the clear must be included in the coupling system,
as possible, for obvious reasons. However, since an end -fed antenna itself offers no dis-

www.americanradiohistory.com
Center -Fed Antennas 437

NUMBER Of HALF- WAVES -+i


The zepp antenna system is easy to tune,
and can be used on several bands by merely
retuning the feeders. As the radiating por-
tion of the zepp antenna system must al-
T1 ways be some multiple of a half wave long,
there is always high voltage present at the
point where the live zepp feeder attaches
PROM TRANSMITTER to the end of the radiating portion of the
antenna. Thus, this type of zepp antenna
1 tNV EVEN NUMBER OP QUARTER-WA S
system is (voltage -fed.
Stub -Fed Zepp- Figure 2C shows a modifica-
PILTER a-1 OOO
Type Radiator tion of the zepp -type an-
HIGH
CAPACITANCE
Iid -
JJJI+++
LOW
CAPACITANCE
tenna system to allow the
use of a nonresonant transmission line be-
tween the radiating portion of the antenna
Figure 1
and the transmitter. The zepp portion of
THE END -FED HERTZ ANTENNA the antenna is resonated as a quarter -wave
Showing the manner in which an end -fed
stub and the nonresonant feeders are con-
Hertz antenna may be fed through a low - nected to the stub at a point where standing
impedance line and low -pass filter by using waves on the feeder are minimized. The pro-
a resonant tank circuit as at A, or through
the use of a -c ted pi- network as
cedure for making these adjustments is de-
at B. scribed in detail in Section 21 -8. This type
of antenna system is quite satisfactory when
it is physically necessary to end -feed the
crimination against harmonics, either odd or antenna, and where it is necessary also to
even. use nonresonant feeders between the trans-
The end -fed Hertz antenna has rather mitter and the radiating system.
high losses unless at least three -quarters of
the radiator can be placed outside the oper-
ating room and in the clear. As there is r -f 21 -2 Center -Fed Half-
voltage at the point where the antenna Wave Horizontal Antennas
enters the operating room, the insulation at
that point should be several times as effec- A center -fed half -wave antenna system
tive as the insulation commonly used with is usually to be desired over an end -fed
low- voltage feeder systems. This antenna system since the center -fed system is in-
can be operated on all of its higher harmon- herently balanced to ground and is therefore
ics with good efficiency, and can be operated less likely to be troubled by feeder radiation.
at half frequency against ground as a quar- A number of center -fed systems are illus-
ter -wave Marconi. trated in figure 2.
Since the frequency of an antenna is
The Tuned The current -fed doublet with
raised slightly when it is bent anywhere ex-
Doublet spaced feeders, sometimes called
cept at a voltage or current loop, an end -
fed Hertz antenna usually is a few percent a renter -fed zepp, is an inher-
longer than a straight half -wave doublet for ently balanced system if the two legs of
the same frequency, because, ordinarily, it the radiator are electrically equal. This fact
is impractical to bring a wire in to the holds true regardless of the frequency, or of
transmitter without making several bends. the harmonic, on which the system is oper-
ated. The system can successfully be oper-
The Zepp Antenna The zeppelin, or zepp an- ated over a wide range of frequencies if the
System tenna system. illustrated system as a whole (both tuned feeders and
in figure 2A is very con- the center -fed flat top) can be resonated to
venient when it is desired to operate a single the operating frequency. It is usually pos-
radiating wire on a number of harmonically sible to tune such an antenna system to res-
related frequencies. onance with the aid of a tapped coil and a
438 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
A
2

ZEPF END -FED HERTZ STUB -FED

300-600
II LINE

END -FED TYPES

095 A/2 O.fB A/2-

TUNED DOUBLET

300 -600 OHM


LINE OPEN
QUARTER -WAVE Figure 2
A STUB -FED
SHORTED
300 -600O. L NE FEED SYSTEMS FOR
A HALF -WAVE
DIPOLE ANTENNA

IN- 0.95 A/2 ---+{ H -0.951/2 w


The half -wave dipole anten-
na may be either center- or
end -fed, as discussed in the
text. For the hf region (be-
150 R TWINLEAD low 30 MHz), the length of a
_A.
0.193 OF FREE
SPACE WAVE- TWIN LEAD simple dipole is computed
FOUR -WIRE LENGTH OR
A/4 FED by: length (feet) = 468/f,

i
LINE -FED 0.77 OF
with f in MHz. For the
folded dipole, length is com-
600 D. LINE 300 A TWINLEAD
puted by: length (feet) =
ANY LENGTH 462/f, with f in MHz. Above
30 MHz, the length of the
dipole is affected to an im-
portant degree by the diam-
eter of the element and the
method of supporting the
1.-0.94 A/2-.1 0.64 )./2 -0.95 1/2 -.{ dipole (see VHF and UHF
Antennas and Radiation, Prop-
2-OR 60 FOR DS LTA agation, and Lines chap-
O
300/1TWINLEAD
LOW
IN
OPENED O FEEDER
SPREADERS
DIMENSIONS
SEE CHAP 19 ters).
TWINLEAD 2 -WIRE DOUBLET DELTA - MATCHED
"FOLDED DIPOLE' OR `FOLDED DIPOLE DOUBLET

300 OHM TWINLEAD 300 OHM TWINLEAD 600 OHM LINE


ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH

0.951/2- w{ - 0.95 A/2 -+i r 0.95 A/2

I
D =14% OF

O O O TOTAL LENGTH

STANDARD CO-AX FED OFF -CE NTE


DOUBLET DOUBLET FED

75n TWINLEAD N.14 WIRE


ANY LENGTH

CENTER -FED TYPES

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Multiwire Doublets 439

tuning capacitor that can optionally be as the transformer between the center of
placed either in series with the antenna coil the dipole and a piece of 300 -ohm twin -
or in parallel with it. A series -tuning capaci- lead. In any case the impedance of the
tor can be placed in series with one feeder quarter -wave transformer will be of the
leg without unbalancing the system. order of U0 to 200 ohms. The use of sec-
The tuned -doublet antenna is shown in tions of transmission line as linear trans-
figure 2D. The antenna is a current -fed formers is discussed in detail in Section 21 -8.
system when the radiating wire is a half
wave long electrically, or when the system Multiwire An alternative method for in-
is operated on its odd harmonics, but be- Doublets creasing the feed -point impedance
comes a voltage -fed radiator when operated of a dipole so that a medium -
on its even harmonics. impedance transmission line may be used is
The antenna has a different radiation shown in figures 2J and 2K. This system
pattern when operated on its harmonics, as utilizes more than one wire in parallel for
would be expected. The arrangement used the radiating element, but only one of the
on the second harmonic is better known as wires is broken for attachment of the feeder.
the Franklin collinear array and is described The most common arrangement uses two
in Chapter Twenty -two. The pattern is wires in the flat top of the antenna so that
similar to a half -wave dipole except that it an impedance multiplication of four is ob-
is sharper in the broadside direction. On tained.
higher harmonics of operation there will be The antenna shown in figure 2J is the
multiple lobes of radiation from the system. so- called twin -lead folded dipole which is a
Figures 2E and 2F show alternative ar- commonly used antenna system on the
rangements for using an untuned transmis- medium- frequency amateur bands. In this
sion line between the transmitter and the arrangement both the antenna and the
tuned -doublet radiator. In figure 2E a half - transmission line to the transmitter are con-
wave shorted line is used to resonate the structed of 300 -ohm twin -lead. The flat
radiating system, while in figure 2F a quar- tep of the antenna is made slightly less than
ter -wave open line is utilized. The adjust- the conventional length (462/Fml1, instead
ment of quarter -wave and half -wave stubs of 468 for a single -wire flat top) and
is discussed in Section 21 -8.
the two ends of the twin -lead are joined
together at each end. The center of one of
Doublets with The average value of feed im- the conductors of the twin -lead flat top is
Quarter-Wave pedance for a center -fed half - broken and the two ends of the twin -lead
Transformers wave doublet is 75 ohms. The feeder are spliced into the flat -top leads. As
actual value varies with a protection against moisture, pieces of flat
height and is shown in Chapter Twenty. polyethylene taken from another piece of
Other methods of matching this rather low 300 -ohm twin -lead may be molded over the
value of impedance to a medium -impedance joint between conductors with the aid of a
transmission line are shown in G, H, and I soldering iron.
of figure 2. Each of these three systems uses Better bandwidth characteristics can be
a quarter -wave transformer to accomplish obtained with a folded dipole made of rib-
the impedance transformation. The only bon line if the two conductors of the ribbon
difference between the three systems lies in line are shorted a distance of 0.82 (the
the type of transmission line used in the velocity factor of ribbon line) of a free -
quarter -wave transformer. G shows the space quarter- wave -length from the center
Q -match system whereby a line made up or feed point. This procedure is illustrated
of %2 -inch dural tubing is used for the low - in figure 3A. An alternative arrangement
impedance linear transformer. A line made for a twin -lead folded dipole is illustrated in
up in this manner is frequently called a set figure 3B. This type of half -wave antenna
of Q bars. Illustration H shows the use of system is convenient for use on the 3.5-
a four -wire line as the linear transformer, MHz band when the 116- to 132 -foot dis-
and I shows the use of a piece of 150 -ohm tance required for a full half -wave is not
twin -lead electrically 1/4-wave in length quite available in a straight line, since the
440 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
462 frequent use of the multi -wire radiator as
FMN:
the driven element in a parasitic antenna
array.
Delta- Matched These two types of radiat-
300-OHM 6I1160N Doublet and ing elements are shown in
Standard Doublet figure 2L and figure 2M.
The delta-matched doublet
is described in detail in Section eight of this
chapter. The standard doublet, shown in
404
FMN1
figure 2M, is fed in the center by means of
75 -ohm twin -lead, either the transmitting
or the receiving type, or it may be fed by
means of twisted -pair feeder or by means of
parallel -wire lamp cord. Any of these types
of feed line will give an approximate match
to the center impedance of the dipole, but
the 75 -ohm twin -lead is far to be preferred
over the other types of low- impedance feed-
Figure 3 er due to the much lower losses of the poly-
FOLDED DIPOLE WITH SHORTING ethylene- dielectric transmission line.
STRAPS The coaxial -fed doublet shown in figure
The impedance match and bandwidth char-
2N is a variation on the system shown in
acteristics of a folded dipole may be im- figure 2M. Either 52 -ohm or 75 -ohm coaxial
proved by shorting the two wires of the cable may be used to feed the center of the
ribbon a distance out from the center equal
to the velocity factor of the ribbon times the dipole, although the 52 -ohm type will give
half -length of the dipole as shown at A. An a somewhat better impedance match at
alternative arrangement with bent down ends lower antenna heights. Due to the asym-
for space con atlon Is illustrated at B.
metry of the coaxial feed system, difficulty
may be encountered with waves traveling
single -wire end pieces may be bent away or on the outside of the coaxial cable. For this
downward from the direction of the main reason the use of twin -lead is normally to
section of the antenna. be preferred over the use of coaxial cable
Figure 2K shows the basic type of two - for feeding the center of a half -wave dipole.
wire doublet or folded dipole wherein the
radiating section of the system is made up Off-Center- The system shown in figure
of standard antenna wire spaced by means Fed Doublet 20 is sometimes used to feed
of feeder spreaders. The feeder again is made a half -wave dipole, especially
of 300 -ohm twin -lead since the feed -point
impedance is approximately 300 ohms, the
same as that of the twin -lead folded dipole.
The folded -dipole type of antenna has the
broadest response characteristics (greatest 0.04./r 0.04 A/ O.MA/1

bandwidth) of any of the conventional half - O O


-J --FED STUB-FED L-CFED
wave antenna systems constructed of small VERTICAL VERTICAL VERTICAL
wires or conductors. Hence such an anten-
na may be operated over the greatest fre- C

quency range, without serious standing SNORT

waves, of any common half -wave antenna INSULATOR

types. 100-000 p LINT 100-000 n Lite 11-000 A


LINT
The increased bandwidth of the multi -
wire doublet type of radiator, and the fact Figure 4
that the feed -point resistance is increased
several times over the radiation resistance of HALF -WAVE VERTICAL ANTENNA SHOW-
the element, have both contributed to the ING ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF FEED

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vertical Antennas 441

LOADING COIL
AROXI 34 TURNS
I2
AND I
Y
WIRE. 4.5' DIAMETER
FOOT LONG

RADIALS EACH
MHz)
4 RADIALS EACH
MHi)

S2 - OHM COAXIAL LINE.


CENTER CONDUCTOR CONNECTS
TO VERTICAL WHIP
52- OHM COAXIAL LINE
4S PUT LONG
Figure 5

THE LOW -FREQUENCY GROUND PLANE


Figure 6
ANTENNA
80 -METER LOADED GROUND PLANE
The radials of the ground plane antenna
should lie in a horizontal plane, although ANTENNA
slight departures from this caused by nearby Number of turns in loading soil to be ad-
objects is allowable. The whip may be justed until antenna system resonates at
mounted on a short post, or on the roof of a desired frequency in 80 -meter band.
building. The wire radials may slope down-
wards toward their tips, acting as guy wires
for the installation. ground conditions in the vicinity of the
antenna are good. Such an antenna is not
when it is desired to use the same antenna good for short -range sky-wave communica-
on a number of harmonically related fre- tion, such as is the normal usage of the
quencies. The feeder wire (No. 14 enameled 3.5 -MHz amateur band, but is excellent
wire should be used) is tapped a distance of for short -range ground -wave communica-
14 percent of the total length of the an- tion such as on the standard broadcast band
tenna either side of center. The feeder wire, and on the amateur 1.8 -MHz band. The
operating against ground for the return vertical antenna may cause greater BCI than
current, has an impedance of approximately an equivalent horizontal antenna, due to
600 ohms. The system works well over the much greater ground -wave field inten-
highly conducting ground, but will intro- sity. Also, the vertical antenna is poor for
duce rather high losses when the antenna is receiving under conditions where man -made
located above rocky or poorly conducting interference is severe, since such interfer-
soil. The off- center -fed antenna has a fur- ence is predominantly of vertical polariza-
ther disadvantage that it is highly respon- tion.
sive to harmonics from the transmitter. Three ways of feeding a half -wave verti-
The effectiveness of the antenna system cal antenna with an untuned transmission
in radiating harmonics is of course an ad- line are illustrated in figure 4. The J -fed
vantage when operation of the antenna on system shown in figure 4A is obviously not
a number of frequency bands is desired. practical except on the higher frequencies
But it is necessary to use a harmonic filter where the extra length for the stub may
to ensure that only the desired frequency is easily be obtained. However, in the normal
fed from the transmitter to the antenna. case the ground -plane vertical antenna is to
be recommended over the J -fed system for
21 -3 The Half -Wave high -frequency work.
Vertical Antenna
21 -4 The Ground -Plane
The half -wave vertical antenna with its
bottom end from 0.1 to 0.2 wavelength
Antenna
above ground is an effective transmitting An effective low -angle radiator for any
antenna for low -angle radiation, where amateur band is the ground-plane antenna,
442 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

shown in figure 5. So named because of the


radial ground wires, the ground -plane an-
tenna is not affected by soil conditions in
its vicinity due to the creation of an arti- 1
ficial ground system by the radial wires. The
base impedance of the ground plane is of
the order of 30 to 35 ohms, and it may be
fed with 52 -ohm coaxial line with only a
slight impedance mismatch. For a more exact
match, the ground -plane antenna may be COAX. roots TRAMS.
fed with a 72 -ohm coaxial line and a quar-
ter -wave matching section made of 52 -ohm
coaxial line.
The angle of radiation of the ground - e
plane antenna is quite low, and the antenna Figure 7
will be found more effective for communi-
FEEDING A QUARTER -WAVE MARCONI
cation over 400 miles or so on the 80 and
40 meter bands than a high -angle radiator, ANTENNA
such as a dipole. When an open -wire line is to be used, it may
be link -coupled to a series- resonant circuit
The 80 -Meter A vertical antenna of 66 feet between the bottom end of the Marconi and
ground, as at A. Alternatively, a reasonably
Loaded in height presents quite a good impedance match may be obtained be-
Ground Plane problem on a small lot, as the tween 52 -ohm coaxial line and the bottom
of a resonant quarter -wave antenna, as illus-
supporting guy wires will trated at 6 above.
tend to take up quite a large portion of the
lot. Under such conditions, it is possible to
quired. The Marconi type antenna allows
shorten the length of the vertical radiator
the use of half the length of wire that would
of the ground plane by the inclusion of a
be required for a half -wave Hertz radiator.
loading coil in the vertical whip section.
The ground -plane antenna can be artificially The ground acts as a mirror, in effect, and
takes the place of the additional quarter
loaded in this manner so that a 25 -foot
wave of wire that would be required to reach
vertical whip may be used for the radiator.
resonance if the end of the wire were not
Such an antenna is shown in figure 6. The
loaded ground plane tends to have a rather
returned to ground.
high Q and operates only over a narrow The fundamental practical form of the
Marconi antenna system is shown in figure
band of frequencies. An operating range of
7. Other Marconi antennas differ from this
about 100 kHz with a low SWR is possible
on 80 meters. Operation over a larger fre-
type primarily in regard to the method of
feeding the energy to the radiator. The feed
quency range is possible if a higher standing
wave ratio is tolerated on the transmission
method shown in figure 7B can often be
used to advantage, particularly in mobile
line. The radiation resistance of a loaded 80-
meter ground plane is about 15 ohms. A work.
quarter wavelength (45 feet) of 52 -ohm Variations on the basic Marconi antenna
are shown in the illustrations of figure 8.
coaxial line will act as an efficient feed line,
presenting a load of approximately 180 Figures 8B and 8C show the L -type and
ohms to the transmitter.
T -type Marconi antennas. These arrange-
ments have been more or less superseded by
21 -5 The Marconi the top - loaded forms of the Marconi an-
Antenna tenna shown in figures 8D, 8E, and 8F. In
each of these latter three configurations an
A grounded quarter -wave Marconi anten- antenna somewhat less than one quarter
na, widely used on frequencies below 3 wave in length has been loaded to increase
MHz, is sometimes used on the 3.5 -MHz its effective length by the insertion of a
band, and is also used in vhf mobile loading coil at or near the top of the radia-
services where a compact antenna is re- tor. The arrangement shown at figure 8D
HANDBOOK Marconi Antenna 443

LOADING
COILS

Figure 8

LOADING THE
MARCONI ANTENNA
The various loading systems
are di d ln the accom-
panying text. 11

gives the least loading but is the most in the form of heat. Improving the ground
practical mechanically. The system shown connection, therefore, provides a definite
at figure 8E gives an intermediate amount means of reducing this power loss, and thus
of loading, while that shown at figure 8F, increasing the radiated power.
utilizing a "hat" just above the loading The best possible ground consists of as
coil, gives the greatest amount of loading. many wires as possible, each at least a quar-
The object of all the top -loading methods ter wave long, buried just below the surface
shown is to produce an increase in the ef- of the earth, and extending out from a com-
fective length of the radiator, and thus to mon point in the form of radials. Copper
raise the point of maximum current in the wire of any size larger than No. 16 is satis-
radiator as far as possible above ground. factory, and the larger sizes will take
Raising the maximum- current point in the longer to disintegrate. In fact, the radials
radiator above ground has two desirable need not even be buried; they may be sup-
results: The percentage of low -angle radia- ported just above the earth, and insulated
tion is increased and the amount of ground from it. This arrangement is called a
current at the base of the radiator is re- counterpoise, and operates by virtue of its
duced, thus reducing the ground losses. high capacitance to ground.
Amateurs primarily interested in the If the antenna is physically shorter than
higher- frequency bands, but liking to a quarter wavelength, the antenna current
work 80 meters occasionally, can usually is higher, due to lower radiation resistance;
manage to resonate one of their antennas consequently, the power lost in resistive
as a Marconi by working the whole system soil is greater. The importance of a good
(feeders and all) against a water pipe ground with short, inductive- loaded Mar-
ground, and resorting to a loading coil if coni radiators is, therefore, quite obvious.
necessary. A high- frequency rotary, zepp. With a good ground system, even very short
doublet, or single- wire -fed antenna will (one -eighth wavelength) antennas can be
make quite a good 80 -meter Marconi if expected to give a high percentage of the
high and in the clear, with a rather long efficiency of a quarter -wave antenna used
feed line to act as a radiator on 80 meters. with the same ground system. This is
Where two -wire feeders are used, the feed- especially true when the short radiator is
ers should be tied together for Marconi top loaded with a high -Q (low-loss) coil.
operation.
Water -Pipe Water pipe, because of its com-
Importance of With a quarter -wave an- Grounds paratively large surface and
Ground Connection tenna and a ground, the cross section, has a relatively
antenna current general- low r -f resistance. If it is possible to attach
ly is measured with a meter placed in the to a junction of several water pipes (where
antenna circuit close to the ground con- they branch in several directions and run
nection. If this current flows through a for some distance under ground), a satis-
resistor, or if the ground itself presents factory ground connection will be obtained.
some resistance, there will be a power loss If one of the pipes attaches to a lawn or
444 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

garden sprinkler system in the immediate


vicinity of the antenna, the effectiveness of
the system will approach that of buried 700 - OHM -RIee0N- UNE

copper radials. WIRES SNORTED TO-


The main objection to water-pipe grounds GETHER AT END

is the possibility of high- resistance joints in


the pipe, due to the "dope" put on the cou- FEED UNE

pling threads. By attaching the ground


wire to a junction with three or more legs, Figure 10
the possibility of requiring the main portion
of the r -f current to flow through a high TWIN -LEAD MARCONI ANTENNA FOR THE
resistance connection is greatly reduced. 80 -AND 160 -METER BANDS
The presence of water in the pipe adds
nothing to the conductivity; therefore it nated to the operating frequency. The cor-
does not relieve the problem of high- resis-
rect loading of the final amplifier is ac-
tance joints. Bonding the joints is the best complished by varying the coupling, rather
insurance, but this is, of course, impractical than by detuning the antenna from reso-
where the pipe is buried. Bonding the vari- nance.
ous water faucets with copper wire above
Physically, a quarter-wave Marconi may
the surface of the ground will improve the
be made anywhere from one -eighth to three -
effectiveness of a water -pipe ground system eighths wavelength overall, including the
hampered by high- resistance pipe couplings.
total length of the antenna wire and
Marconi A Marconi antenna is an odd ground lead from the end of the antenna
Dimensions number of electrical quarter to the point where the ground lead attaches
waves long (usually only one to the junction of the radials or counter-
quarter wave in length), and is always reso- poise wires, or where the water pipe enters
the ground. The longer the antenna is made
--a,. AT "NAST FII[OU[NCT -- ---I physically, the lower will be the current
flowing in the ground connection, and the
greater will be the over-all radiation effi-
ciency. However, when the antenna length
exceeds three -eights wavelength, the an-
tenna becomes difficult to resonate by means
of a series capacitor, and it begins to take
shape as an end -fed Hertz, requiring a
method of feed such as a pi- network.
A radiator physically much shorter than
a quarter wavelength can be lengthened
electrically by means of a series loading coil,
and used as a quarter -wave Marconi. How-
ever, if the wire is made shorter than ap-
proximately one -eighth wavelength, the
Figure 9 radiation resistance will be quite low. This
THREE EFFECTIVE SPACE-CONSERVING is a special problem in mobile work below
ANTENNAS about 20 -MHz.
The arrangements shown at A and II are
satisfactory where resonant feed line can be 21 -6 Space -Conserving
used. However, nonresonant 75-ohm feed line
may be used in the arrangement at A when Antennas
the dimensions in wavelengths are as shown.
In the arrangement shown at I, low standing
waves will be obtained on the feed line when In many cases it is desired to undertake a
the over-all length of the antenna is a hall considerable amount of operation on the 80-
wave. The arrangement shown at C may be or 40 -meter band, but sufficient space is
tuned for any reasonable length of at top
to give a minimum of standing waves. simply not available for the installation of
HANDBOOK Space- Conserving Antennas 445

a half -wave radiator for the desired fre- 64.5

quency of operation. This is a common ex-


perience of apartment dwellers. The short-
ened Marconi antenna operated against a FOR DETAIL SU FIG. A

good ground can be used under certain con- PHENOLIC BLOCK 2


A I.S X O
WRAP CABLES AND BLOCK
i
///
ditions, but the shortened Marconi is noto- WITH SCOTCH ELECTRICALTAFE
SPACE BLOCKS B' APART ///7/
///
rious for the production of broadcast inter- ALONG BALUN

ference and a good ground connection is


usually unobtainable in an apartment house.
Essentially, the technique of producing
an antenna for lower -frequency operation
in restricted space is to erect a short radia-
tor which is balanced with respect to ground
and which is therefore independent of
ground for its operation. Several antenna FIGURE A FIGURE B
types meeting this set of conditions are CUTOFF SHIELD AND OUTER
JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW
REMOVE OUTER JACKET
FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF
shown in figure 9. Figure 9A shows a con- DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART
WAY TO OTHER CABLE COVER
CABLE AS SHOWN HERE.
UNBRAID THE SHIELD OF
ventional center -fed doublet with bent- ALL EXPOSED SHIELD AND
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES
COAX C. CUTOFF THE DI-
ELECTRIC AND INNER CON-
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP- DUCTOR FLUSH WITH THE
down ends. This type of antenna can be ING OF SCOTCH ELECTRICAL
TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE.
OUTER JACKET. DO MDT CUT
THE SHIELD. WRA /SHIELD
fed with 75 -ohm twin -lead in the center, OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD
OF COAX D. SOLDER THE
or it may be fed with a resonant line for KEEP BALUN AT LEAST CLEAR
OF GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS.
B CONNECTION. BEING VERY
CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE
THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL.
operation on several bands. The over -all FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE B HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT
WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
length of the radiating wire will be a few SE OHM RG -B /U, ANY LENGTH
THE AREA WITH A CONTIN-
UOUS WRAPPING OF SCOTCH
percent greater than the normal length for ELECTRICAL TAPE. NO CON-
NECTION TO INNER CONDUC-
TORS.
such an antenna since the wire is bent at a
position intermediate between a current loop DIMENSIONS SHOWN NERE ARE FOR THE GO-METER BAND. THIS ANT-
ENNA WAr SE EU/LT FOR OTHER BANDS Sr USING DIMENSIONS THAT
and a voltage loop. The actual length will ARE MULTIPLES OR SUBMULTIPLES OP THE O/MENS/ONS SHOWN.
BALUN SPACING IS LS' ON ALL BANDS.
have to be determined by the cut -and -try
process because of the increased effect of Figure 11
interfering objects on the effective electrical HALF -WAVE ANTENNA WITH QUARTER -
length of an antenna of this type.
WAVE UNBALANCED -TO- BALANCED
Figure 9B shows a method for using a
TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM
two -wire doublet on one -half of its normal
FOR 40 -METER OPERATION
operating frequency. It is recommended
that spaced open conductor be used both
for the radiating portion of the folder dipole The antenna system shown in figure 9C
and for the feed line. The reason for this may be used when not quite enough length
lies in the fact that the two wires of the is available for a full half -wave radiator.
flat top are not at the same potential The dimensions in terms of frequency are
throughout their length when the antenna given on the drawing. An antenna of this
is operated on one-half frequency. Twin - type is 93 feet long for operation on 3600
lead may be used for the feed line if opera- kHz and 86 feet long for operation on
tion on the frequency where the flat top is 3900 kHz. This type of antenna has the
one half -wave in length is most common, additional advantage that it may be oper-
and operation on half frequency is infre- ated on the 7- and 14 -MHz bands, when
quent. However, if the antenna is to be the flat top has been cut for the 3.5 -MHz
used primarily on the half frequency as band, simply by changing the position of
shown, it should be fed by means of an the shorting bar and the feeder line on the
open -wire line. If it is desired to feed the stub.
antenna with a nonresonant line, a quarter - A sacrifice which must be made when
wave stub may be connected to the antenna using a shortened radiating system (as for
at the points X -X in figure 9B. The stub example the types shown in figure 9), is in
should be tuned and the transmission line the bandwidth of the radiating system.
connected to it in the normal manner. The frequency range which may be covered
THE RADIO

-
446 Antennas and Antenna Matching

110'
higher than the radiation resistance, caus-
ing a loss of 50 percent or more of the
0111:-
priArryi
transmitter power output. If the radiation
resistance of the Marconi antenna is raised,
FOR DETAIL SEE FIG. A THE TWO WIRES MAY SE
SPREAD EITHER HORIZ- the amount of power lost in the ground
BLOCK 2'XI.SX0.3 ON OR VERTICALLY.
RAP CABLES AND BLOCK
ITH SCOTCH ELECTRICAL
resistance is proportionately less. If a Mar-
SPACE BLOCKS
ALONG BALUN
PP /i/ coni antenna is made out of 300 -ohm TV-
type ribbon line, as shown in figure 10, the
radiation resistance of the antenna is raised
from a low value of 10 or 15 ohms to a
more reasonable value of 40 to 60 ohms.
0.S The ground losses are now reduced by a
factor of 4. In addition, the antenna may
be directly fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line,
or directly from the unbalanced output of
FIGURE A FIGURE B a pi- network transmitter.
CUT OFF SHIELD ANO OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET
JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW
DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART
PROM A SHORT LENGTH OF
CABLE AS SHOWN HERE.
Since a certain amount of power may still
WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER UNBRAID THE SHIELD Of
ALL EXPOSED SHIELD ANO COAX C CUTOFF THE DI- be lost in the ground connection, it is still
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES ELECTRIC AND INNER CON-
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP-
PING Of SCOTCH ELECTRICAL
DUCTOR FLUSH WITH TN of greatest importance that a good, low -
61
OUTER JACKET. DO NOT CUT
TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAP SHIELD
OF COAX C. AROUND SHIELD
resistance ground be used with this antenna.
Of COAX D. SOLDER THE
KEEP BALUN AT ' LEAR CONNECTION. BEING VERY
(ILCpICMADVAGAL A Broadband
co GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS. THE
HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT
. Shown in figures 11 and 12
FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE B WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
THE AREA WITH A CONTI N-
Dipole System are broadband dipoles for the
Sa- OHM RE-S /U, ANY LENGTH UOUS
ELECTRICALT
NG OF SCOTCH
NOCOH 40- and 80 -meter amateur
NTOIMNBIICONDUC-
TORS. bands. These fan -type dipoles have excellent
broadband response, and are designed to be
fed with a 52 -ohm unbalanced coaxial line.
DIMENS IONS SHOWN HERE ARE POR TAWSD-METER SAND. THIS ANT-
ENNA MAr SE SU/LT /UR OTHER SANDS Sr LOINS DIMENSIONS rAUr
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUBMULTIPLES OP THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
The antenna system consists of a fan -type
SALON SPACING IS I.!'
ON ALL SANDS. dipole, a balun matching section, and a suit-
Figure 12 able coaxial feedline. The Q of the half -
wave 80 -meter doublet is lowered by de-
BROADBAND ANTENNA WITH QUARTER - creasing the effective length -to- diameter
WAVE UNBALANCED -TO- BALANCED ratio. The frequency range of operation of
TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM the doublet is increased considerably by
FOR 80 -METER OPERATION this change. A typical SWR curve for the
80 -meter doublet is shown in figure 13.
The balanced doublet is matched to the
by a shortened antenna system is approxi- unbalanced coaxial line by the quarter -wave
mately in proportion to the amount of
balun. If desired, a shortened balun may be
shortening which has been employed. For used (figure 14). The short balun is ca-
example, the antenna system shown in fig- pacitance loaded at the junction between the
ure 9C may be operated over the range balun and the broadband dipole.
from 3800 to 4000 kHz without serious
standing waves on the feed line. If the an- !
tenna had been made full length it would
be possible to cover about half again as
much frequency range for the same amount
of mismatch at the extremes of the fre-
quency range. 3S 3.11 3.7 3.1 3S 4.0
FREQUENCY (IAN)
The Twin -Lead Much of the power loss in
Marconi Antenna the Marconi antenna is a Figure 13
result of low radiation re-
sistance and high ground resistance. In some SWR CURVE OF 80 -METER BROADBAND
DIPOLE
cases, the ground resistance may even be

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Multiband Antennas 447

ANTENNA
used from the antenna to the transmitter
and since the antenna system is balanced
LU with respect to ground. With operation on
SO METERS

C400 PF the fundamental frequency of the antenna


FNENOUC BLOCKS
SEE FIG.12 40 METERS where the flat top is 3/4 wave long the
LTs- switch SW is left open. The system affords
C 200 PF
a very close match between the 600 -ohm
INNER
CONDUCTOR NOT USED
line and the feed point of the antenna. A
SU FIG.12 FOR CONNECTION standing -wave ratio of approximately 1.2 to
1 over the 14 -MHz band exists when the
S2-OM COAXIAL LINE
antenna is located approximately one -half
wave above ground.
Figure 14 For operation on the second harmonic
SHORT BALUN FOR 40 AND 80 METERS the switch SW is closed. The antenna is
still an effective radiator on the second har-
monic but the pattern of radiation will be
21 -7 Multiband Antennas different from that on the fundamental,
and the standing -wave ratio on the feed line
will be greater. The flat top of the antenna
The availability of a multiband antenna must be made of open wire rather than rib-
is a great operating convenience to an ama- bon or tubular line.
teur station. In most cases it will be found For greater operating convenience, the
best to install an antenna which is optimum shorting switch may be replaced with a
for the band which is used for the majority section of transmission line. If this trans-
of the available operating time, and then to mission line is made one -quarter wavelength
have an additional multiband antenna long for the fundamental frequency, and
which may be pressed into service for oper- the free end of the line is shorted, it will
ation on another band when propagation act as an open circuit across the center
conditions on the most frequently used insulator. At the second harmonic, the
band are not suitable. Most amateurs use, transmission line is one -half wavelength
or plan to install, at least one directive ar- long, and reflects the low impedance of the
ray for one of the higher- frequency bands, shorted end across the center insulator.
but find that an additional antenna which
may be used on the 3.5 -MHz and 7.0 -MHz
bands, or even up through the 28 -MHz band
is almost indispensable.
0,+}AG11t.L
The choice of a multiband antenna de-
pends on a number of factors such as the
amount of space available, the band which `-rttot, r,tAOt,
is to be used for the majority of operation
with the antenna, the radiation efficiency L Its ro,
L
SOSO 014 ANO 1150
co. 1100 tlh A110 111t30 Nlt
which is desired, and the type of antenna L ow
r0, IAt00 sNS Aw0 as NW
tuning network to be used at the trans-
mitter. A number of recommended types OO.aNw ,wt
r,ANS.11rrt,
are shown on the next pages. TO

The 34 -Wave Figure 15 shows an antenna Figure 15


Folded Doublettype which will be found to THE THREE -QUARTER WAVE FOLDED
be very effective when a DOUBLET
moderate amount of space is available, when
This antenna arrangement will olvo very
most of the operating will be done on one satisfactory operation with a 600 -ohm feed
band with occasional operation on the sec- line for operation with the switch open on
ond harmonic. The system is quite satis- the fundamental frequency and with the
switch closed on twke frequeery. A balsa
factory for use with high -power transmit- may be used to match the 600-ohm line to
ters since a 600 -ohm nonresonant line is the transmitter.
448 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
SILOS

Figure 18
END-FED ZEPP

600 - OHM LINE


TO TRANSMITTER
as possible. In any event at least three
quarters of the total wire length should be
L 67 FT. WHEN ANTENNA IS 19S FT.
L=33FT. 96FT. in the clear. Dimension for optimum oper-
L=16.5FT ' 9.6FT. ation on various amateur bands are given in
addition in figure 17.
Figure 16
The End -Fed The end -fed zepp is conven-
AUTOMATIC BANDSWITCHING STUB FOR Zepp ient for multiband operation.
THE THREE -QUARTER WAVE FOLDED It is shown in figure 18 along
DOUBLET with recommended dimensions for opera-
The antenna of figure IS may be used with tion on various amateur band groups. Since
a shorted stub line in place of the switch this antenna type is an unbalanced radiat-
normally used for second-harmonic operation. ing system, its use is not recommended with
high -power transmitters where interference
Thus the switching action is automatic as to broadcast listeners is likely to be en-
the frequency of operation is changed. Such countered.
an installation is shown in figure 16. The coupling coil at the transmitter end
The End -Fed The end -fed Hertz antenna of the feeder system should be link -coupled
Hertz shown in figure 17 is not as to the output of the low -pass TVI filter in
effective a radiating system as order to reduce harmonic radiation.
many other antenna types, but it is par- The Two -Band A three -eighths wavelength
ticularly convenient when it is desired to Marconi Antenna Marconi antenna may be
install an antenna in a hurry for a test, or operated on its harmonic
for field -day work. The flat top of the frequency, providing good two band per-
radiator should be as high and in the clear formance from a simple wire. Such an ar-
rangement for operation on 160 -80 meters,
and 80 -40 meters is shown in figure 19. On
L SEE 6ELOW
the fundamental (lowest) frequency, the
antenna acts as a three -eighths wavelength
series -tuned Marconi. On the second har-
L=13e
3.5, 7,14 AND 26 MHz
3.5,7 ANO 14 MHz L.137,
monic, the antenna is a current -fed three -
3.5 AND 7 MHz L. 134' quarter wavelength antenna operating
3.9MHZANO 211MHz L. 12o' against ground. For proper operation, the
antenna should be resonated on its second
LINE
FROM harmonic by means of a grid -dip oscillator
to the operating frequency most used on
%MTII.

Figure 17 this particular band. The Q of the an-


tenna is relatively low, and the antenna will
RECOMMENDED LENGTHS FOR THE END - perform well over a frequency range of
FED HERTZ ANTENNA several hundred kHz.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Multiband Antennas 449

100 {
a pi- network transmitter coupling circuit.
The use of a low -pass TVI filter is of course
recommended.

The Center -Fed For multiband operation,


L. 90' FOR 00 -40 -METER OPERATION Multiband Antenna the center-fed antenna is
250 OF
without doubt the best
compromise. It is a balanced system on all
bands, it requires no ground return, and
Figure 19 when properly tuned has good rejection
A TWO -BAND MARCONI ANTENNA FOR
properties for the higher harmonics gener-
160 -80 METER OPERATION
ated in the transmitter. It is well suited for
use with the various multiband 150-watt
transmitters that are currently so popular.
The over -all length of the antenna may For proper operation with these transmit-
be varied slightly to place its self- resonant ters, an antenna tuning unit must be used
frequency in the desired region. Bends or with the center -fed antenna. In fact, some
turns in the antenna tend to make it reso- sort of tuning unit is necessary for any
nate higher in frequency, and it may be type of efficient, multiband antenna.
necessary to lengthen it a bit to resonate it Various dimensions for center-fed anten-
at the chosen frequency. For fundamental na systems are shown in figure 20. If the
operation, the series capacitor is inserted in feed line is made up in the conventional
the circuit, and the antenna may be reso- manner of No. 12 or No. 14 wire spaced 4
nated to any point in the lower -frequency to 6 inches, the antenna system is some-
band. As with any Marconi -type antenna, times called a center -fed zepp. With this
the use of a good ground is essential. This type of feeder the impedance at the trans-
antenna works well with transmitters em- mitter end of the feeder varies from about
ploying coaxial antenna feed, since its trans- 70 ohms to approximately 5000 ohms, the
mitting impedance on both bands is in the same range encountered in an end -fed zepp
neighborhood of 40 to 60 ohms. It may be antenna. This great impedance ratio requires
attached directly to the output terminal of provision for either series or parallel tuning
of the feeders at the transmitter, and in-
volves quite high r -f voltages at various
LI
points along the feed line.

I/ M00 TRRssossON LINE .3 134


BANDS Pt 0/ OND /DAL 2 Tot K E AT
LI L2 Tow. TOE TRNS34 .T TEN
.

ENO 0/ ila
LINE .s APRO/. LE
S.S4EN3 132
PRONE 10 PARALLEL 120o ONUs 30
) 04001 PARALLEL 1200 ONUS
4101. 1200 ONUS
111 OS SO
A-NN3 1200 0001
21-NN3 1200 ONOS
I S41INI
1]1 Iu suas 1> OROS
14 21012 HSlts tf 0003 ES
ar OR
1/21N1
WV LONG 300 -01M OPEN -WIRE
PARALLEL 1200 ONUS TV TYPE LINE
T. INN IoS OS PARALLEL 1200 0005 67
IA.NN3 PAII ALLlL 1200 00341
T-NN3 SEAMS TS ONUS
14.11143 3 1 PARALLEL 200 0001 SS
21-WI 1200 00S
T.NMI PARALLEL 1200 ONUS
1A.NN3
2WN3
100 PARALLEL 1200 0003 a
1200 O01
ANTENNA TUNER
OR
*MATCH BOA AA IAL
LINE

Figure 21
Figure 20
MULTIBAND ANTENNA USING FAN -
DIMENSIONS FOR CENTER -FED MULTI - DIPOLE TO LIMIT IMPEDANCE EXCUR-
BAND ANTENNA SIONS ON HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
450 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

If the feed line between the transmitter Folded Flat Top As has been mentioned
and the antenna is made to have a character- Dual -Band Antenna earlier, there is an in-
istic impedance of approximately 300 ohms creasing tendency
the excursions in end -of- feeder impedance among amateur operators to utilize rotary
are greatly reduced. or fixed arrays for the 14 -MHz band and
There are several practical types of trans- those higher in frequency. In order to af-
mission line which can give an impedance ford complete coverage of the amateur
of approximately 300 ohms. The first is, bands it is then desirable to have an addi-
obviously, 300 -ohm twin -lead. Twin -lead tional system which will operate with equal
of the receiving type may be used as a reso- effectiveness an the 3.5- and 7 -MHz bands,
but this low- frequency antenna system
will not be required to operate on any
bands higher in frequency than the 7 -MHz
band. The antenna system shown in figure
22 has been developed to fill this need.
This system consists essentially of an
open -wire folded dipole for the 7 -MHz band
with a special feed system which allows the
antenna to be fed with minimum standing
waves on the feed line on both the 7 -MHz
and 3.5-MHz bands. The feed -point imped-
ance of a folded dipole on its fundamental
frequency is approximately 300 ohms.
Hence the 300 -ohm twin lead shown in
figure 22 can be connected directly into the
Figure 22 center of the system for operation only on
the 7 -MHz band and standing waves on
FOLDED -TOP DUAL -BAND ANTENNA the feeder will be very small. However, it
is possible to insert an electrical half wave
nant feed line in this case, but its use is not of transmission line of any characteristic
recommended with power levels greater impedance into a feeder system such as this
than perhaps 150 watts, and it should not and the impedance at the far end of the line
be used when lowest loss in the transmis- will be exactly the same value of impedance
sion line is desired. which the half -wave line "sees" at its termi-
For power levels up to 250 watts or so, nation. Hence this has been done in the
the transmitting type tubular 300 -ohm antenna system shown in figure 22; an elec-
line may be used, or the open -wire 300 -ohm trical half wave of line has been inserted
TV line may be employed. For power levels between the feed point of the antenna and
higher than this, a 4 -wire transmission line, the 300 -ohm transmission line to the trans-
or a line built of one -quarter inch tubing mitter.
should be used. The characteristic impedance of this ad-
Even when a 300 -ohm transmission line ditional half -wave section of transmission
is used, the end -of- feeder impedance may
line has been made about 715 ohms (No. 20
reach a high value, particularly on the sec- wire spaced 6 inches), but since it is an
ond harmonic of the antenna. To limit the electrical half wave long at 7 MHz and
impedance excursions, a two -wire flat top operates into a load of 300 ohms at the
may be employed for the radiator, as shown antenna the 300 -ohm twin lead at the bot-
in figure 21. The use of such a radiator will tom of the half -wave section still "sees" an
limit the impedance excursions on the har- impedance of 300 ohms. The additional half -
monic frequencies of the antenna and make wave section of transmission line introduces
the operation of the antenna matching unit a negligible amount of loss since the current

much less critical. The use of a two -wire flowing in the section of line is the same
radiator is highly recommended for any which would flow in a 300 -ohm line at
center -fed multiband antenna. each end of the half -wave section, and at

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Multee Antenna 451

all other points it is less than the current L


which would flow in a 300 -ohm line since
the effective impedance is greater than 300
ohms in the center of the half -wave section. 300- OHM OPEN-WIRE
This means that the loss is less than it rv TYPE LINE

would be in an equivalent length of 300 - E0 -40M


ohm twin lead since this type of manufac- Leas
tured transmission line is made up of con- V.2s'
ductors which are equivalent to No. 20 wire.
So we see that the added section of 715 -
RADIALS
ohm line has substantially no effect on the
32-OHM COAX
operation of the antenna system on the
7 -MHz band. However, when the flat top
of the antenna is operated on the 3.3 MHz
band the feed -point impedance of the flat
top is approximately 3500 ohms. Since the
section of 715-ohm transmission line is an
electrical quarter -wave in length on the Figure 23
3.5 -MHz band, this section of line will have
the effect of transforming the approximate- THE MULTEE TWO -BAND ANTENNA
ly 3500 ohms feed -point impedance of the This compact antenna can be used with ex-
antenna down to an impedance of about 150 cellent results on 160/80 and 80/40 meters.
The feedline should be held as vertical as
ohms which will result in a 2:1 standing - possible, since it radiates when the antenna
wave ratio on the 300 -ohm twin lead trans- is operated on its fundamental frequency.
mission line from the transmitter to the
antenna system.
The antenna system of figure 22 operates radiating rather than the vertical portion.
with very low standing waves over the en- The vertical portion acts as a quarter -wave
tire 7 -MHz band, and it will operate with linear transformer, matching the 6000 -ohm
moderate standing waves from 3500 to antenna impedance to the 50 -ohm imped-
3800 kHz in the 3.5 -MHz band and with ance of the coaxial transmission line.
sufficiently low standing -wave ratio so that The earth below a vertical radiator must
it is quite usable over the entire 3.5 -MHz be of good conductivity not only to provide
band. a low- resistance ground connection, but
This antenna system, as well as all other also to provide a good reflecting surface
types of multiband antenna systems, should for the waves radiated downward toward the
be used in conjunction with some type of ground. For best results, a radial system
harmonic- reducing antenna tuning network should be installed beneath the antenna.
even though the system does present a con- For 160/80 -meter operation, six radials SO
venient impedance value on both bands. feet in length, made of No. 16 copper wire
should be buried just below the surface of
The Multee An antenna that works well
the ground. While an ordinary water -pipe
Antenna on 160 and 80 meters, or 80 ground system with no radials may be used,
and 40 meters and is suffi- a system of radials will provide a worth-
ciently compact to permit erection on the while increase in signal strength. For 80/40 -
average city lot is the Multee antenna, il-
meter operation, the length of the radials
lustrated in figure 23. The antenna evolves
may be reduced to 25 feet. As with all multi -
from a vertical two -wire radiator, fed on
one leg only. On the low- frequency band band antennas that employ no lumped tuned
the top portion does little radiating, so it is circuits, this antenna offers no attenuation to
folded down to form a radiator for the harmonics of the transmitter. When oper-
higher- frequency band. On the lower -fre- ating on the lower-frequency band, it would
quency band, the antenna acts as a top - be wise to check the transmitter for second -
loaded vertical radiator, while on the higher - harmonic emission, since this antenna will
frequency band, the flat top does the effectively radiate this harmonic.
452 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
4.0
I-

a< 3.5
W

; 3.0

as
ii
iti 2.0
CUT -OFF FREQUENCY
15
D:
3
VI
22 26 30 34 36 42 4e 54 56
I

e 10 14 16 SO

FREQUENCY (Poll)

Figure 25
SWR CURVE FOR A 13.2-MHz DISCONE
ANTENNA. SWR IS BELOW 1.5 TO 1 FROM
13.0 MHz TO 58 MHz

R for low- frequency work it may be made of


52 -OHM COAXIAL
FEED LINE copper wire and aluminum angle stock. A
suitable mechanical layout for a low -fre-
DIMENSIONS
20,15,1410. 6 METERS 15.11,10,6 METERS II 10.6 2 METERS
quency discone is shown in figure 26.
D. 1z L.16' D=e L =12 D= e L=6,e- Smaller versions of this antenna may be
S= 10- R=16 Si e R =Iz S=4- R=ee- constructed for 15, 11, 10, and 6 meters,
H=15.7. H=10'5. H=6'3" or for 11, 10, 6, and 2 meters as shown in
Figure 24 figure 24.
DIMENSIONS OF DISCONE ANTENNA For minimum wind resistance, the top
FOR LOW- FREQUENCY CUTOFF AT "hat" of the discone is constructed from
13.2 MHz, 20.1 MHz, AND 26 MHz three -quarter inch aluminum angle stock,
the rods being bolted to an aluminum plate at
The Discono is o vertically polarized radiator,
producing an omnidirectional pattern similar the center of the structure. The tips of the
to a g d plane. Operation on rods are all connected together by lengths
amateur bands with low SWR on the co- of No. 12 enamelled copper wire. The cone
axial feed line is possible.
elements are made of No. 12 copper wire
and act as guy wires for the discone struc-
The Low -Frequency The discone antenna is
ture. A very rigid arrangement may be made
Discone widely used on the vhf from this design, one that will give no
bands, but until recently trouble in high winds. A 4" X 4" post can
it has not been put to any great use on the be used to support the discone structure.
lower- frequency bands. Since the discone is The discone antenna may be fed by a
a broadband device, it may be used on sev- length of 50 -ohm coaxial cable directly
eral harmonically related amateur bands. from the transmitter, with a very low SWR
Size is the limiting factor in the use of a on all bands.
discone, and the 20 -meter band is about the
lowest practical frequency for a discone of The Single -Wire- The old favorite single -
reasonable dimensions. A discone designed Fed Antenna wire -fed antenna system
for 20 -meter operation may be used on 20, is quite satisfactory for an
15, 11, 10, and 6 meters with excellent impromptu all -band antenna system. It is
results. It affords a good match to a 50 -ohm widely used for portable installations and
coaxial feed system on all of these bands. A "Field Day" contests where a simple, multi -
practical discone antenna is shown in figure band antenna is required. A single -wire
24, with a SWR curve for its operation over feeder has a characteristic impedance of
the frequency range of 13 to 55 MHz shown approximately 500 ohms, depending on the
in figure 25. The discone antenna radiates wire size and the point of attachment to the
a vertically polarized wave and has a very antenna. The earth losses are comparatively
low angle of radiation. For vhf work the low over ground of good conductivity.
discone is constructed of sheet metal, but Since the single -wire feeder radiates, it is
HANDBOOK Low -Frequency Discone 453

ate on more than one band. Such a com-


promise introduces additional reactance into
the single -wire feeder, and might cause
loading difficulties with pi- network trans-
mitters. To minimize this trouble, the single-
wire feeder should be made a multiple of
33 feet long.
Two typical singe- wire -fed antenna sys-
tems are shown in figure 27 with dimensions
for multiband operation.
Multibond A vertical radiator can be
TOEDItC -TOEVqn Vertical Antennas used on several amateur
bands either by employing
i:`rEwrE TO I. PIPE, zNicN a variable base -loading inductor or by the
NoNSUroE.

dga )11 COwDUCTOE O,


inclusion of trap elements in the radiator.
aN. usu
-
E
DiX E4TE
TO TOE
In either case, tuned radial wires should be
I .- lDI.TOREEwTED
TOLEO.Y used for lowest ground loss at the higher
frequencies. Shown in figure 28 is a 22 -foot
vertical antenna designed for operation on

VOLTAGE CURVES

AS Guy
POST
win. POR W000

wOOD

JOIN ALL wiREE AT SASE iNE


Si OW CONEIE/ LIME CENTER
ANTENNA WIRE

Figure 26

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF 20-


METER DISCONE

necessary to bring it away from the antenna Figure 27


at right angles to the antenna wire for at SINGLE -WIRE -FED ANTENNA FOR ALL -
least one -half the length of the antenna. BAND OPERATION
The correct point for best impedance
An antenna of this type for 40 -, 20- and 10-
match on the fundamental frequency is not meter operation would have a radiator 67
suitable for harmonic operation of the an- feet long, with the feeder tapped 11 feet off
tenna. In addition, the correct length of the center. The feeder can be 33, 66 or 99 feet
long. The same type of antenna for S0-, 40 -,
antenna for fundamental operation is not 20- and 10 -meter operation would have a
correct for harmonic operation. Consequent- radiator 134 feet long, with the feeder
ly, a compromise must be made in antenna tapped 22 feet off center. The feeder can be
either 66 or 132 feet long. This system should
length and point of feeder connection to be used only with those coupling methods
enable the single- wire -fed antenna to oper- which provide good harmonic attenuation.
454 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

amateur bands from 80 through 10 meters.


The height is chosen to present a 3/4-wave- 1/2" ALUM TUBING
length vertical for low angle radiation at
the highest frequency of operation. Radial
i
wires are used for the 10 -, 15 -, and 20- 1S -METER TRAP
meter bands and an external ground con-
nection is used on 40 and 80 meters. If 3/4" ALUM. TUBING

the antenna is mounted on the roof of a 12'10"


building, it may be possible to use the 10 -METER TRAP

metal rain gutter system as a ground. 10' 2"


Four -wire TV rotator cable can be used
to construct the radial system, each cable 1/4' ALUM. TUBING B' S'
including a radial wire for one of the three
1

higher bands. The fourth wire may be ex-


tended for 40 meters, or two of the four
wires can be cut for 20 meters, and one each
for 15 and 10 meters. At least three and RADIAL SYSTEM AS SHOWN
IN FIGURE 26
preferably four such radial assemblies should

S2-OHM COAX TO TRANSMITTER

22 -FOOT VERTICAL MADE FROM


ALUMINUM TV MAST SECTIONS. Figure 29

TRIBAND TRAP VERTICAL ANTENNA


BOLT JOINT
Parallel-tuned trap assemblies are used in
this vertical antenna designed for 20 -, IS -,
and 10 -meter operation. The radial system of
figure 28 is used. Automatic trap action
electrically switches antenna for proper op-
eration on each band.
INSULATORS (4 REDO)

ALUMINUM be used. These can be laid out on the roof,


STRAPS 2 %4 UPRIGHT
or possibly hidden in the attic.
The radiator is made from two ten -foot
sections of aluminum TV mast, plus one
COIL
FOUR RADIAL ASSEMBLIES
five -foot section cut to the the proper
ATTACH TO POINT A.
TYPICAL RADIAL ASSEMBLY
length. The mast sections are assembled and
-WINE ROTOR CABLE self -tapping sheet -metal screws are run
through each joint to make a good electrical
v connection. The radiator and base coil are
11 e attached to sturdy ceramic "beehive" in-
52-OHM COAX TO 17'6
TRANSMITTER sulators, using strips of aluminum bent to
BAND 80 40 20 15 TAPS MEASURED FROM
GROUND END OF COIL .
form clamps to encircle the tubing. The
COAX TAP 7 2
ANTENNA TAP 25
S
12 6 3
CO /L NOT USED ON
10 METERS.
insulators are mounted to a vertical section
of "two -by- four" lumber bolted to the
Figure 28 frame of the building. If securely mounted,
no guy wires are required for the vertical
"ALL- BAND" VERTICAL ANTENNA radiator.
Ease- loaded whip and multiple radial system The antenna is resonated to the center
may be used on all bands from 80 through of each operative band with the aid of a
10 meters. Loading -coil taps are adjusted for
lowest SWR on each band. The SWR on 10 SWR meter placed in the S2 -ohm feedline.
meters may be improved by placing a 250-pf
capacitor in series with the feedline c c- The taps are adjusted as indicated in the
tion to the base of the antenna and adjusting chart and sufficient power is applied to the
the capacitor for minimum SWR. Coil is 40
turns, 2" in diameter, 4" long (Air-Dux 1610). antenna to cause a reading on the SWR
HANDBOOK Matching Systems 455

meter. The number of active turns in the of the vertical antenna is adjusted in length
coil and the feedline tap are varied a turn for 10 -meter resonance at about 28.7 MHz,
at a time until proper transmitter loading is followed by adjustment of the center section
achieved with a reasonably low value of for resonance at 21.2 MHz. The last ad-
SWR on the transmission line (below 1.5 /1 justment is to the top section for resonance
or so at the center frequency in each band). at about 14.2 MHz.
The trap technique described in the Di- It must be remembered that trap, or other
rective Antennas chapter can be used for a multifrequency antennas are capable of ra-
three -band vertical antenna as shown in diating harmonics of the transmitter that
figure 29. This antenna is designed for may be coupled to them via the transmission
operation on 10, 15, and 20 meters and uses line. It is well to check for harmonic radi-
a separate radial system for each band. No ation with a nearby radio amateur. If such
adjustments need be made to the antenna harmonics are noted, an antenna tuner sim-
when changing frequency from one band to ilar to the one described later in this chapter
another. Substitution of a ground connection should be added to the installation to reduce
for the radials is not recommended because unwanted harmonics to a minimum.
of the high ground loss normally encoun-
tered at these frequencies. Typical trap con- 21 -8 Matching
struction is discussed in the reference chap- Nonresonant Lines
ter, and the vertical radiator is built of to the Antenna
sections of aluminum tubing, as described
earlier. Present practice in regard to the use of
Each trap is built and grid- dipped to the transmission lines for feeding antenna sys-
proper frequency before it is placed in the tems on the amateur bands is about equally
radiator assembly. The 10 -meter trap is divided between three types of transmission
line: (1) Ribbon or tubular molded 300 -
self- resonant at about 27.9 MHz and the
15 -meter trap is self- resonant at about 20.8
ohm line is widely used up to moderate
MHz. Once resonated, the traps need no power levels (the "transmitting" type is
further adjustment and do not enter into usable up to the kilowatt level). (2) Open -
later adjustments made to the antenna. The wire 400- to 600 -ohm line is most common-
ly used when the antenna is some distance
complete antenna is resonated to each ama-
teur band by placing a single -turn coil from the transmitter, because of the low
between the base of the vertical radiator and attenuation of this type of line. (3) Coaxial
line (usually RG -8 /U with a 52 -ohm char-
the radial connection and coupling the grid -
acteristic impedance) is widely used in vhf
dip oscillator to the coil. The coaxial line
work and also on the lower frequencies
is removed for this test. The lower section
where the feed line must run underground
L
or through the walls of a building. Coaxial
line also is of assistance in TVI reduction
since the r -f field is entirely enclosed within
MATCHING SECTION
the line. Molded 75 -ohm line is sometimes
used to feed a doublet antenna, but the
doublet has been largely superseded by the
folded -dipole antenna fed by 300 -ohm rib-
bon or tubular line when an antenna for a
single band is required.
Standing Waves As was discussed earlier,
standing waves on the an-
tenna transmission line, in the transmitting
NON RESONANT
LINE case, are a result of reflection from the point
Figure 30 where the feed line joins the antenna system.
THE DELTA -MATCHED DIPOLE ANTENNA
The magnitude of the standing waves is
for the portions of the an-
The dimensions determined by the degree of mismatch be-
tenna are given in the text. tween the characteristic impedance of the
456 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

transmission line and the input impedance of


the antenna system. When the feed -point }

impedance of the antenna is resistive and of


the same value as the characteristic imped-
ance of the feed line, standing waves will
not exist on the feeder. It may be well to `TAIN-LEAD- ILAT-TO OR
repeat at this time that there is no adjust- CONDUCTORS SPACED I'TO or

ment which can be made at the transmitter I.-


T WIN LEAD.

end of the feed line which will change the OHMS


magnitude of the standing waves on the ANT LENGTH

antenna transmission line.


Delta -Matched The delta -type matched - U
D.I.EN ELEMENT
Antenna System impedance antenna system
is shown in figure 30. The impedance of the .00 -500
OHM moans
transmission line is transformed gradually
into a higher value by the fanned -out Y
portion of the feeders, and the Y portion
is tapped on the antenna at points where
the antenna impedance is a compromise
between the impedance at the ends of the
Y and the impedance of the unfanned por-
tion of the line. 300 -.0
OHM 'CEDERS

The constants of the system are rather Figure 31


critical, and the antenna must resonate at
FOLDED -ELEMENT MATCHING SYSTEMS
the operating frequency in order to mini- Drawing A above shows a half -wave made up
mize standing waves on the line. Some slight of two parallel wires. If one of the wires is
readjustment of the taps on the antenna is broken as in B and the feeder connected, the
feed -point impedance is multiplied by four;
desirable, if appreciable standing waves per- such an antenna is commonly called a
sist in appearing on the line. "folded doublet." The feed -point impedance
The constants for a doublet are deter- for a simple half -wave doublet fed in this
manner is approximately 300 ohms, depend-
mined by the following formulas: ing on antenna height. Drawing C shows how
the feed -point impedance can be multiplied
467.4 by a factor greater than four by making the
Lrrel half of the element that is broken smaller
FM E{ z in diameter than the unbroken half. An ex-
tension of the principles of B and C Is the
175 arrangement shown at D where the section
DreeE into which the feeders are cted is
FAH.
considerably shorter than the driven element.
147.6 This system is most c lent when the
Eeet driven element is too long (such as for a
FMHE 28- or 14 -MHz array) for a c lent me-
chanical arrangement of the system shown
where, at C.
L is antenna length,
D is the distance in from each end at constants are required when more than a
which the Y taps on, single half wavelength appears on the radi-
E is the height of the Y section. ating portion of the system.
Since these constants are correct only for Multiwire Doublets When a doublet antenna
a 600 -ohm transmission line, the spacing S or the driven element in
of the line must be approximately 75 times an array consists of more than one wire or
the diameter of the wire used in the trans- tubing conductor the radiation resistance of
mission line. For No. 14 wire, the spacing the antenna or array is increased slightly as
will be slightly less than 5 inches. This a result of the increase in the effective diam-
system should never be used on either its eter of the element. Further, if one wire of
even or odd harmonics, as entirely different such a radiator is split, as shown in figure

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Matching Systems 457

of the multiwire doublet principle which is


DRIVEN ELEMENT more practical for lower -frequency para-
sitic arrays such as those for use on the 14-
and 28 -MHz bands. In the system a section
MOVEAILE CLAMP of tubing of approximately one-quarter the
GAMMA ROD
RESONATING CAPACITOR
diameter of the driven element is spaced
about four inches below the driven element
5O-70 -ON COAXIAL FEED LINE
by means of clamps which hold the T- section
mechanically and which make electrical con-
nection to the driven element. The length
of the T- section is normally between 1$ and
Figure 32
30 inches each side of the center of the
THE GAMMA MATCH FOR CONNECTING dipole for transmission lines of 300 to 600
AN UNBALANCED COAXIAL LINE TO A ohms impedance, assuming 28 -MHz oper-
BALANCED DRIVEN ELEMENT ation. In series with each leg of the T -sec-
tion and the transmission line is a series
31, the effective feed -point resistance of the resonating capacitor. These two capacitors
antenna or array will be increased by a fac- tune out the reactance of the T- section. If
tor of N2 where N is equal to the number they are not used, the T- section will detune
of conductors, all in parallel, of the same the dipole when the T- section is attached
diameter in the array. Thus if there are two to it. The two capacitors may be ganged
conductors of the same diameter in the together, and once adjusted for minimum
driven element or the antenna the feed -point detuning action, they may be locked. A
resistance will be multiplied by 22, or 4. If suitable housing should be devised to protect
the antenna has a radiation resistance of 7$ these capacitors from the weather. Addi-
ohms its feed -point resistance will be 300 tional information on the adjustment of the
ohms. This is the case of the conventional T -match is given in the chapter covering
folded dipole as shown in figure 31B. rotary beam antennas.
If three wires are used in the driven The Gamma Match
radiator the feed -point resistance is increased An unbalanced version
by a factor of 9; if four wires are used the of the T -match may be
impedance is increased by a factor of 16, used to feed a dipole from an unbalanced
etc. In certain cases when feeding a para- coaxial line. Such a device is called a Gam -
ma match, and is illustrated in figure 32.
sitic array it is desirable to have an imped-
ance step up different from the value of 4:1 The length of the Gamma rod and the
obtained with two elements of the same spacing of it from the dipole determine the
diameter and 9:1 with three elements of the impedance level at the transmission line end
same diameter. Intermediate values of im- of the rod. The series capacitor is used to
pedance step up may be obtained by using tune out the reactance introduced into the
two elements of different diameter for the system by the Gamma rod. The adjustment
complete driven element as shown in figure of the Gamma match is discussed in the
31C. If the conductor that is broken for
chapter covering rotary beam antennas.
the feeder is of smaller diameter than the Matching Stubs By connecting a resonant
other conductor of the radiator, the imped-
ance step up will be greater than 4:1. On section of transmission line
the other hand if the larger of the two ele- (called a matching stub) to either a voltage
ments is broken for the feeder the imped- or current loop and attaching parallel -wire
ance step up will be less than 4:1. nonresonant feeders to the resonant stub at
a suitable voltage (impedance) point, stand-
The "T" Match A method of matching a ing waves on the line may be virtually elim-
balanced low- impedance inated. The stub is made to serve as an
transmission line to the driven element of autotransformer. Stubs are particularly
a parasitic array is the T match illustrated adapted to matching an open line to certain
in figure 31D. This method is an adaptation directional arrays, as will be described later.
458 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
Voltage Feed When the stub attaches to the
antenna at a voltage loop, the
stub should be a quarter wavelength long
electrically, and be shorted at the bottom
end. The stub can be resonated by sliding
the shorting bar up and down before the
nonresonant feeders are attached to the
stub, the antenna being shock -excited from
SNORTING BAR
a separate radiator during the process. Slight
errors in the length of the radiator can be
compensated for by adjustment of the stub
ANTENNA

if both sides of the stub are connected to


the radiator in a symmetrical manner. Where
STUB
only one side of the stub connects to the
radiating system, as in the zepp and in cer-
tain antenna arrays, the radiator length must
be exactly right in order to prevent exces-
sive unbalance in the untuned line.
A dial lamp may be placed temporarily
in the center of the shorting stub to act as
an r -f indicator.

Current Feed When a stub is used to current -


feed a radiator, the stub should
0
either be left open at the bottom end instead
SHORTING BAR NON ERESONANT
of shorted, or else made a half wave long. FEEDERS

The open stub should be resonated in the


same manner as the shorted stub before at- ANTENNA

taching the transmission line; however, in


this case, it is necessary to prune the stub rFEDER TAPS NEAR
END Or STUB
to resonance, as there is no shorting bar.
Sometimes it is handy to have a stub NONRE
rEEDERS T 4 STUB
hang from the radiator to a point that can
be reached from the ground, in order to
facilitate adjustment of the position of the
transmission -line attachment. For this rea-
son, a quarter -wave stub is sometimes made
three -quarters wavelength long at the higher
frequencies, in order to bring the bottom
OI--* i I-*-i
nearer the ground. Operation with any odd * STUB
number of quarter waves is the same as for NONRESONANr
RIEDER
/yB NORTING BAR

a quarter -wave stub.

Figure 33
Stub Length Current -Fed Voltage -Fed
Electrical) Radiator Radiator
MATCHING STUB APPLICATIONS
1/4-3/4-11/4-etc. Open Shorted
wavelengths Stub Stub An end-fed half -wave antenna with a quar-
ter -wave shorted stub is shown at A. 8 shows
1/2 -1- 11/2.2-etc. Shorted Open the use of a half -wave shorted stub to feed
wavelengths Stub Stub o relatively low impedance point such as the
center of the driven element of a parasitic
array, or the center of a half -wave dipole.
Any number of half waves can be added The use of an open -ended quarter -wave stub
to either a quarter -wave stub or a half -wave to feed a low impedance is illustrated at
stub without disturbing the operation, C. D shows the c tional use of a shorted
quarter -wave stub to voltage -feed two half -
though losses and frequency sensitivity will wave antennas with a 180 phase duff
HANDBOOK Matching Systems 459

be lowest if the shortest usable stub is em- Quarter -Wave The impedance inverting
ployed (see chart). Matching characteristic of a quarter -
Transformers wave section of transmission
Linear R -F A resonant quarter -wave line line is widely used by mak-
Transformers has the unusual property of ing such a section of line act as a quarter -
acting much as a transform- wave transformer. The quarter -wave trans-
er. Let us take, for example, a section con- former may be used in a wide number of
sisting of No. 12 wire spaced 6 inches, applications wherever a transformer is re-
which happens to have a surge impedance of quired to match two impedances whose
600 ohms. Let the far end be terminated geometric mean is somewhere between per-
with a pure resistance, and let the near end haps 25 and 750 ohms when transmission -
be fed with radio- frequency energy at the line sections can be used. Paralleled coaxial
frequency for which the line is a quarter lines may be used to obtain the lowest im-
wavelength long. If an impedance measuring pedance mentioned, and open -wire lines
set is used to measure the impedance at the composed of small conductors spaced a
near end while the impedance at the far end moderate distance may be used to obtain the
is varied, an interesting relationship between higher impedance. A short list of imped-
the 600 -ohm characteristic surge impedance ances, which may be matched by quarter -
of this particular quarter -wave matching wave sections of transmission line having
line, and the impedance at the ends will be specified impedances, follows.
discovered.
When the impedance at the far end of
the line is the same as the characteristic Load or Ant.
Impedance 300 480 600 Impedance
surge impedance of the line itself (600 .

ohms), the impedance measured at the near 20 77 98 110 Quarter -


end of the quarter -wave line will also be 30 95 120 134 Wave
found to be 600 ohms. 50 110 139 155 Transformer
Under these conditions, the line would 75 150 190 212 Impedance
not have any standing waves on it, since 100 173 220 245
it is terminated in its characteristic imped-
ance. Now, let the resistance at the far end Q- Section The standard form of Q-
of the line be doubled, or changed to 1200 Feed System section feed to a doublet is
ohms. The impedance measured at the near shown in figure 34. An im-
end of the line will be found to have been pedance match is obtained by utilizing a
cut in half (to 300 ohms). If the resistance matching section, the surge impedance of
at the far end is made half the original which is the geometric mean between the
value of 600 ohms or 300 ohms, the imped- transmission -line surge impedance and the
ance at the near end doubles the original radiation resistance of the radiator. A suffi-
value of 600 ohms, and becomes 1200 ohms. ciently good match usually can be obtained
As one resistance goes up, the other goes by either designing or adjusting the match-
down proportionately. ing section for a dipole to have a surge
It will always be found that the character- impedance that is the geometric mean be-
istic surge impedance of the quarter -wave tween the line impedance and 72 ohms, the
matching line is the geometric mean be- latter being the theoretical radiation resist-
tween the impedance at both ends. This ance of a half -wave doublet either infi-
relationship is shown by the following form- nitely high or a half wave above a perfect
ula: ground.
Though the radiation resistance may de-
ZMS = ZA Zt. part somewhat from 72 ohms under actual
conditions, satisfactory results will be ob-
where, tained with this assumed value, so long as
ZMS equals impedance of matching section, the dipole radiator is more than a quarter
ZA equals antenna resistance, wave above effective earth, and reasonably
Z,, equals line impedance. in the clear.
460 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

L FEET
anced input. For some time the Collins
MHz
Radio Co. has been using a balun and ta-
zl pered -line system for matching a coaxial -
output transmitter to an open -wire balanced

L
_
234
F(NHz)
f- TUBING

Zo= z
Q- HATCHING SECTION transmission line. Illustratd in figure 35
is one type of matching system which is
proving satisfactory over a 4:1 frequency
range. Z, is the transmitter end of the sys-
tem and may be any length of 52 -ohm
coaxial cable. Z2 is one -quarter wavelength
2
long at the midfrequency of the range to be
covered and is made of 75 -ohm coaxial
cable. ZA is a .quarter- wavelength shorted
section of cable at the midfrequency. Z
(ZA and Z2) forms a 200 -ohm quarter -
UNTUNED LINE
wave section. The ZA section is formed of a
ANY LENGTH conductor of the same diameter as Z2. The
Figure 34 difference in length between ZA and. Z2 is
HALF-WAVE RADIATOR FED accounted for by the fact that Z2 is a co-
BY "Q BARS" axial conductor with a solid dielectric,
The Q matching section is simply a quarter-
whereas the dielectric for Zo is air. Z, is
wave transformer whose impedance is equal one -quarter wavelength long at the mid -
to the geometric mean between the imped- frequency and has an impedance of 123
ance at the center of the antenna and the
impedance of the transmission line to be ohms. Z, is one -quarter wavelength long at
used to feed the bottom of the transformer. the midfrequency and has an impedance of
The transformer may be made up of parallel
tubing, "ribbon" line, or any other type of 224 ohms. Z., is the balanced line to be
transmission line which has the correct value matched (in this case 300 ohms) and may
of impedance. be any length.
Other system parameters for different
A Q- matched system can be adjusted output and input impedances may be cal-
precisely, if desired, by constructing a culated from the following:
matching section to the calculated dimen-
sions with provision for varying the spacing N Zoo,
of the Q- section conductors slightly, after r Zin
the untuned line has been checked for stand-
ing waves. where,
N is the number of sections. In the above
Center to Impedance Impedance case:
Center in Ohms in Ohms
Spacing for 1/2" for 1/4" 3 Z,
in Inches Diameters Diameters r = Z,
1.0 170 250
1.25 188 277
1.5 207 298
Zo Z3 Z4
1.75 225 318
ZS
2.0 248 335 Z2
ZS=30011
Z3-12311 Z4'22411 (ANY LENGTH)
PARALLEL TUBING SURGE IMPEDANCE
ZA
FOR MATCHING SECTIONS L INNER & OUTER CONDUCTORS
SHORTED AT EACH END

The Collins The advantages of unbal- Figure 35


Transmission Line anced output networks for COLLINS TRANSMISSION -LINE
Matching System transmitters are numer- MATCHING SYSTEM
ous; however this output
A wide -band system for matching a 52 -ohm
system becomes awkward when it is desired coaxial line to o balanced 300 -ohm line over
to feed an antenna system utilizing a bal- a 4:1 frequency range.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Construction 461

Impedance between sections, as Z2_ 3, is r practical. They can be made self- support-
times the preceding section. Z2_3 =
r X ing, but a few guys will enable one to use a
Z1, and Z:1_, = r X Z2_3 smaller cross section without danger from
Midfrequency (in): high winds. The torque exerted on the base
+ of a high self -supporting mast is terrific
- Fi
2
F2
during a strong wind.
The "A- Frome" Figures 36A and 36B show
+
For 40 -20 -10 meters -7 30
- 18.5 MHz Most the standard method of
construction of the A-
and one -quarter wavelength = 12 feet. f rame type of mast. This type of mast is
+54 quite frequently used since there is only a
For 20 -10 -6 meters =
14
2
- 34 MHz moderate amount of work involved in the
construction of the assembly and since the
and one -quarter wavelength = 5.5 feet. material cost is relatively small. The three
pieces of selected 2 by 2 are first set up on
The impedance of the sections are:
three sawhorses or boxes and the holes
z_ =V' Z,XZ2 -3 drilled for the three 1/4-inch bolts through
Z3 = Zp_3 X Z3_1 the center of the assembly. Then the base
legs are spread out to about 6 feet and the
Z,= bottom braces installed. Finally the upper
Z =s%XZ, braces and the cross pieces are installed and
Generally, the larger the number of taper the assembly given several coats of good -
sections the greater will be the bandwidth quality paint as a protection against weath-
of the system. ering.
Figure 36C shows another common type
21 -9 Antenna of mast which is made up of sections of 2
Supports by 4 placed end -to -end with stiffening sec-
tions of 1 by 6 bolted to the edge of the 2
The foregoing portion of this chapter has by 4 section. Both types of mast will require
been concerned primarily with the electrical a set of top guys and another set of guys
characteristics and considerations of anten- about one -third of the way down from the
nas. Some of the physical aspects and me- top. Two guys spaced about 90 to 100 de-
chanical problems incident to the actual grees and pulling against the load of the
erection of antennas and arrays will be dis- antenna will normally be adequate for the
cussed in the following section. top guys. Three guys are usually used at
Up to 30 feet, there is little point in using the lower level, with one directly behind
mast -type antenna supports unless guy wires the load of the antenna and two more
either must be eliminated or kept to a mini- spaced 120 degrees from the rear guy.
mum. While a little more difficult to erect, Raising the mast is made much easier if a
because of their floppy nature, fabricated gin pole about 20 feet high is installed about
wood poles of the type to be described will 30 or 40 feet to the rear of the direction
be just as satisfactory as more rigid types, in which the antenna is to be raised. A line
provided many guy wires are used. from a pulley on the top of the gin pole is
Rather expensive when purchased through then run to the top of the pole to be raised.
the regular channels, 40- and 50 -foot tele- The gin pole comes into play when the
phone poles sometimes can be obtained quite center of the mast has been raised 10 to 20
reasonably. In the latter case, they are hard feet above the ground and an additional ele-
to beat, inasmuch as they require no guying vated pull is required to keep the top of the
if set in the ground six feet (standard mast coming up as the center is raised fur -
depth), and the resultant pull in any lateral ther above ground.
direction is not in excess of a hundred
pounds or so. Using TV Masts Steel tubing masts of the
For heights of 80 to 100 feet, either three - telescoping variety are
or four -sided lattice -type masts are most widely available at a moderate price for use
462 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

le

2%

Figure 36 BOLTS

TWO SIMPLE WOOD MASTS


Shown at A is the method of as-
sembly, and at e Is the completed
structure, of the c tional "A-
frame" antenna mast. At C is
shown a structure which is heavier
but more stable than the A -frame
for heights above about 40 feet. 0-.-+1 ROUND LE

p_.x1r
cowcRere:We

in supporting television antenna arrays. If "dead .men" are used for the guy wire
These masts usually consist of several 10- terminations, the wire or rod reaching from
foot lengths of electrical metal tubing the dead men to the surface should be of
(EMT) of sizes such that the sections will nonrusting material, such as brass, or given
telescope. The 30- and 40 -foot lengths are a heavy coating of asphalt or other protec-
well suited as masts for supporting antennas tive substance to prevent destructive action
and arrays of the type used on the amateur by the damp soil. Galvanized iron wire will
bands. The masts are constructed in such a last only a short time when buried in moist
manner that the bottom 10 -foot length may soil.
be guyed permanently before the other sec- Only strain -type (compression) insulators
tions are raised. Then the upper sections should be used for guy wires. Regular ones
may be extended, beginning with the top- might be sufficiently strong for the job, but
mast section, until the mast is at full length it is not worth taking chances, and egg -type
(provided a strong wind is not blowing) strain halyard insulators are no more expen-
following which all the guys may be an- sive.
chored. It is important that there be no load Only a brass or bronze pulley should be
on the top of the mast when the "vertical" used for the halyard, as a high pole with a
raising method is to be employed. rusted pulley is truly a sad affair. The bear-
ing of the pulley should be given a few
Guy Wires Guy wires should never be pulled drops of heavy machine oil before the pole
taut; a small amount of slack is or tower is raised. The halyard itself should
be of good material, preferably waterproofed.
desirable. Galvanized wire, somewhat heavier
than seems sufficient for the job, should be Hemp rope of good quality is better than
window sash cord from several standpoints,
used. The heavier wire is a little harder to
and is less expensive. Soaking it thoroughly
handle, but costs only a little more and in engine oil of medium viscosity, and then
takes longer to rust through. Care should be wiping it off with a rag, will not only ex-
taken to make sure that no kinks exist when tend its life but minimize shrinkage in wet
the pole or tower is ready for erection, as weather. Because of the difficulty of re-
the wire will be greatly weakened at such placing a broken halyard it is a good idea
points if a kink is pulled tight, even if it to replace it periodically, without waiting
is later straightened. for it to show excessive deterioration.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Construction 463

It is an excellent idea to tie both ends of only the best from a preservative standpoint,
the halyard line together in the manner of but looks very well. This type of paint,
a flag -pole line. Then the antenna is tied when purchased in quantities, is consider-
onto the place where the two ends of the ably cheaper than might be gathered from
halyard are joined. This procedure of mak- the price asked for quarter -pint cans.
ing the halyard into a loop prevents losing Portions of posts or poles below the sur-
the top end of the halyard should the an- face of the soil can be protected from ter-
tenna break near the end, and it also pre- mites and moisture by painting with cresote.
vents losing the halyard completely should While not so strong initially, redwood will
the end of the halyard carelessly be allowed deteriorate much more slowly when buried
to go free and be pulled through the pulley than will the white woods, such as pine.
at the top of the mast by the antenna load. Antenna Wire
A somewhat longer piece of line is required The antenna or array itself
but the insurance is well worth the cost of presents no special problem.
the additional length of rope. A few considerations should be borne in
mind, however, For instance, soft -drawn
Trees as Often a tall tree can be used to copper should not be used, as even a short
Supports support one end of an antenna, span will stretch several percent after whip-
but one should not attempt to at- ping around in the wind a few weeks, thus
tach anything to the top, as the swaying of affecting the resonant frequency. Enameled
the top of the tree during a heavy wind will copper wire, as ordinarily available at radio
complicate matters. stores, is usually soft -drawn, but by tying
If a tree is utilized for support, provision one end to some object such as a telephone
should be made for keeping the antenna taut pole and the other to the frame of an auto, a
without submitting it to the possibility of few husky tugs can be given and the wire,
being severed during a heavy wind. This can after stretching a bit, is equivalent to hard -
be done by the simple expedient of using a drawn.
pulley and halyard, with weights attached to Where a long span of wire is required,
the lower end of the halyard to keep the or where heavy insulators in the center of
antenna taut. Only enough weight to avoid the span result in considerable tension, cop-
excessive sag in the antenna should be tied per-clad steel wire is somewhat better than
to the halyard, as the continual swaying of hard -drawn copper. It is a bit more expen-
the tree submits the pulley and halyard to sive, though the cost is far from prohibitive.
considerable wear. The use of such wire, in conjunction with
Galvanized iron pipe, or steel -tube con- strain insulators is advisable where the
duit, is often used as a vertical radiator, and antenna would endanger persons or property
is quite satisfactory for the purpose. How- should it break.
ever, when used for supporting antennas, it For transmission lines and tuning stubs
should be remembered that the grounded steel -core or hard -drawn wire will prove
supporting poles will distort the field pat- awkward to handle, and soft -drawn copper
tern of a vertically polarized antenna unless should, therefore, be used. If the line is long,
spaced some distance from the radiating the strain can be eased by supporting it at
portion. several points.
More important from an electrical stand-
Pointing The life of a wood mast or pole point than the actual size of wire used is
can be increased several hundred the soldering of joints, especially at current
percent by protecting it from the elements loops in an antenna of low radiation resist-
with a coat or two of paint. And, of course, ance. In fact, it is good practice to solder
the appearance is greatly enhanced. The all joints, thus ensuring quiet operation when
wood should first be given a primer coat of the antenna is used for receiving.
flit white outside house paint, which can be
thinned down a bit to advantage with sec- Insulation A question that often arises is
ond -grade linseed oil. For the second coat, that of insulation. It depends, of
which should not be applied until the first course, on the r -f voltage at the point at
is thoroughly dry, aluminum paint is not which the insulator is placed. The r-f volt-
464 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

age, in turn, depends on the distance from a virtual necessity for eliminating interference
current node, and the radiation resistance to TV reception. However, the TVI- elimi-
of the antenna. Radiators having low radia- nation portion of the problem may always
tion resistance have very high voltage at the be accomplished by adequate shielding of the
voltage loops; consequently, better than transmitter, by filtering of the control and
usual insulation is advisable at those points. power leads which enter the transmitter
Open -wire lines operated as nonresonant enclosure, and by the inclusion of a har-
lines have little voltage across them; hence monic- attenuating filter between the output
the most inexpensive ceramic types are suffi- of the transmitter and the antenna system.
ciently good electrically. With tuned lines, Although TVI may be eliminated through
the voltage depends on the amplitude of the inclusion of a filter between the output of a
standing waves. If they are very great, the shielded transmitter and the antenna system,
voltage will reach high values at the voltage the fact that such a filter should be included
loops, and the best spacers available are in the link between transmitter and antenna
none too good. At the current loops the makes it necessary that the transmitter -
voltage is quite low, and almost anything loading problem be re-evaluated in terms of
will suffice. the necessity for inclusion of such a filter.
When insulators are subject to very high Harmonic- attenuating filters must be op-
r -f voltages, they should be cleaned occa- erated at an impedance level which is close
sionally if in the vicinity of sea water or to their design value; therefore they must
smoke. Salt scum and soot are not readily operate into a resistive termination substan-
dislodged by rain, and when the coating be- tially equal to the characteristic impedance
comes heavy enough, the efficiency of the of the filter. If such filters are operated into
insulators is greatly impaired. an impedance which is not resistive and ap-
If a very pretentious installation is to be proximately equal to their characteristic
made, it is wise to check up on both Under- impedance: (1) the capacitors used in the
writer's rules and local ordinances which filter sections will be subjected to high peak
might be applicable. If you live anywhere voltages and may be damaged, (2) the har-
near an airport, and are contemplating a monic- attenuating properties of the filter
tall pole, it is best to investigate possible will be decreased, and (3) the impedance at
regulations and ordinances pertaining to the input end of the filter will be different
towers in the district, before starting con- from that seen by the filter at the load end
struction. (except in the case of the half -wave type
of filter) . It is therefore important that
21 -10 Coupling to the the filter be included in the transmitter -to-
antenna circuit at a point where the im-
Antenna System pedance is close to the nominal value of the
filter, and at a point where this impedance is
When coupling an antenna feed system to likely to remain fairly constant with varia-
a transmitter the most important considera- tions in frequency.
tions are as follows: (1) means should be
Block Diagrams of There are two basic
provided for varying the load on the ampli-
Transmitter -to- Antenna arrangements which
fier; (2) the load presented to the final
Coupling Systems include all the provi-
amplifier should be resistive (nonreactive)
in character; and (3) means should be pro- sions required in the
vided to reduce harmonic coupling between transmitter -to- antenna coupling system, and
the final amplifier plate tank circuit and which permit the harmonic -attenuating fil-
the antenna or antenna transmission line to ter to be placed at a position in the coupling
an extremely low value. system where it can be operated at an im-
pedance level close to its nominal value.
The Transmitter- The problem of coupling These arrangements are illustrated in block
Loading Problem the power output of a high - diagram form in figures 37 and 38.
frequency or vhf trans- The arrangement of figure 37 is recom-
mitter to the radiating portion of the an- mended for use with a single -band antenna
tenna system has been complicated by the system, such as a dipole or a rotatable array,
HANDBOOK Antenna Coupling Systems 465

'HILLD AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA

EXCITER
PORTION - FILIFINAL
AMPER
COUPLING
AOJVS1/T
- IIARMDNIC
TTENWTIN - - - -
SYSTEM TRANSMISSION
LINE
IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
\T ANTENNA SYSTEM

Figure 37

ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM


The harmonic suppressing antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the
antenna transmission line has a low standing-wave ratio, and when the characteristic
impedance of the ant transmission line is the same as the nominal impedance of the
low -pass harmonic -attenuating filter.

wherein an impedance matching system is the harmonic filter. Hence the arrangement
included within or adjacent to the antenna. of figure 38 is more general than the figure
The feed line coming down from the anten- 37 system, since the inclusion of the anten-
na system should have a characteristic im- na coupler allows the system to feed an
pedance equal to the nominal impedance of antenna transmission line of any reasonable
the harmonic filter, and the impedance impedance value, and also without regard to
matching at the antenna should be such that the standing -wave ratio which might exist
th; standing -wave ratio on the antenna on the antenna transmission line. Antenna
feed line is less than 2 to 1 over the range of couplers are discussed in a following section.
frequency to be fed to the antenna. Such
an arrangement may be used with open -wire Output Coupling It will be noticed by refer -
line, ribbon or tubular line, or with coaxial Adjustment erence to both figure 37
cable. The use of coaxial cable is to be and figure 38 that a box
recommended, but in any event the imped- labeled Coupling Adjustment is included in
ance of the antenna transmission line should the block diagram. Such an element is nec-
be the same as the nominal impedance of the essary in the complete system to afford an
harmonic filter. The arrangement of figure adjustment in the value of load impedance
37 is more or less standard for commercial- presented to the tubes in the final amplifier
ly manufactured equipment for amateur stage of the transmitter. The impedance at
and commercial use in the high -frequency the input terminal of the harmonic filter is
and vhf range. established by the antenna, through its
The arrangement of figure 38 merely adds matching system and the antenna coupler,
an antenna coupler between the output of
if used. In any event the impedance at the
the harmonic attenuating filter and the an-
tenna transmission line. The antenna coupler input terminal of the harmonic filter should
will have some harmonic -attenuating action, be very close to the nominal impedance of
but its main function is to transform the the filter. Then the Coupling Adjustment
impedance at the station end of the antenna provides means for transforming this im-
transmission line to the nominal value of pedance value to the correct operating value

AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA
_sitisua
i
HARMONIC IMPEDANCE RADIATING
EACITER FINAL COUPLING ATTLNUATINI
ANTENNA MATCHING
PORTION AMPLIFIER 11WI /STMENT COUPLER SYSTEM
SYSTEM TRANSMISSION T ANTENNA
LINE
L J
Figure 38

ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM


The antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the ant transmission line
does not have the same characteristic impedance as the TVI filter, and when the standing -wave
ratio on the antenna transmission line may or may not be low.
466 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
COAL.
RECEIVETOR

TO ANTENNA
- ATTENUATING
HARMONIC
FILTER
COAL ANT.
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
FEEOLINE OR
TO ANTENNA
COUPLER

Figure 39

TUNED -LINK OUTPUT CIRCUIT


Capacitor C should be adjusted so as to tune out the inductive reactance of the coupling link,
L. Amplifier loading is controlled by varying the coupling between the plate tank of the
final amplifier and the antenna link.

of load impedance which should be presented mitter, due to the low Q and low impedance
to the final amplifier stage. of the coupling circuit.
There are two common ways for accom-
plishing the antenna coupling adjustment, Pi- Network The pi- network coupling sys-
as illustrated in figures 39 and 40. Figure 39
Coupling tem offers two advantages: (1)
shows the variable link arrangement often a mechanical coupling variation
used in home- construction equipment, while is not required to vary the loading of the
the pi- network coupling arrangement is il- final amplifier, and (2) the pi- network (if
lustrated in figure 40. Either method may be used with an operating Q of about 10) of-
used, and each has its advantages. fers within itself a harmonic attenuation of
30 db or more, in addition to the harmonic
Variable Link The variable link method il- attenuation provided by the additional har-
Coupling lustrated in figure 39 pro- monic attenuating filter. Some commercial
vides good rejection to sub - equipment incorporates an L- network in ad-
harmonics. For greatest bandwidth of oper- dition to the pi- network, for accomplishing
ation of the coupling circuit, the reactance the impedance transformation in two steps
of link coil L and the reactance of link to provide additional harmonic attenuation.
tuning capacitor C should both be between
3 and 4 times the nominal load impedance Tuning the Tuning a pi- network
of the harmonic filter. This is to say that Pi- Section Coupler coupling circuit such as
the inductive reactance of coupling link L illustrated in figure 40 is
should be tuned out or resonated by capaci- accomplished in the following manner: First
tor C, and the operating Q of the LC link place a dummy load on the output terminal
circuit should be between 3 and 4. If the of the transmitter. Tune C2 to a capacitance
link coil is not variable with respect to the which is large for the band in use, adding
tank coil of the final amplifier, capacitor C suitable additional capacitance by switch S
may be used as a loading control; however, if operation is to be on one of the lower-
this system is not recommended since its use frequency bands. Apply reduced plate volt-
will require adjustment of C whenever a age to the stage and dip to resonance with
frequency change is made at the transmitter. C,. It may be necessary to vary the induct-
If L and C are made resonant at the center ance in coil L, but in any event, resonance
of a band, with a link circuit Q of 3 to 4, should be reached with a setting of C, which
and coupling adjustment is made by physical is approximately correct for the desired
adjustment of L with respect to the final value of operating Q of the pi- network.
amplifier tank coil, it usually will be possi- Next, couple the load to the amplifier
ble to operate over an entire amateur band (through the harmonic filter) , apply re-
without change in the coupling system. duced plate voltage again and dip to reso-
Capacitor C normally may have a low volt- nance with C,. If the plate- current dip with
age rating, even with a high -power trans- load is too low (taking into consideration
HANDBOOK Antenna Couplers 467

COATI TO
RECEIVER

To FEEDLINE
OR ANTENNA
COUPLER

Figure 40

PI- NETWORK ANTENNA COUPLER


The design of pi- network circuits is dis d in Chapter Thirteen. The additional output -end
shunting capacitors selected by switch S are for use on the lower frequency ranges. Inductor
L may be selected by a tap switch; it may be continuously variable; or plug -in inductors
may be used.

the reduced plate voltage), decrease the ca- antenna, or where a long wire without a
pacitance of C_ and again dip to resonance, separate feed line is to be fed from the out-
repeating the procedure until the correct put of the harmonic filter. In such cases an
value of plate current is obtained with full antenna coupler is required.
plate voltage on the stage. There should be In certain cases when a pi- network is
a relatively small change required in the being used at the output of the transmitter,
setting of C, (from the original setting the addition of an antenna coupler will pro-
of C, without load) if the operating Q vide sufficient harmonic attenuation. But in
of the network is correct and if a large all normal cases it is prudent to include a
value of impedance transformation is being harmonic filter between the output of the
employed -as would be the case when trans- transmitter and the antenna coupler.
forming from the plate impedance of a
single -ended output stage down to the 50- Function of on The function of the an-
ohm impedance of the usual harmonic filter Antenna Coupler tenna coupler is, basically,
and its subsequent load. to transform the imped-
In a pi- network of this type the har- ance of the antenna system being used to
monic attenuation of the section will be the correct value of resistive impedance for
adequate when the correct value of C, and the harmonic filter, and hence for the trans-
L are being used and when the resonant dip mitter. Thus the antenna coupler may be
in C, is sharp. If the dip in C, is broad, or if used to resonate the feeders or the radiating
the plate current persists in being too high portion of the antenna system, in addition
with Co, at maximum setting, it means that to its function of impedance transforma-
a greater value of capacitance is required at
tion.
C2, assuming that the values of C, and I.
It is important to remember that there is
are correct.
nothing that can be done at the antenna
21 -11 Antenna Couplers coupler which will eliminate standing waves
on the antenna transmission line. Standing
As stated in the previous section, an an- waves are the result of reflection from the
tenna coupler is not required when the im-
antenna, and the coupler can do nothing
pedance of the antenna transmission line is
about this condition. However, the antenna
the same as the nominal impedance of the
harmonic filter, and the antenna feed line is coupler can resonate the feed line (by intro-
being operated with a low standing -wave ducing a conjugate impedance) in addition
ratio. However, there are many cases where to providing an impedance transformation.
it is desirable to feed a multiband antenna Thus, a resistive impedance of the correct
from the output of the harmonic filter, value can be presented to the harmonic fil-
where a tuned line is being used to feed the ter, as in figure 38, regardless of any reason-
468 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
COAX. TO
RECEIVER

HARMONIC COAX. ANT.


TRANSMITTER ^, CHANGEOVER
FILTER PARALLEL -WIRE
RELAY
LINE TO ANTENNA

SINGLE -WIRE
HERTZ ANTENNA
OR FEEDER

Figure 41
ALTERNATIVE ANTENNA COUPLER CIRCUITS
Plug -in coils, one or two variable capacitors of the split- stator variety, and a system of
switches or plugs and jacks may be used in the antenna coupler to accomplish the feeding
of different types of antennas and antenna transmission lines from the coaxial input line from
the transmitter or from the antenna changeover relay. Link L should be resonated with
capacitor C at the operating frequency of the transmitter so that the harmonic filter will
operate into a resistive load impedance of the correct nominal value.

able value of standing -wave ratio on the


COAX TO SINGLE-WIRE
antenna transmission line. RECEIVER ANTENNA

Types of All usual types of anten- HARMONIC COAX ANT.


TRANSMITTER
Antenna Couplers na couplers fall into two FILTER CHANGEOVER
RELAY

classifications: (1) in-


ductively coupled resonant systems as exem-
plified by those shown in figure 41, and (2)
conductively coupled pi- network systems Figure 42
such as shown in figure 42. The inductively
coupled system is convenient for feeding a PI- NETWORK
balanced line from the coaxial output of ANTENNA COUPLER
the usual harmonic filter. The pi- network An arrangement such as illustrated above is
system is most useful for feeding a length of c ient for feeding an end-fed Hertz
antenna, or a random length of wire for
wire from the output of a transmitter. portable or emergency operation, from the
Several general methods for using the in- nominal value of impedance of the harmonic
Alter.
ductively coupled resonant types of antenna
coupler are illustrated in figure 41. The
coupling between link coil L and the main coil which will be used for each band, and
tuned circuit need not be variable; in fact then that the link be made a portion of the
it is preferable that the correct link size plug -in coil. Capacitor C then can be ad-
and placement be determined for the tank justed to a predetermined value for each
HANDBOOK Single -Wire Antenna Tuner 469

band so that it will resonate with the An alternative arrangement shown in


link coil for that band. The reactance of figure 43 utilizes the antenna -coupling tank
the link coil (and hence the reactance of circuit only when feeding the coaxial output
the capacitor setting which will resonate of the transmitter to the open -wire feed
the coil) should be about 3 or 4 times the line (or similar multiband antenna) of the
impedance of the transmission line between 40- and 80 -meter antenna. The coaxial lines
the antenna coupler and the harmonic filter, to the 10 -meter beam and to the 20 -meter
so that the link coupling circuit will have beam would be fed directly from the output
an operating Q of 3 or 4. The use of capaci- of the coaxial antenna -change -over relay
tor C to resonate with the inductance of through switch S.
link coil L will make it easier to provide a
low standing -wave ratio to the output of 21 -12 A Single -Wire
the harmonic filter, simply by adjustment Antenna Tuner
of the antenna- coupler tank circuit to reso-
nance. One of the simplest and least expensive
The pi- network type of antenna coupler, antennas for transmision and reception is
as shown in figure 42, is useful for certain the single -wire, end -fed Hertz antenna.
applications, but is primarily useful in feed- When used over a wide range of frequencies,
ing a single -wire antenna from a low- imped- this type of antenna exhibits a very great
ance transmission line. In such an application range of input impedance. At the low -fre-
the operating Q of the pi- network may be quency end of the spectrum such an anten-
somewhat lower than that of a pi- network na may present a resistive load of less than
in the plate circuit of the final amplifier of one ohm to the transmitter, combined with
a transmitter, as shown in figure 40. An a large positive or negative value of react-
operating Q of 3 or 4 in such an application ance. As the frequency of operation is raised,
will be found to be adequate, since harmonic the resistive load may rise to several thousand
attenuation has been accomplished ahead of ohms (near half -wave resonance) and the
the antenna coupler. reactive component of the load can rapidly
change from positive to negative values, or
PARALLEL-WIRE TO TO COAX. LINES TO vice -versa.
RECEIVER 10 M. ANT 20M.ANT
40-SO M. ANTENNA
To provide indication for tuning the net-
work, a radio- frequency bridge (SWR me-
ter) is included to indicate the degree of
mismatch (standing -wave ratio) existing
at the input to the tuner. All adjustments
to the tuner are made with the purpose of
reaching unity standing -wave ratio on the
115 V TO RELAY
coaxial feed system between the tuner and
COIL
the transmitter.
A Practical A simple antenna tuner for
L J Antenna Tuner use with transmitters of
TO 250 watts power or less
TRANSMITTER THROUGH
HARMONIC FILTER is shown in figures 44 through 46. An SWR -
bridge circuit is used to indicate tuner reso-
Figure 43
nance. The resistive arm of the bridge con-
ALTERNATIVE COAXIAL ANTENNA sists of ten 10 -ohm, 1 -watt carbon resistors
COUPLER connected in parallel to form a 1 -ohm re-
This circuit is recommended for coaxial lines sistor (R,) . The other pair of bridge arms
with low SWR used to feed antenna systems are capacitive rather than resistive. The
such as rotatable beams, and when it is de- bridge detector is a simple r -f voltmeter em-
sired to feed open -wire line to some sort of
multiband antenna for the lower- frequency ploying a 1N56 crystal diode and a 0 -1 d -c
ranges. The tuned circuit of the antenna cou- milliammeter. A sensitivity control is in-
pler is operative only when using the open - corporated to prevent overloading the meter
wire feed, and then it is in operation both
for transmit and receive. when power is first applied to the tuner.
470 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO

52 R INPUT
FROM XMTR
RI IA

5
250 SINGLE -
WIRE
Ca S1
L2 ANT
25 M
KV
MICA TUNE
CI
-_
SENSITIVITY 154
NV.

0 -I
Li-35 TURNS e 1e,
3.5^ LONG (A /P
2-DUE)
DIA., C1- JOHNSON 350E20
TAP AT IST., 27T., C2- CENTRALAATYPE 822
FROM POINT A J I -TYPE 50-239 RECEPTACLE
Figure 44 La-JOHNSON 229 -207 VAR IABL E RI -TEN 1O-OHM I -WATT CAR-
INDUCTOR (10 LN) BON RESISTORS IN PARA-
LLEL. /RC TYPE ATA
ANTENNA TUNER IS HOUSED IN
METAL CABINET 7 INCHES X 8
INCHES IN SIZE
Figure 45
Inductance switch S, and sensitivity control
are at left with counter dial for L, at center.
Output tuning capacitor C, is at right. SWR SCHEMATIC OF A SINGLE -WIRE
meter is mounted above S,. ANTENNA TUNER

Final adjustments are made with the sensi- Connection to the antenna is made by
tivity control at its maximum (clockwise) means of a large feedthrough insulator
position. The bridge is balanced when the mounted on the back of the tuner cabinet.
input impedance of the tuner is 52 ohms This insulator is not visible in the photo-
resistive. This is the condition for maximum graphs.
energy transfer between transmission line
and antenna. The meter is graduated in arbi- Bridge The SWR bridge must be cali-
trary units, since actual SWR value is not Calibration brated for 52 -ohm service. This
required. can be done by temporarily dis-
Tuner
connecting the lead between the bridge and
Major parts placement in the the antenna tuner and connecting a 2 -watt,
Construction tuner is shown in figures 44 52 ohm carbon resistor to the junction of
and 46. Tapped coil L1 is R, and the negative terminal of the 1N56
mounted on Vi -inch ceramic insulators, and diode. The opposite lead of the carbon re-
all major components are mounted above
sistor is grounded to the chassis of the bridge.
deck with the exception of the SWR bridge A small amount of r -f energy is fed to the
(figure 47). The components of the bridge input of the bridge until a reading is ob-
are placed below deck, adjacent to the co- tained on the r -f voltmeter. The 25 -pf
axial input plug mounted on the rear apron bridge -balancing capacitor Co (see figure
of the chassis. The ten 10 -ohm resistors are
47) is then adjusted with a fiber -blade
soldered to two 1 -inch rings made of copper
wire as shown in the photograph. The bridge
screwdriver until a zero reading is obtained
capacitors are attached to this assembly with on the meter. The sensitivity control is ad-
extremely short leads. The 1N56 crystal vanced as the meter null grows, in order
mounts at right angles to the resistors to to obtain the exact point of bridge balance.
ensure minimum amount of capacitive cou- When this point is found, the carbon resistor
pling between the resistors and the detector. should be removed and the bridge attached
The output lead from the bridge passes to the antenna tuner. The bridge capacitor
through a ceramic feedthrough insulator to is sealed with a drop of nail polish to pre-
the top side of the chassis. vent misadjustment.
HANDBOOK Tuner for Center -Fed Systems 471

Figure 46

REAR VIEW OF
TUNER SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Rotary inductor is
driven by Johnson
116-208-4 counter dial.
Coaxial input recep-
tacle J, is mounted
directly below rotary
inductor.

Tuner All tuning adjustments are the meter will read zero. All loading adjust-
Adjustments made to obtain proper trans- ments may then be made with the transmit-
mitter loading with a bal- ter controls. The tuner should be readjusted
anced (zero- meter -reading) bridge condi- whenever the frequency of the transmitter
tion. The tuner is connected to the trans- is varied by an appreciable amount.
mitter through a random length of S2 -ohm
coaxial line, and the single-wire antenna is 21 -13 A Tuner for
attached to the output terminal of the
tuner. Transmitter loading controls are set Center -Fed Antenna
to approximate a S2 -ohm termination. The Systems
transmitter is turned on (preferably at
reduced input) and resonance is established Center -fed antennas require a balanced
in the amplifier tank circuit. The sensitivity antenna tuner to allow them to be used with
control of the tuner is adjusted to provide transmitters having unbalanced coaxial an-
near full -scale deflection on the bridge tenna terminations. Shown in this section is
meter. Various settings of S1, L_, and C, a simple and inexpensive antenna tuner
should be tried to obtain a reduction of (figure 48) which, when used in conjunc-
bridge reading. As tuner resonance is ap- tion with an SWR meter, will permit center -
proached, the meter reading will decrease fed antennas of practically any configura-
and the sensitivity control should be ad- tion to be used with modern coaxial- output
vanced. When the system is in resonance, transmitters.
472 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
Tuner To conserve space, yet allow
Construction maximum circuit Q to be
achieved, the tuner is con-
structed in a wooden box measuring 13"
wide, 10" high, and 12" deep. A piece of
masonite is used for the panel. The two vari-
able capacitors are mounted to the panel,
as are the selector switch and the airwound
inductor. The inductor is spaced away from
the panel by two 2" long ceramic insulators.
The four- winding inductor is made from a
single section of coil stock, as shown in the
drawing. Adjustable taps are made at the
chosen coil turns by means of small phos-
phor- bronze clips attached to flexible in-
sulated leads. The various terminals are
mounted on a small aluminum plate which
is mounted in a cutout area in the rear of
the wood cabinet.

Figure 47

CLOSE -UP OF SWR BRIDGE


Simple SWR bridge is mounted below the
chassis of the tuner. Carbon resistors are
mounted to two copper rings to form low -
inductance one -ohm resistor. Bridge capaci-
tors form triangular configuration for lowest
lead inductance. Balancing capacitor C, is at
lower right.

The unit consists of a parallel -tuned cir-


cuit that may be adjusted to a variety of
requirements by means of taps on the main
coil (L_ A and B). The number of turns in
the circuit are adjusted by means of coil Figure 48
taps A and B (figure 49) and the impedance TUNER FOR CENTER -FED
transformation presented to the two -wire ANTENNA SYSTEMS
feed system is adjusted by means of coil
This balanced antenna tuner is designed to
taps C and D. Additional flexibility is pro- match center -fed antenna systems to trans-
vided by switch (S, A and B) which per- mitters employing the popular single -ended
pi- network matching circuit. It may be con-
mits coupling coils (L, A and B) to be nected to the transmitter with a random
placed in either a series or parallel connec- length of 52- or 75 -ohm coaxial line. An SWR
tion. The tuner is capable of operation at meter should be placed in the line for a
tuning aid. The link-tuning capacitor is at the
the maximum power level on all amateur left, and the split -stator tank capacitor is at
bands between 80 and 10 meters, and it the right. Switch S. is between the two main
tuning dials. The main inductor is made from
may be used with open -wire or "ribbon" a single section of coil stock, with the winding
feeders and directly driven antennas, such broken at appropriate points. Connections to
as V -beams or other center -fed, long -wire the tuner are made at fittings mounted on
the aluminum plate at the rear, right of the
arrays. enclosure.
HANDBOOK Tuner for Center -Fed Systems 473

reasonably low value of SWR on the coaxial


line. If a center -fed tuned dipole (such as
FROM TRANS.
shown in figure 2D) is used with the tuner,
AND
SWR METER
it may be operated on any high- frequency
amateur band, provided the length of the
flat top plus the feeder length is equal to or
100 -100 TO BALANCED greater than one -half wavelength at the
:SIA,B 4.511V LINE OR
ANTENNA lowest operating frequency. For general "all -
band" use, a 66 -foot flat top with random -
SEA /ES
length open wire feedline is recommended.
An antenna of this general type will be used
PARAL
as an example in discussing the adjustment
of the tuner.
The transmitter is placed on the desired
band and the coil taps are set as suggested
EXTER
GROUND
in the illustration. Place both capacitors
4- SECTION COIL Li, L2 at full capacitance and place switch S, in
L2A LIA LIB L2S the series position for 80- or 40 -meter opera-
l66U111ilitili lilll(Illillll
tion and in parallel position for 20 -, 15-,
l'l'l'l'lll'WI'ili 111
or 10 -meter operation. Adjust the capacitors
and move clips A and B until resonance is
32 T. ST 32 T.
S T.
established. (This may be determined with
I

Figure 49 the aid of a grid -dip oscillator, if desired,


before the transmitter is energized). Adjust-
SCHEMATIC AND INDUCTOR ment of the various clips and capacitors is
FOR TUNER done to provide proper loading of the trans-
Coil L,A-11-LA-11 is fabricated from o single mitter with minimum SWR reading on the
length of coil stock (Illumitronix Air -Dux 2008, coaxial line. Adjustments should be sym-
or equivalent). The coil is 21/2" inside diam-
eter, 8 turns per Inch of No. 14 wire. Starting metrical on each side of the coil and the
from one end (after leaving a 6" lead) thirty - taps should be set to employ the maximum
two turns are counted and the thirty -third
turn is broken at the center to make leads value of inductance, since, quite probably,
for L,A and L,A. Five more turns are counted various tap settings and tuning adjustments
and the coil Is broken in the same m to
make the opposite c ion to coil L,A, may be found which will provide a degree
and to coil L,B. In like m , the taps to of loading.
L,B and LA are made. The adjacent leads Adjustments should start with minimum
from coils L,1 and L11 are c ted to the
arms of the switch. Taps A and 8 short out circuit inductance for the band in use,
the following approximate number of turns progressively increasing inductance until
from the outer ends of the inductor: 80 me-
ters, 4 turns; 40 meters, 16 turns; 20 m the desired loading is achieved with max-
28 turns; IS meters, 29 turns; 10 meters, 30 imum inductance in the circuit. Loading
turns. Phosphor -b lips are Mueller #88. should finally be adjusted at the transmit-
ter to provide proper settings for the output
Tuner The tuner is connected to the circuit of the transmitter. Once the adjust-
Operation transmitter with a short length ments of the tuner have been determined,
of low -impedance coaxial line. the dial settings and tap points may be
An SWR meter should be placed in the line. logged for future reference and the coil taps
Adjustments are made to the tuner to prop- indentified with a small spot of nail polish
erly load the transmitter while holding a on the wire.
CHAPTER TWENTY -TWO

High - Frequency Directive Antennas

It is becoming of increasing importance in itself, will have no effect on the radiation


most types of radio communication to be pattern.
capable of concentrating the radiated signal
from the transmitter in a certain desired 22 -1 Directive Antennas
direction and to be able to discriminate at
When a multiplicity of radiating elements
the receiver against reception from direc
located and phased so as to reinforce the
.

is
tions other than the desired one. Such cap-
radiation in certain desired directions and to
abilities involve the use of directive antenna
neutralize radiation in other directions, a
arrays.
directive antenna array is formed.
Few simple antennas, except the single
vertical element, radiate energy equally well The function of a directive antenna when
in all azimuth (horizontal or compass) used for transmitting is to give an increase
in signal strength in some direction at the
directions. All horizontal antennas, except
those specifically designed to give an omni- expense of radiation in other directions. For
directional azimuth radiation pattern such reception, one might find useful an antenna
as the turnstile, have some directive proper-
giving little or no gain in the direction from
which it is desired to receive signals if the
ties. These properties depend on the length
of the antenna in wavelengths, the height antenna is able to discriminate against inter-
above ground, and the slope of the radiator.
fering signals and static arriving from other
The various forms of the half -wave hor- directions. A good directive transmitting
izontal antenna produce maximum radiation antenna, however, can also be used to good
at right angles to the wire, but the direc- advantage for reception.
If radiation can be confined to a narrow
tional effect is not great. Nearby objects
beam, the signal intensity can be increased
also minimize the directivity of a dipole
a great many times in the desired direction
radiator, so that it hardly seems worth while of transmission. This is equivalent to in-
to go to the trouble to rotate a simple half - creasing the power output of the transmit-
wave dipole in an attempt to improve trans- ter. On the higher frequencies, it is more
mission and reception in any direction. economical to use a directive antenna than
The half -wave doublet, folded- dipole, to increase transmitter power, if more than
zepp, single- wire -fed, matched-impedance, a few watts of power is being used.
and Q- section antennas all have practically Directive antennas for the high- frequency
the same radiation pattern when properly range have been designed and used commer-
built and adjusted. They all are dipoles, and cially with gains as high as 23 db over a
the feeder system, if it does not radiate in simple dipole radiator. Gains as high as 3 f
Directive Antennas 475

.V-

110 --- '---- -- _


,0`

IIii
DOUeIC HOP

- -_,
3o-
.
40.

30. 12
20' --
SINGLE HOP
W.
no
10
I
30
Mil
30 SOO 300 300 1000 3000 10000
GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE IN MILES
Figure 1

OPTIMUM ANGLE OF RADIATION


WITH RESPECT TO DISTANCES
Shown above is a plot of the optimum angle
of radiation for one -hop and two hop com-
munication. An operating frequency close to
KALI SOAK AIR. -- PMl eMV[ ANT.

HORIZONTAL ANTENNAS IN FREE SPACE


-- 2 WAVES ANT.

of radiation for one -hop and two -hop com-


munication distance is assumed.
Figure 2
db are common in direct -ray microwave FREE -SPACE FIELD PATTERNS OF
communication and radar systems. A gain LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS
of 23 db represents a power gain of 200 The p nee of the earth distorts the field
times and a gain of 35 db represents a power pattern in such a manner that the azimuth
pattern becomes a function of the elevation
gain of almost 3500 times. However, an an- angle.
tenna with a gain of only 15 to 20 db is so
sharp in its radiation pattern that it is
import when dealing with frequencies and
usable to full advantage only for point -to-
distances dependent on sky -wave propaga-
point work.
tion. It is the horizontal directivity (or
The increase in radiated power in the de-
gain, or discrimination) measured at the
sired direction is obtained at the expense of
most useful vertical angles of radiation that
radiation in the undesired directions. Power
is of consequence. The horizontal radiation
gains of 3 to 12 db seem to be most practi-
pattern, as measured on the ground, is con-
cal for amateur communication, since the
siderably different from the pattern obtained
width of a beam with this order of power
at a vertical angle of 15 degrees, and still
gain is wide enough to sweep a fairly large
more different from a pattern obtained at a
area. Gains of 3 to 12 db represent effective
vertical angle of 30 degrees. In general, the
transmitter power increases from 2 to 16 energy which is radiated at angles higher
times.
than approximately 30 degrees above the
Horizontal Pattern There is a certain op- earth, is effective only for local work at any
versus Vertical Angle timum vertical angle frequency.
of radiation for sky - For operation at frequencies in the vicin-
wave communication, this angle being de- ity of 14 MHz, the most effective angle of
pendent on distance, frequency, time of day, radiation is usually about 15 degrees above
etc. Energy radiated at an angle much lower the horizon, from any kind of antenna. The
than this optimum angle is largely lost, while most effective angles for 10 -meter operation
radiation at angles much higher than this are those in the vicinity of 10 degrees. Fig-
optimum angle is often not nearly so effec- ure is a chart giving the optimum vertical
1

tive. angle of radiation for sky -wave propagation


For this reason, the horizontal directivity in terms of the great -circle distance between
pattern as measured on the ground is of no the transmitting and receiving antennas.
476 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO

LONG STRAIGHT WIRE ANTENNAS

Figure 3
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF
LONG -WIRE ANTENNAS

0
O a 1 4 S S 7 10
DB POWER RATIO OF MAIN LOBE TO A DIPOLE

Types of There is an enormous vari- broadside lobes get smaller and smaller in
Directive Arrays ety of directive antenna amplitude, even though numerous (fig-
arrays that can give a sub- ure 2).
stantial power gain in the desired direction The horizontal radiation pattern of such
of transmission or reception. However, some antennas depends on the vertical angle of
are more effective than others which require radiation being considered. If the wire is
the same space. In general it may be stated more than 4 wavelengths long, the maxi-
that long -wire antennas of various types, mum radiation at vertical angles of 15 to
such as the single long wire, the V beam, 20 (useful for DX) is in line with the
and the rhombic, are less effective for a wire, being slightly greater a few degrees
given space than arrays composed of reso- either side of the wire than directly off the
nant elements, but the long-wire arrays have ends. The directivity of the main lobes of
the significant advantage that they may be radiation is not particularly sharp, and the
used over a relatively large frequency range minor lobes fill in between the main lobes
while resonant arrays are usable only over a to permit working stations in nearly all
quite narrow frequency band. directions, though the power radiated broad-
side to the radiator will not be great if the
22 -2 Long -Wire Radiators radiator is more than a few wavelengths
long. The directive gain of long -wire an-
Harmonically operated long wires radiate tennas, in terms of the wire length in wave-
better in certain directions than others, but lengths is given in figure 3.
cannot be considered as having appreciable To maintain the out -of -phase condition
directivity unless several wavelengths long. in adjoining half -wave elements throughout
The current in adjoining half -wave elements the length of the radiator, it is necessary
flows in opposite directions at any instant, that a harmonic antenna be fed either at
and, thus, the radiation from the various one end or at a current loop. If fed at a
elements adds in certain directions and can- voltage loop, the adjacent sections will be
cels in others. fed in phase, and a different radiation pat-
A half -wave doublet in free space has a tern will result.
"doughnut" of radiation surrounding it. A The directivity of a long wire does not
full wave has 2 lobes, 3 half waves 3, etc. increase very much as the length is in-
When the radiator is made more than 4 half creased beyond about 15 wavelengths. This
wavelengths long, the end lobes (cones of is due to the fact that all long -wire anten-
radiation) begin to show noticeable power nas are adversely affected by the r -f resist-
gain over a half -wave doublet, while the ance of the wire, and because the current

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Long -Wire Radiators 477

LONG -ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE


Approximate Length in Feet-End -Fed Antennas

Frequency
In MHz 1X 11/2a 2X 21/4X 3X 31/,X 4X 41/sX

29 33 50 67 84 101 118 135 152


28 34 52 69 87 104 122 140 157

21.4 45 68 911/2 1141/2 1361/2 1601/2 1851/2 2091/2


21.2 45 1/4 68 1/4 91 3/4 114 3/4 136 3/4 160 3/4 185 3/4 209 3/4
21.0 451/2 681 92 115 137 161 186 210

14.2 671/2 102 137 171 206 240 275 310


14.0 681/2 1031 139 174 209 244 279 314

7.3 136 206 276 346 416 486 555 625


7.15 136 1/2 207 277 347 417 487 557 627
7.0 137 2071/2 2771/2 348 418 488 558 628

4.0 240 362 485 618 730 853 977 1100


3.8 252 381 511 640 770 900 1030 1160
3.6 266 403 540 676 812 950 1090 1220
3.5 274 414 555 696 835 977 1120

2.0 480 725 972 1230 1475


1.9 504 763 1020 1280
1.8 532 805 1080

amplitude begins to become unequal at dif- of the antenna. A ground is sometimes con-
ferent current loops as a result of attenua- nected to the center of the tuned coil.
tion along the wire caused by radiation and If desired, the antenna can be opened and
losses. As the length is increased, the tuning current -fed at a point of maximum current
of the antenna becomes quite broad. In by means of low -impedance ribbon line, or
fact, a long wire about I S waves long is by a quarter -wave matching section and
practically aperiodic, and works almost open line.
equally well over a wide range of frequen-
cies. 22 -3 The V Antenna
One of the most practical methods of
feeding a long -wire antenna is to bring one If two long -wire antennas are built in
end of it into the radio room for direct the form of a V, it is possible to make two
connection to a tuned antenna circuit which of the maximum lobes of one leg shoot in
is link- coupled through a harmonic- attenu- the same direction as two of the maximum
ating filter to the transmitter. The antenna lobes of the other leg of the V. The result-
can be tuned effectively to resonance for ing antenna is bidirectional (two opposite
operating on any harmonic by means of the directions) for the main lobes of radiation.
tuned circuit which is connected to the end Each side of the V can be made any odd or
1O

140

Figure 4
120

INCLUDED ANGLE FOR A


V BEAM
s!
o Showing the included angle be-
tween the legs of a V beam for
2 various leg lengths. For opti-
so o mum alignment of the radiation
lobe at the correct vertical
40 angle with leg lengths less than
three wavelengths, the optimum
included angle Is shown by the
20 dashed curve.

o
o a 4 so sa
LENGTH IN "L' WAVELENGTHS

www.americanradiohistory.com
478 High- Frequency Directive Antennas

Figure 5
TYPICAL V BEAM ANTENNA

even number of quarter wavelengths, de-


pending on the method of feeding the apex
of the V. The complete system must be a
multiple of half waves. If each leg is an
even number of quarter waves long, the
antenna must be voltage -fed at the apex; if
an odd number of quarter waves long, cur-
rent feed must be used.
By choosing the proper apex angle (figure
4 and figure 5) the lobes of radiation from
the two long -wire antennas aid each other
to form a bidirectional beam. Each wire by
itself would have a radiation pattern similar
to that for a long wire. The reaction of one
on the other removes two of the four
main lobes, and increases the other two in
such a way as to form two lobes of still
greater magnitude.
The correct wire lengths and the degree of
rvr
z
ie
_

IL)

m
ao

ew

4
\
GAIN IN DECIBELS OVER HALF WAVE

soiV!
fi:9111

111=111

used is given in figure 6.


ea'

Figure 6
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF A V BEAM
THE RADIO

This curve shows the approximate directive


o'l
\`i
gain of a V beam with respect to a half -wave
antenna located the same distance above
ground, in terms of the side length

side length when optimum apex angle is

The legs of a very long V antenna are


usually so arranged that the included angle
is twice the angle of the major lobe from a
single wire if used alone. This arrangement
concentrates the radiation of each wire along
the bisector of the angle, and permits part
of the other lobes to cancel each other.
With legs shorter than 3 wavelengths, the
best directivity and gain are obtained with
\`
\
-

_i
\1

A1

L.
&
-

1111111

the angle 8 are listed in the V- Antenna De- a somewhat smaller angle than that deter-
sign Table for various frequencies in the mined by the lobes. Optimum directivity
10 -, 15 -, 20- and 40 -meter amateur bands. for a one -wave V is obtained when the angle
Apex angles for all side lengths are given in is 90 rather than 180 , as determined by
figure 4. The gain of a V beam in terms of the the ground pattern alone.

V-ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE

Frequency L = X L = 2X L = 4X L = EX
In kHz 5= 90 5= 70 5= 52 5 = 39

28000 34'8" 69'8" 140' 280'


29000 33'6" 67'3" 135' 271'
21100 45'9" 91'9" 183' 366'
21300 45'4" 91'4" 182'6" 365'
14050 69' 139' 279' 558'
14150 68'6" 138' 277' 555'
14250 68'2" 137' 275' 552'
7020 138'2" 278' 558' 1120'
7100 136'8" 275' 552' 1106'
7200 134'10" 271' 545' 1090'

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Rhombic Antenna 479

If very long wires are used in the V, the


angle between the wires is almost unchanged
when the length of the wires in wavelengths
is altered. However, an error of a few de-
grees causes a much larger loss in directivity
and gain in the case of the longer V than
in the shorter one.
The vertical angle at which the wave is TILT ANIMA
A
best transmitted or received from a horizon-
SIM COS
O lo`-a
tal V antenna depends largely on the in-
cluded angle. The sides of the V antenna
should be at least a half wavelength above
ground; commercial practice dictates a
height of approximately a full wavelength .l
vu
MOON
JL IM,IAVILINGTM/
LIMGTM IN r1AKL/MG N1
IT rOAYAA
roA ALIGMYIMT
OUTPUT

above ground.
MMMMM 0M00000
22-4 The Rhombic Antenna

The terminated rhombic or diamond is


probably the most effective directional an-
tenna that is practical for amateur com-
munication. This antenna is nonresonant,
with the result that it can be used on four
WAVE ANGLE A
amateur bands, such as 10, 15, 20, and 40
meters. When the antenna is nonresonant, Figure 7
i.e., properly terminated, the system is uni-
directional, and the wire dimensions are not RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE
critical. Design data is given in terms of the wave
angle (vertical angle of transmission and re-
Rhombic When the free end is termi- ception) of the antenna. The lengths are 1

Termination nated with a resistance of a for the "maximum output" design; the shorter
lengths (I') are for the "alignment" method
value between 700 and 800 which gives approximately 1.5 db less gain
ohms the rear lobes are eliminated, the for- with a considerable reduction in the space
required for the antenna. The values of side
ward gain is increased, and the antenna can length, tilt angle, and height for a given
be used on several bands without changes. wave angle are obtained by drawing a ver-
The terminating resistance should be cap- tical line upward from the desired wave
angle.
able of dissipating one -third the power out-
put of the transmitter, and should have very
little reactance. For medium- or low -power consisting of No. 25 nichrome wire, spaced
transmitters, the noninductive plaque resis- 6 inches and terminated with 800 ohms,
tors will serve as a satisfactory termination. will serve satisfactorily. Because of the at-
Several manufacturers offer special resistors tenuation of the line, the lumped resistance
suitable for terminating a rhombic antenna. at the end of the line need dissipate but a
The terminating device should, for tech- few watts even when high power is used.
nical reasons, present a small amount of in- A half dozen 5000 -ohm 2 -watt carbon re-
ductive reactance at the point of termina- sistors in parallel will serve for all except
tion. very high power. The attenuating line may
A compromise terminating device com- be folded back on itself to take up less
monly used consists of a terminated 250 - room.
foot or longer length of line made of The determination of the best value of
resistance wire which does not hale too terminating resistor may be made while re-
much resistance per unit length. If the latter ceiving, if the input impedance of the
qualification is not met, the reactance of receiver is approximately 800 ohms. The
the line will be excessive. A 250 -foot line value of resistor which gives the best di-

www.americanradiohistory.com
480 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO

31

Figure 8

TYPICAL RHOMBIC
ANTENNA DESIGN
The antenna system illus-
trated above may be used
over the frequency range from LINE TO TX
N 14 SPACED I-
7 to 29 MHz without change.
The directivity of the system SPACING BETWEEN SIDES S.21 FEET TERMINATING LINE
may be reversed by the sys- TOTAL LENGTH SO2 FEET OP 230' OF N 211

tem di d in the text.


NICHROME SPACCO
ANO 1100 -OHM 14 -WATT
S
Hso' CARBON RESISTOR AT
ENO. 2 -WATT IOO-OIIN
RESISTORS IN SERIES

rectivity on reception will not give the above ground is increased in the same man-
most gain when transmitting, but there ner as with a dipole antenna. The rhombic
will be little difference between the two. should not be tilted in any plane. In other
The input resistance of the rhombic words, the poles should all be of the same
which is reflected into the transmission line height and the plane of the antenna should
that feeds it is always somewhat less than be parallel to the ground.
the terminating resistance, and is around A considerable amount of directivity is
700 to 750 ohms when the terminating re- lost when the terminating resistor is left off
sistor is 800 ohms. the end and the system is operated as a reso-
The antenna should be fed with a non - nant antenna. If it is desired to reverse the
resonant line having a characteristic imped- direction of the antenna it is much better
ance of 650 to 700 ohms. The four corners practice to run transmission lines to both
of the rhombic should be at least one -half ends of the antenna and then run the
wavelength above ground for the lowest terminating line to the operating position.
frequency of operation. For three -band op- Then with the aid of two dpdt switches it
eration the proper tilt angle (0) for the will be possible to connect either feeder to
center band should be observed. the antenna changeover switch and the
The rhombic antenna transmits a hori- other feeder to the terminating line, thus
zontally polarized wave at a relatively low reversing the direction of the array and
angle above the horizon. The angle of radia- maintaining the same termination for either
tion (wave angle) decreases as the height direction of operation.

Figure 9

RHOMBIC ANTENNA GAIN


Showing the theoretical gain of a rhombic
antenna, in terms of the side length, over a
half -wave antenna mounted at the same to
height above the same type of soil. O 11

z 3

A
10 II 12 IS 14 IS 111 17 IS M 20

II- =LENGTH OF EACH LEG OF RHOMBIC IN WAVELENGTHS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Stacked -Dipole Arrays 481
Lt 2 L2 Lt
le S -1
L3 La
f
/ PLANE OF WIRES w
I
END VIEW
QUARTER -WAVE STUBS
NON RESONANT
FEED LIN

GAIN APPRO% 4 s DB

O Figure 11

I
I THE FRANKLIN OR COLLINEAR
ANTENNA ARRAY
s,+S.
I IN PHASE
An antenna of this type, regardless of the
IRO. OUT OF PHASE
number of elements, attains all of its direc-
FLAT -TOP BEAN, ETC.) _- / (LAZY H, STERRA CURTAIN)
tivity through sharpening of the horizontal
or azimuth radiation pattern; no vertical di-
Figure 10 rectivity is provided. Hence a long antenna
of this type has an extremely sharp azimuth
RADIATION PATTERNS OF A PAIR OF pattern, but no vertical directivity.
DIPOLES OPERATING WITH IN -PHASE
EXCITATION, AND WITH EXCITATION
180 OUT OF PHASE 90 , and 135 for instance), the pattern is
unsymmetrical, the radiation being greater
If the dipoles are oriented horizontally most
of the directivity will be in the vertical to one direction than in the opposite direc-
plane; if they are oriented vertically most tion.
of the directivity will be in the horizontal With spacings of more than 0.8 wave-
plane.
length, more than two main lobes appear
for all phasing combinations; hence, such
Figure 7 gives curves for optimum-design spacings are seldom used.
rhombic attennas for both the maximum -
output method and the alignment method. In -Phase With the dipoles driven so as to
The alignment method is about 1.5 db down Spacing be in phase,the most effective
from the maximum output method but spacing is between 0.5 and 0.7
requires only about 0.74 as much leg length. wavelength. The latter provides greater
The height and tilt angle are the same in gain, but minor lobes are present which do
either case. Figure 8 gives construction data not appear at 0.5- wavelength spacing. The
for a recommended rhombic antenna for the radiation is broadside to the plane of the
7.0- through 29.7 -MHz bands. This antenna wires, and the gain is slightly greater than
will give about 11 db gain in the 14.0 -MHz can be obtained from two dipoles out of
band. The approximate gain of a rhombic phase. The gain falls off rapidly for spac-
antenna over a dipole (both above normal ings less than 0.375 wavelength, and there is
soil) is given in figure 9. little point in using spacing of 0.25 wave-
length or less with in -phase dipoles, except
where it is desirable to increase the radiation
22 -5 Stacked -Dipole Arrays resistance. (See Multiwire Doublet.)
The characteristics of a half -wave dipole Out-of-Phase When the dipoles are fed 180
already have been described. When another Spacing out of phase, the directivity is
dipole is placed in the vicinity and excited through the plane of the wires,
either directly or parasitically, the resultant and is greatest with close spacing, though
radiation pattern will depend on the spac- there is but little difference in the pattern
ing and phase differential, as well as the after the spacing is made less than 0.125
relative magnitude of the currents. With wavelength. The radiation resistance be-
spacings less than 0.65 wavelength, the radi- comes so low for spacings of less than 0.1
ation is mainly broadside to the two wires wavelength that such spacings are not prac-
(bidirectional) when there is no phase dif- tical.
ference, and through the wires (end fire) In the three foregoing examples, most of
when the wires are 180 out of phase. With the directivity provided is in a plane at a
phase difference between 0 and 180 (45 , right angle to the wires, though when out

www.americanradiohistory.com
482 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO
COLLINEAR ANTENNA DESIGN CHART
600
FIMHZ) F1
Frequency
in MHz L1 L2 L3 FIIMHz)
28.5 16'8" 17' 8'6" A B
21.2 228 23,3" 11'6"
A- B ISOR FEED POINT GAINAFPROA. 3 O
14.2 33'8" 34,7 17'3"
7.15 67' 68'8" 34'4" Figure 12
4.0 120' 123' 61'6" DOUBLE EXTENDED ZEPP ANTENNA
3.6 133' 136'5" 68'2" For hest results, antenna should he tuned to
operating frequency by means of grid -dip
oscillator.
of phase, the directivity is in a line through
the wires, and when in phase, the directivity dipole. This consideration applies whether
is broadside to them. Thus, if the wires arc the elements are of normal length or are
oriented vertically, mostly horizontal di- extended.
rectivity will be provided. If the wires are The collinear antenna consists of two or
oriented horizontally, most of the directiv- more radiating sections from 0.5 to 0.65
ity obtained will be vertical directivity. wavelengths long, with the current in phase
To increase the sharpness of the directivity in each section. The necessary phase reversal
in all planes that include one of the wires, between sections is obtained through the
additional identical elements are added in use of resonant tuning stubs as illustrated in
the line of the wires, and fed so as to be in figure 11. The gain of a collinear array us-
phase. The familiar lazy -H array is one array ing half -wave elements (in decibels) is ap-
utilizing both types of directivity in the proximately equal to the number of ele-
manner prescribed. The two -section 8JK ments in the array. The exact figures are as
flat -top beam is another. follows:
These two antennas in their various forms
are directional in a horizontal plane, in addi-
Number of Elements 2 3 4 5 6
Gain in Decibels 1.8 3.3 4.5 5.3 6.2
tion to being low-angle radiators, and are
perhaps the most practical of the bidirec- As additional in -phase collinear elements
tional stacked- dipole arrays for amateur use. are added to a doublet, the radiation resist-
More phased elements can be used to pro- ance goes up much faster than when addi-
vide greater directivity in planes including tional half waves are added out of phase
one of the radiating elements. The H then (harmonic operated antenna).
becomes a Sterba- curtain array. For a collinear array of from 2 to 6 ele-
For unidirectional work the most prac- ments, the terminal radiation resistance in
tical stacked -dipole arrays for amateur - ohms at any current loop is approximately
band use are parasitically excited systems 100 times the number of elements.
using relatively close spacing between the It should be borne in mind that the gain
reflectors and the directors. Antennas of from a collinear antenna depends on the
this type are described in detail in a later
chapter. The next most practical unidirec-
tional array is an H or a Sterba curtain with
l'- iH,i + ---i-- l'MN-, -'I
a similar system placed approximately one -
quarter wave behind. The use of a reflector
system in conjunction with any type of
stacked -dipole broadside array will increase
the gain by 3 db.
Collinear The simple collinear antenna ar-
PHASE- REVERSING SWITCH
Arrays ray is a very effective radiating FOR CLOVERLEAF PATTERN

system for the 3.5- and 7.0 -MHz


bands, but its use is not recommended on
Figure 13
higher frequencies since such arrays do not
possess any vertical directivity. The eleva- TWO COLLINEAR HALF -WAVE ANTENNAS
tion radiation pattern for such an array is IN PHASE PRODUCE A 3 DB GAIN WHEN
essentially the same as for a half -wave SEPARATED ONE -HALF WAVELENGTH

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Broadside Arrays 483

a,
--ee e -. -
eee
-eS,e'-
c
'- a'e--4
sr eos
a phase reversing switch, the two elements
may be operated out of phase, producing a
cloverleaf pattern with slightly less maxi-
3zw 32v- mum gain.
1 A three- element precut array for 40-
MANE STUBS a:4 4 e E. ---30011 RIBBON TO
meter operation is shown in figure 14. It is
TRANSMITTER, ANY LENGTH
W ERE, SPACED TO
fed directly with 300 -ohm ribbon line, and
GAIN APPROX. 3 De may be matched to a 52-ohm coaxial output
transmitter by means of a balun.
Figu e 14

PRECUT LINEAR ARRAY FOR 40 -METER 22 -6 Broadside Arrays


OPERATION
Collinear elements may be stacked above
or below another string of collinear elements
sharpness of the horizontal directivity since to produce what is commonly called a
no vertical directivity is provided. An array broadside array. Such an array, when hori-
with several collinear elements will give zontal elements are used, possesses vertical
considerable gain, but will have a sharp directivity in proportion to the number of
horizontal radiation pattern. broadsided (vertically stacked) sections
which have been used.
Double Extended The gain of a conventional Since broadside arrays do have good verti-
Zepp two -element Franklin col- cal directivity their use is recommended on
linear antenna can be in- the 14 -MHz band and on those higher in
creased to a value approaching that obtained frequency. One of the most popular of sim-
from a three -element Franklin, simply by ple broadside arrays is the Lazy H array of
making the two radiating elements 230 long figure 15. Horizontal collinear elements
instead of 180 long. The phasing stub is stacked two above two make up this anten-
shortened correspondingly to maintain the na system which is highly recommended
whole array in resonance. Thus, instead of when moderate gain without too much di-
having 0.5- wavelength elements and 0.25 - rectivity is desired. It has high radiation
wavelength stub, the elements are made resistance and a gain of approximately 5.5
0.64 wavelength long and the stub is ap- db. The high radiation resistance results in
proximately 0.11 wavelength long. low voltages and a broad resonance curve,
Dimensions for the double extended zepp which permits use of inexpensive insulators
are given in figure 12. and enables the array to be used over a fairly
The vertical directivity of a collinear an- wide range in frequency. For dimensions,
tenna having 230 elements is the same as see the stacked dipole design table.
for one having 180 elements. There is little
advantage in using extended sections when
the total length of the array is to be greater Stocked Vertical stacking may be applied
Dipoles to strings of collinear elements
than about 1.5 wavelength over all since
the gain of a collinear antenna is propor- longer than two half waves. In
tional to the overall length, whether the in- such arrays, the end quarter wave of each
dividual radiating elements are V4- wave, %- string of radiators usually is bent in to meet
wave or 3/4 -wave in length. a similar bent quarter wave from the op-
posite -end radiator. This provides better
Spaced Half The gain of two collinear balance and better coupling between the
Wave Antennas half waves may be increased upper and lower elements when the array
by increasing the physical is current -fed. Arrays of this type are shown
spacing between the elements, up to a max- in figure 16, and are commonly known as
imum of about one -half wavelength. If the curtain arrays.
half -wave elements are fed with equal Correct length for the elements and stubs
lengths of transmission line, correctly phased, can be determined for any stacked -dipole
a gain of about 3.3 db is produced. Such an array from the Stacked - Dipole Design
antenna is shown in figure 13. By means of Table.
484 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO
an alternative method of feed is shown in
the higher -gain antenna of figure 16B.
In the case of each of the arrays of figure
16, and also the Lazy H of figure 15, the
array may be unidirectional and the gain
increased by 3 db if an exactly similar
array is constructed and placed approximate-
ly 14 wave behind the driven array. A screen
or mesh of wires, slightly greater in area
than the antenna array, may be used in-
stead of an additional array as a reflector to
RESONANT FEED LINE
obtain a unidirectional system. The spacing
between the reflecting wires may vary from
0.05 to 0.1 wavelength with the spacing
between the reflecting wires the smallest
directly behind the driven elements. The
LI wires in the untuned reflecting system
should be parallel to the radiating elements
of the array, and the spacing of the corn-
plete reflector system should be approxi-
mately 0.2 to 0.25 wavelength behind the
L2 driven elements.
On frequencies below perhaps 100 MHz,
it normally will be impractical to use a wire -
screen reflector behind an antenna array
S Lt such as a Sterba curtain or a Lazy H. Para-
sitic elements may be used as reflectors or
QUARTER -WAVE STUB directors, but parasitic elements have the
disadvantage that their operation is selective
NONRESONANT
with respect to relatively small changes in
FEED LIN GAIN APOIIOX. B.! OS frequency. Nevertheless, parasitic reflectors
for such arrays are quite widely used.
The X -Array In section 22 -5 it was shown
Figure 15 how two dipoles may be ar-
ranged in phase to provide a power gain of
THE LAZY H ANTENNA SYSTEM about 3 db. If two such pairs of dipoles
Stacking the collinear pairs gives both hori- are stacked in a vertical plane and properly
zontal and vertical directivity. As shown, the phased, a simplified form of in-phase curtain
array will give about 5.5 db gain. Note that
the array may be fed either at the center of is formed, providing an over -all gain of
the phasing section or at the bottom; if fed about 6 db. Such an array is shown in figure
at the bottom the phasing section must be 17. In this X- array, the four dipoles are all
twisted through 180 .
in phase, and are fed by four sections of
300 -ohm line, each one -half wavelength
In the arrays of figure 16 the arrow- long, the free ends of all four lines being
heads represent the direction of current flow connected in parallel. The feed impedance at
at any given instant. The dots on the radia- the junction of these four lines is about 75
tors represent points of maximum current. ohms, and a length of 75 -ohm twin lead may
All arrows should point in the same direc- be used for the feedline to the array.
tion in each portion of the radiating sections An array of this type is quite small for
of an antenna in order to provide a field in the 28 -MHz band, and is not out of the
phase for broadside radiation. This condition question for the 21 -MHz band. For best re-
is satisfied for the arrays illustrated in figure sults, the bottom section of the array
16. Figures 16A and 16C show simple meth- should be one -half wavelength above
ods of feeding a short Sterba curtain, while ground.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Broadside Arrays 485

NONRESONANT FEEDER

GAIN APPROX. 6 DB GAIN APPROX. 8 DB

Ls L2 L3

Figure 16

THE STERBA- CURTAIN ARRAY


L3 L2 L3
Approximate directive gains along with alter- 300-011U
TWINLEAO
native feed methods are shown.
GAIN APPROX. 8 DB

LAZY H AND STERBA section Double Bruce will give a vertically


(STACKED- DIPOLE) DESIGN TABLE polarized emission, with a power gain of 5
Frequency db over a simple dipole, and is a very
in MHz LI L3
L2
simple beam to construct. This antenna,
7.0 68'2" 70' 35'
7.3 65'10" 67'6" 33'9" like other so- called broadside arrays, radiates
14.0 34'1" 35' 17'6"
14.2 33'8" 34'7" 17'3"
14.4 33'4" 34'2" 17'
21.0 22'9" 23'3" 11'8" L D L
21.5 22'3" 22'9" 11'5"
27.3 17'7" 17'10" 8'11"
28.0 17' 17'7" 8'9"
29.0 16'6" 17' 8'6"
50.0 9'7" 9'10" 4'11"
52.0 9'3" 9'5" 4'8"
54.0 8'10" 9'1" 4'6"
144.0 39.8" 40.5" 20.3"
146.0 39" 40" 20"
148.0 38.4" 39.5" 19.8"

The Double -Bruce The Bruce Beane consists


Array of a long wire folded so
that vertical elements DIMENSIONS
10 M. 15M. 2014 SAIN APPROA. e DO
carry in -phase currents while the horizontal L M'3 22' 32'10
elements carry out-of-phase currents. Radia- S 20' 30' 40'
tion from the horizontal sections is low P 14'2' 21'3- lev
D 3'r S'3 l'0 z-7511 TRANSMISSION LINE
since only a small current flows in this part
of the wire, and it is largely phased -out. Figure 17
Since the height of the Bruce Beam is only
THE X -ARRAY FOR 28, 21, OR 14 MHz
one -quarter wavelength, the gain per linear
foot of array is quite low. Two Bruce Beams The entire array (with the exception of the
7S -ohm feedline) is constructed of 300-ohm
may be combined as shown in figure 18 to ribbon line. Be sure phasing linos (P) are
produce the Double Bruce array. A four polarized correctly, as shown.
486 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO

L -+ L -+ f L -I L -
!0011 LINE GAIN APPROX. S De . NTS
I Or MAXI MUM
CURRENT

DIMENSION L
IOM. ISM. 120 /I014. ANTENNA f0
TRANSMITTER
s9- IS 17'S- TUNER

Figure 18

THE DOUBLE -BRUCE ARRAY FOR 10,


15, AND 20 METERS
If a 600 -ohm feed line is used, the 20 -meter
array will also perform on 10 meters as a DIMENSIONS
Sterba curtain, with an approximate gain of

'
IOM. ISM. M
9 db.
.

L IsY O SECTION
12.3, I7- M14E. WIRE
SPACED

maximum power at right angles to the plane GAIN APPROX. A DE

of the array.
The feed impedance of the Double Bruce I SOIL LINE TO TRANSMITTER
is about 750 ohms. The array may be fed
with a quarter -wave stub made of 300 -ohm
ribbon line and a feedline made of 150 -ohm
ribbon line. Alternatively, the array may be Figure 19
fed directly with a wide -spaced 600 -ohm
transmission line (figure 18) The feedline .
THE BI- SQUARE BROADSIDE ARRAY
should be brought away from the Double This bidirectional array is related to the
Lazy N, and in spite of the oblique elements,
Bruce for a short distance before it drops is horizontally polarized. It has slightly less
downward, to prevent interaction between gain and directivity than the Lazy N, the
the feedline and the lower part of the center free -space directivity gain being approxi-
mately 4 db. Its chief advantage is the fact
phasing section of the array. For best re- that only a single pole is required for sup-
sults, the bottom sections of the array should port, and two such arrays may be supported
from a single pole without interaction if the
be one -half wavelength above ground. planes of the elements are at right angles.
Arrays such as the X -array and the A 600-ohm line may be substituted for the
Double Bruce are essentially high -impedance twin lead, and either operated as a resonant
line, or made sonant by the incorpora-
devices, and exhibit relatively broadband tion of a matching stub.
characteristics. They are less critical of ad-
justment than a parasitic array, and they
work well over a wide frequency range such lessthan that of a Lazy H, but is still
as is encountered on the 28- to 29.7 -MHz
worthwhile, being approximately 4 db over
a half -wave horizontal dipole at the same
band.
average elevation.
The Bi-Square Illustrated in figure 19 is a When two Bi- Square arrays are suspended
Broadside Array simple method of feeding a at right angles to each other (for general
small broadside array. As coverage) from a single pole, the 0-sections
two arrays of this type can be supported at should be well separated or else symmetrical-
right angles from a single pole without in- ly arranged in the form of a square (the
teraction, it offers a solution to the problem diagonal conductors forming one Q- section)
of suspending two arrays in a restricted in order to minimize coupling between
space with a minimum of erection work. them. The same applies to the line if open
The free space directivity gain is slightly construction is used instead of twin lead, but

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Cubical Quad 487

e T Alternatively, a 72 -ohm coaxial line may be


CACN SIO E
used.
BBB To tune the reflector, the back of the an-
GA IN
tenna is aimed at a nearby field -strength
meter and the reflector stub capacitor is ad-
justed for minimum received signal at the
EACH operating frequency.
SIDE
RADIATOR This antenna provides high gain for its
small size, and is recommended for 28 -MHz
C 50 PT
TUNE FOR MINIMUM 150 -OHM BALANCED LINE
work. The elements may be made of No.
=IO'
PICRUP OFF REAR
OF BEAM.
STUB
IA E.
TO TUNING UNIT OR
TRANS.. iTTER. 14 enameled wire, and the array may be
SPACED S'
built on a light bamboo or wood framework.
Full information on Quad antennas may
NOTE SIOELENGIN= II'B' FOR 2I NH,
77.7' FOR II NH: be found in the handbook All About Cubical
ELEMENT SPACING PO- FOR EACH BAND.
STUB LENGTH APPRO2. 15' FOR 21 NH,
20' FOR II MHI Quad Antennas, Radio Publications, Inc.,
Wilton, Conn.
Figure 20 The Six- Shooter The array of figure 21 is
THE CUBICAL QUAD ANTENNA FOR Broadside Array recommended for the 10- to
THE 10 -, 15 -, OR 20 -METER BANDS 30 -MHz range as a good
compromise between gain, directivity, com-
pactness, mechanical simplicity, ease of ad-
if twin lead is used the coupling can be made justment, and bandwidth, when the addi-
negligible simply by separating the two tional array width and greater directivity
twin -lead lines by at least two inches and are not obtainable. The free -space directiv-
twisting one twin lead so as to effect a trans- ity gain is approximately 7.5 db over one
position every foot or so. element, and the practical DX signal gain
When tuned feeders are employed, the over one element at the same average ele-
Bi- Square array can be used on half fre- vation is of about the same magnitude when
quency as an end -fire vertically polarized the array is sufficiently elevated. To show
array, giving a slight practical DX signal up to best advantage the array should be
gain over a vertical half -wave dipole at the elevated sufficiently to put the lower ele-
same height. ments well in the clear, and preferably at
A second Bi- Square serving as a reflector least 0.5 wavelength above ground.

L
may be placed 0.15 wavelength behind this
The Bobtail Another application of
antenna to provide an over -all gain of 8.5
Bidirectional vertical orientation of the
db. The reflector may be tuned by means of
Broadside Curtain radiating elements of an
a quarter -wave stub which has a movable
shorting bar at the bottom end. array in order to obtain

The Cubical A smaller version of the Bi-


L
Quad Antenna Square antenna is the Cubi-
cal Quad antenna. Two half _,-
waves of wire are folded into a square that
is one -quarter wavelength on a side, as
shown in figure 20. The array radiates a
horizontally polarized signal. A reflector
placed about 0.15 wavelength behind the
L
antenna provides an over -all gain of some 6
db. A shorted stub with a paralleled tuning DIMENSIONS 3D0 n RIBBON L.NE

capacitor is used to resonate the reflector. IOM. ISM. 20M.


L I 17' 22.3 We" GAIN APPROS 7 5 DB
The Cubical Quad is fed with a 150 -ohm D 1rr 22'Y irr
line, and should employ some sort of an-
Figure 21
tenna tuner at the transmitter end of the
line if a pi- network type transmitter is used. THE SIX -SHOOTER BROADSIDE ARRAY
488 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO

D D currents, the array still exhibits some high -


angle radiation and response off the end as
a result of imperfect cancellation in the

oa 3 D2
flat -top portion. This is not sufficient to
affect the power gain appreciably, but does
degrade the discrimination somewhat.
END LINK COIL TO A moderate amount of sag can be tol-
TUNE FREQUENCY

C=IOOpr
erated at the center of the flat top, where it
DIMENSIONS connects to the driven vertical element. The
40M.
524 6O M.
poles and antenna tank should be so located
COAXIAL LINE DI 46'4- 126
D2 55' 60' with respect to each other that the driven
D3 50.7050' 54.7066 vertical element drops approximately straight
down from the flat fop.
Figure 22
Normally the antenna tank will be lo-
BOBTAIL BIDIRECTIONAL BROADSIDE cated in the same room as the transmitter,
CURTAIN FOR THE 7 -MHz OR THE to facilitate adjustment when changing
4.0 -MHz AMATEUR BANDS frequency. In this case it is recommended
that the link- coupled tank be located across
This simple vertically polarized array pro-
vides low angle radiation and response with the room from the transmitter if much
comparatively low pole heights, and is very power is used, in order to minimize r-f
effective for DX work on the 7 -MHz band or feedback difficulties which might occur as
the 4.0 -MHz phone band. Because of the
phase relationships, radiation from the hori- a result of the asymmetrical high- impedance
zontal portion of the antenna is effectively feed. If tuning of the antenna tank from
suppressed. Very little current flows in the
ground lead to the coupling tank; so an elab- the transmitter position is desired, flexible
orate ground system is not required, and the shafting can be run from the antenna tank
length of the ground lead is not critical so capacitor to a control knob at the trans-
long as it uses heavy wire and is reasonably
short. mitter.
The lower end of the driven element is
quite "hot" if much power is used, and
low -angle radiation at the lower end of the the lead -in insulator should be chosen with
high- frequency range with low pole heights this in mind. The ground connection need
is illustrated in figure 22. When precut to not have very low resistance, as the current
the specified dimensions this single -pattern flowing in the ground connection is com-
array will perform well over the 7 -MHz paratively small. A stake or pipe driven a
amateur band or the 4 -MHz amateur phone few feet in the ground will suffice. How-
band. For the 4 -MHz band, the required ever, the ground lead should be of heavy
two poles need be only 70 feet high, and wire and preferably the length should not
the array will provide a practical signal gain exceed about 10 feet at 7 MHz or about 20
averaging from 7 to 10 db over a horizontal feet at 4 MHz in order to minimize reactive
half -wave dipole utilizing the same pole effects due to its inductance. If it is impos-
height when the path length exceeds 2500 sible to obtain this short a ground lead, a
miles. piece of screen or metal sheet about four
The horizontal directivity is only moder- feet square may be placed parallel to the
ate, the beam width at the half-power points earth in a convenient location and used as
being slightly greater than that obtained an artificial ground. A fairly high C/L ratio
from three cophased vertical radiators fed ordinarily will be required in the antenna
with equal currents. This is explained by the tank in order to obtain adequate coupling
fact that the current in each of the two and loading.
outer radiators of this array carries only
about half as much current as the center - 22 -7 End -Fire Directivity
driven element. While this binomial current
distribution suppresses the end -fire lobe that By spacing two half -wave dipoles, or col-
occurs when an odd number of parallel ra- linear arrays, at a distance of from 0.1 to
diators with half-wave spacing are fed equal 0.25 wavelength and driving the two 180

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK End -Fire Directivity 489

out of phase, directivity is obtained through feeders. Proper stub adjustment is covered
the two wires at right angles to them. in Chapter Twenty -four. Suitable radiator
Hence, this type of bidirectional array is lengths and approximate stub dimensions are
called end -fire. A better idea of end -fire di- given in the accompanying design table.
rectivity can be obtained by referring to Figure 23 shows top views of eight types
figure 10. of flat -top beam antennas. The dimensions
Remember that end-fire refers to the rad- for using these antennas on different bands
iation with respect to the two wires in the are given in the design table. The 7- and
array rather than with respect to the array 28 -MHz bands are divided into two parts,
as a whole. but the dimensions for either the low- or
The vertical directivity of an end -fire bi- high- frequency ends of these bands will be
directional array which is oriented horizon- satisfactory for use over the entire band.
tally can be increased by placing a similar In any case, the antennas are tuned to the
end -fire array a half wave below it, and ex- frequency used, by adjusting the shorting
cited in the same phase. Such an array is a wire on the stub, or tuning the feeders, if
combination broadside and end -fire affair. no stub is used. The data in the table may
be extended to other bands or frequencies
8JK Flat -Top A very effective bidirectional by applying the proper factor. Thus, for
Beam end -fire array is the 8JK 50- to 52 -MHz operation, the values for 28
Flat-Top Beam. Essentially, to 29 Mc. are divided by 1.8.
this antenna consists of two close- spaced All of the antennas have a bidirectional
dipoles or collinear arrays. Because of the horizontal pattern on their fundamental
close spacing, it is possible to obtain the frequency. The maximum signal is broad-
proper phase relationships in multisection side to the flat top. The single -section type
flat tops by crossing the wires at the voltage has this pattern on both its fundamental
loops, rather than by resorting to phasing frequency and second harmonic. The other
stubs. This greatly simplifies the array. (See types have four main lobes of radiation on
figure 23.) Any number of sections may be the second and higher harmonics. The nom-
used, though the one- and two -section ar- inal gains of the different types over a half -
rangements are the most popular. Little wave comparison antenna are as follows:
extra gain is obtained by using more than single- section, 4 db; two -section, 6 db; four -
four sections, and trouble from phase shift section, 8 db.
may appear. The maximum spacings given make the
A center -fed single-section flat -top beam beams less critical in their adjustments. Up
cut according to the table, can be used quite to one -quarter wave spacing may be used on
successfully on its second harmonic, the pat- the fundamental for the one -section types
tern being similar except that it is a little and also the two -section center -fed, but it is
sharper. The single- section array can also not desirable to use more than 0.15 wave-
be used on its fourth harmonic with some length spacing for the other types.
success, though there then will be four Although the center -fed type of flat -top
cloverleaf lobes, much the same as with a generally is to be preferred because of its
full -wave antenna. symmetry, the end -fed type often is con-
If a flat -top beam is to be used on more venient or desirable. For example, when a
than one band, tuned feeders are necessary. flat -top beam is used vertically, feeding
The radiation resistance of a flat -top beam from the lower end is in most cases more
is rather low, especially when only one sec- convenient.
tion is used. This means that the voltage If a multisection flat -top array is end -fed
will be high at the voltage loops. For this instead of center -fed, and tuned feeders are
reason, especially good insulators should be used, stations off the ends of the array can
used for best results in wet weather. be worked by tying the feeders together and
The exact lengths for the radiating ele- working the whole affair, feeders and all, as
ments are not especially critical, because a long -wire harmonic antenna. A single -pole
slight deviations from the correct lengths double -throw switch can be used for chang-
can be compensated in the stub or tuned ing the feeders and directivity.
490 High- Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO
CENTER FED TO CENTER
Or rLAT TOP

1-SECTION I - SECTION

2- SECTION

La 4D1 L2-+1 sTue or FEEDERS


CONNECT AT r r

3- SECTION

F--Ls FDI Ls -I-DI L2 --i

4- SECTION
1
L3-A-ht- -La -tp1 L3 -.401 V--- L D

FLAT -TOP BEAM (8JK ARRAY) DESIGN DATA

Spec-
,... x
a
...
- x
X
o
x
O
x
O

Frequency ing
Q a g Q
S L1 Li 13 14 M D Al N

7.2-7.2 MHz X/8 17'4" 34' 60' 52'8" 44' 8'10" 4' 26' 60' 96' 4'
7.2-7.3 X/8 17'0" 33'6" 59' 51'8" 43'1" 8'8" 4' 26' 59' 94' 4'
14.0-14.35 X/8 8'8" 17' 30' 26'4" 22' 4'5" 2' 13' 30' 48' 2'
14.0-14.35 .15X 10'5" 17' 30' 25'3" 20' 5'4" 2' 12' 29' 47' 2'
14.0-14.4 .20X 13'11" 17' 30' 22'10" 7'2" 2' 10' 27' 45' 3'
14.0-14.4 X/4 17'4" 7' 30' 20'8" 8'10" 2' 8' 25' 43' 4'
28.0-29.0 .15X 5'2" 8'6" 15' 12'7" 10' 2'8" 1'6" 7' 15' 24' 1'

28.0-29.0 X/4 8'8" 8'6" 15' 10'4" 4'5" 1'6" 5' 13' 22' 2'
28.7- 29.7 .15a 5'0" 8'3" 14'6" 12'2" 9'8" 2'7" 1'6" 7' 15' 23' 1'

28.7- 29.7 X/4 8'4" 8'3" 14'6" 10'0" 4'4" 1'6" 5' 13' 21' 2'

Dimension chart for flat-top beam antennas. The meanings of the symbols are as fol ows:
L , the lengths of the sides of the flap -top sections as shown. L, is length of the
sides of single- section center -fed, L, single- section end-fed and 2- section center fed, L 4-
section center -fed and end-sections of 4- section end -fed, and L middle sections of 4- section
end -fed.
S, the spacing between the Rat -top wires.
M, the wire length from the outside to the center of each cross -over.
D, the spacing lengthwise between sections.
A (I: j), the approximate length for a quarter -wave stub.
A (I/z), the approximate length for a half -wave stub.
A (3/4), the approximate length for a three -quarter wave stub.
X, the approximate distance above the shorting wire of the stub for the connection of a
600 -ohm line. This distance, as given in the table, is approximately correct only for 2- section
flat -tops.
For single- section types it will be smaller and for 3- and 4- section types it will be larger.
The lengths given for a half -wave stub are applicable only to single -section center -fed
flat -tops. To be certain of sufficient stub length, it is advisable to make the stub a foot or
so longer than shown in the table, especially with the end-fed types. The lengths, A, are
measured from the point where the stub connects to the flat -top.
Both the center and end -fed types may be used horizontally. However, where a vertical
antenna is desired, the flat -tops can be turned on end. In this case, the end-fed types may
be more convenient, feeding from the lower end.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Combination Arrays 491

i
Figure 24
DOM--
-\
THE TRIPLEX FLAT -TOP BEAM
ANTENNA FOR 10, 15, AND 20
METERS

MAX. RADIATION

4.S DE
1I
MAXIMUM
RADIATION

4.5 DS

1000 LIN! TO
TRANSMITTER
ANY LENCTH

DIMENSIONS
IOM. 15M. 20M MATERIAL
L 1!'r 71'S' 7!'7' WR[S,SAC[b7
S S'Y T'S II'
D T'! ID'S' 14'4- 300-OHM RIE/ON

The Triplex The Triplex beam is a modified while maintaining a bidirectional pattern
Beam version of the flat -top antenna the individual arrays must be spaced suffi-
which uses folded dipoles for the ciently to reduce the mutual impedances to
half wave elements of the array. The use of a negligible value.
folded dipoles results in higher radiation When two flat -top beams, for instance,
resistance of the array, and a high over -all are placed one above the other or end to
system performance. Three wire dipoles are end, a center spacing on the order of one
used for the elements, and 300 -ohm twin - wavelength is required in order to achieve
lead is used for the two phasing sections. A a worthwhile increase in gain, or approxi-
recommended assembly for Triplex beams mately 3 db.
for 28, 21, and 14 MHz is shown in figure Thus it is seen that, while maximum gain
24. The gain of a Triplex beam is about 4.5 occurs with two stacked dipoles at a spacing
db over a dipole. of about 0.7 wavelength and the space direc-
tivity gain is approximately db over one S

22 -8 Combination End -Fire clement under these conditions; the case of


and Broadside Arrays two flat -top or parasitic arrays stacked one
above the other is another story. Maximum
Any of the end -fire arrays previously de- gain will occur at a greater spacing, and the
scribed may be stacked one above the other gain over one array will not appreciably ex-
or placed end to end (side by side) to give ceed 3 db.
greater directivity gain while maintaining a When two broadside curtains are placed
bidirectional characteristic. However, it one ahead of the other in end -fire relation-
must be kept in mind that to realize a ship, the aggregate mutual impedance be-
worthwhile increase in directivity and gain tween the two curtains is such that con-
492 High- Frequency Directive Antennas

siderable spacing is required in order to under a half wavelength, and while the
realize a gain approaching 3 db (the re- proper phase relationship is 180 degrees re-
quired spacing being a function of the size gardless of the spacing for all spacings not
of the curtains) . While it is true that a exceeding one half wavelength, the situation
space- directivity gain of approximately 4 db is different in the case of two curtains
can be obtained by placing one half -wave placed in end -fire relationship to give a bi-
dipole an eighth wavelength ahead of an- directional pattern. For maximum gain at
other and feeding them 180 degrees out of zero wave angle, the curtains should be
phase, a gain of less than 1 db is obtained spaced an odd multiple of one -half wave-
when the same procedure is applied to two length and driven so as to be 180 degrees
large broadside curtains. To obtain a gain of out of phase, or spaced an even multiple of
approximately 3 db and retain a bidirectional one half wavelength and driven in the same
pattern, a spacing of many wavelengths is phase. The optimum spacing and phase rela-
required between two large curtains placed tionship will depend on the directivity
one ahead of the other. pattern of the individual curtains used
A different situation exists, however, alone, and as previously noted the optimum
when one driven curtain is placed ahead of spacing increases with the size and directiv-
an identical one and the two are phased so ity of the component arrays.
as to give a unidirectional pattern. Whin a A concrete example of a combination
unidirectional pattern is obtained, the gain broadside and end -fire array is two Lazy H
over one curtain will be approximately 3 arrays spaced along the direction of maxi-
db regardless of the spacing. For instance, mum radiation by a distance of four wave-
two large curtains one placed a quarter lengths and fed in phase. The space- directiv-
wavelength ahead of the other may have a ity gain of such an arrangement is slightly
space- directivity gain of only 0.5 db over less than 9 db. However, approximately the
one curtain when the two are driven 180 same gain can be obtained by juxtaposing
degrees out of phase to give a bidirectional the two arrays side by side or one over the
pattern (the type of pattern obtained with other in the same plane, so that the two
a single curtain). However, if they are combine to produce, in effect, one broad-
driven in phase quadrature (and with equal side curtain of twice the area. It is obvious
currents) the gain is approximately 3 db. that in most cases it will be more expedient
The directivity gain of a composite array to increase the area of a broadside array
also can be explained on the basis of the than to resort to a combination of end -fire
directivity patterns of the component arrays and broadside directivity.
alone, but it entails a rather complicated One exception, of course, is where two
picture. It is sufficient for the purpose of curtains are fed in phase quadrature to ob-
this discussion to generalize and simplify by tain a unidirectional pattern and space -
saying that the greater the directivity of directivity gain of approximately 3 db with
an end -fire array, the farther an identical ar- a spacing between curtains as small as one
ray must be spaced from it in broadside re- quarter wavelength. Another exception is
lationship to obtain optimum performance; where very low angle radiation is desired
and the greater the directivity of a broad- and the maximum pole height is strictly
side array, the farther an identical array limited. The two aforementioned Lazy H
must be spaced from it in end -fire relation- arrays when placed in endfire relationship
ship to obtain optimum performance and re- will have a considerably lower radiation
tain the bidirectional characteristic. angle than when placed side by side if the
It is important to note that while a bi- array elevation is low, and therefore may
directional end -fire pattern is obtained with under some conditions exhibit appreciably
two driven dipoles when spaced anything practical signal gain.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER TWENTY -THREE

VHF and UHF Antennas

The very- high -frequency or vhf fre- 16 db will make a 25 -watt transmitter
quency range is defined as that range falling sound like a kilowatt at the other station.
between 30 and 300 MHz. The ultrahigh- Even a much simpler and smaller three- or
frequency or uhf range is defined as falling four- element parasitic array having a gain
between 300 and 3000 MHz. This chapter of 7 to 10 db will produce a marked im-
will be devoted to the design and construc- provement in the received signal at the other
tion of antenna systems for operation on station.
the amateur 50 -, 144 -, 235 -, and 420 -MHz However, as all vhf and uhf workers
bands. Although the basic principles of an- know, the most important contribution of a
tenna operation are the same for all fre- high -gain antenna array is in reception. If a
quencies, the shorter physical length of a remote station cannot be heard it obviously
wave in this frequency range and the differ- is impossible to make contact. The limiting
ing modes of signal propagation make it factor in vhf and uhf reception is in almost
possible and expedient to use antenna sys- every case the noise generated within the re-
tems different in design from those used in ceiver itself. Atmospheric noise is almost
the range from 3 to 30 MHz. nonexistent and ignition interference can
almost invariably be reduced to a satisfac-
tory level through the use of an effective
23 -1 Antenna noise limiter. Even with a grounded -grid or
Requirements neutralized triode first stage in the receiver,
the noise contribution of the first tuned
Any type of antenna system usable on the circuit in the receiver will be relatively
lower frequencies may be used in the vhf large. Hence it is desirable to use an antenna
and uhf bands. In fact, simple nondirective system which will deliver the greatest signal
half -wave or quarter -wave vertical antennas voltage to the first tuned circuit for a given
are very popular for general transmission field strength at the receiving location.
and reception from all directions, especially Since the field intensity being produced at
for short -range work. But for serious vhf the receiving location by a remote transmit-
or uhf work the use of some sort of direc- ting station may be assumed to be constant,
tional antenna array is a necessity. In the the receiving antenna which intercepts the
first place, when the transmitter power is greatest amount of wave front (assuming
concentrated into a narrow beam the appar- that the polarization and directivity of the
ent transmitter power at the receiving sta- receiving antenna is proper, will be the an-
tion is increased many times. A "billboard" tenna which gives the best received signal -
array or a Sterba curtain having a gain of to -noise ratio. An antenna which has two
494 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

square wavelengths of effective area will pick is wise to use the very minimum length of
up twice as much signal power as one which transmission line possible since transmission -
has one square wavelength area, assuming line losses at frequencies above about 100
the same general type of antenna and that MHz mount very rapidly.
both are directed at the station being re- Open lines should preferably be spaced
ceived. Many instances have been reported closer than is common for longer wave-
where a frequency band sounded completely lengths, since a few inches are an appreciable
dead with a simple dipole receiving antenna fraction of a wavelength at 2 meters. Radia-
but when the receiver was switched to a tion from the line will be greatly reduced if
three -element or larger array a considerable 1 -inch or 11/2-inch spacing is used, rather
amount of activity from 80 to 160 miles than the wider spacing used in the uhf
distant was heard. region.
Ordinary TV -type 300 -ohm ribbon or the
Angle of The useful portion of the signal new coaxial foamflex line may be used on
Radiation in the vhf and uhf range for the 2 -meter band for feeder lengths of about
short- or medium- distance com- 50 feet or less. For longer runs, either the
munication is that which is radiated at a uhf or vhf TV open -wire lines may be used
very low angle with respect to the surface with good over -all efficiency. The vhf line
of the earth; essentially it is that signal is satisfactory for use on the amateur 420 -
which is radiated parallel to the surface of MHz band.
the earth. A vertical antenna transmits a
Antenna It is recommended that the
portion of its radiation at a very low angle
Changeover same antenna be used for trans-
and is effective for this reason; its radiation
is not necessarily effective simply because it mitting and receiving in the vhf
is vertically polarized. A simple horizontal and uhf range. An ever-present problem in
dipole radiates very litle low -angle energy this connection, however, is the antenna
and hence is not a satisfactory vhf or uhf changeover relay. Reflections at the antenna
radiator. Directive arrays which concentrate changeover relay become of increasing im-
a major portion of the radiated signal at a portance as the frequency of transmission is
low radiation angle will prove to be effective increased. When coaxial cable is used as the
radiators whether their signal is horizontal- antenna transmission line, satisfactory co-
ly or vertically polarized. axial antenna changeover relays with low
In all cases, the radiating system for vhf reflection can be used.
and uhf work should be as high and as much On the 235- and 420 -MHz amateur
in the clear as possible. Increasing the height bands, the size of the antenna array becomes
of the antenna system will produce a very quite small, and it is practical to mount two
marked improvement in the number and identical antennas side by side. One of these
strength of the signals heard, regardless of antennas is used for the transmitter, and the
the actual type of antenna used. other antenna for the receiver. Separate
transmission lines are used, and the antenna
Transmission
relay may be eliminated.
Transmission lines to vhf and
Lines uhf antenna systems may be Effect of Feed A vertical radiator for
either of the parallel- conduc- System on Radiation general- coverage uhf use
tor or coaxial- conductor type. Coaxial line Angle should be made either
is recommended for short runs and closely %- or 1/2-wavelength
spaced open wire line for longer runs. long. Longer vertical antennas do not have
Waveguides may be used under certain their maximum radiation at right angles to
conditions for frequencies greater than the line of the radiator (unless co- phased),
perhaps 1500 MHz but their dimensions and, therefore, are not practical for use
become excessively great for frequencies where greatest possible radiation parallel to
much below this value. Nonresonant trans- the earth is desired.
mission lines will be found to be con- Unfortunately, a feed system which is not
siderably more efficient on these frequen- perfectly balanced and does some radiating,
cies than those of the resonant type. It not only robs the antenna itself of that

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Requirements 495

much power, but distorts the radiation pat- TABLE OF WAVELENGTHS


tern of the antenna. As a result, the pattern Fre- 1/4 Wave 1 Wave Vs Wave 1/s Wave
quency Free An- Free An-
of a vertical radiator may be so altered that in MHz Space forma Space lama
the radiation is bent upwards slightly, and 50.0 59.1 55.5 118.1 111.0
50.5 58.5 55.0 116.9 109.9
the amount of power leaving the antenna 51.0 57.9 54.4 115.9 108.8
parallel to the earth is greatly reduced. A 51.5 57.4 53.9 114.7 107.8
52.0 56.8 53.4 113.5 106.7
vertical half-wave radiator fed at the bot- 52.5 56.3 52.8 112.5 105.7
53.0 55.7 52.4 111.5 104.7
tom by a quarter -wave stub is a good exam- 54.0 54.7 51.4 109.5 102.8
ple of this; the slight radiation from the 14.4 20.5 19.2 41.0 38.5
145 20.4 19.1 40.8 38.3
matching section decreases the power radi- 146 20.2 18.9 40.4 38.0
ated parallel to the earth by nearly 10 db. 147 20.0 18.8 40.0 37.6
37.2
148 19.9 18.6 39.9
The only cure is a feed system which 235 12.6 11.8 25.2 23.6
does not disturb the radiation pattern of the 236 12.5 11.8 25.1 23.5
237 12.5 11.7 25.0 23.5
antenna itself. This means that if a 2 -wire 238 12.4 11.7 24.9 23.4
239 12.4 11.6 24.8 23.3
line is used, the current and voltages must 240 12.3 11.6 24.623.2
be exactly the same (though 1800 out of 420 7.05 6.63 14.1 13.25
phase) at any point on the feed line. It 425 6.95 6.55 13.9 13.1
430 6.88 6.48 13.8 12.95
means that if a concentric feed line is used, All dimensions are in inches.Lengths have in
there should be no current flowing on the most cases been rounded off to three significant
figures. '7/2 -Wave Free -Space" column shown
outside of the outer conductor. above should be used with Lecher wires for fre-
quency measurement.
Radiator Cross There is no point in using
Section aluminum tubing for a di- disadvantage, however, in that it is subject
pole on the medium fre- to fracture and to deformation in the pres-
quencies. The reason is that considerable ence of heat.
tubing would be required, and the cross It is common practice to design vhf and
section still would not be a sufficiently large uhf antenna systems so that the various
fraction of a wavelength to improve the radiators are supported only at points of
antenna bandwidth characteristics. At very relatively low voltage; the best insulation,
high and ultrahigh frequencies, however, obviously, is air. The voltages on properly
the radiator length is so short that the ex- operated untuned feed lines are not high,
pense of large- diameter conductor is rela- and the question of insulation is not quite
tively small, even though copper pipe of f- so important, though insulation still should
inch cress section is used. With such con- be of good grade.
ductors, the antenna will tune much more Antenna Commercial broadcasting in
broadly, and often a broad resonance char- Polarization the U.S.A. for both frequency
acteristic is desirable. This is particularly
truc when an antenna or array is to be used modulation and television in
over an entire amateur band. the vhf range has been standardized on
horizontal polarization. One of the main
It should be kept in mind that with such
reasons for this standardization is the fact
large- cross -section radiators, the resonant
length of the radiator will be somewhat
that ignition interference is reduced through
the use of a horizontally polarized receiving
shcrter, being only slightly greater than 0.90
antenna. Amateur practice, however, is di-
of a half wavelength for a dipole when
vided between horizontal and vertical polar-
large- diameter pipe is used above 100 MHz.
ization in the vhf and uhf range. Mobile
Insulation The matter of insulation is of stations are usually vertically polarized
prime importance at very-high due to the physical limitations imposed by
frequencies. Many insulators that have very the automobile antenna installation. Most of
low losses as high as 30 MHz show up rather the stations doing intermittent or occasional
poorly at frequencies above 100 MHz. Even work on these frequencies use a simple
the low -loss ceramics are none too good ground -plane vertical antenna for both
where the r -f voltage is high. One of the transmission and reception. However, those
best and most practical insulators for use at stations doing serious work and striving for
this frequency is polystyrene. It has one maximum -range contacts on the 50- and
496 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

VECTOR SUM OF
Z PATTERNS

COAXIAL LINE LOW Z


TO TRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION LINE
TO XMTR

Figure 1

THREE NONDIRECTIONAL HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED ANTENNAS

144 -MHz bands almost invariably use hor- angles are not recommended for vhf and
izontal polarization. uhf work. It is for this reason that the
Experience has shown that there is a great horizontal dipole and horizontally disposed
attenuation in signal strength when using collinear arrays are generally unsuitable for
crossed polarization (transmitting antenna work on these frequencies. Arrays using
with one polarization and receiving antenna broadside or end -fire elements do concen-
with the other) for all normal ground -wave trate radiation at low elevation angles and
contacts on these bands. When contacts are are recommended for vhf work. Arrays such
being made through sporadic -E reflection, as the lazy H, Sterba curtain, flat -top beam,
however, the use of crossed polarization and arrays with parasitically excited elements
seems to make no discernible difference in are recommended for this work. Dimensions
signal strength. So the operator of a station for the first three types of arrays may be
doing vhf work (particularly on the 50- determined from the data given in the pre-
MHz band) is faced with a problem: If vious chapter, and reference may be made
contacts are to be made with all stations to the Table of Wavelengths given in this
doing work on the same band, provision chapter.
must be made for operation on both hori- Arrays using vertically stacked horizontal
zontal and vertical polarization. This prob- dipoles, such as are used by commercial
lem has been solved in many cases through television and f-m stations, are capable of
the construction of an antenna array that giving high gain without a sharp horizontal
may be revolved in the plane of polarization radiation pattern. If sets of crossed dipoles,
in addition to being capable of rotation in as shown in figure IA, are fed 90 out of
the azimuth plane. phase the resulting system is called a turn-
An alternate solution to the problem stile antenna. The 90 phase difference be-
which involves less mechanical construction tween sets of dipoles may be obtained by
is simply to install a good ground -plane feeding one set of dipoles with a feed line
vertical antenna for all vertically -polarized which is one -quarter wave longer than the
work, and then to use a multielement hori- feed line to the other set of dipoles. The
zontally polarized array for DX work. field strength broadside to one of the dipoles
is equal to the field from that dipole alone.
23 -2 Simple Horizontally The field strength at a point at any other
Polarized Antennas angle is equal to the vector sum of the fields
from the two dipoles at that angle. A near-
Antenna systems which do not concen- ly circular horizontal pattern is produced
trate radiation at the very low elevation by this antenna.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Antenna Polarization 497

antenna, and coaxial polyethylene feed line


T such as RG -8/U is to be recommended.
Three practical methods of feeding the
radiator with concentric line, with a mini-
mum of current induced in the outside of
the line, are shown in figure 2. Antenna A
; is known as the sleeve antenna, the lower
half of the radiator being a large piece of
pipe up through which the concentric feed
I* line is run. At B is shown the ground -plane
i
OPEN
vertical, and at C a modification of this
latter antenna.
The radiation resistance of the ground -
plane vertical is approximately 30 ohms,
which is not a standard impedance for co-
Figure 2
axial line. To obtain a good match, the first
quarter wavelength of feeder may be of 52
THREE VERTICALLY POLARIZED ohms surge impedance, and the remainder
LOW -ANGLE RADIATORS of the line of approximately 75 ohms im-
Shown at A is the "sleeve" or "hypodermic"
pedance. Thus, the first quarter -wave sec-
type of radiator. At B is shown the ground - tion of line is used as a matching transform-
plane vertical, and C shows a modification of er, and a good match is obtained.
this antenna system which increases the feed -
point impedance to a value such that the sys- In actual practice the antenna would con-
tem may be fed directly from a coaxial line sist of a quarter -wave rod, mounted by
with no standing waves on the feed line. means of insulators atop a pole or pipe mast.
Elaborate insulation is not required, as the
A second antenna producing a uniform, voltage at the lower end of the quarter -
horizontally polarized pattern is shown in wave radiator is very low. Self -supporting
figure 1B. This antenna employs three di- rods from 0.25 to 0.28 wavelength arc ex-
poles bent to form a circle. All dipoles are tended out, as shown in the illustration, and
excited in phase, and are center fed. A ba- connected together. Since the point of con-
zooka is included in the system to prevent nection is effectively at ground potential, no
unbalance in the coaxial feed system. insulation is required; the horizontal rods
A third nondirectional antenna is shown may be bolted directly to the supporting
in figure 1C. This simple antenna is made of pole or mast, even if of metal. The coaxial
two half -wave elements, of which the end line should be of the low -loss type especially
quarter wavelength of each is bent back designed for vhf use. The shield connects to
90 degrees. The pattern from this antenna the junction of the radials, and the inner
is very much like that of the turnstile an-
conductor to the bottom end of the vertical
tenna. The field from the two quarter -wave radiator. An antenna of this type is moder-
sections that are bent back are additive be- ately simple to construct and will give a
cause they are 180 degrees out of phase and good account of itself when fed at the lower
are a half wavelength apart. The advantage end of the radiator directly by the 52 -ohm
of this antenna is the simplicity of its feed RG -8 /U coaxial cable. Theoretically the
system and construction. standing -wave ratio will be approximately
1.5 -to-1 but in practice this moderate SWR
23 -3 Simple Vertical - produces no deleterious effects.
The modification shown in figure 2C
Polarized Antennas permits matching to a standard 50- or 70-
ohm flexible coaxial cable without a linear
For general coverage with a single anten- transformer. If the lower rods hug the line
na, a single vertical radiator is commonly and supporting mast rather closely, the feed -
employed. A two -wire open transmission point impedance is about 70 ohms. If they
line is not suitable for use with this type are bent out to form an angle of about 30
498 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

to be the optimum value. This means that


the radials for a 50 -MHz ground-plane ver-
tical antenna should be 65" in length.
Double Skeleton The bandwidth of the an-
Cone Antenna tenna of figure 2C can be
TOP APEX CONNECTS TO
increased considerably by
INNER CONNECTOR
LOWER APEX CONNECTS APICES FORMED substituting several space- tapered rods for
TO OUTER CONDUCTOR OF SHEET METAL
the single radiating element, so that the
"radiator" and skirt are similar. If a suffi-
cient number of rods are used in the skele-
ton cones and the angle of revolution is
optimized for the particular type of feed
line used, this antenna exhibits a very low
SWR over a 2 -to -1 frequency range. Such
an arangement is illustrated schematically
110 -1 /U CABLE in figure 3.

Figure 3 A Nondirectional Half -wave elements may


Vertical Array be stacked in the vertical
THE DOUBLE SKELETON CONE
plane to provide a non -
ANTENNA
directional pattern with good horizontal
A skeleton cone has been substituted for the gain. An array made up of four half -wave
single element radiator of figure 2C. This vertical elements is shown in figure 4A.
greatly increases the bandwidth. If at least
10 elements are used for each skeleton cone This antenna provides a circular pattern
and the angle of revolution and element with a gain of about 4.5 db over a vertical
length are optimized, a low SWR can be ob-
tained over a frequency range of at least two dipole. It may be fed with 300 -ohm TV-
octaves. To obtain this order of bandwidth, type line. The feed line should be conducted
element length L should be approximately 0.2 in such a way that the vertical portion of
wavelength at the lower frequency end of
the band, and the angle of revolution opti- the line is at least one-half wavelength
mized for the lowest maximum SWR within away from the vertical antenna elements.
the frequency range to be covered. A greater
improvement in the impedance- frequency A suitable mechanical assembly is shown in
characteristic can be achieved by adding figure 4B for the 144- and 23S -MHz ama-
elements than by increasing the diameter of teur bands.
the elements. With only 3 elements per
"cone" and a much smaller angle of revo-
lution a low SWR can be obtained over a fre-
quency range of approximately 1.3 to 1.0 23 -4 The Discone Antenna
when the element lengths are optimized.
The Disc-one antenna is a vertically polar-
with the support pipe the impedance is ized omnidirectional radiator which has very
about SO ohms. broad band characteristics and permits a
The number of radial legs used in a simple, rugged structure. This antenna pre-
ground -plane antenna of either type has an sents a substantially uniform feed -point im-
important effect on the feed -point imped- pedance, suitable for direct connection of a
ance and on the radiation characteristics of coaxial line, over a range of several octaves.
the antenna system. Experiment has shown Also, the vertical pattern is suitable for
that three radials is the minimum number ground -wave work over several octaves, the
that should be used, and that increasing the gain varying only slightly over a very wide
number of radials above six adds substanti- frequency range.
ally nothing to the effectiveness of the an- A Discone antenna suitable for multiband
tenna and has no effect on the feed -point amateur work in the uhf /vhf range is shown
impedance. Measurement shows, however, schematically in figure S. The distance (D)
that the radials should be slightly longer should be made approximately equal to a
than one -quarter wave for best results. A free -space quarter wavelength at the lowest
length of 0.28 wavelength has been found operating frequency. The antenna then will

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Discone Antenna 499

length at the lowest frequency employed


j-ALUMINUM TUBING 23
TYP.
TYf (refer to Chart 1), an SWR of less than
3e^ 1.5 will be obtained throughout the oper-
TYP.
1.- 2X 2-X16 2.1Z91_411z ating range of the antenna.
TYP.
,o-R.
p-iSEM/-LOOSE FIT, 300 -0NM
The Discone antenna may be considered
iK
T
s =1-
ILUM/NUMCIPOSS-
BIB rL6NrENS /r UP. FEEDLIN 10 as a cross between an electromagnetic horn
and an inverted ground -plane unipole an-
tenna. It looks to the feed line like a prop-
erly terminated high -pass filter.
Construction Details The top disc and the
144 MHz conical skirt may be
2X4-
fabricated either from sheet metal, screen
300 -OHM 20
(such as "hardware cloth"), or 12 or more
TUBULAR
TWIN LEAD 300-Ot1M
"spine" radials. If screen is used, a support-
FEEDLINE
ing framework of rod or tubing will be
necessary for mechanical strength except at
the higher frequencies. If spines are used,
they should be terminated on a stiff ring
for mechanical strength, except at the high-
er frequencies.
Gurs The top disc is supported by means of
three insulating pillars fastened to the skirt.
GUYS 20 Either polystyrene or low -loss ceramic is
suitable for the purpose. The apex of the
rx4- conical skirt is grounded to the supporting
144 MHL

0.7 D

Figure 4

NONDIRECTIONAL ARRAYS FOR


144 AND 235 MHz
On right is shown a two-band installation.
For portable use, the whole system may easily
be dissembled and carried on a luggage rack
atop a car.

perform well over a frequency range of at D 30 D COAX


(RG -e /u, ETC.)
least 8 to 1. At certain frequencies within
this range the vertical pattern will tend to
rise slightly, causing a slight reduction in Figure 5

gain at zero angular elevation, but the re- THE DISCONE BROADBAND
duction is very slight. RADIATOR
Below the frequency at which the slant
height of the conical skirt is equal to a f ree- This antenna system radiates a vertically
polarized wave over a very wide frequency
space quarter wavelength the standing -wave range. The "disc" may be made of solid
ratio starts to climb, and below a frequency metal sheet, a group of radials, or wire
screen; the "cone" may best be constructed
approximately 20 percent lower than this by forming a sheet of thin aluminum. A single
the standing -wave ratio climbs very rapidly. antenna may be used for operation on the
This is termed the cutoff frequency of the 50 -, 144 -, and 220 -MHz amateur bands. The
dimension D is determined by the lowest fre-
antenna. By making the slant height approx- quency to be employed, and is given in
imately equal to a free -space quarter wave- Chart 1.
TH RADIO

_''l
500 VHF and UHF Antennas E

or diagonally polarized. Also, a circular po-


400
II larized wave can be received on a plane
polarized antenna, regardless of the polari-
300
11 zation of the latter.

--_-=I
When using circularly polarized antennas
a
DMO
180

140
120
-_'MII MIN

MM Ela
MIN11111=M

IMMW1MIMIIItI
MO

.1
at both ends of the circuit, however, both
must be left handed or both must be right
handed. This offers some interesting possibil-
ities with regard to reduction of interference.
At the time of writing, there has been no
standardization of the "twist" for general

eo-__ I.11.MI\
;
amateur work.
0 11 Perhaps the simplest antenna configura-
70
On tion for a directional beam antenna having
.1
0S 10 13 2 2.5 3
II
4 3
circular polarization is the helical beam
which consists simply of a helix working
D IN FEET against a ground plane and fed with coaxial
line. In the uhf and the upper vhf range
CHART 1
the physical dimensions are sufficiently small
DESIGN CHART FOR THE DISCONE to permit construction of a rotatable struc-
ANTENNA ture without much difficulty.
When the dimensions are optimized, the
mast and to the outer conductor of the characteristics of the helical beam antenna
coaxial line. The line is run down through are such as to qualify it as a broadband an-
the supporting mast. An alternative arrange- tenna. An optimized helical beam shows
ment, one suitable for certain mobile appli- little variation in the pattern of the main
cations, is to fasten the base of the skirt lobe and a fairly uniform feed -point im-
directly to an effective ground plane such pedance averaging approximately 125 ohms
as the top of an automobile. over a frequency range of as much as 1.7

23 -5 Helical Beam T ...-ROUND OR SQUARE TRANSMIT


GROUND SCREEN
Antennas RECEIVE

Most vhf and uhf antennas are either


vertically polarized or horizontally polar- G

ized (plane polarization). However, circu-


larly polarized antennas having interesting
(FIG-33/U)
characteristics which may be useful for COAX FEED POINT
AT CENTER OF
GROUND SCREEN
certain applications. The installation of such
an antenna can effectively solve the problem 0= S =+ G =o.SA L =,.44A
of horizontal versus vertical polarization. CONDUCTOR DIA.= APPROX 0.17 A
= WAVELENGTH IN FREE SPACE
A circularly polarized wave has its energy
divided equally between a vertically polarized
Figure 6
component and a horizontally polarized
component, the two being 90 degrees out of THE HELICAL BEAM ANTENNA
phase. The circularly polarized wave may be
This type of directional antenna system gives
either "left handed" or "right handed," de- excellent performance over a frequency range
pending on whether the vertically polar- of 1.7 to 1.8 to I. Its dimensions are such
ized component leads or lags the horizontal that it is ordinarily not practical, however,
for use as a rotatable array on frequencies
component. below about 100 MHz. The center conductor
A circularly polarized antenna will re- of the feed line should pass through the
ground screen for connection to the feed
spond to any plane polarized wave whether point. The outer conductor of the coaxial line
horizontally polarized, vertically polarized, should be grounded to the ground screen.
HANDBOOK Helical Beam Antenna 501

to 1. The direction of "electrical twist" ported from the balance point if it is to be


(right or left handed) depends on the direc- rotated.
tion in which the helix is wound. Aluminum tubing in the larger diameters
A six-turn helical beam is shown sche- ordinarily is not readily available in lengths
matically in figure 6. The dimensions shown greater than 12 feet. In this case several
will give good performance over a frequency lengths can be spliced by means of short
range of plus or minus 20 percent of the telescoping sections and sheet -metal screws.
design frequency. This means that the di- The tubing is closewound on a drum and
mensions are not especially critical when the then spaced to give the specified pitch.
array is to be used at a single frequency or Note that the length of one complete turn
over a narrow band of frequencies, such as when spaced is somewhat greater than the
an amateur band. At the design frequency circumference of a circle having the diam-
the beam width is about 50 degrees and the eter D.
power gain about 12 db, referred to a non-
directional circularly polarized antenna. Broad -Band A highly useful vhf heli-
144- to 225 -MHz cal beam which will re-
Helical Beam ceive signals with good
The Ground Screen For the frequency range
gain over the complete
100 to 500 MHz a suit-
frequency range from 144 through 255
able ground screen can be made from
"chicken wire" poultry netting of 1 -inch
MHz may be constructed by using the fol-
lowing dimensions (180 MHz design cen-
mesh, fastened to a round or square frame
ter) :
of either metal or wood. The netting should
be of the type that is galvanized after weav- D 22 in.
ing. A small, sheet -metal ground plate of S 16%2in.
diameter equal to approximately D/2 should G 53 in.
be centered on the screen and soldered to it. Tubing o.d. 1 in.
Tin, galvanized iron, or sheet copper is
suitable. The outer conductor of the RG-
63/U (125 -ohm) coax is connected to this
plate, and the inner conductor contacts the
helix through a hole in the center of the
plate. The end of the coax should be taped
with Scotch electrical tape to keep water
out.

The Helix It should be noted that the beam


proper consists of six full turns.
The start of the helix is spaced a distance of
S/2 from the ground screen, and the con-
ductor goes directly from the center of the
ground screen to the start of the helix.
Aluminum tubing in the 2014 alloy
grade is suitable for the helix. Alternatively,
lengths of the relatively soft aluminum
1
electrical conduit may be used. In the vhf
Figure 7
range it will be necessary to support the
helix on either two or four wooden long - CONSTRUCTION OF THE CORNER
erons in order to achieve sufficient strength. REFLECTOR ANTENNA
The longerons should be of the smallest
Such an antenna is capable of giving high
cross section which provides sufficient rigid- gain with a minimum of complexity in the
ity, and should be given several coats of radiating system. It may be used either with
varnish. The ground plane butts against the horizontal or vertical polarization. Design
data for the antenna is given in the Corner -
longerons and the whole assembly is sup- Reflector Design Table.
502 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO
The D and S dimensions are to the center directivity is in the horizontal or azimuth
of the tubing. These dimensions must be plane, or the system may be used with the
held rather closely, since the range from driven element horizontal, in which case
144 through 255 MHz represents just about the radiation is horizontally polarized, and
the practical limit of coverage of this type most of the directivity is in the vertical
of antenna system. plane. With the antenna used as a hori-
zontally polarized radiating system the array
High -Band Note that an array construc- is a very good low -angle beam array al-
TV Coverage ted with the above dimensions though the nose of the horizontal pattern is
will give unusually good high - still quite sharp. When the radiator is ori-
band TV reception in addition to covering ented vertically the corner reflector operates
the 144- and 220 -MHz amateur bands and very satisfactorily as a direction -finding an-
the taxi and police services. tenna.
On the 144 -MHz band the beam width is Design data for the corner -reflector an-
approximately 60 degrees to the half -power tenna is given in figure 7 and in the chart
points, while the power gain is approximate- Corner -Reflector Design Data. The planes
ly 11 db over a nondirectional circularly which make up the reflecting corner may
polarized antenna. For high -band TV cov- be made of solid sheets of copper or alu-
erage the gain will be 12 to 14 db, with a minum for the uhf bands, although spaced
beam width of about 50 degrees, and on the wires with the ends soldered together at
220 -MHz amateur band the beam width top and bottom may be used as the reflector
will be about 40 degrees with a power gain on the lower frequencies. Copper screen may
of approximately 15 db. also be used for the reflecting planes.
The antenna system will receive vertical- The values of spacing given in the corner -
ly polarized or horizontally polarized signals reflector chart have been chosen such that
with equal gain over its entire frequency the center impedance of the driven element
range. Conversely, it will transmit signals would be approximately 70 ohms. This means
over the same range, which then can be that the element may be fed directly with
received with equal strength on either hor- 70 -ohm coaxial line, or a quarter -wave
izontally polarized or vertically polarized matching transformer such as a Q- section
receiving antennas. The standing -wave ratio may be used to provide an impedance match
will be very low over the complete fre- between the center impedance of the element
quency range if RG -63/U coaxial feed line and a 460 -ohm line constructed of No. 12
is used. wire spaced 2 inches.
In many uhf antenna systems, waveguide
transmission lines are terminated by pyra-
23 -6 The Corner - Reflector midal horn antennas. These horn antennas
(figure 8A) will transmit and receive either
and Horn -Type Antennas horizontally or vertically polarized waves.
The use of waveguides at 144 and 235 MHz,
The corner- reflector antenna is a good however, is out of the question because of
directional radiator for the vhf and uhf the relatively large dimensions needed for a
region. The antenna may be used with the waveguide operating at these low frequen-
radiating element vertical, in which case the cies.

CORNER- REFLECTOR DESIGN DATA

Comer Freq. Feed Approx.


Angle Band, MHz R S H A L G Imped. Gain, db
90 50 110" 82" 140" 200" 230" 18" 72 10
60 50 110" 115" 140" 230" 230" 18" 70 12
60 144 38" 40" 48" 100" 100" 5" 70 12
60 220 24.5" 25" 30" 72" 72" 3" 70 12
60 420 13" 14" 18" 36" 36" screen 74 12

NOTE: Refer to figure 7 for construction of corner-reflector antenna.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Corner -Reflector Antenna 503

450-ONM TV LINE
OA UHF HORN ANTENNA

ANGLE BETWEEN
SIDES OF HORN -60

D ZA-A GAIN (DB)


400 3
A 420 9 TWO SIDES MADE
OF WIRE MESH
2a 390 75

Figure 9
OB VHF HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED HORN
THE 60 HORN ANTENNA FOR USE ON
Figure 8
FREQUENCIES ABOVE 144 MHz
TWO TYPES OF HORN ANTENNAS
The "two -sided horn" of Figure 8e may be compared to a half -wave dipole at frequen-
fed by means of an open -wire transmission cies higher than cutoff is:
line.

Power gain (db) - 8.4 A2


X2
A modified type of horn antenna may still
be used on these frequencies, since only one where A is the frontal area of the mouth of
particular plane of polarization is of interest the horn. For the 60- degree horn shown in
to the amateur. In this case, the horn an- figure 8B the formula simplifies to:
tenna can be simplified to two triangular
sides of the pyramidal horn. When these Power gain (db) = 8.4 D-, when D is
two sides are insulated from each other, experssed in terms of wavelength.
direct excitation at the apex of the horn by When D is equal to one wavelength, the
a two -wire transmission line is possible. power gain of the horn is approximately 9
In a normal pyramidal horn, all four db. The gain and feed -point impedance of
triangular sides are covered with conducting the 60- degree horn are shown in figure 9.
material, but when horizontal polarization A 450 -ohm open -wire TV -type line may be
alone is of interest (as in amateur work) used to feed the horn.
only the vertical areas of the horn need be
used. If vertical polarization is required,
only the horizontal areas of the horn are 23 -7 VHF Horizontal
employed. In either case, the system is uni- Rhombic Antenna
directional, away from the apex of the
horn. A typical horn of this type is shown For vhf transmission and reception in a
in figure 8B. The two metallic sides of the fixed direction, a horizontal rhombic permits
horn are insulated from each other, and 10 to 16 db gain with a simpler construc-
the sides of the horn are made of small tion than does a phased dipole array, and has
mesh "chicken wire" or copper window the further advantage of being useful over a
screening. wide frequency range.
A pyramidal horn is essentially a high - Except at the upper end of the vhf range
pass device whose low- frequency cutoff is a rhombic array having a worthwhile gain is
reached when a side of the horn is %a wave- too large to be rotated. However, in loca-
length. It will work up to infinitely high tions 75 to 150 miles from a large metropol-
frequencies, the gain of the horn increasing itan area a rhombic array is ideally suited
by 6 db every time the operating frequency for working into the city on extended (hor-
is doubled. The power gain of such a horn izontally polarized) ground wave while at
504 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

75. TOP VIEW


1St 416
70
wJ
1.1
Z es
a
I-
J
F- 60

I-
0
O s0 0 = TILT ANGLE R,, R2 = 390 OHMS EACH
NON INDUCTIVE
2A 45 65 eA toA
SIDE LENGTH, S h L -.l

Figure 10 Figure 11

VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN VHF RHOMBIC ANTENNA


CHART CONSTRUCTION
The optimum tilt angle (see figure 11) for
"zero- angle" radiation depends on the length Table I gives dimensions for two dual
of the sides.
purpose rhombic arrays. One covers the
6 -meter amateur band and the "low" tele-
the same time making an ideal antenna for vision band. The other covers the 2 -meter
TV reception. amateur band, the "high" television band,
The useful frequency range of a vhf and the 11/4-meter amateur band. The gain
rhombic array is about 2 to 1, or about plus is approximately 12 db over a matched half
40'% and minus 30; from the design fre- wave dipole and the beam width is about
quency. This coverage is somewhat less than 6 degrees.
that of a high- frequency rhombic used for
sky -wave communication. For ground -wave The Feed Line The recommended feed line
transmission or reception the only effective is an open -wire line having a
vertical angle is that of the horizon, and a surge impedance between 450 and 600 ohms.
frequency range greater than 2 to 1 cannot With such a line the SWR will be less than
be covered with a rhombic array without an 2 to 1. A line with two -inch spacing is
excessive change in the vertical angle of suitable for frequencies below 100 MHz,
maximum radiation or response. but one -inch spacing is recommended for
The dimensions of a vhf rhombic array higher frequencies.
are determined from the design frequency
and figure 10, which shows the proper tilt The Termination If the array is to be used
angle (see figure 11) for a given leg length. only for reception, a suit-
The gain of a rhombic array increases with able termination consists of two 390 -ohm
leg length. There is not much point in con- carbon resistors in series. If 2 -watt resistors
structing a vhf rhombic array with legs are employed, this termination also is suit-
shorter than about 4 wavelengths, and the
beam width begins to become excessively 6 METERS 2 METERS, HIGH -
AND LOW -BAND BAND TV, AND
sharp for leg lengths greater than about 8 TV 11/4 METERS
wavelengths. A leg length of 6 wavelengths S
(side) 90' 32'
is a good compromise between beam width
L
and gain. (length) 166' 10" 59' 4"
The tilt angle given in figure 10 is based W
(width) 67' 4" 23' 11"
on a wave angle of zero degrees. For leg S = 6 wavelengths at design frequency
lengths of 4 wavelengths or longer, it will Tilt ongle = 68
be necessary to elongate the array a few TABLE 1.
percent (pulling in the sides slightly) if
the horizon elevation exceeds about 3 de- DIMENSIONS FOR TWO DUAL -PURPOSE
grees. RHOMBIC ARRAYS

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK VHF Beam Antennas 505

able for transmitter outputs of 10 watts or


less. For higher powers, however, resistors FOR I } METERS

having greater dissipation with negligible D = zz- D-A=s-


reactance in the upper vhf range are not A-2a} A-R-9'
readily available. R- REFLECTOR
40. ON
R=2s- RADWS3
For powers up to several hundred watts a

-
A- DRIVEN ELEMENT
suitable termination consists of a "lossy" 'LONG
SEND RADIUS
line consisting of stainless -steel wire (cor-
responding to No. 24 or 26 gauge) spaced Is' FEED LIN
THRU NOL
2 inches, which in turn is terminated by two D- DIRECTOR DETAIL
390 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors. The dissi- 3s' LONG
pative line should be at least 6 wavelengths I X2 WELL -SEASONED
WOOD 34' LONG
long. GAIN 7.506 (20' LONG FOR I} METERS)

FLATTEN ENDS OF
TUBING AND DRILL
23 -8 Multielement VHF FOR 6/32 SCREWS

Beam Antennas 75 OM
TV LUE

The rotary multielement beam is un- Figure 12


doubtedly the most popular type of vhf an-
tenna in use. In general, the design, assembly SIMPLE 3- ELEMENT BEAM FOR 2 AND
and tuning of these antennas follows a 114 METERS
pattern similar to the larger types of rotary
beam antennas used on the lower- frequency
amateur bands. The characteristics of these The driven element is made of a 78"
low- frequency beam antennas are discussed length of %" copper tubing, the ends bent
in the next chapter of this Handbook, and back to form a folded dipole. If the tubing
the information contained in that chapter is packed with fine sand and the bending
applies in general to the vhf beam antennas points heated over a torch, no trouble will
discussed herewith. be had in the bending process. If the tubing
does collapse when it is bent, the break may
A Simple Three The simplest vhf beam for be repaired with solder and a heavy -duty
Element Beam the beginner is the three - soldering iron.
Antenna element Yagi array illus- The driven element is next attached to
trated in figure 12. Di- the center of the wood boom, mounted atop
mensions are given for Yagis cut for the 2- a small insulating plate made of bakelite,
meter and 11/4-meter bands. The support- micarta, or some other nonconducting ma-
ing boom for the Yagi may be made from a terial. It is held in place in the same manner
smoothed piece of 1" X 2" wood. The wood as the parasitic elements. The two free ends
should be reasonably dry and should be of the folded dipole are hammered flat and
painted to prevent warpage from exposure drilled for a 6 -32 bolt. These bolts pass
to sun and rain. The director and reflector through both the insulating block and the
are cut from lengths of %" copper tubing, boom, and hold the free tips of the element
obtainable from any appliance store that in place.
does service work on refrigerators. They A length of 75 -ohm twin lead TV -type
should be cut to length as noted in figure line should be used with this beam antenna.
12. The elements should then be given a It is connected to each of the free ends of
coat of aluminum paint. Two small holes the folded dipole. If the antenna is mounted
are drilled at the center of the reflector and in the vertical plane, the 75 -ohm line should
director and these elements are bolted to the be brought away from the antenna for a
wood boom by means of two 1 -inch wood distance of four to six feet before it drops
screws. These screws should be of the plated, down the tower to lessen interaction be-
or rustproof variety. tween the antenna elements and the feed
506 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

16' - w t6 --.41 2ND


DIRECTOR
355"
1ST DIRECTOR
RADIATOR 36"

REFLECTOR
40

RING BOLT

- 48" BOOM

FILE END TO FIT

60-

RG -59
EACH
BOOM

/U CABLES
40 LONG
MAINBOOMS

ELEMENTS -..
- <I

RG -8/U CABLE
SHAPE ENDS OF SHORT PIECES '
TO T. COAXIAL
TO FIT CONTOUR FITTING

INSULATING ROD. ENOS


CUT DOWN TO GO INTO TUBING
ABOU

ENDS OF TUBING TERMINALS


WOOD DOWELS IN-
SIDE FOR STRENGTH --

AS SHOWN, ANTENNA IS
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED-

\ FORK TO SWING MAIN BOOM


TICAL POLARITY.
90
FOR VERTICAL

CONTROL CORDS

AG-8/U CABLE WOOD -2 X 2-


TO RIG ROTATABLE MAST.

RADIAL BEARING

Figure 13
CONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF AN EIGHT -ELEMENT TILTABLE 144 -MHz ARRAY

line. The complete antenna is light enough An 8- Element Figures 13 and 14 illus-
to be turned by a TV rotator. "Tiltable" Array trate an 8- element rotary
A simple Yagi antenna of this type will for 144 MHz array for use on the 144 -
provide a gain of 7 db over the entire 2- MHz amateur band. This
meter or 11/4-meter band, and is highly rec- array can be tilted to obtain either hori-
ommended as an "easy -to- build" beam in- zontal or vertical polarization. It is necessary
volving very little expense for the novice or that the transmitting and receiving station
beginner. use the same polarization for the ground-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK VHF Beam Antennas 507

Figure 14

THE EIGHT-ELEMENT 144 -MHz ARRAY IN A HORIZONTAL POSITION

wave signal propagation which is character- is sharper when the antenna system is ori-
istic of this frequency range. Although ented for horizontal polarization.
polarization has been loosely standardized in The changeover from one polarization to
various areas of the country, exceptions are the other is accomplished simply by pulling
frequent enough so that it is desirable that on the appropriate cord. Hence, the operation
the polarization of antenna radiation be is based on the offset head sketched in
easily changeable from horizontal to verti- figure 13. Although a wood mast has been
cal. used, the same system may be used with a
The antenna illustrated has shown a signal pipe mast.
gain of about 11 db, representing a power The 40 -inch lengths of RG -59 /U cable
gain of about 13. Although the signal electrically ys- wavelength) running from
gain of the antenna is the same whether it is the center of each folded dipole driven ele-
oriented for vertical or horizontal polariza- ment to the coaxial T- junction allow enough
tion, the horizontal beam width is smaller slack to permit free movement of the main
when the antenna is oriented for vertical boom when changing polarity. Type RG-
polarization. Conversely, the vertical pattern 8 U cable is run from the T- junction to
508 VHF and UHF antennas THE RADIO

the operating position. Measured standing -


wave ratio was less than 2:1 over the 144 -

!
POLYTHENE

to 148 -MHz band, with the lengths and


spacing given in figure 13. ,DIA.
i I

' DIPOLE

Construction of
the Array
Most of the constructional
aspects of the antenna array
are self- evident from figure
13. However, the pointers given in the fol-
S'4
----
MI
lowing paragraphs will be of assistance to
those wishing to reproduce the array. TAW
The drilling of holes for the small ele- 3' 4f
ments should be done carefully on accurate- 14.91!
ly marked centers. A small angular error in
the drilling of these holes will result in a
considerable misalignment of the elements 3'4}. CROSS
WIVES
after the array is assembled. The same con-
sideration is true of the filing out of the
rounded notches in the ends of the main
boom for the fitting of the two-antenna
booms. 3'4i DIA.
Short lengths of wood dowel are used
freely in the construction of the array. The
ends of the small elements are plugged with
an inch or so of dowel, and the ends of the
y s'4
ALL JOINTS WELDED
antenna booms are similarly treated with
larger discs pressed into place.
Figure 15
The ends of the folded dipoles are made
in the following manner: Drive a length of DETAIL OF LAYOUT AND DIMENSIONS
dowel into the short connecting lengths of OF SCREEN -BEAM
aluminum tubing. Then drill down the cen-
ter of the dowel with a clearance hole for the
connecting screw. Then shape the ends of The main booms were made from 3/4-inch
the connecting pieces to fit the sides of the aluminum electrical conduit. Any size of
element ends. After assembly the junctions small tubing will serve for making the
may be dressed with a file and sandpaper elements. Note that the main boom is
until a smooth fit is obtained. mounted at the balance center and not nec-
The mast used for supporting the array is essarily at the physical center. The pivot
a 30 -foot spliced 2 by 2. A large discarded bolt in the offset head should be tightened
ball bearing is used as the radial load bearing sufficiently so that there will be adequate
and guy -wire termination. Enough of the friction to hold the array in position. Then
upper -mast corners were removed with a an additional nut should be placed on the
drawknife to permit sliding the ball bearing pivot bolt as a lock.
down about 9 feet from the top of the In connecting the phasing sections be-
mast. The bearing then was encircled by an tween the T-junction and the centers of the
assembly of three pieces of durai ribbon to folded dipoles, it is important that the cen-
form a clamp, with ears for tightening ter conductors of the phasing sections be
screws and attachment of the guy wires. connected to the same side of the driven
The bearing then was greased and covered elements of the antennas. In other words,
with a piece of auto inner tube to serve as when the antenna is oriented for horizontal
protection from the weather. Another junk - polarization and the center of the coaxial
box bearing was used at the bottom of the section goes to the left side of the top an-
mast as a thrust bearing. tenna, the center conductor of the other

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK VHF Beam Antennas 509

WOOD BLACK na provides a power gain of 15 db, and a


front -to -back ratio of approximately 28 db.
The 10 dipoles are fed in phase by means
SUPPORT of a length of balanced transmission line, a
quarter -wave matching transformer, and a
Figure 16 balun. A 72 -ohm coaxial line couples the
THE MOUNTING BLOCK FOR EACH SET array to the transmitter. A drawing of the
OF ELEMENTS
array is shown in figure H.
The reflecting screen measures 14' 9"
high by 8' 4" wide, and is made of welded
coaxial phasing section should go to the left 'A-inch diameter steel tubing. Three steel
side of the bottom antenna. reinforcing bars are welded horizontally
across the framework directly behind each
The Screen Beam This highly effective ro- pair of horizontal dipoles. The intervening
for 2 Meters tary array for the 144 - spaces are filled with lengths of No. 12
MHz amateur band con- enamel- coated copper wire to complete the
sists of 10 half -wave radiators fed in phase, screen. The spacing between the wires is 2
and arranged in two stacked rows of five inches. Four cross braces are welded to the
radiators. 0.2 wavelength behind this plane corners of the frame for additional bracing,
of radiators is a reflector screen, measuring and a single vertical %z -inch rod runs up
approximately 15' X 9' in size. The anten- the middle of the frame. The complete,
welded frame is shown in figure H. The
No. 12 screening wires are run between 6 -32
bolts placed in holes drilled in each outside
vertical member of the frame.
The antenna assembly is supported away
\BRASS TUBING
from the reflector screen by means of ten
A
STUB
C
A lengths of %z -inch steel tubing, each 1' 3 1/4"
1' t0f'

TRANSFORMER - B

SNORTING BAR -C

I
C, & C2 = 5ORF

WATERT GAT
I

COMPARTMENT

APPROX.

BALUN - D

F SNORTING BAR -
COPPER TUBING

72 COAX CABLE
Figure 18

Figure 17
HORIZONTAL RADIATION PATTERN OF
THE SCREEN -BEAM ARRAY. THE FRONT -
THE MATCHING UNIT IN DETAIL FOR TO -BACK RATIO IS ABOUT 28 db IN
THE SCREEN -BEAM DESIGN, WHICH AMPLITUDE, AND THE FORWARD
ALLOWS THE USE OF 72 -OHM COAX GAIN APPROXIMATELY 15 db
510 VHF and UHF Antennas THE RADIO

long. These tubes are welded onto the center justable matching stub (C) and two vari-
tube of each group of three horizontal brac- able capacitors (C, and Co) are employed
ing tubes, and are so located to support the for impedance matching. The two variable
horizontal dipole at its exact center. The capacitors are mounted in a watertight box,
dipoles are attached to the supporting rods with the balun and matching stubs entering
by means of small phenolic insulating the bottom and top of the box, respectively.
blocks, as shown in figure 16. The radiators The matching procedure is carried out by
are therefore insulated from the screen the use of a standing -wave meter (SWR
reflector. The inner tips of the radiators are bridge). A few watts of power are fed to
held by small polystyrene blocks for rigidity, the array through the SWR meter, and the
and are cross connected to each other by a setting of the shorting stub on C and the
transposed length of TV -type 400 -ohm open setting of the two variable capacitors are
wire line. The entire array is fed at the adjusted for lowest SWR at the chosen
point A -A, illustrated in figure 15. operating frequency. The capacitance set-
The matching system for the beam is tings of the two variable capacitors should
mounted behind the reflector screen, and is be equal. The final adjustment is to set the
shown in figure 17. A quarter -wave trans- shorting stub of the balun (D) to remove
former (B) drops the relatively high imped- any residual reactance that might appear
ance of the antenna array to a suitable value on the transmission line. With proper ad-
for the low- impedance balun (D). An ad- justment, the SWR of the array may be

Dio D11
Dv
De
D7
Ds

DRILL HOLES THROUGH 800M ANO


PASS ELEMENTS THROUGH HOLES

BOOM LENGTH = 24'. DIAM 14

DRIVEN ELEMENT GAIN= IR 1 DB

ELEMENT DIMENSIONS, 2-METER BAND

LENGTH SPACING
ELEMENT FROM
(D /A M. WS -) 144 Yi, 143 MS 1461111. 147 MB. DIPOLE

REFLECTOR 41" 40i 40! 401e 19


DIRECTORS 3B 34. 30 3e ,i,- Dl' 7
D2' 14.3
DRIVEN ELEMENT D3' 22
D4' 3S'
36.5
r BOOM
CLEARANCE HOLE
FOR BOLT
I O3= 70"

11f I1 De= 134


De' 1e.'
BWIRE FOR 30011 '` INSULATING `FLATTEN
MATCH. PLATE TUBING De= 196.
tOWIRE FOR 506 AT ENDS
D10'230
MATCH
D1i'242-

Figure 19

DESIGN DIMENSIONS FOR A 2 -METER LONG VAGI ANTENNA

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK VHF Beam Antennas 511

held to less than 1.5 to 1 over a 2 MHz the driven element.


range of the 2 -meter band. Practically all work on Yagi antennas
The horizontal radiation pattern of this with more than three or four elements has
array is shown in figure 18. been on an experimental, cut -and -try basis.
Figure 19 provides dimensions for a typical
Long Yogi For a given power gain, the long Yagi antenna for the 2 -meter vhf
Antennas Yagi antenna can be built light- band. Note that all directors have the same
er, more compact, and with less physical length. If the long Yagi is designed
wind resistance than any other type. On the so that the directors gradually decrease in
other hand, if a Yagi array of the same length as they progress from the dipole
approximate size and weight as another bandwidth will be increased, and both side
antenna type is built, it will provide a higher lobes and forward gain will be reduced.
order of power gain and directivity than One advantage gained from staggered di-
that of the other antenna. rector length is that the array can be short-
The power gain of a Yagi antenna in- ened and lengthened by adding or taking
creases directly with the physical length of away directors without the need for re-
the array. The maximum practical length is tuning the remaining group of parasitic
entirely a mechanical problem of physically elements. When all directors are the same
supporting the long series of director ele- length, they must be all shortened en masse
ments, although when the array exceeds a as the array is lengthened, and vice versa
few wavelengths in length the element when the array is shortened.
lengths, spacings, and Q's becomes more and A full discussion of long Yagi antennas,
more critical. The effectiveness of the array including complete design and construction
depends on a proper combination of the information may be had in the VHF Hand-
mutual coupling loops between adjacent di- book, available through Radio Publications,
rectors and between the first director and Inc., Wilton, Conn.
CHAPTER TWENTY -FOUR

Rotary Beams

The rotatable antenna array has become directional parasitic end -fire array, and is
almost standard equipment for operation on actually a type of yagi array. The flat -top
the 28- and 50 -MHz bands and is common- beam is a type of bidirectional end -fire ar-
ly used on the 14- and 21 -MHz bands and ray. The broadside type of array is also quite
on those frequencies above 144 MHz. The effective in obtaining low -angle radiation,
rotatable array offers many advantages for and, although widely used in f -m and TV
both military and amateur use. The direc- broadcasting, has seen little use by amateurs
tivity of the antenna types commonly em- in rotatable arrays because of its size.
ployed (particularly the unidirectional ar-
rays) offers a worthwhile reduction in inter- 24 -1 Unidirectional
ference from undesired directions. Also,
the increase in the ratio of low -angle radia- Parasitic End -Fire Arrays
tion plus the theoretical gain of such ar- (Yogi Type)
rays results in a relatively large increase in
both the transmitted signal and the signal If a single parasitic element is placed on
intensity from a station being received. one side of a driven dipole at a distance of
A significant advantage of a rotatable from 0.1 to 0.25 wavelength the parasitic
antenna array in the case of the normal element can be tuned to make the array sub-
station is that a relatively small amount of stantially unidirectional.
space is required for erection of the antenna This simple array is termed a two -element
system. In fact, one of the best types of parasitic beam.
installation uses a single telephone pole with
the rotating structure holding the antenna The Two -Element The two- element parasitic
mounted atop the pole. To obtain results in Beam beam provides the greatest
all azimuth directions from fixed arrays amount of gain per unit
comparable to the gain and directivity of a size of any array commonly used by radio
single rotatable three -element parasitic beam amateurs. Such an antenna is capable of a
would require several acres of surface. signal gain of 5 db over a dipole, with a
There are two normal configurations of front -to-back ratio of 7 to 15 db, depend-
radiating elements which, when horizontally ing on the adjustment of the parasitic ele-
polarized, will contribute to obtaining a low ment. The parasitic element may be used
angle of radiation. These configurations are either as a director or as a reflector.
the end -fire array and the broadside array. The optimum spacing for a reflector in a
The conventional three- or four -element ro- two -element array is approximately 0.13
tary beam may properly be called a uni- wavelength and with optimum adjustment

www.americanradiohistory.com
Unidirectional Arrays 513

50

45

40

35 t

m5
o
50

23

Z2 2 20

D
.....----"-
10

e
O1 0.15 02 0.25 0 01 0.15 02 0.25
ELEMENT SPACING (X) ELEMENT SPACING (X)

Figure 1 Figure 2
GAIN VERSUS ELEMENT SPACING FOR A RADIATION RESISTANCE AS A FUNCTION
TWO-ELEMENT CLOSE-SPACED PARASITIC OF THE ELEMENT SPACING FOR A
BEAM ANTENNA WITH PARASITIC ELE- TWO- ELEMENT PARASITIC ARRAY
MENT OPERATING AS A DIRECTOR OR
REFLECTOR

of the length of the reflector a gain of tion resistance of about 25 ohms, it may be
approximately 5 db will be obtained, with of advantage in some instances to choose the
a feed -point resistance of about 25 ohms. antenna with the higher radiation resistance,
If the parasitic element is to be used as a assuming other factors to be equal.
director, the optimum spacing between it Figure 3 shows the front -to -hack ratio
and the driven element is 0.11 wavelength. for the two -element parasitic array for both
The general characteristics of a two -ele- the reflector and director cases. To produce
these curves, the elements were tuned for
ment parasitic array may be seen in figures
maximum gain of the array. Better front -
1, 2 and 3. The gain characteristics of a
to -back ratios may be obtained at the ex-
two -element array when the parasitic ele- pense of array gain, if desired, but the gen-
ment is used as a director or as a reflector eral shape of the curves remains the same.
are shown. It can be seen that the director It can be readily observed that operation
provides a maximum of 5.3 db gain at a of the parasitic element as a reflector pro-
spacing of slightly greater than 0.1 wave- duces relatively poor front -to -back ratios
length from the antenna. In the interests of except when the element spacing is greater
greatest power gain and size conservation, than 0.15 wavelength. However, at this ele-
therefore, the choice of a parasitic director ment spacing, the gain of the array begins
would be wiser than the choice of a parasitic to suffer.
reflector, although the gain difference be- Since a radiation resistance of 17 ohms is
tween the two is small. not unduly hard to match, it can be argued
Figure 2 shows the relationship between that the best all- around performance may
the element spacing and the radiation resist- be obtained from a two -element parasitic
ance for the two -element parasitic array for beam employing 0.11 element spacing, with
both the reflector and the director case. the parasitic element tuned to operate as a
Since the optimum antenna -director spacing director. This antenna will provide a for-
for maximum gain results in an antenna ward gain of 5.3 db, with a front -to -back
radiation resistance of about 17 ohms, and ratio of 10 db, or slightly greater. Closer
the optimum antenna -reflector spacing for spacing than 0.11 wavelength may be em-
maximum gain results in an antenna radia- ployed for greater front -to -back ratios, but
514 Rotary Beams THE RADIO
_40
the radiation resistance of the array becomes m
quite low, the bandwidth of the array be-
comes very narrow, and the tuning becomes 3,
I-
quite critical. Thus the Q of the antenna tr
system will be increased as the spacing be- 20
tween the elements is decreased, and smaller CO

optimum frequency coverage will result.


jio
Element Lengths When the parasitic element
of a two -element array is
01 0. 0 02 0.26
used as a director, the following formulas ELEMENT SPACING (X)
may be used to determine the lengths of the (PARASITIC ELEMENT TUNED FOR MAXIMUM GAIN)

driven element and the parasitic director,


Figure 3
assuming an element diameter -to- length
ratio of 200 to 400: FRONT -TO -BACK RATIO AS A FUNCTION
OF ELEMENT SPACING FOR A TWO -ELE-
476
Driven element length (feet) = MENT PARASITIC ARRAY
FMHz

Director length (feet) - 450


FMHz
The effective bandwidth taken between
the 1.5 /1 standing -wave points of an array
120 cut to the above dimensions is about 2.5
Element spacing (feet) = percent of the operating frequency. This
Fnn1,
means that an array precut to a frequency
of 14,150 kHz would have a bandwidth of
Figure 4 350 kHz (plus or minus 175 kHz of the
center frequency), and therefore would be
FIVE ELEMENT 28 -MHz BEAM
effective over the whole 20 -meter band. In
ANTENNA AT W6SAI like fashion, a 15 -meter array should be
Antenna boom is made of twenty foot length precut to 21,200 kHz.
of three -inch aluminum irrigation pipe. Spac- A beam designed for use on the 10 -meter
ing between elements is Av. feet. Elements
are made of twelve loot lengths of 7/8 -inch band would have an effective bandwidth of
aluminum tubing, with extension tips made of some 700 kHz. Since the 10 -meter band is
3/4 -inch tubing. loam dimensions are taken
from Agur. S. 1700 kHz in width, the array should either
be cut to 28,500 kHz for operation in the
low- frequency portion of the band, or to
29,200 kHz for operation in the high -fre-
quency portion of the band. Operation of
the antenna outside the effective bandwidth
will increase the SWR on the transmission
line, and noticeably degrade both the gain
and front -to -back ratio performance. The
height above ground also influences the F/B
ratio.

24 -2 The Three -Element


Array
The three -element array using a director,
driven element, and reflector will exhibit as
much as 30 db front -to -back ratio and 20
db front -to -side ratio for low -angle radia-
tion. The theoretical gain is about 9 db over

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Three -Element Array 515

a dipole in free space. In actual practice, the the order of 0.25 wavelength between ele-
array will often show 7 to 8 db apparent ments) will result in greater bandwidth for
gain over a horizontal dipole placed the a specified maximum standing -wave ratio on
same height above ground (at 28 and 14 the antenna transmission line. Smaller spac-
MHz) . ings may be used when boom length is an
The use of more than three elements is important consideration, but for a specified
desirable when the length of the supporting standing -wave ratio and forward gain the
structure is such that spacings of approxi- frequency coverage will be smaller. Thus the
mately 0.15 wavelength between elements O of the antenna system will be increased
becomes possible. Four -element arrays are as the spacing between the elements is de-
quite common on the 28- and 50 -MHz creased, resulting in smaller frequency cov-
bands, and five elements are sometimes used erage, and at the same time the feed -point
for increased gain and discrimination. As impedance of the driven element will be
the number of elements is increased the gain decreased.
and front -to -back ratio increase but the For broad -band coverage, such as the
radiation resistance decreases and the band- range from 28.0 to 29.7 MHz or from 50
width or frequency range over which the to 54 MHz, 0.2 wavelength spacing from
antenna will operate without reduction in the driven element to each of the parasitic
effectiveness is decreased. elements is recommended. For narrower
bandwidth, such as would be adequate for
Material for the 14.0- to 14.4 -MHz band or the 144- to
While the elements may consist
Elements 148 -MHz band, the radiator -to- parasitic
of wire supported on a wood
framework, self-supporting ele- element spacing may be reduced to 0.12
ments of tubing are much to be preferred.
wavelength, while still maintaining adequate
The latter type array is easier to construct, array bandwidth for the amateur band in
looks better, is no more expensive, and question.
avoids the problem of getting sufficiently
good insulation at the ends of the elements. Length of the Experience has shown that
The voltages reach such high values toward Parasitic Elements it is practical to cut the
the ends of the elements that losses will be parasitic elements of a
excessive, unless the insulation is excellent. three -element parasitic array to a predeter-
The elements may be fabricated of thin - mined length before the installation of such
walled steel conduit, or hard -drawn thin - an antenna. A pretuned antenna such as this
walled copper tubing, but (bird tubing is will give good signal gain, adequate front -
much better. Dural tubing may be obtained to -back ratio, and good bandwidth factor.
in telescoping sizes from large metal -supply By carefully tuning the array after it is in
houses in many cities. Various manufacturers. position the gain may be increased by a
moreover, supply beam antenna kits of all fraction of a db, and the front -to -back ratio
by several db. However the slight improve-
types and prices. The majority of these
ment in performance is usually not worth
beams employ dural elements because of the
the effort expended in tuning time.
good weather -capability of this material.
The closer the lengths of the parasitic
elements are to the resonant length of the
Element Spacing The optimum spacing for driven element, the lower will be the feed -
a two -element array is, as point resistance of the driven element, and
has been mentioned before, approximately the smaller will be the bandwidth of the
0.11 wavelength for a director and 0.13 array. Hence, for wide frequency coverage
wavelength for a reflector. However, when the director should be considerably shorter,
both a director and a reflector are combined and the reflector considerably longer than
with the driven element to make up a three - the driven element. For example, the direc-
element array the optimum spacing is estab- ter should still be less than a resonant half -
lished by the bandwidth which the antenna wavelength at the upper frequency limit of
will be required to cover. Wide spacing (of the range wherein the antenna is to be oper-
516 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

TYPE

3-ELEMENT

3-CLEMENT
PRIVEN ELEMENT
LENGTH
473
F Dow

-
.)
REFLECTOR
LENGTH
501
F pool

F(MH,)
1STDIRECTOR
LENGTH
45
F DPW

F(MMS)
- -
2ND DIRECTOR
LENGTH
3RD DIRECTOR SPACING SET-
WEDI

.1S -.IS

.2S -.2S
S
APPROR.GAIN
DS

7.5

3.5
APPROx RADIATION
RE i3TAHCE(1L)

20

as
-1

4-CLEMENT .2-.2 -.2 9.S 20


(1p,)
30)
5-ELEMENT) MN F(4YMt)
4SOi)
F(MNG ft) 10.0 IS

Figure 5

DESIGN CHART FOR PARASITIC ARRAYS (DIMENSIONS GIVEN IN FEET)

aced, and the reflector should still be long more. In the vhf range, where the additional
enough to act as a reflector at the lower fre- elements may be added without much diffi-
quency limit. Another way of stating the culty, and where required bandwidths are
same thing is to say, in the case of an array small, the use of more than two parasitic
to cover a wide frequency range such as the elements is quite practical.
amateur range from 28 to 29.7 MHz that the
director should be cut for the upper end Stocking of Parasitic arrays (yagis) may be
of the band and the reflector for the lower Yogi Arrays stacked to provide additional
end of the band. In the case of the 28- to gain in the same manner that
29.7 -MHz range this means that the director dipoles may be stacked. Thus if an array of
should be about 8 percent shorter than the six dipoles would give a gain of 10 db, the
driven element and the reflector should be substitution of yagi arrays for each of the
about 8 percent longer. Such an antenna dipoles would add the gain of one yagi ar-
will show a relatively constant gain of about ray to the gain obtained with the dipoles.
6 db over its range of coverage, and the pat- However, the yagi arrays must be more
tern will not reverse at any point in the widely spaced than the dipoles to obtain this
range. theoretical improvement. As an example, if
Where the frequency range to be covered six 5- element yagi arrays having a gain of
is somewhat less, such as the 14.0- to 14.4 - about 10 db were substituted for the di-
MHz amateur band, or the lower half of poles, with appropriate increase in the spac-
the amateur 28 -MHz phone band, the re- ing between the arrays, the gain of the
flector should be about 5 percent longer than whole system would approach the sum of
the driven element, and the director about f the two gains, or 20 db. A group of arrays
percent shorter. Such an antenna will per- of yagi antennas, with recommended spac-
form well over its rated frequency band, ing and approximate gains, is illustrated
will not reverse its pattern over this band, in figure 6.
and will show a signal gain of 7 to 8
db. See figure 5 for design figures for 24 -3 Feed Systems for
3- element arrays. Parasitic (Yagi) Arrays
More Thon A small amount of additional
Three Elements gain may be obtained through
The table of figure f gives, in addition to
other information, the approximate radia-
use of more than two parasitic tion resistance referred to the center of the
elements, at the expense of reduced feed - driven element of multielement parasitic
point impedance and lessened bandwidth. arrays. It is obvious, from these low values
One additional director will add about 1 db, of radiation resistance, that special care
and a second additional director (making a must be taken in materials used and in the
total of five elements including the driven construction of the elements of the array
element) will add slightly less than 1 db to ensure that ohmic losses in the conductors

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Feed Systems 517

0.2a-+-112A-.0.2a-4+r0.2A.

45 a30
F RH, F Nw

FEEDER LINE DIRECTIONAL DIRECTIONAL

OGAIN ABOUT 12 DB
WITH 2 SECTIONS

FEEDER LINE

pB GAIN ABOUT IS DB AIN ABOUT IT DB


WITH 3 SECTIONS

Figure 6

STACKED YAGI ARRAYS


It is possible to attain a relatively large amount of gain over a limited bandwidth with
stacked yogi arrays. The two- section array at A will give a gain of about 12 db, while
adding a third section will bring the gain up to about 15 db. Adding two additional parasitic
directors to each section, as at C will bring the gain up to about 17 db.

will not be an appreciable percentage of the low radiation resistance of these antenna ar-
radiation resistance. It is also obvious that rays to the normal range of characteristic
some method of impedance transformation impedance used for antenna transmission
must be used in many cases to match the lines.
518 Rotary Beams THE RADIO
4
R RADIATION
i FOR

FOR
DI

Dt t-
Da RFEED
RpA

O 2 D2o.
5. 1.s
RY
RAD.
x8.9
FOLDED- ELEMENT
MATCH
FEED
FOR DIt
D2.11'10.5
5I.5
FORDtt-
D2'.25
1 - 18
5. RAD.

D
1
T
FORD

*12
FoR
S
WIRE
D t-
3t1
1.
RA D.

sa-
12 WIRE
RA-14
D-1.
FOR

12 1.s -RA 18 D.

I
WIRE
FOR D
e S
WIRE
1- VIAL 24
FOR D 1-
S. 1- RZU12. 32
12 WIRE RAO.
Figure 7

DATA FOR
FOLDED -ELEMENT
R FEED 2 9 MATCHING SYSTEMS
3 -WIRE MATCH
In all normal applications of
the data given the main ele-
ment as shown is the driven
element of a multi element
parasitic array. Directors and
reflectors have not been shown
for the sake of clarity.
R FEED =APPROa 25
5 -WIRE MATCH R RAD

A group of possible methods of impedance tion of the antenna array is required.


matching is shown in figures 7, 8, 9 and The feed systems shown in figure 7 will,
10. All these methods have been used but under normal conditions, show the lowest
certain of them offer advantages over some losses of any type of feed system since the
of the other methods. Generally speaking it currents flowing in the matching network
is not mechanically desirable to break the are the lowest of all the systems commonly
center of the driven element of an array used. The folded- clement match shown in
for feeding the system. Breaking the driven figure 7A and the Yoke match shown in
element rules out the practicability of build- figure 7B are the most satisfactory, electrical-
ing an all -metal or "plumber's delight" type ly, of all standard feed methods. However,
of array, and imposes mechanical limitations both methods require the extension of an
with any type of construction. However, additional conductor out to the end of the
when continuous rotation is desired, an ar- driven element as a portion of the matching
rangement such as shown in figure 9D uti- system. The folded -element match is best
lizing a broken driven element with a rotat- on the 50-MHz band and higher where the
able transformer for coupling from the an- additional section of tubing may be sup-
tenna transmission line to the driven ele- ported below the main radiator element with-
ment has proven to be quite satisfactory. In out undue difficulty. The yoke -match is
fact the method shown in figure 9D is prob- more satisfactory mechanically on the 28-
ably the most practical method of feeding and 14 -MHz bands since it is only neces-
the driven element when continuous rota- sary to suspend a wire below the driven ele-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Feed Systems 519

L
L-.1*-44x L

OA DELTA MATCH DIMENSIONS SHOWN GIVE


APPROX. MATCH TO 50011
AIR-SPACED LINE

Figure 8 L
taxL-+-ta%L
AVERAGE DIMENSIONS
FOR THE DELTA AND T-o

"T" MATCH
Dt3D2
OB 'T' MATCH
20011 ON 300 a
TWIN LINE

ment proper. The wire may be spaced below acteristic impedance of the transmission line
the self- supporting element by means of and the radiation resistance of the driven
several small strips of polystyrene which element of the antenna array. Inspection of
have been drilled for both the main element the ratios given in figure 7 shows that the
and the small wire and threaded on the fourth set of dimensions given under figure
main element. 7B will give a 24 -to -1 step -up, which is
sufficiently close. So it is merely necessary to
The Folded- Element The calculation of the use a 1 -inch diameter driven element with
Match Calculations operating conditions of a No. 8 wire spaced on 1 -inch centers ( %-
the folded -element inch below the outside wall of the 1 -inch
matching systems and the yoke match, as tubing). The No. 8 wire is broken and a
shown in figures 7A and 7B is relatively
2 -inch insulator placed in the center. The
simple. A selected group of operating con-
feed line then carries from this insulator
ditions has been shown on the drawing of
figure 7. In applying the system it is only down to the transmitter. The center insula-
necessary to multiply the ratio of feed to tor should be supported rigidly from the f-
radiation resistance (given in the figures to inch tube so that the spacing between the
the right of the suggested operating dimen- piece of tubing and the No. 8 wire will be
sions in figure 7) by the radiation resistance accurately maintained.
of the antenna system to obtain the imped- In many cases it will be desired to use the
ance of the cable to be used in feeding the folded -element or yoke matching system
array. Approximate values of radiation re- with different sizes of conductors or differ-
sistance for a number of commonly used ent spacings than those shown in figure 7.
parasitic- element arrays are given in figure S. Note, then, that the impedance transforma-
As an example, suppose a 3- element array tion ratio of these types of matching systems
with 0.15D-0.15R spacing between ele- is dependent Goth on the ratio of conductor
ments is to be fed by means of a 465 -ohm diameters and on their spacing. The follow-
line constructed of No. 12 wire spaced 2 ing equation has been given by Roberts
inches. The approximate radiation resistance (RCA Review, June, 1947) for the deter-
of such an antenna array will be 20 ohms. mination of the impedance transformation
Hence we need a ratio of impedance step -up when using different diameters in the two
of 23 to obtain a match between the char- sections of a folded element:
520 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

pA DIRECT FEED WITH


COAXIAL CABLE

52 O. COAXIAL CABLE

QUARTER -WAVE
TRANSFORMER FEED

Figure 9

TRANSFORMER ALTERNATE FEED


MATCHING SYSTEM METHODS WHERE THE
DRIVEN ELEMENT MAY
2S MN, - 4 TURNS 2" DIA., 2" LONG BE BROKEN IN THE
ANT. 1 TURN EACH SIDE

- TURNS 2" DI A., 2" LONG


CENTER
14 YNM
ANT. TAPPED 2 TURNS EACH SIDE

OD ROTARY -LINK
COUPLING
COIL SPACED COILS 10
APPROX. 0.5" DIAMETER

C
1 TURN LINKS ARE PARALLEL
C 13 200 PF VARIABLE

S0 -BOO IL LINE

the larger of the two conductors and Z_ is


Transformation ration = ( 1 + Z, made up of the smaller. The folded vhf uni -
pole is an example where the transmission
In this equation Z, is the characteristic im- line is connected in series with the larger of
pedance of a line made up of the smaller of the two conductors.
the two conductor diameters spaced the The conventional 3 -wire match to give
center -to- center distance of the two con- an impedance multiplication of 9 and the
ductors in the antenna, and Z_ is the char- 5 -wire match to give a ratio of approxi-
acteristic impedance of a line made up of mately 25 are shown in figures 7C and 7D.
two conductors the size of the larger of the The 4 -wire match, not shown, will give an
two. This assumes that the feed line will be impedance transformation ratio of approx-
connected in series with the smaller of the imately 16.
two conductors so that an impedance step -
up of greater than four will be obtained. If The Delta Match The delta match and the
an impedance step-up of less than four is and T-Match T -match are shown in fig-
desired, the feed line is connected in series ure 8. The delta match has
with the larger of the two conductors and bean largely superseded by the newer T-
Z, in the above equation becomes the im- match, however, both these systems can be
pedance of a hypothetical line made up of adjusted to give a low value of SWR on

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Feed Systems 521

50- to 600 -ohm balanced transmission lines.


In the case of the systems shown it will be
necessary to make adjustments in the tap-
ping distance along the driven radiator un-
til minimum standing waves on the antenna
transmission line are obtained. Since it is
sometimes impractical to eliminate com-
pletely the standing waves from the antenna
transmission line when using these match- Figure 10
ing systems, it is common practice to cut
the feed line, after standing waves have THE GAMMA MATCHING SYSTEM
been reduced to a minimum, to a length See text for details of resonating capacitor
which will give satisfactory loading of the
transmitter over the desired frequency
the antenna this system will give a close
range of operation.
The inherent reactance of the T -match is
match to a 12 -ohm impedance at the cen-
tuned out by the use of two identical reso-
ter of the driven element. C shows an ar-
nating capacitors in series with each leg of rangement which uses an untuned trans-
the T -rod. These capacitors should each former with lumped inductance for match-
ing the transmission line to the center im-
have a maximum capacity of 8 pf per meter
pedance of the driven element.
of wavelength. Thus for 20 meters, each
capacitor should have a maximum capaci- Rotary-Link In many cases it is desirable to
tance of at least 160 pf. For power up to a Coupling be able to allow the antenna ar-
kilowatt, 1000 -volt spacing of the capaci- ray to rotate continuously with-
tors is adequate. These capacitors should be out regard to snarling of the feed line. If
tuned for minimum SWR on the trans- this is to be done some sort of slip rings or
mission line. The adjustment of these ca- rotary joint must be made in the feed line.
pacitors should be made at the same time One relatively simple method of allowing
the correct setting of the T -match rods is unrestrained rotation of the antenna is to
made as the two adjustments tend to be in- use the method of rotary -link coupling
terlocking. The use of the standing -wave shown in figure 9D. The two coupling rings
meter (described in Test Equipment chap- are 10 inches in diameter and are usually
ter) is recommended for making these ad- constructed of 1/4-inch copper tubing sup-
justments to the T- match. ported one from the rotating structure and
one from the fixed structure by means of
Feed Systems Using Four methods of exciting standoff insulators. The capacitor (C in
a Driven Element the driven element of a figure 9D) is adjusted, after the antenna
with Center Feed parasitic array are shown has been tuned, for minimum standing -
in figure 9. The system wave ratio on the antenna transmission line.
shown at A has proven to be quite satisfac- The dimensions shown will allow operation
tory in the case of an antenna- reflector two - with either 14- or 28 -MHz elements, with
element array or in the case of a three -ele- appropriate adjustment of capacitor C. The
ment array with 0.2 to 0.25 wavelength rings must of course be parallel and must lie
spacing between the elements of the antenna in a plane normal to the axis of rotation of
system. The feed -point impedance of the the rotating structure.
center of the driven element is close enoueh
to the characteristic impedance of the 52- The Gamma Match The use of coaxial cable
ohm coaxial cable that the standing -wave to feed the driven ele-
ratio on the 52 -ohm coaxial cable is less ment of a yagi array is becoming increas-
than 2 -to -1. B shows an arrangement for ingly popular. One reason for this increased
feeding an array with a broken driven ele- popularity lies in the fact that the TVI-
ment from an open -wire line with the aid reduction problem is simplified when coaxial
of a quarter -wave matching transformer. feed line is used from the transmitter to the
With 465 -ohm line from the transmitter to antenna system. Radiation from the feed
522

TO

STUB
" Rotary Beams

TRANSMITTER
FLAT LINE
SWR =1.0

Figure 11

IMPEDANCE MATCHING WITH A CLOSED


ON A TWO -WIRE TRANSMISSION
LINE

line is minimized when coaxial cable is


RESONANT
SECTION

used, since the outer conductor of the line


may be grounded at several points through-
SIMPLE OR

MATCHING STUB

out its length and since the intense field is


entirely confined within the outer conductor
A 7
COI4 LEA
THE RADIO
shown in figure 11. The matching stub can
transform any complex impedance to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission
line. While it is possible to obtain a perfect
match and good performance with either
an open stub or a shorted one by observing
appropriate dimensions, a shorted stub is
much more readily adjusted. Therefore, the
following discussion will be confined to the
problem of using a closed stub to match a
low- impedance load to a high- impedance
transmission line.
If the transmission line is so elevated that
adjustment of a "fundamental" shorted
stub cannot be accomplished easily from the
ground, then the stub length may be in-
creased by exactly one or two electrical half
wavelengths, without appreciably affecting
its operation.
While the correct position of the shorting
of the coaxial cable. Other advantages of
coaxial cable as the antenna feed line lie in bar and the point of attachment of the stub
the fact that coaxial cable may be run with- to the line can be determined entirely by
in the structure of a building without dan- experimental methods, the fact that the two
ger, or the cable may be run underground adjustments are interdependent, or inter-
without disturbing its operation. Also, trans- locking, makes such a cut - and -try procedure
a tedious one. Much time can be saved by
mitting -type low -pass filters for 52 -ohm
impedance are more widely available and are determining the approximate adjustments

\
less expensive than equivalent filters for two -
required by reference to a chart such as
wire line. figure 12 and using them as a starter. Usual-
The gamma -match is illustrated in figure

\:
10, and may be considered as one -half of a MIMMIN IMMI1111I11I
IlkINNIMINIMINIMIMMI11II11111
10

1102
T- match. One resonating capacitor is used,
placed in series with the gamma rod. The
capacitor should have a capacity of 7 pf
1=M iIIII
IILIMIMIMMINIIMMIN11
NIMNINIINI11NI11
1111111111
i/MIMI11111111111
1
_....eesl 70
eo 0
W

per meter of wavelength. For 15 -meter /MIIMINIIIII11NI


/.=MMill 1111111111I111
z

operation the capacitor should have a maxi- IiiMINEMIlii...


; IONI
11.

mum capacitance of 105 pf. The length of


the gamma rod determines the impedance
transformation between the transmission
line and the driven element of the array,
and the gamma capacitor tunes out the in-
MNII
NI1 "

3 4
o"o\s

5
ductance of the gamma rod. By adjustment SWR
of the length of the gamma rod, and the Figure 12
setting of the gamma capacitor, the SWR
on the coaxial line may be brought to a very SHORTED -STUB LENGTH AND POSITION
low value at the chosen operating frequency. CHART
The use of an Antennascohe, described in From the standing -wave ratio and current or
the Test Equipment chapter is recommended voltage null position it is possible to deter-
mine the theoretically correct length and
for precise adjustment of the gamma match. position of a shorted stub. In actual prac-
tice a slight discrepancy usually will be
The Matching Stub If an open -wire line is found between the theoretical and the ex-
low- imped-
used to feed a perimentally optimised dimensions; therefore
it may be necessary to "touch up" the di-
ance radiator, a section of the transmission mensions after using the above data as a
line may be employed as a matching stub as starting point.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Unidirectional Driven Arrays 523

T
\`
ly only a slight "touching up" will produce DIRECTIONAL
a perfect match and flat line. { 4
In order to utilize figure 12, it is first nec-
essary to locate accurately a voltage node or
current node on the line in the vicinity that
has been decided on for the stub, and also to
determine the SWR.
Stub adjustment becomes more critical as
the SWR increases, and under conditions of OGAIN ABOUT B DB FEED LINE

high SWR the current and voltage nulls are


more sharply defined than the current and
DIRECTIONAL
voltage maxima, or loops. Therefore, it is
GAIN ABOUT
best to locate either a current null or volt- B DB

age null, depending on whether a current -


indicating device or a voltage -indicating
device is used to check the standing -wave
pattern.
The SWR is determined by means of a
directional coupler, or by noting the ratio
of E,,,1,,, to E,,,11, or /,,,;,X to 1,,,;,, as read on
an indicating device. FEED LINE

It is assumed that the characteristic im-


pedance of the section of line used as a
stub is the same as that of the transmission DIRECTIONAL
line proper. It is preferable to have the GAIN ABOUT 10 DB

stub section identical to the line physically


as well as electrically.

24 -4 Unidirectional
Driven Arrays
Three types of unidirectional driven ar-
rays are illustrated in figure 13. The array
shown in figure 13A is an end -fire system
which may be used in place of a parasitic
array of similar dimensions when greater
frequency coverage than is available with
the yagi type is desired. Figure 13B is a
combination end -fire and collinear system FEED LINE
which will give approximately the same gain
as the system of figure 13A, but which re-
quires less boom length and greater total Figure 13
element length. Figure 13C illustrates the UNIDIRECTIONAL ALL -DRIVEN ARRAYS
familiar lazy -H with driven reflectors (or
A unidirectional all -driven end-lire array Is
directors, depending on the point of view) shown at A. I shows an array with two half
in a combination which will show wide waves in phase with driven reflectors. A
lazy -H array with driven reflectors is shown
bandwidth with a considerable amount of at C. Note that the directivity is through the
forward gain and good front -to -back ratio elements with the greatest total feed -line
over the entire frequency coverage. length in arrays such as shown at B and C.
A simple driven array is the so- called
ZL Special, which is one -half the array of Unidirectional Stacked Three practical types
figure 13B. The ZL Special is fed at the Broadside Arrays of unidirectional
center point of the half -wave elements and stacked broadside ar-
provides a cardioid pattern with a gain of rays are shown in figure 14. The first type,
about 3 decibels. shown at figure 14A, is the simple lazy -H
524 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

"LAZY H" WITH REFLECTOR

GAIN APPROX. R DB

-.4
BROADSIDE HALF -WAVES
WITH REFLECTORS

FOLDED DIPOLES REFLECTORS GAIN APPROX 7 DR


2

Figure 14
300 n. LINE
BROADSIDE ARRAYS
4 WITH PARASITIC
REFLECTORS
"TWO OVER TWO OVER TWC
WITH REFLECTORS The apparent gain of the ar-
rays illustrated will be
GAIN APPROX 11 S DB greater than the values
given due to concentration
of the radiated signal at the
lower elevation angles.

8SLI LINE

type of antenna with parasitic reflectors for unidirectional array when both elements are
each element. Figure 14B shows a simpler the same length. Using this procedure will
antenna array with a pair of folded dipoles give a gain of 3 db with the reflectors over
spaced one -half wave vertically, operating the gain without the reflectors, with only a
with reflectors. In figure 14C is shown a moderate decrease in the radiation resistance
more complex array with six half waves of the driven element. Actually, the radia-
and six reflectors which will give a very tion resistance of a half -wave dipole goes
worthwhile amount of gain. down from 73 ohms to 60 ohms when an
In all three of the antenna arrays shown identical half -wave element is placed one -
the spacing between the driven elements quarter wave behind it.
and the reflectors has been shown as one- A very slight increase in gain for the en-
quarter wavelength. This has been done to tire array (about 1 db) may be obtained at
eliminate the requirement for tuning of the the expense of lowered radiation resistance,
reflector, as a result of the fact that a half - the necessity for tuning the reflectors, and
wave element spaced exactly one- quarter decreased bandwidth by placing the re-
wave from a driven element will make a flectors 0.15 wavelength behind the driven

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Construction of Rotatable Arrays 525

elements and making them somewhat longer supporting elements are used in the flat -top
than the driven elements. The radiation re- beam the problem of losses due to insulators
sistance of each element will drop approxi- at the ends of the elements is somewhat re-
mately to one -half the value obtained with duced. With a single- section flat -top beam a
untuned half -wave reflectors spaced one - gain of approximately 4 db can be expected,
quarter wave behind the driven elements. and with two sections a gain of approxi-
Antenna arrays of the type shown in fig- mately 6 db can be obtained.
ure 14 require the use of some sort of lat- Another type of bidirectional array which
tice work for the supporting structure since has seen less use than it deserves is shown
the arrays occupy appreciable distance in in figure 15B. This type of antenna system
space in all three planes. has a relatively broad azimuth or horizontal
beam, being capable of receiving signals with
Feed Methods The requirements for the feed little diminution in strength over approxi-
systems for antenna arrays of mately 40 degrees, but it has a quite sharp
the type shown in figure 14 are less critical elevation pattern since substantially all radi-
than those for the close- spaced parasitic ar- ation is concentrated at the lower angles of
rays shown in the previous section. This is radiation if more than a total of four ele-
a natural result of the fact that a larger
ments is used in the antenna system. Figure
number of the radiating elements are direct- 15B gives the approximate gain over a half -
ly fed with energy, and of the fact that the wave dipole at the height of the center of
effective radiation resistance of each of the the array which can be expected. Also shown
driven elements of the array is much higher in this figure is a type of "rotating- mast"
than the feed -point resistance of a parasitic structure which is well suited to rotation of
array. As a consequence of this fact, arrays this type of array.
of the type shown in figure 14 can be ex- If six or more elements are used in the
pected to cover a somewhat greater fre- type of array shown in figure 15B, no match-
quency band for a specified value of stand- ing section will be required between the
ing -wave ratio than the parasitic type of antenna transmission line and the feed point
array. of the antenna. When only four elements
In most cases a simple open -wire line may are used, the antenna is the familiar lazy H
be coupled to the feed point of the array and a quarter -wave stub should be used for
without any matching system. The stand- matching the antenna transmission line to
ing -wave ratio with such a system of feed the feed point of the antenna system.
will often be less than 2 -to -1. However, if If desired, and if mechanical considera-
a more accurate match between the antenna
tions permit, the gain of the arrays shown
transmission line and the array is desired a in figure 15B may be increased by 3 db by
conventional quarter -wave stub, or a quar- placing a half -wave reflector behind each of
ter -wave matching transformer of appro- the elements at a spacing of one -quarter
priate impedance, may be used to obtain a wave. The array then becomes essentially
low standing -wave ratio. the same as that shown in figure 14C and
the same considerations in regard to reflec-
24 -5 Bidirectional tor spacing and tuning will apply. However,
Rotatable Arrays the factor that a bidirectional array need be
The bidirectional type of array is sometimes rotated through an angle of less than 180
used on the 28- and S0 -MHz bands where should be considered in this connection.
signals are likely to be coming from only one
general direction at a time. Hence the sacri-
24 -6 Construction of
fice of discrimination against signals arriv- Rotatable Arrays
ing from the opposite direction is likely to A considerable amount of ingenuity may
be of little disadvantage. Figure 15 shows be exercised in the construction of the sup-
two general types of bidirectional arrays. porting structure for a rotatable array.
The flat -top beam, which has been described Every person has his own ideas as to the
in detail earlier, is well adapted to installa- best method of construction. Often the
tion atop a rotating structure. When self- most practical method of construction will
526 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

O
STUB FLAT -TOP BEAM FOR
ROTATABLE ARRAY

GAIN TO 6 De

OPEN -WIRE LINE

"TWO OVER TWO OVER TWO


TYPE OF ARRAY

GAIN TOTAL NUMBER


OF ELEMENTS
Figure 15
1.6 DB 2

TWO GENERAL TYPES 6.0 De 4

7.8 DB
OF BIDIRECTIONAL
9.0 DB
ARRAYS
10.0 De 10
Average gain figures are
given for both the flat -top
beam type of array and for n
the broadside -collinear array
with different numbers of RADIAL LOAD 465 0. FEEDERS
elements. BEARING N. 12 WIRE SPACED 2

GUY WIRES

ROPES TO
PCRATING POSITION

rTHRUST
REARING

be dictated by the availability of certain durai tubing for the self -supporting ele-
types of construction materials, but in any ments. Other materials may be used but an
event be sure that sound mechanical en- alloy known as 2024 has proven over a
gineering principles are used in the design of period of time to be quite satisfactory. Cop-
the supporting structure. There are few per tubing is too heavy for a given strength,
things quite as discouraging as the picking and steel tubing, unless copper plated, is
up of pieces, repairing of the roof, etc., likely to add an undesirably large loss re-
when a newly constructed rotary comes sistance to the array. Also, steel tubing,
down in the first strong wind. If the prin- even when plated, is not likely to withstand
ciples of mechanical engineering are under- salt atmosphere (such as is encountered along
stood it is wise to calculate the loads and the seashore) for a satisfactory period of
torques which will exist in the various mem- time. Do not use a soft aluminum alloy for
bers of the structure with the highest wind the elements unless they will be quite short;
velocity which may be expected in the 2024 is a hard alloy and is noncorrosive.
locality of the installation. If this is not Alloy 2017 and 6061 are also satisfactory,
possible it will usually be worth the time cheaper, and easier to obtain. Do not use al-
and effort to look up a friend who under- loys 5052, 2014, or 3003 (EMT), as these
stands these principles.
signify alloys which have not been heat
Radiating One thing more or less standard treated for strength and rigidity. However,
Elements about the construction of rotat- these softer alloys, and aluminum electrical
able antenna arrays is the use of conduit, may be used for short radiating
HANDBOOK Beam Construction 527

is produced, reducing corrosion to a mini-


mum.
LINE OF - The boom of the parasitic array may be
ELEMENTS
BOOM, MADE
made from two or three sections of steel TV
ALUMINUM PLATE
- OF SECTIONS
OF STEEL TV
MAST OR OF
mast, or it may be made of a single section
APPROX. 3'X IX' ALUMINUM of aluminum irrigation pipe. This pipe is
IRRIGATION
TUBING made by Reynolds Aluminum Co., and
others, and may often be purchased via the
eI1406.- ELEMENT HELD
(2 AEO'O) OR
TOPLATE WITH U- BOLTS,
MUFFLER CLAMPS. Sears, Roebuck Co. mail -order department.
Three -inch pipe may be used for the 10-
SHIM JOINT WITH THIN RADIATOR
and 15-meter antennas, and the huskier
STRIPS OF ALUMINUM
IF NECESSARY.
HOSE CLAMP
four -inch pipe should be used for a 20 -meter
t R beam.
ADJUSTABLE
TIP
SLIT CENTER SECTION TUBE
3AT EACH END.
ADJUSTABLE
TIP Automobile muffler clamps can often be
TYPICAL ELEMENT used to affix the elements to the support
plates. Larger clamps of this type will fasten
the plates to the boom. In most cases, the
Figure 16 muffler clamps are untreated, and they
should be given one or two coats of rust-
3- ELEMENT "PLUMBER'S
proof paint to protect them from inclement
DELIGHT" ANTENNA ARRAY
weather. All bolts, nuts, and washers used
All -metal configuration permits rugged, light in the assembly of the array should be of
assembly. Joints are mode with U -bolts and
metal plates for maximum rigidity. the plated variety to reduce corrosion and
rust.
If it is desired to use a split driven ele-
elements such as would be used for the 50- ment for a balanced feed system, it is nec-
MHz band or as interconnecting conductors essary to insulate the element from the
in a stacked array. supporting structure of the antenna. The
element should be severed at the center, and
"Plumber's Delight" It
is characteristic of the two halves driven onto a wooden dowel.
Construction the conventional type The element may then be mounted on an
of multielement para- aluminum support plate by means of four
sitic array, such as discussed previously and ceramic insulators. Metal -based insulators,
outlined, that the centers of all the ele- such as the Johnson /35-67 are recom-
ments are at zero r -f potential with respect mended, since the all -ceramic types may
to ground. It is therefore possible to use a
metallic structure without insulators for
supporting the various elements of the ar- LADDER

ray. A typical three- element array of this


type is shown in figure 16. In this particular
array, U -bolts and metal plates have been
employed to fasten the elements to the
boom. The elements are made of telescoping
sections of aluminum tubing. The tips of
the inner sections of tubing are split, and BY
HELD TO2X
2 TV- TYPE U- BOLTS /A
/%/
a tubing clamp is slipped over the joint, as
shown in the drawing. Before assembly of 2 X BOLTED TO LADDER BY
2 PIECES OF ANGLE IRON STOCK
the joint, the mating pieces of aluminum
are given a thin coat of Penetrox -A com-
Figure 17
pound. (This antioxidizing paste is manu-
factured by Burndy Co., Norwalk, Conn. ALTERNATIVE WOODEN SUPPORTING
and is distributed by the General Electric ARRANGEMENT
Supply Co.) When the tubes are telescoped A wooden ladder may be used to support a
and the clamp is tightened, an airtight seal 10 or IS meter array.
528 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

break at the mounting holes when the array that a constant amount of power will
issubject to heavy winds. be fed to the array under test. Also, if
you use this system, use very low power ( 5
24-7 Tuning the Array or 10 watts of power is usually sufficient)
and make sure that the antenna transmission
line is effectively grounded as far as d -c
Although satisfactory results may be ob-
tained by precutting the antenna array to plate voltage is concerned. The use of the
dimensions given earlier in this chapter, the method described in the previous paragraph
occasion might arise when it is desired to of course eliminates these problems.
make a check on the operation of the anten-
One satisfactory method of tuning the
na before calling the job complete.
array proper, assuming that it is a system
with several parasitic elements, is to set the
The process of tuning an array may sat-
directors to the dimensions given in figure 5
isfactorily be divided into two more or less
and then to adjust the reflector for maxi-
distinct steps: the actual tuning of the ar- mum forward signal. Then the first director
ray for best front -to -back ratio or for maxi-
should be varied in length until maximum
mum forward gain, and the adjustment to
forward signal is obtained, and so on if ad-
obtain the best possible impedance match
ditional directors are used. Then the array
between the antenna transmission line and may be reversed in direction and the reflector
the feed point of the array.
adjusted for best front -to-back ratio. Sub-
Tuning the The actual tuning of the array sequent small adjustments may then be
Array for best front -to-back ratio or made in both the directors and the reflector
maximum forward gain may for best forward signal with a reasonable
best be accomplished with the aid of a low - ratio of front -to -back signal. The adjust-
power transmitter feeding a dipole antenna ments in the directors and the reflector will
(polarized the same as the array being be found to be interdependent to a certain
tuned) at least four or five wavelengths degree, but if small adjustments are made
away from the antenna being tuned and after the preliminary tuning process a sat-
located at the same elevation as that of the isfactory set of adjustments for maximum
antenna under test. A calibrated field - performance will be obtained. It is usually
strength meter of the remote -indicating type best to make the end sections of the ele-
is then coupled to the feed point of the ments smaller in diameter so that they will
antenna array being tuned. The transmis- slip inside the larger tubing sections. The
sions from the portable transmitter should smaller sliding sections may be clamped in-
be made as short as possible and the call side the larger main sections.
sign of the station making the test should In making the adjustments described, it
be transmitted at least every ten minutes. is best to have the rectifying element of the
It is, of course, possible to tune an array remote -indicating field- strength meter di-
with the receiver connected to it and with a rectly at the feed point of the array, with
station a mile or two away making trans- a resistor at the feed point of the estimated
missions on your request. But this method value of feed -point impedance for the array.
is more cumbersome and is not likely to
give complete satisfaction. It is also possible Matching to the The problem of matching
to carry out the tuning process with the Antenna Trans- the impedance of the an-
transmitter connected to the array and with mission Line tenna transmission line to
the field- strength meter connected to the the array is much simpli-
remote dipole antenna. In this event the fied if the process of tuning the array is
indicating instrument of the remote -indi- made a substantially separate process as just
cating field- strength meter should be visible described. After the tuning operation is
from the position where the elements are complete, the resonant frequency of the
being tuned. However, when the array is driven element of the antenna should be
being tuned with the transmitter connected checked, directly at the center of the driven
to it there is always the problem of making element if practical, with a grid -dip meter.
continual adjustments to the transmitter so It is important that the resonant frequency

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tuning the Array 529

Before any adjustments to the matching


RIVEN system are made, the resonant frequency of
the driven element must be ascertained, as
ANTENNASCOK
explained previously. If all adjustments to
RESONATING
CAPACITOR correct impedance mismatch are made at this
frequency, the problem of reactance termi-
nation of the transmission line is eliminated,
greatly simplifying the problem. The fol-
RID- DIP METER lowing steps should be taken to adjust the
impedance transformation:
Figure 18
ADJUSTMENT OF GAMMA MATCH BY USE 1.The output impedance of the matching
OF ANTENNASCOPE AND GRID -DIP METER device should be measured. An Anten-
nascope and a grid -dip oscillator are
required for this step. The Antenna -
of the antenna be at the center of the fre- scope is connected to the output ter-
quency band to be covered. If the resonant minals of the matching device. If the
frequency is found to be much different driven element is a folded dipole, the
from the desired frequency, the length of Antennascope connects directly to the
the driven element of the array should be split section of the dipole. If a gamma
altered until this condition exists. A relative- match or T -match is used, the An-
ly small change in the length of the driven tennascope connects to the transmis-
element will have only a second -order effect sion -line end of the device. If a Q-
on the tuning of the parasitic elements of section is used, the Antennascope
the array. Hence, a moderate change in connects to the bottom end of the
the length of the driven element may be section. The grid -dip oscillator is cou-
made without repeating the tuning process pled to the input terminals of the
for the parasitic elements. Antennascope as shown in figure 18.
When the resonant frequency of the an- 2. The grid -dip oscillator is tuned to the
tenna system is correct, the antenna trans- resonant frequency of the antenna,
mission line, with impedance -matching de- which has been determined previously,
vice or network between the line and and the Antennascope control is turned
antenna feed point, is then attached to the for a null reading on the meter of
array and coupled to a low -power exciter the Antennascope. The impedance pre-
unit or transmitter. Then, preferably, a sented to the Antennascope by the
standing -wave meter is connected in series matching device may be read directly
with the antenna transmission line at a on the calibrated dial of the Antenna -
point relatively much closer to the trans- scope.
mitter than to the antenna. Adjustments should be made to the
If the standing -wave ratio is below 1.5 matching device to present the desired
to it is satisfactory to leave the installation
1 impedance transformation to the An-
as it is. If the ratio is greater than this range tennascope. If a folded dipole is used
it will be best when twin line or coaxial as the driven element, the transforma-
line is being used, and advisable with open - tion ratio of the dipole must be varied
wire line, to attempt to decrease the SWR. as explained previously in this chapter
It must be remembered that no adjust- to provide a more exact match. If a
ments made at the transmitter end of the T -match or gamma match system is
transmission line will alter the SWR on the used, the length of the matching rod
line. All adjustments to better the SWR may be changed to effect a proper
must be made at the antenna end of the line match. If the Antennascope ohmic
and to the device which performs the imped- reading is lower than the desired read-
ance transformation necessary to match the ing, the length of the matching rod
characteristic impedance of the antenna to should be increased. If the Antenna -
that of the transmission line. scope reading is higher than the de-
530 Rotary Beams THE RADIO

--- CONTROL BOX

S. P O.T.
RELAY
SOCKET PLUG DOCKET I
ANTENNA ROTATOR

PLUG
TO PROP MOTOR

REVERSE LEADS

o0U
,p

!I-CONTACT JONES PLUGS i SOCKETS

ROTARY-BEAM CONTROL SYNCHRO.


L GENERATOR

D.P.D. T. TOGGLE SWITCH


INDICATOR 1
SYNCHRO.

PILOT
LIGHT
01!
ITO ttS-V A.C. Oi s0
a

TOGGLE
SWITCH
SOCKET J PLUG SOCKET L PLUG
J
DIRECTION INDICATOR
Figure 19

SCHEMATIC OF A COMPLETE ANTENNA CONTROL SYSTEM

sired reading, the length of the match- termined near the ground is marked so that
ing rod should be decreased. After the adjustments will not be lost, the array
each change in length of the matching may be raised to rotatable height and the
rod, the series capacitor in the match- fastening clamps left loose enough so that
ing system should be re- resonated for the elements may be slid in by means of a
best null on the meter of the Anten- long bamboo pole. After a series of trials a
nascope. satisfactory set of adjustments can be ob-
tained.
Raising and A practical problem always pres- The matching process does not require ro-
Lowering ent when tuning up and match - tation, but it does require that the antenna
the Array ing an array is the physical lo- proper be located at as nearly its normal
cation of the structure. If the operating position as possible. However, on
array is atop the mast it is inaccessible for a particular installation the standing -wave
adjustment, and if it is located on step- ratio on the transmission line near the trans-
ladders where it can be adjusted easily it mitter may be checked with the array in the
cannot be rotated. One encouraging factor air, and then the array may be lowered to
in this situation is the fact that experience ascertain whether or not the SWR has
has shown that if the array is placed 8 or changed. If it has not, and in most cases if
I o feet above ground on some stepladders the feeder line is strung out back and forth
for the preliminary tuning process, the rais- well above the ground as the antenna is
ing of the system to its full height will not lowered they will not change, the last ad-
produce a serious change in the adjustments. justment may be determined, the standing -
So it is usually possible to make preliminary wave ratio again checked, and the antenna
adjustments with the system located slightly re- installed in its final location.
greater than head height above ground, and
then to raise the antenna to a position where 24 -8 Indication of Direction
it may be rotated for final adjustments. If The most satisfactory method for indi-
the position of the matching device as de- cating the direction of transmission of a ro-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Three -Band Beams 531

tatable array is that which uses Selsyns or shown in figure 20. At the lowest operating
Synchros for the transmission of the data frequency, the tuned traps exert a minimum
from the rotating structure to the indicating influence on the element which resonates at
pointer at the operating position. A num- a frequency determined by the electrical
ber of Synchros and Selsyns of various types length of the configuration, plus a slight de-
are available on the surplus market. Some gree of loading contributed by the traps.
of them are designed for operation on 115 At some higher frequency (generally about
volts at 60 Hertz, some are designed for 1.5 times the lowest operating frequency)
operation on 60 Hertz but at a lowered volt- the outer set of traps is in a parallel reso-
age, and some are designed for operation nant condition, placing a high impedance
from 400 -Hertz or 800 -Hertz energy. This between the element and the tips beyond
latter type of high - frequency Selsyn is the the traps. Thus, the element resonates at a
most generally available type, and the high - frequency 1.5 times higher than that deter-
frequency units are smaller and lighter than mined by the overall length of the element.
the 60 -Hertz units. Since the indicating As the frequency of operation is raised to
Selsyn must deliver an almost negligible approximately 2.0 times the lowest operating
amount of power to the pointer which it frequency, the inner set of traps becomes
drives, the high- frequency types will operate resonant, effectively disconnecting a larger
quite satisfactorily from 60 -Hertz power if portion of the element from the driven sec-
the voltage on them is reduced to somewhere tion. The length of the center section is
between 6.3 and 20 volts. In the case of resonant at the highest frequency of opera-
many of the units available, a connection tion. The center section, plus the two ad-
sheet is provided along with a recommenda- jacent inner sections are resonant at the
tion in regard to the operating voltage when intermediate frequency of operation, and the
they are run on 60 Hertz. In any event the complete element is resonant at the lowest
operating vltage should be held as low as it frequency of operation.
may be and still give satisfactory transmis- The efficiency of such a system is deter-
sion of data from the antenna to the operat- mined by the accuracy of tuning of both
ing position. Certainly it should not be the element sections and the isolating traps.
necessary to run such a voltage on the units In addition the combined dielectric losses of
that they become overheated. the traps affect the overall antenna effi-
A suitable Selsyn indicating system is ciency. As with all multipurpose devices,
shown in figure 19. some compromise between operating con-
Systems using a potentiometer capable of venience and efficiency must be made with
continuous rotation and a milliammeter, antennas designed to operate over more than
along with a battery or other source of cne narrow band of frequencies. Taking into
direct current, may also be used for the in- account the theoretical difficulties that must
dication of direction. be overcome it is a tribute to the designers
of the better multiband beams that they
24 -9 Three -Band Beams perform as well as they do.

A popular form of beam antenna intro- The Isolating The parallel -tuned circuit
duced during the past few years is the so- Trap which serves as an isolating
called three -band beam. An array of this trap for a multiband anten-
type is designed to operate on three adjacent na should combine high circuit Q with good
amateur bands, such as the 10 -, 15 -, and environmental protection. A highly satis-
20 -meter group. The principle of operation factory trap configuration based on the
of this form of antenna is to employ original design of W3DZZ is shown in fig-
parallel -tuned circuits placed at critical ure 21. The trap capacitor, which has a
positions in the elements of the beam which value of about 25 pf, is made of two sec-
serve to electrically connect and disconnect tions of aluminum tubing which form a
the outer sections of the elements as the portion of the antenna element. The capaci-
frequency of excitation of the antenna is tor dielectric is moulded lucite, or similar
changed. A typical three -band element is plastic material, given a coat of epoxy to
532 Rotary Beams

I SOL AT INC TRAPS

"N

FEED POINT ."


I

IIf RESONANT
3
AT HIGHEST FREQUENCY

h. AT
RESONANT -
INTERMEDIATE WREQUENCY

RESONANT 4- AT LOWEST FREQUENCY


Figure 21

HIGH -Q ISOLATING TRAP


Figure 20
This trap has a Q of nearly 300 and is well
suited for multiband antennas. The coil is
TRAP -TYPE "THREE BAND" wound of No. 8 aluminum clothesline wire and
ELEMENT is 3" in diameter and 3" long. The 15 -meter
trap has seven turns (illustrated) and the 10-
Isolating traps permit dipole to be self - meter trap has five turns. The capacitor is
resonant at three widely different frequencies. mode from two lengths of aluminum tubing,
coaxially aligned in a lucite dielectric. Ca-
pacitor length is about five inches and tubing
help resist crazing and cracking caused by sizes are 3/4 inch and -1/4 inch. Capacitance
1

is about 25 pf. Lucite projects from end of


exposure to sunlight. The coil is wound of capacitor to form 1 2 -inch collar which is
No. 8 aluminum wire and, with the capacitor coated with epoxy to prevent deterioration
of the dielectric under exposure to sunlight.
placed within it, has a Q of nearly 300. Similar traps have been made using teflon as
The leads of the coil are bent around the a dielectric material. Ends of aluminum tubes
are slotted to facilitate assembly to antenna
tubing and a small aluminum block is used elements.
to form an inexpensive clamp. If desired,
an aluminum cable clamp may be substituted
for the homemade device. the bench with a grid -dip oscillator and a
The isolating trap is usually tuned to the calibrated receiver.
lower edge of an amateur band, rather than A substitute for the moulded capacitor
to the center, to compensate for the length may be made up of two 40 pf, f -kv ceramic
of the unit. In general, the H -meter trap capacitors connected in series (Centralab
is tuned to approximately 20.8 MHz and 850S -50Z) and mounted in a length of
the 10 -meter trap is tuned near 27.8 MHz. phenolic tubing of the proper diameter to
The trap frequency is not critical within a slip within the aluminum antenna sections.
few hundred kilohertz. Resonance is estab- The trap coil is then wound about the ca-
lished by squeezing or expanding the turns pacitor assembly in the manner shown in
of the coil while the trap is resonated on the photograph.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER TWENTY -FIVE

Mobile Equipment
Design and Installation

Mobile operation is permitted on all ama- SSB equipment, as contrasted to the heavy
teur bands. Tremendous impetus to this power drain of conventional a -m gear has
phase of the hobby was given by the suit- encouraged the use of relatively high-power
able design of compact mobile equipment. sideband equipment in many mobile instal-
Complete mobile installations may be pur- lations. The rigid frequency stability re-
chased as packaged units, or the whole mo- quirement for satisfactory SSB reception,
bile station may be home built, according to however, has obsoleted the once -popular
the whim of the operator. tuned -converter and auto - receiver combina-
The problems involved in achieving a sat- tion formerly used for a -m reception.
isfactory two -way installation vary some- Transistor, crystal -controlled converters
what with the band, but many of the prob- have attained some measure of popularity
lems are common to all bands. For instance, when combined with transistor auto radios
ignition noise is more troublesome on 10 for casual mobile reception of amateur sig-
meters than on 75 meters, but on the other nals. If the converter includes a demodu-
hand an efficient antenna system is much lating bfo, it may be used for satisfactory
more easily accomplished on 10 meters than SSB reception.
on 75 meters. Also, obtaining a worthwhile
amount of transmitter output without ex- A Transistorized
cessive battery drain is a problem on all
25 -1
bands. Mobile Converter
Specialized mobile equipment is available
for operation on the 2- and 6 -meter bands This inexpensive three- transistor mobile
and a small amount of mobile use is made converter may be used in conjunction with
of the 432 -MHz band. The availability of a transistor auto radio for a -m, c -w or
surplus equipment, moreover, has stimulated SSB reception on the 80- or 40 -meter ama-
f -m mobile activity, especially on 2 meters, teur bands. The converter is self-powered
where the use of fixed f -m repeaters placed from a 9 -volt miniature battery and pro-
on elevated locations has done much to en- vides satisfactory reception when used in
hance vhf mobile operation. conjunction with a tuned mobile whip an-
The recent trend has been toward the tenna.
use of SSB mobile transceivers for high - The schematic of the converter is shown
frequency operation. The low duty -cycle of in figure 1. The unit uses inexpensive RCA
534 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
RCA
ANT. L, SK3006 L3 S50-I050MHz(8OY) Band selection is accomplished by the
J, 1550-850 MHZ(10M) choice of proper coils and crystal. The cost

470
Jz
TO
AUTO RADIO
i of the converter is so moderate that it is
better to construct separate converters for
each amateur band than to try to make a
SM band -change system for a single converter.
The converter may be built on a section
RCA
Y,_ SK3006 4
of copper-plated phenolic circuit board
and placed in a miniature aluminum utility
box, much in the manner shown for the
construction of the vhf converters in the
next chapter of this Handbook. It is sug-
gested that transistor sockets be used to
prevent soldering heat from damaging the
BF0
5M 3006 transistors.
9V.
The converter should be tested in stages.
TA Operation of the mixing oscillator is
E
checked by monitoring the crystal fre-
Figure 1
quency in a nearby receiver as the slug of
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTORIZED coil L_ is adjusted. A test signal in the
MOBILE CONVERTER chosen amateur band should then be in-
L,-80 meters; Approx. 40 ,H. 56 turns #24, 1" jected into the antenna receptacle (J1) and
diam., approx. 2" long. (Air -Dux 8327). the converter temporarily connected to the
Link windings A and B are each 10
turns #22 d.c.c. at ground end of L, station receiver, or a broadcast set tuned to
40 meters; Approx. 17 ,H. 24 turns #24, the lower end of the broadcast band. Tuned
1" diam., approx. 3/4" long. (Air -Dux
8327). Link windings A and B are each
circuits L, and L, are peaked for maximum
7 turns 422 d.c.c. at ground end of L, signal strength near the center of the ama-
L,-80 meters; Approx. 35 H. (J.W. Miller teur band. The last adjustment is to set the
21A335R81). Link winding B is 4 turns
#22 d.c.c. at end of winding A. Capaci- slug of bfo coil L, for best SSB reception.
tor C, = SO pf If oscillator injection is too weak for good
40 meters; Approx. 20 H. (J. W. Miller
21A225R81). Link winding same as for SSB reception, it is suggested that the lead
80 meters. Capacitor C, = 30 pf from the 10 -pf coupling capacitor to coil
L,-190 -330 H. (J. W. Miller 4513). Peak to L,B be disconnected and run into the auto
portion of band in use. Link winding
8 is 30 turns 422 d.c.c, on bottom end radio and placed near one of the i -f stages
of
L - L,
3.3-4.1 mH (J. W.
for proper SSB
Miller 27A333181). Peak
reception
of the receiver.

7,-80 meters, 2.950 MHz. 40 meters, 6.450 Two-Meter Reception For reception on the
MHz
144 -MHz amateur
band, and those higher in frequency, the
"universal replacement" transistors in an simple converter /auto -set combination has
easily constructed circuit. Transistor Q, not proven very satisfactory. The primary
serves as a mixer stage, with the incoming reason for this is the fact that the relatively
80- or 40 -meter signal impressed on the sharp i -f channel of the auto set imposes too
base circuit and the local mixing signal link severe a limitation on the stability of the
coupled into the emitter circuit. A crystal - high- frequency oscillator in the converter.
controlled transistor oscillator stage (Q) And if a crystal -controlled beating oscillator
provides the proper mixing frequency. A is used in the converter, only a portion of
separate beat oscillator (Q) is used for the band may be covered by tuning the
SSB and c -w reception, the bfo being tuned auto set.
to the intermediate frequency of the auto The most satisfactory arrangement has
radio which, in most cases, is 262 kHz. The been found to consist of a separately
bfo is coupled to the i -f circuitry through mounted i -f, audio, and power -supply sys-
the stray capacitance of the input circuit tem, with the converter mounted near the
of the auto radio. steering column. The i -f system should have

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Mobile Power Sources 535

ALTERNATOR 30
12.5 V. PER LEG

AUTOMOTIVE
3 0 12 V.D.C. ELECTRICAL
RECTIFIER SYSTEM

3 0, 115 V.
PER LEG TO
HIGH VOLTAGE
POWER
SUPPLY

30 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
Figure 2

THREE -PHASE MOBILE POWER SYSTEM


Three filament transformers connected backwards in a delta configuration provide 115 volts
for operation of high-power mobile equipment. T,, T, and T, may be Triad F -8441C (115/230 -
to-12 volts at 20 amperes) or Signal 24 -8 (115 volts to 12 volts at 16 amperes). Signal Trans-
former Co., 1661 McDonald Ave., lrooklyn 20, N.T.

a bandwidth of 30 to 100 kHz and may receiver together with a common audio
have a center frequency of 10.7 MHz if system and power supply. The complete vhf
standard i -f transformers are to be used. station may be packaged in a single cabinet.
The control head may include the 144 -MHz
r -f, mixer, and oscillator sections, and 25 -2 Mobile Power Sources
sometimes the first i -f stage. Alternatively,
the control head may include only the high - As in the case of transmitters for fixed -
frequency oscillator, with a broadband r -f station operation, there are many schools of
unit included within the main receiver as- thought as to the type of transmitter which
sembly along with the i -f and audio sys- is most suitable for mobile operation. One
tems. school states that the mobile transmitter
An alternative arrangement is to build a should have very low power drain, so that
converter, 10.7 -MHz i -f channel, and sec- no modification of the electrical system of
ond detector unit, and then to operate this the automobile will be required, and so that
unit in conjunction with the auto -set pow- the equipment may be operated without
er supply, audio system, and speaker. Such a serious regard to discharging the battery
system makes economical use of space and when the car is stopped, or overloading the
power drain, and can be switched to provide generator when the car is in motion. A
normal broadcast -band auto reception or re- total transmitter power drain of about 80
ception through a converter for the high - watts from the car battery (6 volts at 13
frequency amateur bands. amperes, or 12 volts at 7 amperes) is about
A recent development has been the vhf the maximum that can be allowed under
transceiver, typified by the Gonset Com- these conditions. For maximum power effi-
municator. Such a unit combines a crystal - ciency it is recommended that a transistor
controlled transmitter and a tunable vhf type of supply be used as opposed to a dyna-
536 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
motor supply, since the conversion efficiency addition, the 60 -Hz rating of the transform-
of the transistor unit is high compared to er may be considerably exceeded at the
that of the dynamotor. higher supply frequency, particularly in the
A second school of thought states that case of low duty -cycle SSB equipment.
the mobile transmitter should be of rela- Shown in figure 3 is a Leece- Neville 3-
tively high power to overcome the poor phase alternator mounted atop the engine
efficiency of the usual mobile whip antenna. block, and driven with a fan belt. The
In this case, the mobile power should be voltage regulator and silicon rectifier for
drawn from a system that is independent charging the car battery from the a -c system
from the electrical system of the automo- replace the usual d -c generator. These new
bile. A belt- driven high- voltage generator is items are mounted in the front of the car
often coupled to the automobile engine in radiator. The alternator provides a balanced
this type of installation. delta output circuit wherein the line voltage
Three -Phase is equal to the coil voltage, but the line cur-
With many SSB mobile radio
Power Systems installations now requiring rent is Vi times the coil current. The coil
400 watts peak power or voltage is a nominal 12- volts, rms and
more from the automotive electrical system,
it usually is necessary to run the car engine
when the equipment is operated for more
than a few minutes at a time to avoid dis-
charging the battery. Many commercial ve-
hicles faced with this problem have 3-phase
alternators installed to provide extra power
for two -way radio equipment. A block dia-
gram of such an installation is shown in
figure 2. Voltage regulation of the alternator
system is very good, although the frequency
varies with engine speed, ranging from 100
Hz or so with the engine idling to nearly
1000 Hz at top speed. Modern power trans- Figure 3
formers, however, even though rated for 60- LEECE- NEVILLE 3 -PHASE
Hz operation, are capable of operating effi- ALTERNATOR IS ENGINE DRIVEN
ciently over this range of frequencies. In BY AUXILIARY FAN BELT

4 10 K 4 70 K 470K

3 0, 115 V.
PER LEG

Figure 4
THREE -PHASE -MOBILE KILOWATT SUPPLY
Three -phase power from a system such as shown in figure 3 may be used to provide high
voltage for mobile transmitting equipment. For 1800 volts, transformers T,, T,, and T, are 11S-
volt primary, 830-volt secondary (Stanco, PC- 8301). For 2400 volts, T,, Tr and T are 11S -volt
primary, 1030 -volt secondary (Stance, PC- 8302). Three type 1N1697 or 1N4005 diodes ore
used in each stock.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Mobile Antennas 537

three 12 -volt, 20- ampere filament trans- This auxiliary trimmer should have a range
formers may be connected in delta on the of about 3 to 50 pf, and may be of the
primary and secondary windings to step the inexpensive compression mica type.
12 volts up to 3 -phase 115 volts. If desired, With the trimmer cut out and the con-
a special 115 -volt, 3 -phase step -up trans- verter turned off (bypassed by the "in -out"
former may be wound which will occupy switch), peak the regular antenna trimmer
less space than the three filament trans- on the auto set at about 1400 kHz. Then
formers. Since the ripple frequency of a turn on the converter, with the receiver
3 -phase d -c power supply will be quite high, tuned to 1500 kHz, switch in the auxiliary
a single 4 -td filter capacitor will suffice. trimmer, and peak this trimmer for maxi-
The schematic of an 1800 -volt, 3 -phase mum background noise. The auxiliary trim-
kilowatt power supply for SSB service is mer then can be left switched in at all times
shown in figure 4. except when receiving very weak broadcast -
band signals.
Some auto sets, particularly certain Gen-
25 -3 Antennas for Mobile eral Motors custom receivers, employ a high-
Work
Auxiliary Antenna One modification of the
Trimmer auto receiver which may
or may not be desirable
depending on the circumstances is the ad-
dition of an auxiliary antenna trimmer
capacitor. If the converter uses an untuned
output circuit and the antenna trimmer on
the auto set is peaked with the converter
cut in, then it is quite likely that the trim-
mer adjustment will not be optimum for
broadcast -band reception when the convert-
ole
er is cut out. For reception of strong broad-
cast -band signals this usually will not be
serious, but where reception of weak broad-
cast signals is desired the loss in gain often
cannot be tolerated, especially in view of
the fact that the additional length of an-
tenna cable required for the converter in-
stallation tends to reduce the strength of
broadcast -band signals.
If the converter has considerable reserve
gain, it may be practical to peak the an-
tenna trimmer on the auto set for broadcast -
band reception rather than resonating it to
the converter output circuit. But oftentimes
this results in insufficient converter gain,
excessive image troubles from loud local
amateur stations, or both. Figure 5
The difficulty can be circumvented by in- A CENTER-LOADED 80 -METER WHIP
corporation of an auxiliary antenna trimmer USING AIR -WOUND COIL MAY BE USED
connected from the "hot" antenna lead on WITH HIGH- POWERED TRANSMITTERS
the auto receiver to ground, with a switch
An anti- corona loop is placed at the top of
in series for cutting it in or out. This ca- the whip to reduce loss of power and burning
pacitor and switch can be connected across of tip of antenna. Number of turns in coil is
critical and adjustable, high -Q coil is recom-
the converter end or the set end of the mended. Whip may be used over frequency
cable between the converter and receiver. range of about 15 kHz without retuning.
538 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

coaxial line. This is a highly satisfactory


antenna, but a few remarks are in order on
the subject of feed and coupling systems.
The feed -point resistance of a resonant
10i FT
quarter -wave rear-mounted whip is approx-
AR BODY
imately 20 to 25 ohms. While the standing -
wave ratio when using 50-ohm coaxial line
will not be much greater than 2 to 1, it is
550 COAX TO RECEIVER nevertheless desirable to make the line to
the transmitter exactly odd multiples of
one -quarter wavelength long electrically at
the center of the band. This procedure will
75 n COAX TO ANITA
minimize variations in loading over the band.
Figure 6
The antenna changeover relay preferably
5/16 -WAVE WHIP RADIATOR FOR 10 should be located either at the antenna end
METERS or the transmitter end of the line, but if it
If a whip antenna is made slightly longer is more convenient physically the line may
than one -quarter wave it acts as a slightly be broken anywhere for insertion of the
better radiator than the usual quarter -wave relay.
whip, and it can provide a better match to
the antenna transmission line if the reactance If the same rear -mounted whip is used for
is tuned out by a series capacitor close to broadcast-band reception, attenuation of
the base of the antenna. Capacitor C may
be a 100 -pf midget variable. broadcast -band signals by the high shunt
capacitance of the low- impedance feed line
can be reduced by locating the changeover
Q high- impedance input circuit which is relay right at the antenna lead -in, and by
very critical as to antenna capacitance. Un- running 95-ohm coax (instead of 50 or 75
less the shunt capacitance of the antenna ohm coax) from the relay to the converter.
(including cable) approximates that of the Ordinarily this will produce negligible ef-
antenna installation for which the set was fect on the operation of the converter, but
designed, the antenna trimmer on the auto usually will make a worthwhile improvement
set cannot be made to hit resonance with the in the strength of broadcast -band signals.
converter cut out. This is particularly truc A more effective radiator and a better
when a long antenna cable is used to reach line match may be obtained by making the
a whip mounted at the rear of the car. Usu- whip approximately 10% feet long and feed-
ally the condition can be corrected by un- ing it with 75 -ohm coax (such as RG-
soldering the internal connection to the 11/U) via a series capacitor, as shown in
antenna terminal connector on the auto set figure 6. The relay and series capacitor are
and inserting in series a 100 -pf mica capaci- mounted inside the trunk, as close to the
tor. Alternatively an adjustable trimmer antenna feedthrough or base -mount insula-
covering at least 50 to HO0 pf may be sub- tor as possible. The 1014 -foot length applies
stituted for the 100 -pf fixed capacitor. Then to the overall length from the tip of the
the adjustment of this trimmer and that of whip to the point where the lead -in passes
the regular antenna trimmer can be juggled through the car body. The leads inside the
back and forth until a condition is achieved car (connecting the coaxial cable, relay,
where the input circuit of the auto set is res- series capacitor and antenna lead) should be
onant with the converter either in or out as short as possible. The outer conductor of
of the circuit. This will provide maximum both coaxial cables should be grounded to
gain and image rejection under all conditions the car body at the relay end with short,
of use. heavy conductors.
A 100 -pf midget variable capacitor is
10 -Meter MobileThe most popular mobile suitable for C1. The optimum setting should
Antennas antenna for 10 -meter op- be determined experimentally at the center
eration is a rear- mounted of the band. This setting then will be sat-
whip approximately 8 feet long, fed with isfactory over the whole band.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Mobile Antennas 539

One suitable coupling arrangement for


either a 1/4-wave or 5/16 -wave whip on 10 CAR BODY
meters is to use a conventional tank circuit,
inductively coupled to a "variable- link" UNSHIELDED
LOADING COIL
coupling loop which feeds the coaxial line.
Alternatively, a pi- network output circuit
may be used. If the input impedance of the
line is very low and the tank circuit has a
low C L ratio, it may be necessary to reso- RG-SS /U LINE
nate the coupling loop with series capacitance TO TRANSMITTER

in order to obtain sufficient coupling. This COAXIAL LINE


GROUNDED TO
condition often is encountered with a 1/4- FRAME Or CAR
ADJACENT TO EASE
ANTENNA
wave whip when the line length approxi- OF

mates an electrical half -wavelength. Figure 7


If an all -band center- loaded mobile an-
THE CENTER -LOADED WHIP ANTENNA
tenna is used, the loading coil at the center
The center -loaded whip antenna, when pro-
of the antenna may be shorted out for oper- vided with a tapped loading coil or a series
ation of the antenna on the 10 -meter band. of coils, may be used over a wide frequency
The usual type of center - loaded mobile an- range. The loading coil may be shorted for
use of the antenna on the 10 -meter band.
tenna will be between 9 and 11 feet long,
including the center -loading inductance
which is shorted out. Hence such an anten- be parked in a location as clear as possible
na may be shortened to an electrical quarter - of trees, buildings, and overhead power lines.
wave for the 10 -meter band by using a Objects within 15 or 20 feet of the antenna
series capacitor as just discussed. Alterna- can exert a considerable detuning effect on
tively, if a pi- network is used in the plate the antenna system due to its relatively high
circuit of the output stage of the mobile operating Q. The end of the coaxial cable
transmitter, any reactance presented at the which will plug into the transmitter is
antenna terminals of the transmitter by the terminated in a link of 3 or 4 turns of wire.
antenna may be tuned out with the pi -net- This link is then coupled to a grid -dip meter
work. and the resonant frequency of the antenna
determined by noting the frequency at
The All -Band
which the grid current fluctuates. The coils
The great majority of mo- furnished with the antennas normally are
Center- Loaded bile operation on the 14-
Mobile Antenna
too large for the usual operating frequency,
MHz band and below is since it is much easier to remove turns than
with center -loaded whip antennas. These to add them. Turns then are removed, one
intennas use an insulated bumper or body at a time, until the antenna resonates at the
mount, with provision for coaxial feed from desired frequency. If too many turns have
the base of the antenna to the transmitter, been removed, a length of wire may be
as shown in figure 7.
spliced on and soldered. Then, with a length
The center - loaded whip antenna must be of insulating tubing slipped over the soldered
tuned to obtain optimum operation on the joint, turns may be added to lower the reso-
desired frequency of operation. These an- nant frequency. Or, if the tapped type of
tennas will operate at maximum efficiency coil is used, taps are changed until the proper
over a range of perhaps 20 kHz on the 75- number of turns for the desired operating
meter band, covering a somewhat wider frequency is found. This procedure is re-
range on the 40 -meter band, and covering peated for the different bands of operation.
the whole 20 -meter phone band. The pro-
cedure for tuning the antenna is as follows: 25 -4 Construction and
The antenna is installed, fully assembled, Installation of Mobile
with a coaxial lead of RG -58 /U from the
base of the antenna to the place where the
Equipment
transmitter is installed. The rear deck of It is recommended that the following
the car should be closed, and the car should measures be taken when constructing mobile
540 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

equipment, either transmitting or receiving, PUSH -TO -TALK PUSH-TO-TAL


to ensure trouble -free operation over long
periods:
SWITCH ON MIKE
! f RELAY

\o ,
Use only a stiff, heavy chassis unless the
chassis is quite small.
Use lock washers or lock nuts when mount-
HOT i2H
ing components by means of screws.
Use stranded hookup wire except where ALTERNATE
CONTROL
MAIN POWER
RELAY
RECEIVER
MUTING
ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
ANY
OTHER
r -f considerations make it inadvisable (such SWITCH RELAY RELAY RELAYS

as for instance the plate tank circuit leads Figure 8


in a vhf amplifier). Lace and tie leads
wherever necessary to keep them from vi- RELAY CONTROL CIRCUIT
brating or flopping around. Simplified schematic of the recommended re-
lay control circuit for mobile transmitters.
Unless provided with gear drive, tuning The relatively small push -to -talk relay is con-
capacitors in the large sizes will require a trolled by the button on the microphone or
rotor lock. the communications switch. Then one of the
contacts on this relay controls the other re-
Filamentary (quick- heating) tubes should lays of the transmitter; one side of the coil
be mounted only in a vertical position. of all the additional relays controlled should
be grounded.
The larger size carbon resistors and mica
capacitors should not be supported from
tube socket pins, particularly from minia- ingenuity of the reader. However, a few
ture sockets. Use tie points and keep the re- generalizations and suggestions are in order.
sistor and capacitor "pigtails" short. Do not attempt to control too many re-
Generally speaking, rubber shock mounts lays, particularly heavy -duty relays with
are unnecessary or even undesirable with large coils, by means of an ordinary push -
passenger car installations, or at least with to -talk switch on a microphone. These con-
full -size passenger cars. The springing is tacts are not designed for heavy work, and
sufficiently "soft" that well constructed the inductive "kick" will cause more sparking
radio equipment can be bolted directly to than the contacts on the microphone switch
the vehicle without damage from shock or are designed to handle. It is better to actuate
vibration. Unless shock mounting is properly a single relay with the push -to -talk switch
engineered as to the stiffness and placement and then control all other relays, including
of the shock mounts, mechanical- resonance the heavy -duty contactor for the dynamotor
"amplification" effects may actually cause or transistor power pack, with this relay.
the equipment to be shaken more than if The procedure of operating only one relay
the equipment were bolted directly to the directly by the push -to -talk switch, with
vehicle. all other relays being controlled by this
Surplus military equipment provided with control relay, will eliminate the often -en-
shock or vibration mounts was intended for countered difficulty where the shutting down
use in aircraft, jeeps, tanks, gun -firing of one item of equipment will close relays in
Naval craft, small boats, and similar vehicles other items as a result of the coils of relays
and craft subject to severe shock and vi- being placed in series with each other and
bration. Also, the shock mounting of such with heater circuits. A recommended general
equipment is very carefully engineered in control circuit, where one side of the main
order to avoid harmful resonances. control relay is connected to the hot 12-
To facilitate servicing of mobile equip- volt circuit, but all other relays have one
ment, all interconnecting cables between side connected to ground, is illustrated in
units should be provided with separable figure 8. An additional advantage of such a
connectors on at least one end. circuit is that only one control wire need
be run to the coil of each additional relay,
Control Circuits
The send- receive control cir- the other side of the relay coil being ground-
cuits of a mobile installa- ed.
tion are dictated by the design of the When purchasing relays keep in mind
equipment, and therefore will be left to the that the current rating of the contacts is

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 541

-41. RING
TIP OF MIRE
25 -5 Vehicular Noise
SHELL
PLUG Suppression
(GROUND)
ryI

.RESS-TC >.
SWITCH Satisfactory reception on frequencies
Figure 9 above the broadcast band usually requires
STANDARD CONNECTIONS FOR THE
greater attention to noise- suppression meas-
PUSH -TO -TALK SWITCH ON A HAND-
ures. The required measures vary with the
HELD SINGLE -BUTTON CARBON
particular vehicle and the frequency range
MICROPHONE
involved.
Most of the various types of noise that
are present in a vehicle may be broken down
not a fixed value, but depends on (1) the into the following main categories:
voltage, (2) whether it is a.c. or d.c., and
(3) whether the circuit is purely resistive or (1) Ignition noise.
is inductive. If in doubt, refer to the man- (2) Wheel static (tire static, brake static,
ufacturer's recommendations. Also keep in and intermittent ground via front
mind that a dynamotor (if you use one) wheel bearings).
presents almost a dead short until the arma- (3) "Hash" from voltage regulator con-
ture starts turning, and the starting relay tacts.
should be rated at considerably more than (4) "Whine" from generator commuta-
the normal dynamotor current. tor segment make and break.
(f) Static from scraping connections be-
Microphones The standardized connections tween various parts of the car.
and Circuits for a majority of hand -held
microphones provided with There is no need to suppress ignition noise
push -to -talk switch are shown in figure 9. completely, because at the higher frequencies
Practically all hand -held military -type sin- ignition noise from passing vehicles makes
gle- button microphones on the surplus mar- the use of a noise limiter mandatory any-
ket use these connections. way. However, the limiter should not be
There is an increasing tendency among given too much work to do, because at high
mobile operators toward the use of micro- engine speeds a noisy ignition system will
phones having better frequency and dis- tend to mask weak signals, even though
tortion characteristics than the standard with the limiter working, ignition "pops"
single- button type. The high -impedance dy- may appear to be completely eliminated.
namic type is probably the most popular, Another reason for good ignition suppres-
with the ceramic- crystal type next in popu- sion at the source is that strong ignition
larity. The conventional crystal type is not pulses contain enough energy, when inte-
suitable for mobile use since the crystal unit grated, to block the avc circuit of the re-
will be destroyed by the high temperatures ceiver, causing the gain to drop whenever
which can be reached in a closed car parked the engine is speeded up. Since the avc cir-
in the sun in the summer time. cuits of the receiver obtain no benefit from
The use of low -level microphones in mo- a noise clipper, it is important that ignition
bile service requires careful attention to the noise be suppressed enough at the source that
elimination of common -ground circuits in the avc circuits will not be affected even
the microphone lead. The ground connection when the engine is running at high speed.
for the shielded cable which runs from the
transmitter to the microphone should be Ignition Noise The following procedure
made at only one point, preferably directly
should be found adequate
adjacent to the input of the first tube or
transistor in the speech amplifier. The use of for reducing the ignition noise of practically
a low -level microphone usually will require any passenger car to a level which the
the addition of two speech stages, but these clipper can handle satisfactorily at any en-
stages will take only a milliampere or two gine speed at any frequency from SOO kHz
of current. to 148 MHz. Some of the measures may al-
542 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

ready have been taken when the auto re- Voltage Regulator Certain voltage regula-
ceiver was installed. Hash " tors generate an objection-
First either install a spark -plug suppressor able amount of "hash"
on each plug, or else substitute resistor plugs. at the higher frequencies, particularly in the
The latter are more effective than suppres- vhf range. A large bypass capacitor will
sors and on some cars ignition noise is re- affect the operation of the regulator and pos-
duced to a satisfactory level simply by in- sibly damage the points. A small bypass can
stalling them. However, they may not do be used, however, without causing trouble.
an adequate job alone after they have been A 0.001 -fd mica capacitor placed from
in use for a while, and it is a good idea to the field terminal of the regulator to ground
take the following additional measures. with the shortest possible leads often will
Check all high- tension connections for produce sufficient improvement. If not, a
gaps, particularly the "pinch -fit" terminal choke consisting of about 60 turns of No.
connectors widely used. Replace old high - 18 d.c.c. wound on a 3/4 -inch form can be
tension wiring that may have become leaky. added. This should be placed at the regulator
Check to see if any of the high- tension terminal, and the 0.001 -fd bypass placed
wiring is cabled with low -tension wiring, from the generator side of the choke to
or run in the same conduit. If so, reroute ground.
the low tension wiring to provide as much
separation as practical. Generator Whine'. Generator "whine" often
Bypass to ground the 12 -volt wire from can be satisfactorily sup-
the ignition switch at each end with a 0.1- pressed from 550 kHz to 148 MHz simply
d molded -case paper capacitor in parallel by bypassing the armature terminal to
with a .001 -fd mica or ceramic, using the ground with a special "auto radio" capacitor
shortest possible leads. of 0.25 or 0.5 fd in parallel with a 0.001-
Check to see that the hood makes good pfd mica or ceramic capacitor. The former
ground contact to the car body at several usually is placed on the generator when an
points. Special grounding contactors are auto radio is installed, but must be aug-
available for attachment to the hood lacings mented by a mica or ceramic capacitor with
short leads in order to be effective at the
on cars that otherwise would present a
higher frequencies as well as on the broadcast
grounding problem. band.
If the high - tension coil is mounted on When more drastic measures are required,
the dash, it may be necessary to shield the special filters can be obtained which are de-
high - tension wire as far as the bulkhead, signed for the purpose. These are recom-
unless it already is shielded with armored mended for stubborn cases when a wide
conduit. frequency range is involved. For reception
over only a comparatively narrow band of
Wheel Static Wheel static is either static frequencies, such as the 10 -meter amateur
electricity generated by rota- band, a highly effective filter can be im-
tion of the tires and brake drums, or is noise provised by connecting a resonant choke be-
generated by poor contact between the front tween the previously described parallel by-
wheels and the axles (due to the grease in pass capacitors and the generator armature
the bearings). The latter type of noise sel- terminal. This may consist of No. 10
dom is caused by the rear wheels, but tire enameled wire wound on a suitable form
and shunted with an adjustable trimmer ca-
static may of course be generated by all four
pacitor to permit resonating the combina-
tires. tion to the center of the frequency band
Wheel static can be eliminated by inser- involved. For the 10 -meter band 11 turns
tion of grounding springs under the front close wound on a one -inch form and shunted
hub caps, and by inserting "tire powder" in by a 3 -30 -pf compression -type mica trim-
all inner tubes. Both items are available at mer is suitable. The trimmer should be ad-
radio parts stores and from most auto radio justed experimentally at the center frequen-
dealers. cy of the band in use.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 543

When generator "whine "shows up after Generally speaking it is undesirable from


once being satisfactorily suppressed, the con- the standpoint of engine performance to use
dition of the brushes and commutator both spark -plug suppressors and a distribu-
should be checked. Unless a bypass capacitor tor suppressor. Unless the distributor rotor
has opened up, excessive "whine" usually in- clearance is excessive, noise caused by spark-
dicates that the brushes or commutator are ing of the distributor rotor will not be so
in need of attention in order to prevent bad but that it can be handled satisfactorily
damage to the generator. by a noise limiter. If not, it is preferable to
shield the "hot" lead between ignition coil
Body Static Loose linkages in body or frame
and distributor rather than use a distributor
joints anywhere in the car are suppressor.
potential static producers when the car is In many cases the control rods, speed-
in motion, particularly over a rough road.
ometer cable, etc., will pick up high- tension
Locating the source of such noise is difficult, noise under the hood and conduct it up
and the simplest procedure is to give the under the dash where it causes trouble. If
car a thorough tightening up in the hope so, all control rods and cables should be
that the offending poor contacts will be bonded to the fire wall (bulkhead) where
caught up by the procedure. The use of they pass through, using a short piece of
braided bonding straps between the various heavy flexible braid of the type used for
sections of the body of the car also may shielding.
prove helpful. In some cases it may be necessary to bond
Miscellaneous There are several other poten- the engine to the frame at each rubber en-
tial noise sources on a pas-
senger vehicle, but they do not necessarily
give trouble and therefore require attention
only in some cases.
The heat, oil pressure, and gas gauges can
cause a rasping or scraping noise. The gas
gauge is the most likely offender. It will
cause trouble only when the car is rocked or
is in motion. The gauge units and panel
indicators should both be bypassed with the
0.1 -td paper and 0.001 -td mica or ceram-
ic capacitor combination previously de-
scribed.
At high car speeds under certain atmos- Figure 10
pheric conditions, corona static may be en-
FIFTY -WATT, SIX -BAND TRANS -RECEIVER
countered unless means are taken to prevent
it. The receiving -type auto whips which em- This complete 50 -watt portable or emergency
station is housed in a ventilated cabinet 11"
ploy a plastic ball tip are so provided in order long, 53/4" high and 81/2" deep. Separate
to minimize this type of noise, which is sim- oscillators are used for the receiver and trans-
ply a discharge of the frictional static built mitter sections, permitting reception and
transmissions to be made on separate bands,
up on the car. A whip which ends in a rela- if desired. The receiver portion is at the left,
tively sharp metal point makes an ideal dis- with the bio switch to the left of the band -
switch, and the antenna trimming capacitor
charge point for the static charge, and will at the right. The transmitter portion is at the
cause corona trouble at a much lower voltage right, with the xtal -vfo switch to the left of
than if the tip were hooded with insulation. the bandswitch and the 61461 plate tuning
capacitor at the right.
A piece of Vinylite sleeving slipped over the A dual concentric gain control is mounted be-
top portion of the whip and wrapped tightly tween the tuning dials, with the noise -limiter
switch and crystal socket adjacent to it. The
with heavy thread will prevent this type of amplifier loading capacitor is upper right,
static discharge under practically all con- above the vfo tuning dial.
ditions. An alternative arrangement is to A thin sheet of plexiglas extends the entire
length of the panel to protect the dials. The
wrap the top portion of the whip with plate tuning meter is mounted to the rear
Scotch brand electrical tape. panel between the two vfo dials.
544 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
ANT

Vt V2A V3 V4 VS
R -F AMP. MIXER MIXER 2e2-kHz I.F. DETr13F0-AVC

ivy;
RY2A AUDIO GAIN
R2

I = Xi
2775 KC. Ve
R-F GAIN AUDIO
RI
eve REC. TUNE MIC.

05C1 L.
V2B

VI2 Vii Vio


R -F AMP. BUFFER XTAL -VFO

TRANS. TUNE

V?
AUDIO

SPEAKER

MODULATOR
Figure 11 Ve,V9

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANS -RECEIVER


An external power supply is used and trans- receiver may be operated from a -c supply or
from mobile power pack. Power requirements are 250 volts at 7S ma (receive and transmit)
plus S00 volts at 120 -200 ma (transmit). Transmitter vfo covers 3.S- to 4.0 -MHz range, while
crystal control is used for six -meter operation. Receiver is double ion, with first in-
termediate frequency at 2515 kHz and second intermediate frequency at 262 kHz. Class -B,
triode- ted 61Q6 tubes are used as modulators, driven by 6AQS cathode follower, which
also serves as audio output stage of receiver section. Mobile, carbon microphone (Electro-
Voice 210-E) is used with single stage of speech amplification.

gine mount in a similar manner. If a rear - Wheel static, when present, will persist
mounted whip is employed, the exhaust tail when the car clutch is disengaged and the
pipe also should be bonded to the frame if ignition switch turned off (or to the "left"
supported by rubber mounts. position), with the car coasting.
Body noise will be noticeably worse on
Locating Determining the source of a bumpy road than on a smooth road, par-
Noise Sources certain types of noise is made ticularly at low speeds.
difficult when several things
are contributing to the noise, because elimi- 25 -6 A Six -Band Trans -
nation of one source often will make little Receiver for Portable
or no apparent difference in the total noise.
The following procedure will help to isolate
or Emergency Work
and identify various types of noise.
Ignition noise will be present only when While the trend to SSB operation is
strong, there exists a need for amplitude-
the ignition is on, even though the engine
modulated equipment, particularly for emer-
is turning over.
gency operation. Mobile participation in
Generator noise will be present when the emergency service is a cornerstone of ama-
motor is turning over, regardless of whether teur radio; and a compact, all -band trans-
the ignition switch is on. Slipping the drive receiver, suitable for portable and mobile
belt off will kill it. use in emergency work is a convenient unit
Gauge noise usually will be present only for any amateur to have at hand. A small
when the ignition switch is on or in the unit of this type is described in this section
"left" position provided on some cars. and consists of a complete six -band, SO -watt

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Six -Band Trans- Receiver 545

a -m station. For portable work in an emer- simple, stable, and rugged as possible, using
gency, a trans -receiver is much simpler and a single inductor wound on a ceramic form
more convenient to use than the usual com- and a double -bearing capacitor in the fre-
bination of separate receiver and transmit- quency- determining circuit. The vfo oper-
ter. In addition, the trans -receiver can easily ating range is 3.5 to 4.0 MHz. The har-
receive on a different frequency (or band) monics of this range are used for the higher -
than that used for transmitting; a feature frequency bands, except for 6 meters, where
not common to all transceivers. crystal control is used.
Two 6BQ6 TV -type sweep tubes are
Trans -Receiver The trans -receiver consists of triode connected as a class -B modulator
Circuitry a separate receiver and trans-
mitter making use of a com-
stage (V,_ ) in a simplified circuit with
the screens driven, and with the grids at
mon audio system. A block diagram of the cathode (ground) potential.
complete unit is shown in figure 11 and the
schematic is given in figure 12. Trans- Receiver The compact assembly is
The Receiver Section-The receiver is a Controls achieved by utilizing small
dual- conversion circuit which reduces image components, dual -purpose
response by virtue of a high first interme- tubes, and multiple use of some tubes for
diate frequency, and gains selectivity by em- both receiving and transmitting modes.
ploying a second lower- frequency i -f sec- The receiver and transmitter, however,
tion. A total of thirteen tubes is used in operate independently of each other, each
the trans -receiver, including a voltage regu- having its own bandswitch and tuning as-
lator. In the receiver portion, a semiremote- semblies. The receiver has separate r -f and
cutoff 6BZ6 is used in the r-f amplifier (V1), audio gain controls incorporated in a con-
followed by a 6U8A mixer -oscillator (V2A- centric potentiometer along with the power
B), gang -tuned by a dual capacitor (CA- switch (R1, R_, Ss). The automatic noise
B). The first intermediate frequency of limiter and beat oscillator are controlled by
2515 kHz is converted to the second inter- slide switches (S., S3) on the panel, and a
mediate frequency (262 kHz) by a crystal - frequency spotting switch (S ) turns on
controlled 6BE6 second mixer-oscillator the transmitter vfo or crystal oscillator for
(V3). A 6B6 i -f amplifier (V1) is fol- spotting the transmitting frequency in the
lowed by a multipurpose 6T8 (V.,) which receiver. The bfo has no panel pitch con-
combines the functions of second detector, trol, but it may be set as desired by adjust-
noise limiter, and bfo. A second 6U8A is ing the slug of the bfo coil.
used as a pentode audio amplifier (V,;) with The receiver dial tunes the dual capacitor
the triode section used as a microphone am- of the oscillator and mixer stages (C2A-B).
plifier for the transmitter. The 6AQ5 audio A panel trimmer capacitor (CO resonates
stage (V;) performs the dual function of the input circuit of the r-f stage.
receiver audio stage and cathode -follower Few controls are required for the trans-
driver for the 6BQ6 modulator tubes of the mitter section. The tuning dial (C3) sets
transmitter section, by switching a capaci- the transmitter frequency while grid drive
tor between cathode and plate of the on all bands is preadjusted during original
6AQ5 by relay RY,C, thus obtaining the alignment procedure and is broadbanded.
dual circuitry desired. A voltage regulator The tuning and loading capacitors of the
(V,:,) stabilizes the voltage on both receiver final amplifier (C4, C5) provide a variable
and transmitter variable oscillators. match to a portable or mobile antenna sys-
The Transmitter Section -The transmit- tem. Switch S4A-B selects vfo or crystal-
ter portion of the trans -receiver consists of controlled operation. An external carbon
a 6AU6 crystal oscillator or vfo stage microphone plugs into jack J, on the front
(V, ), a 12BY7A tuned buffer -multiplier panel and key jack J:, is placed on the rear
stage and a 6146B final amplifier (V12). apron of the chassis, along with the phone,/
The output circuit of the final amplifier is c -w switch (S;), speaker jack J., coaxial
a pi- network on all bands. The vfo is the antenna receptacle J,, and the heavy -duty
heart of the transmitter and is made as eight- contact power plug. Power switch S.
546 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

Figure 12

SCHEMATIC, SIX BAND TRANS-RECEIVER

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Six -Band Trans -Receiver 547

PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 12

C, -35 pf, APC type SA -8 -2 -pole, 2- position. Centralab CRL- PA2003


CAA- B -15 -15 pf. Bud LC -1660 J,- Three -circuit microphone jack
C, -S0 pf. Bud LC -1661 with sections in parallel P,-8-contact cha -sis plug. Cinch -Jones P -408A8
C,-190 pf. Bud MC -1858 RY, -3 -pole, double -throw, 6 -volt coil. Potter -
C,-420 -420 pf. J. W. Miller 2112 Brumfield KA -14D
C,-800 pf silver mica, 1KV RY,-DPDT, 6 -volt coil. Potter -Brumfield KT -11D.
R,, R., S, -Co fric potentiometers and power Note: Connect coils in parallel for 6 -volt
switch. Front section SK, rear section 1 operation
megohm. IRC TV replacement RFC -1 mH. National R -1000 with ceramic base
PC -4 turns 820 enam., on 100 -ohm, 1 -watt M -0 -150 d-c milliammeter, 1'/2" diameter
composition resistor T, -1500 kHz. J. W. Miller 13 -W1 (modified to
S,A- B-C -D -E, S A -B -C -Each, 3 ceramic wafers 2515 kHz, see text)
(2 -pole, 6- position), Centralab CRL -PA -2 on T;, T -262 kHz. J. W. Miller 12 -H2
CRL -PA301 index, with fibre extension T -7K to voice coil, S watts. Stancor A -3878
shaft. Use only one pole per wafer on S Tr -10K to push -pull grids (2:1). Stancor A -4713
segments. Note: Bandswitches shown in 80- T, -25 -watt modulation transformer, 10K to
meter position SK. Stancor A-3845
Cabinet and chassis -California Chassis LTC -470

applies all power to the trans -receiver, plac- in diameter. Small angle brackets affixed to
ing the receiver in operation. Pressing the the chassis at both ends of the pan ensure
microphone switch actuates the control re- rigidity. The completed dials are covered
lays (RY, and RY2), disconnecting voltage with a protective plexiglas sheet.
from portions of the receiver and transfer- A small chassis 4" X 1/2" X I" is used to
1

ring it to the transmitter. The two audio mount the 2515 -kHz i -f transformer (T1),
tubes (V,;, V;) have voltages applied at all the 6BE6 mixer tube (V:1), and the con-
times as their operation is common to both version crystal, plus the first 262 -kHz i -f
modes. transformer (T_). The unit is wired with
connecting leads left long enough to pass
Trans- Receiver The trans- receiver is built on
through a hole in the chassis for connection
Construction an aluminum chassis measur- to the under-chassis receiver -section wiring.
ing 8 %" X 11" which is sup- A separate low- capacitance shielded lead
plied with the perforated cabinet. Layout of (RG- 178/U) connects to the plate terminal
the trans -receiver is conventional, the only of the 2515-kHz i -f transformer and is fed
extra metal work required is fabrication of through a separate chassis hole to make a
a few small brackets and shield plates bent short connection to the plate pin of the
of light sheet aluminum. The dials are made 6U8 mixer tube socket. Note that holes
from a single piece of aluminum bent to must be drilled in the main chassis below the
form a shallow pan 11" long and 4 1/2" subchassis unit in line with the bottom
high, having 3/R" lips on all sides. This sub - slugs of the two i -f transformers so that
panel is bolted to the top of the chassis they may be adjusted from under the chas-
placing the lips flush with the front apron sis when the unit is assembled. The 2515-
of the chassis, leaving the 3/K" depth as a kHz i -f transformer is a 1500 -kHz unit
protected enclosure for the dial mechanisms modified by removing about five feet of
and pointers, and the miniature meter (fig- wire from each winding. The 262 -kHz
ure 13). transformers are standard units, and the
The inside area of this pan is sprayed with bfo transformer (L_ :,) may be made from a
white lacquer (aerosol) and the calibration 262 -kHz input i -f transformer by removing
marks and lettering are done directly on the the mica padding capacitor and using one
lacquered surface with India ink. The ver- winding for the bfo inductance. Silver mica
nier drive mechanisms are removed from padding capacitors are connected externally
their base and are mounted directly on the across the winding.
pan in an %g" cutout. A clear plastic
1
Receiver R -F Section-The r -f portion of
pointer is shaped to fit over the metal dial the receiver is contained in the under -chas-
face and is attached to it by three small
sis area below the receiver tuning capacitor.
screws holding the dial to the vernier as-
sembly. This unit conserves space and makes Two shield partitions separate the r-f coils.
a large, easy -to -read dial nearly five inches Both partitions measure 5" X 15/R" with
548 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

Figure 13

TOP VIEW OF TRANS- RECEIVER CHASSIS


The receiver section is to the right of the chassis. The 6BZ6 r -f tube (shielded) is next to
the panel with the tuning capacitor and 6U8A tube adjacent to it. The small chassis at the
right contains the 6BE6 mixer, conversion crystal, and input and output transformers. Be-
tween the subchassis and the modulation transformer are the 68A6 second i -f amplifier, third
i -f transformer and second detector, and bfo transformer. Directly behind the panel -mounted
meter is the 0A2 regulator followed by the 6U8A and 6AQ5 audio tubes. The driver trans-
former is on the chassis below the audio output transformer, mounted on the transmitter
shielded partition. The transmitter section is to the left of the chassis. The 6AU6 oscillator and
oscillator coil bracket the tuning capacitor, next to the front panel. The I2BY7A buffer tube
is adjacent to the shield partition. Within the partition are the 61468 amplifier tube and
associated tank -circuit components. A large cutout in the chassis permits short leads between
the tank coil and the under -chassis bandswitch. The subpanel is attached to the chassis by
means of angle braces at the ends of the panel.

1/4" lipsbent on all sides. They are separated on the switch mechanism. A panel bearing
1 The trimmer capacitors for the various
%err. is placed in the shaft hole of the oscillator
coils mount on the top lip of these parti- partition (rear) to ensure proper alignment
tions, and the bandswitch segments (S,C- of the phenolic switch shaft. The r -f coil
D-E) are mounted on the sides of the parti- partition is 13/4" from the front panel and
tions. Bandswitch segment S,A -B is mounted crosses the center of the 6BZ6 r -f tube

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HANDBOOK Six -Band Trans -Receiver 549

nol

Figure 14

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF TRANS -RECEIVER


The receiver section is to the left of the chassis. The 6BZ6 r -f coils are grouped around the
switch segment nearest the panel. The mixer coils are between the two shield partitions and
the trimmer capacitors are mounted to the top flanges of the partitions. The polystyrene
coil forms are tapped and bolted to the chassis. Common B -plus and avc connections run
between the coils. Relay RY is mounted to the chassis in the lower left corner, with the two
filter capacitors adjacent to it, one atop the other. Control wiring, filament leads, etc. run
down the center of the chassis. The transmitter section is to the right of the chassis. The two
oscillator plate coils are mounted on either side of the bandswitch segment on the front
partition. The center area contains the buffer components and buffer and amplifier tube
sockets. The air -wound 6 -meter coil (L ) is attached directly to the terminals of the switch
segment and lies parallel to the fibre switch shaft. Components of the final amplifier are
inclosed in the lower right compartment, with coil L soldered to the stator terminal of the
plate tuning capacitor. Antenna relay (RY ) is adjacent to the coaxial antenna receptacle. The
plate -circuit bandswitch segment is mounted to the shield partition.

socket. A cutout in the partition clears the post of the socket. It is soldered to the
socket, but a small shield of copper "flash- center post and then bolted to the aluminum
ing" material is cut to fit over the center partition to completely shield the input from
550 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
the plate circuit of the r -f stage. Proper RECEIVER COIL DATA
shielding at this point is necessary to pre- Band Coil Range 1MHzI Turns
vent regeneration or oscillation in the r -f Ll 3.5-4.0 loopstick
80 12 (Antenna) 121. No. 32E.
stage. L13 3.5-4.0 Loopstick
Feedthrough capacitors are mounted on 119 6.015-6.515 46T. No. 30E.
the oscillator and mixer side partitions to 13 7.0.7.3 35T. No. 32E.
bring high voltage into the two coil areas. 40 1.4 (Antenna) 71. No. 30E.
The side plates fasten to the partitions to 114 7.0.7.3 321. No. 32E.
9.515-9.815 17T. No. 24E.
complete the shielding and to provide L2e
15 14.0-14.4 201. No. 28E.
rigidity to the assembly. Leads from the L6 (Antenna) ST. No. 30E.
tuning capacitor are brought down to the 20
115
14.0-14.4 20T. No. 20E.
various bandswitch segments through holes Center-Tap.
16.515.16.915
in th; chassis. The tuning capacitor corn - L21 81. No. 20E.

mon ground is made at a soldering lug L2 21.0-21.5 131. No. 22E.


Ls (Antenna) 5T. No. 30E.
adjacent to the 6U8A mixer tube socket. 15 L16 21.0-21.5 13T. No. 22E.
Center-Tap.
Receiver Wiring Almost all of the receiver 122 23.515-24.015 41. No. 20E.
sections can be wired before lt 27.0-29.7 10T. No. 20E.
the coils and under-chassis partitions are 10.11
110
(Antenna) 5T. No. 30E.
placed in position. A turret -type socket is 117 27.0-29.7 71/21. No. 20E.

used for the 6B6 i -f amplifier stage to L22


29.515-32.215 7T. No. 20E.

mount the screen, cathode, and plate -de- 111


50-54 .5T. No. 20E.
6 112 (Antenna) 41. No. 30E.
coupling resistors. A terminal strip along- 50-54 31/21. No. 20E.
lls
side the 6T8 detector socket supports the 124 47.485-51.485 31/21. No. 20E.
various resistors for the detector and noise -
limiter circuits. To conserve space, small - Figure 15
diameter shielded wire is used to bring the COIL DATA FOR RECEIVER SECTION
audio and noise -limiter leads from the
Except for coils L, and L, , all coils are wound
socket area to the volume control and a.n.l. on 3/s" diameter polystyrene rod 11/4" long.
switch on the panel. A second turret socket Winding space is 3/e" at top end of form ex-
is used for the 6AQ5 stage to support re- cept for 80 -meter oscillator coil (L,,) which
occupies t/2 ". Holes drilled through the form
sistors common to this circuit and the ad- hold the ends of the windings. The bottom of
joining 6U8A. the coil form is drilled and tapped for 4 -40
bolts. Antenna coils are wound 1/16" below
The receiver r -f coil assembly can be the "cold" (ground) end of the grid coils.
most easily wired by first attaching the Coils L, and L, are broadcast Ioopstick coils
(J. W. Miller 6300). Beat- oscillator coil L is
bandswitch wafers to the partitions and the top coil of a 262 -kHz i -f transformer
wiring them to the corresponding trimmer (J. W. Miller 12 -H2) with trimmers and lower
capacitors before the partitions are mounted coil removed.
on the chassis. As the individual coils arc
placed in position, they are wired to their with the 6U6 oscillator tube adjacent to
respective trimmer capacitors. Note that the the dial. The vfo coil (L26) is bolted to
80 -meter r -f coils (L,, L11) are made from the top of the chassis to one side, placed as
broadcast "loopsticks" with no alterations. far away from tube heat as practical. No
The same type of loopstick is used for the shielding is used around the coil. A large
80 -meter buffer coil in the transmitter right -angle shield plate on top of the chas-
(L:,,) by trimming off the excess length of sis separates the oscillator and buffer circuits
the fibre tube and forcing the form on a from the final amplifier stage, and is also
short length of %" plastic rod that is used as a mounting plate for the amplifier
tapped and bolted to the chassis. The in- loading capacitor. Two 3/,t" diameter brass
ductance of the coil is adjusted by using a gears are placed between the capacitor and
short piece of the original ferrite core glued a separate drive shaft to bring the shaft to
in place. the front panel above the transmitter tun-
The transmitter section occupies the left ing dial. The final amplifier plate choke is
side of the chassis (viewed from the rear), mounted horizontally on the partition next

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HANDBOOK Six -Band Trans -Receiver 551

TRANSMITTER COIL DATA DIODES


1 N 2071 T1
Coil Range 1MHz1 Turns
LK 3.5-4.0 35T. No. 22E. Closewound
(Oscillator) on 3/4" dia. ceramic form.
Top 77. from ground.
Lv 25.0 141. No. 24E. Closewound on
CTC form D/e" dia. (CTC -
1465-3 -1)
L28 7.0 30T. No. 30 closewound on
CTC Form Die" dia. (CTC -
1465 -2.1)
Lp 50.1 7T. No. 18 Airwound, 3A3"
L30 29.0 dia. 12T. No. 24E. Close-
wound on CTC form 3,43" dia.
(CTC-1465-3-1)
L3I 21.0 191. No. 24, as 1.30
232 14.0 25T. No. 28, as 130 on
(CTC -1465 -2.1) +500V. +250V. GND. 12V.D.C. 6.3 V. 115V
TO OPERATE e.5 A. ti
L33 7.0 40T. No. 30, as 1.32 DC RELAYS
L34 3.8 Loopstick
J. W. Miller 6300 Figure 17
21.0-54.0 8T. No. 10, 5i" dia., 1"
135
long, tapped at 4T. A -C POWER SUPPLY FOR TRANS -RECEIVER
L34 3.5-14.4 381. No. 20, 1" dia., 2%" T, -530 volts CT at 300 milliamperes, 5 volts at
long (air -dux 816T). Tap at 4a., 6.3 volts at 8.5a. (Thordarson 26R88).
9 and 181. from L35. (Stancor P -8353 with a 12.6 -volt winding may
be used). Diodes are 600 -volt PIV, 750 ma.
Figure 16 1N4005's may be substituted.

to the 6146B. The space below the loading ceiver alignment tests. The i -f section is
capacitor is used for placement of the 25K, aligned first by applying a 2515 -kHz test
10 -watt screen- dropping resistor and the signal to the input grid of the 6U8A mixer
5 -ohm, 10 -watt filament- balancing resistor. tube (pin 2, V2A) and adjusting the slugs
The amplifier tank coil (L:,;-L:10 is made of the three i -f transformers for maximum
in two sections as shown in the coil table signal. This may be judged by ear or by a
(figure 16) with the low- frequency section v.t.v.m. placed on the avc line. If the con-
mounted horizontally above the chassis on version oscillator is working, the complete
ceramic insulators. The 10- and 6 -meter i -f section may be aligned with the 2515 -
coil is placed in a vertical position below a kHz test signal.
large rectangular cutout in the chassis Using the given coil data, all bands are
which permits short connections between spread out over nearly 180 degrees of the
coil and bandswitch. receiver dial. Except for the 6 -meter band,
Wiring the coils in the transmitter section all oscillator circuits tune to the high -fre-
presents no problems. The short under -chas- quency side of the incoming signal. Align-
sis shield partition near the panel supports ment procedure is the same for all bands.
switch segments S:,A and S;,B (one on each The frequency range of each mixer oscil-
side of the panel) and the two oscillator lator circuit is monitored with a calibrated
coils L,; and L_.. All coils for the 12BY7A receiver or BC -221 (LM) frequency meter
buffer stage are placed between the two and is adjusted with the individual trim-
partitions with their alignment screws pro- mer capacitor and by varying the spacing
jecting out of the top of the chassis. The of the turns on the oscillator coil, if neces-
air -wound 6 -meter buffer coil (L,,,) is sary. Alternatively, alignment can be done
soldered between a terminal of the band - by checking the frequency range of the
switch (S:,B) and a tiepoint on the chassis. oscillator with a grid -dip meter. The r-f

Trans- Receiver Receiver Alignment


Adjustment
The
a -c power supply shown in
- stage grid coils require no adjustment
other than a check to make sure they tune
their respective bands within the range of
figure 17 can be used for re- antenna trimmer capacitor C1.
552 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
The last step in receiver alignment is to going ahead with adjustment of the remain-
check the tuning range of the mixer circuit ing bands. Switch S, is set for crystal opera-
(L,;, -L,,,) to ensure that these coils track tion, and a crystal in the range 8.333- to
properly with oscillator tuning. A test sig- 9.000 -MHz is placed in the socket. A test
nal is injected into the antenna circuit at meter is placed at test point TP, to ground
the high- frequency end of the band under and the slug in the oscillator plate coil (L57)
adjustment and the proper mixer trimmer is tuned for resonance in the 25 -MHz re-
is adjusted for maximum signal. The dial gion. With the test meter moved to TP_ to
is then tuned to the low- frequency end of ground, buffer coil L_ is adjusted for max-
the band, and the signal generator returned imum final -amplifier grid current of about
to the new frequency. The trimmer is again 3 to 4 ma. Grid current is peaked by
adjusted for maximum signal. If the trim- squeezing or spreading apart the turns of
mer capacitance had to be increased for the the coil. A further adjustment of this coil
second test, the inductance of the coil is too should be made after the final amplifier stage
low and the turns must be squeezed to- is placed in operation, as the inductance of
gether a bit to raise the inductance. If the this coil is somewhat critical. When properly
trimmer capacitor had to be decreased, on adjusted, the 6 -meter operating frequency
the other hand, the inductance is too high may be varied about 500 -kHz from the
and the coil turns must be spread apart a frequency of adjustment without retuning
bit. When no further adjustment of the the oscillator or multiplier plate coils.
trimmer is required, the mixer circuit is The remaining high- frequency bands are
tracking properly with the oscillator. The now aligned, with switch S, in the vfo
15- and 20 -meter mixer coils (L,.,, L16) are position, starting with the 10 -meter band.
tapped to achieve bandspread without de- Oscillator plate coil L20 is adjusted for max-
creasing the sensitivity which may result imum doubler grid current (about 1 ma).
from excessive capacitive loading. Track- This coil is broadly resonant at 7 MHz.
ing adjustments on these coils is made by Observing the final amplifier grid current,
moving the tap higher or lower on the coil. the buffer -quadrupler coil (L30) is adjusted
Transmitter Alignment-The a -c power for maximum grid drive with the vfo set at
supply is used to run the oscillator and 29 MHz. The 15 -meter tripler coil (L31)
multiplier stages in the transmitter for can then be tuned for maximum grid drive,
these tests. Relay RY, is held closed with a followed by the 20 -meter doubler coil
piece of cardboard to apply voltage to the (L3_)
6AU6 oscillator and the 12BY7A buffer - To complete alignment and test of the
multiplier stages. The 6146B should be in transmitter section, high voltage is re-
the socket although plate and screen voltages quired to power the amplifier and modulator
are removed at this time (terminal 8 on plug stages. In addition, d -c control voltage is
P, open). The first adjustment is to cor- required to operate the changeover relays.
rectly place the vfo tuning range on the A light bulb may be used for a dummy
transmitter dial which is done by adjusting lord. The final amplifier is loaded to about
the ceramic trimmer capacitor in the vfo 110 -ma plate current and grid current is re-
tuned circuit, or adding or removing a turn checked at TP_ to ground. If necessary, the
or two of wire on the vfo coil, if required.
slugs in the various driver coils may be re-
The 80 -meter alignment of the buffer stage
is a matter of setting the slug in plate coil
peaked for maximum drive. A test meter
L for maximum grid drive to the ampli- inserted between modulator cathodes and
ground will read about 20 ma resting cur-
fier tube, as read with a test milliammeter at
test point TP, to ground. A 10K loading rent and 100 ma on loud voice peaks.
resistor is placed across the 80 -meter coil For c -w operation the final amplifier is
to limit the 6146B grid current to 3 ma keyed in the cathode circuit. Phone c -w
and to broadband the adjustment. The 40- switch S7 removes voltage from the modu-
meter band is aligned in the same manner lator tubes and shorts out the secondary of
by adjusting the slug in coil L33. The 6- the modulation transformer. The transmit-
meter alignment must now be made before ter circuits are energized by an auxiliary

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Power Supplies 553

Figure 18

TRANSISTORS CAN REPLACE VIBRATOR IN MOBILE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM


A- Typical vibrator circuit.
C-Vibrator can be represented by two single-pole single -throw switches, or transistors.
C- Push -pull square -wave "oscillator" is driven by special feedback windings on power
transformer.
D- Addition of bias in base-emitter circuit results in oscillator capable of starting under full
load.

switch on the push -to -talk circuit of the The switch is actuated by a magnetic coil
microphone. and breaker circuit requiring appreciable
power which must be supplied by the pri-
mary source.
25 -7 Transistor One of the principal applications of the
Power Supplies transistor is in switching circuits. The tran-
sistor may be switched from an "off" con-
The vibrator -type of mobile supply dition to an "on" condition with but the
achieves an over-all efficiency in the neigh- application of a minute exciting signal.
borhood of 707(. The vibrator may be When the transistor is nonconductive it
thought of as a mechanical switch reversing may be considered to be an open circuit.
the polarity of the primary source at a When it is in a conductive state, the in-
repetition rate of 120 transfers per second. ternal resistance is very low. Two transistors
properly connected, therefore, can replace
W
the single -pole, double -throw mechanical
u switch representing the vibrator. The tran-
RISE TIME = !O//S
0 2.5 VOLTS nt- sistor switching action is many times faster
.200 -2000 -
> 35-. US than that of the mechanical vibrator and
p 30 the transistor can switch an appreciable
,(:j) 25 amount of power. Efficiencies in the neigh-
20 --
O
borhood of 95 percent can be obtained with
28 -volt primary -type transistor power sup-
10.-
W
N
a
CO
5-
0_t
0.5 vOLT
r-- 200-
us
plies, permitting great savings in primary
power over conventional vibrators and dyna-
motors.
TIME - Transistor The transistor operation resembles
Figure 19 Operation a magnetically coupled multivi-
brator, or an audio- frequency
BASE -COLLECTOR WAVEFORM OF
push -pull square wave oscillator (figure
SWITCHING CIRCUIT, 18C). A special feedback winding on the
FOR 12 -VOLT CIRCUIT
power transformer provides 180 degree phase-
Square waveshape produces almost ideal shift voltage necessary to maintain oscilla-
switching action. Small "spike" on leading
edge of pulses may be reduced by proper tion. In this application the transistors are
transformer design. operated as on -off switches; i.e., they are
554 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO

2N27
+ 250V. AT SO MA =12 WATTS

+500 V. AT ISO MA. = 75 WATTS

TOTAL POWER = 117 WATTS

2N278 oR2N301A
T2

+275 V. AT 125 MA = 35 WATTS

Figure 20

PRACTICAL TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLIES


T,- Chicago Stancor DCT-2 transistor transformer
1, -Chicago Stance, DCT-I transistor transformer
D, -D, Sarkes- Tarsien M-S00 silicon rectifier or equivalent

either completing the circuit or opening it. that an increase in load produces very little
The oscillator output voltage is a square extra heating of the transistors. This feature
wave having a frequency that is dependent means that it is impossible to burn out the
on the driving voltage, the primary in- transistors in the event of a shorted load
ductance of the power transformer, and since the switching action merely stops.
the peak collector current drawn by the
conducting transistor. Changes in trans- Transistor The power capability of the
former turns, core area, core material, and Power Rating transistor is limited by the
feedback turns ratio have an effect on the amount of heat created by the
frequency of oscillation. Frequencies in com- current flow through the internal resistance
mon use are in the range of 120 Hz to of the transistor. When the transistor is con-
3500 Hz. ducting, the internal resistance is extremely
The power consumed by the transistors low and little heat is generated by current
is relatively independent of load. Loading flow. Conversely, when the transistor is in
the oscillator causes an increase in input a cut -off condition the internal resistance is
current that is sufficient to supply the re- very high and the current flow is extremely
quired power to the load and the additional small. Thus, in both the "on" and "off"
losses in the transformer windings. Thus, conditions the transistor dissipates a min-
the over -all efficiency actually increases imum of power. The important portion of
with load and is greatest at the heaviest load the operating cycle is that portion when
the oscillator will supply. A result of this is the actual switching from one transistor to

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Power Supplies 555

of the two transistors. The current flowing


in the emitter -base circuit depends on the
value of input resistance. The induced volt-
age across the feedback winding of the trans-
former is a square wave of such polarity
that it forward -biases the emitter -base diode
of the transistor that is starting to conduct
collector current, and reverse -biases the other
transistor. The forward -biased transistor
will have a very low input impedance, while
the input impedance of the reversed -biased
transistor will be quite high. Thus, most of
the starting current drained from the pri-
mary power source will flow in R, and the
base-emitter circuit of the forward -biased
transistor and very little in the other tran-
Figure 21 sistor. It can be seen that R, must not be
too low in comparison to the input resistance
35 WATT TRANSISTOR
of the conducting transistor, or it will
POWER SUPPLY
shunt too much current from the tran-
Two 2N301A power transistors are used in
this midget supply. Transistors are mounted sistor. When switching takes place, the trans-
on sanded portion of chassis deck which acts former polarities reverse and the additional
os "heat sink." See text for details. current now flows in the base- emitter cir-
cuit of the other transistor.
the other occurs, as this is the time during The Power The power transformer in a
which the transistor may be passing through Transformer transistor -type supply is de-
the region of high dissipation. The greater
signed to reach a state of maxi-
the rate of switching, in general, the faster mum flux density (saturation) at the point
will be the rise time of the square wave
of maximum transistor conductance. When
(figure 19) and the lower will be the inter-
this state is reached the flux density drops
nal losses of the transistor. The average tran-
to zero and reduces the feedback voltage
sistor can switch about eight times the
developed in the base winding to zero. The
power rating of class -A operation of the
flux then reverses because there is no con-
unit. Two switching transistors having 5- ducting transistor to sustain the magnetiz-
watt class -A power output rating can there- ing current. This change of flux induces a
fore switch 80 watts of power when work-
voltage of the opposite polarity in the trans-
ing at optimum switching frequency.
former. This voltage turns the first transis-
Self -StortingThe transistor supply shown in tor off and holds the second transistor on.
Oscillators figure 18C is impractical be- The transistor instantly reaches a state of
cause oscillations will not start maximum conduction, producing a state of
under load. Base bias of the proper po- saturation in the transformer. This action
larity has to be momentarily introduced into repeats itself at a very fast rate. Switching
the base- emitter circuit before oscillation time is of the order of S to 10 microseconds,
will start and sustain itself. The addition of and saturation time is perhaps 200 to 2000
a bias resistor (figure 18D) to the circuit microseconds. The collector waveform of a
results in an oscillator that is capable of typical transistor supply is shown in figure
starting under full load. R, is usually of the 19. The rise time of the wave is about S
order of 10 to 50 ohms while Rz is adjusted microseconds, and the saturation time is
so that approximately 100 milliamperes flow 500 microseconds. The small "spike" at the
through the circuit. leading edge of the pulse has an amplitude
The current drawn from the battery by of about 2.5 volts and is a product of
this network flows through R_ and then di- switching transients caused by the primary
vides between R, and the input resistances leakage reactance of the transformer. Prop-
556 Mobile Equipment Design THE RADIO
2N301A

Figure 22

SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTOR
Di Da
POWER SUPPLY FOR
12 VOLT AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T -Transistor power transformer.
12 -volt primary, to provide 275v.
275 volts at 125 ma. Chicago A7125 MA
Stancor DCT -1
D -D -Sarkes- Tarzian silicon recti-
fier, type M -500, or equiva-
lent

- 12 V. BATTERY +

er transformer design can reduce this "spike" The complete power package is built on
to a minimum value. An excessively large an aluminum chassis -box measuring 5 %s"
"spike" can puncture the transistor junc- X 3" X 2". Paint is removed from the
tion and ruin the unit. center portion of the box to form a simple
heat sink for the transistors. The box there-
25 -8 Two fore conducts heat away from the collector
Transistorized elements of the transistors. The collector of
Mobile Supplies the transistor is the metal case terminal
and in this circuit is returned to the nega-
The new Stancor Electronics Corp. series tive terminal of the primary supply. If
of power transformers designed to work the negative of the automobile battery is
in transistor -type power supplies permits grounded to the frame of the car the case of
the amateur and experimenter to construct the transistor may be directly grounded to the
efficient mobile power supplies at a fraction
of their former price. Described in this sec-
tion are two power supplies designed around
these efficient transformers. The smaller sup-
ply delivers 35 watts (275 volts at 125 mil-
liamperes) and the larger supply delivers 85
watts (500 volts at 125 milliamperes and
250 volts at 50 milliamperes, simultaneous-
ly). Both power units operate from a 12-
volt primary source.
The 35 -Watt The 35 -watt power unit uses
Supply two inexpensive RCA 2N-
301A PNP -type power tran-
sistors for the switching elements and four
silicon diodes for the high- voltage rectifiers.
The complete schematic is shown in figure
22. Because of the relatively high switching
Figure 23
frequency only a single 20 -pfd filter capaci-
tor is required to provide pure direct cur- UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF PARTS
rent. Two 10-Ad capacitors are connected in parallel
Regulation of the supply is remarkably for 20 -fd
output filter capacitor. Silicon recti-
fiers are mounted in dual fuse clips at end of
good. No -load voltage is 310 volts, dropping chassis. Transistor should be insulated from the
to 275 volts at maximum current drain of chassis with thin mica sheets and fibre washers
if supply is used with positive -grounded pri-
125 milliamperes. mary system.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Trorsistor Power Supplies 557

2N27B Figure 24

SCHEMATIC,
85 -WATT
TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY
FOR 12 -VOLT
AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T- Transistor power trans-
former. 12 -volt pri-
mary to provide 275
volts at 125 ma. Chi-
cago 5tancor DCT -2.
D -D -Sarkes -Tarzian sili-
con rectifier, type M-
500

unpainted area of the chassis. If the positive insulators. These may be used in place of
terminal of the car battery is grounded it is the mica washers, if desired. The under -
necessary to electrically insulate the transis- chassis wiring may be seen in figure 23.
tor from the aluminum chassis, yet at the
The 85-Watt Figure 24 shows the schematic
same time permit a low thermal barrier to
exist between the transistor case and the
Supply of a dual -voltage transistor
power supply chassis. A simple method of mobile power supply. A
accomplishing this is to insert a thin mica bridge rectifier permits the choice of either
sheet between the transistor and the chassis. 250 volts or 500 volts, or a combination of
Two -mil (0.002") mica washers for tran- both at a total current drain that limits the
sistors are available at many large radio secondary power to 85 watts. Thus, 500
supply houses. The mica is placed between volts at 170 milliamperes may be drawn,
with correspondingly less current as addi-
the transistor and the chassis deck, and fibre
tional power is drawn from the 250 -volt
washers are placed under the retaining nuts
tap.
holding the transistor in place. When the The supply is built on an aluminum box
transistors are mounted in place, measure the chassis measuring 7" X 5" X 3", the layout
collector to ground resistance with an ohm- closely following that of the 35 -watt supply.
meter. It should be 100 megohms or higher Delro 2N278 PNP -type transistors are used
in dry air. After the mounting is completed, as the switching elements and eight silicon
spray the transistor and the bare chassis diodes form the high -voltage bridge rectifier.
section with plastic Krylon to retard oxida- The transistors are affixed to the chassis in
tion. Several manufacturers produce anodized the same manner as the 2N301A mounting
aluminum washers that serve as mounting described previously.
CHAPTER TWENTY -SIX

Receivers and Transceivers

Receiver construction has just about be- he never uses, and the phone man must pay
come a lost art. Excellent general coverage for the c -w man's narrow -band filter. For
receivers are available on the market in many one amateur, the receiver has too much
price ranges. However, even the most mod- bandspread; for the next, too little. For
est of these receivers is relatively expensive, economy's sake and for ease of alignment,
and most of the receivers are designed as a low -Q coils are often found in the r -f cir-
compromise-they must suit the majority of cuits of commercial receivers, making the
users, and they must be designed with an eye set a victim of crosstalk and overloading
to the price. from strong local signals. Rarely does the
It is a tribute to the receiver manufac- purchaser of a commercial receiver realize
turers that they have done as well as they that he could achieve the results he desires in
have. Even so, the c -w man must often pay a homebuilt receiver if he left off the frills
for a high- fidelity audio system and S -meter and trivia which he does not need but which

Figure 1

COMPONENT NOMENCLATURE
RESISTORS
CAPACITORS: I- RESISTANCE VALUES ARE STATED IN OHMS, THOUSANDS
Of OHMS (K), AND MEGONMS (M ).
I- VALUES BELOW 999 PF ARE INDICATED IN UNITS.
EXAMPLE, 270 OHMS 270
EXAMPLE: ISO PF DESIGNATED AS ISO.
700 OHMS 4 7 K
2- VALUES ABOVE 999 Pf ARE INDICATED IN DECIMALS. 33000 OHMS
100,000 OHMS' 100K
' S3 K
OR 0.1 M
EXAMPLE. OOSLFD DESIGNATED AS .005. 33,000,000 OHMS' 33 M
3- OTHER CAPACITOR VALUES ARE AS STATED. 2- ALL RESISTORS ARE 1 -WATT COMPOSITION TYPE UNLESS
EXAMPLE: I0,UFD, 0.3PF, Esc.
- TYPE OF CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BENEATH THE VALUE
DESIGNATION.
OTHERWISE NOTED. WATTAGE NOTATION IS THEN INDICATED
BELOW RESISTANCE VALUE.
4711
EXAMPLE: rci-
SM= SILVER MICA
C' CERAMIC
M. MICA
P. PAPER INDUCTORS:
200, .01 .M1 MICROHENRIES =LH
EXAMPLE:
MILLIHENRIES NH
HENRIES= H
S- VOLTAGE RATING OF ELECTROLYTIC OR ^FILTER
CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BELOW CAPACITY DESIGNATION.

EXAMPLE,
0
Io
.
a.* tII
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS1
0,9

+
1

CONDUCTORS JOINED
I- THE CURVED LINE IN CAPACITOR SYMBOL REPRESENTS
'
THE OUTSIDE FOIL GROUND OF PAPER CAPACITORS,
THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE Of ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS,
II I

ORTHEROTOR OF VARIABLE CAPACITORS. I -


CONDUCTORS CROSSING CHASSIS GROUND
BUT NOT JOINED

www.americanradiohistory.com
The Transceiver 559

be checked by a second party as a safety


measure. Some tubes can be permanently
damaged by having the wrong voltages ap-
plied to their electrodes. Electrolytic capaci-
tors can be ruined by hooking them up with
the wrong voltage polarity across the ca-
pacitor terminals. Transformer, choke, and
coil windings may be damaged by incorrect
wiring of the high - voltage leads.
The problem of meeting and overcoming
such obstacles is just part of the game. A
true radio amateur (as opposed to an ama-
teur broadcaster) should have adequate
knowledge of the art of communication. He
should know quite a bit about his equipment
(even if purchased) and, if circumstances
permit, he should build a portion of his own
equipment. Those amateurs who do such
construction work are convinced that half
of the enjoyment of the hobby may be ob-
tained from the satisfaction of building
and operating their own receiving and trans-
Figure 2 mitting equipment.
A NUVISTOR CONVERTER FOR SIX The Transceiver A popular item of equip-
METERS ment on "five meters"
The converter Is built on a phenolic, copper -
during the late '30's, the transceiver is
laminate etched- circuit board mounted atop making a comeback today complete with
an aluminum chassis box. The INC input re- modern tubes and circuitry. In brief, the
ceptacle and 6CW4 r -f amplifier are at the
left, behind the power plug. Coils L, and L, transceiver is a packaged radio station com-
are at the right of the 68A mixer -oscillator bining the elements of the receiver and
tube, with coils L, and L, between the 6CW4 transmitter into a single unit having a com-
and the 68A. Output receptacle J, is directly
in front of the 68A. mon power supply and audio system. The
present trend toward compact equipment
and the continued growth of single- sideband
he must pay for when he buys a commercial techniques combine naturally with the space -
product. saving economies of the transceiver. Various
The ardent experimenter, however, needs transceiver circuits for the higher frequency
no such arguments. He builds his receiver amateur bands are shown in this chapter.
merely for the love of the game, and the The experimenter can start from these simple
thrill of using a product of his own creation. circuits, and using modern miniature tubes
It is hoped that the receiving equipment and components, can design and build his
to be described in this chapter will awaken complete station in a cabinet no larger than
the experimenter's instinct, even in those a pre -war receiver.
individuals owning expensive commercial
receivers. These lucky persons have the ad- Circuitry and It is the practice of the edi-
vantage of comparing their home -built prod- Components tors of this Handbook to
uct against the best the commercial market place as much usable informa-
has to offer. Sometimes such a comparison tion in the schematic illustration as possible.
is surprising. In order to simplify the drawing the compo-
When the builder has finished the wiring nent nomenclature of figure 1 is used in all
of a receiver it is suggested that he check the following construction chapters.
his wiring and connections carefully for The electrical value of many small circuit
possible errors before any voltages are applied components such as resistors and capacitors
to the circuits. If possible, the wiring should is often indicated by a series of colored bands

www.americanradiohistory.com
560 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
PARALLEL
6CW4 WIRES
2 6U6A to ,+116
R -F AMP. O.5PF 470 MIXER V.
2
(SOMHr)1 51MH,)
6 'Hp (/I) (17MH!)

1
L2 ! L3 4 M LS
J2
20 14 -15 MNI I -F OUTPUT TO
M RECEIVER
10 V.001
J1 T T
50-54 WM .001 -
= L1
470 (SOMHI) .001
C
P1

105V
+90 V. HEATERS
6.3 V.
1L6 (36M/U
NOTES, ALL RESISTORS Ixt -WArr AURA
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED. 3e-hot.. 5
C. CERAMIC CAPACITOR RTAL A

LA. SILVER MICA CAPACITOR 001 IK1 1 oot


1 S-e-

Figure 3

SCHEMATIC OF SIX METER CONVERTER


J,, J,-8NC connector type U -625/11
L,-10 turns #18, %" diameter, turns spaced wire diameter. Tap 21/2 turns from ground end.
(8 3 W Miniductor #3003)
Lr Li-12 turns #22 closewound on 7/32" diem. slug -tuned form. (J.W. Miller #40A-827C81 or
equiv.)
1.0-26 turns #22 closewound on %" diam. slug -tuned form. (J. W. Miller #42A- 000CII er
equiv.)
L1 -Same as L,. Tap 8 turns from ground end
L,-12 t losewound on 7/32" diam. slug -tuned form. (J. W. Miller #40A- 106C81 or equiv.)
P,-1 pin chassis mounting plug. (Cinch -Jones P-3041111 or equiv.)

or spots placed on the body of the compo- built on a small piece of etched circuit,
nent. Several color codes have been used copper -clad, paper -base phenolic board in-
in the past, and are being used in modified stead of the usual aluminum or plated -steel
form at present to indicate component chassis.
values. The most important of these color
codes for resistors, capacitors, power trans- Circuit Description The schematic of the 50-
formers, chokes, i -f transformers, etc. can MHz converter is shown
be found in the appendix at the end of this in figure 3. A grounded -grid 6CW4 nuvis-
Handbook. tor triode is used as an r -f amplifier. The
r -f input circuit (L0) is made of a single
tapped length of miniductor coil material.
26 -1 A Nuvistor Converter This circuit is broadly resonated by the in-
for Six Meters put capacitance of the 6CW4. The nuvistor
plate circuit is lightly coupled to a 6U8A
The nuvistor series of miniature tubes (pentode section) mixer by means of a
brings low- noise -level vhf reception within small capacitor made of two lengths of par-
the economic capability of the average radio allel wire having a capacitance of about
amateur. Described in this section is a sim- 0.5 pf.
ple and reliable 50-MHz converter (figure The triode section of the 6U8A is the
2) that makes use of the 6CW4 nuvistor mixing oscillator employing a third -over-
vhf triode. The inherent noise figure of this tone 36 -MHz crystal. This choice of mixing
converter is about 3 decibels which compares frequency produces an intermediate- frequen-
favorably with units employing special and cy range of 14 to 18 MHz for signals rang-
costly low -noise tubes. The converter is ing in the 50- to H -MHz band. Coupling

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A Nuvistor Converter 561

Figure 4
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF CONVERTER
Layout of the principal components are shown in this view. The shield of copper -clad phenolic
board is seen placed in a vertical position between L. and L The shield is soldered to the
.

chassis board. Two parallel insulated wires extending through a hole in the board make up
the interstage coupling capacitor. The antenna input receptacle (J,) and r -f coil are at the
left, and crystal oscillator plate coil L, is near the bottom of the photograph, just right of
center. The i -f coils are at the extreme right, with the output receptacle (J ) immediately
above coil L .

between the oscillator and mixer stage is copper laminate board simplifies the job of
both capacitive and inductive by virtue of obtaining good r -f grounds as components
the spacing between coils L3 and L6. may be soldered directly to the board. The
The pentode mixer plate coil (L, and L:;) use of this material also reduces construc-
are stagger -tuned over the 14- to 18 -MHz tion time as soldering lugs do not have to be
i -f range for relatively flat converter gain. mounted for the various ground connec-
tions. Soldering is easily done with a 25 -watt
Converter Construction The 50 -MHz con- "pencil" iron. Increased electrical stability
verter is built on a is the result of this construction technique
4" X 6" sheet of copper laminate (two which more than offsets the slight additional
sides) phenolic circuit board (figure 4). A care required in drilling and cutting the
4" X 6" X 2" inverted aluminum chassis board to avoid flaking the thin layers of
serves as a shield box. The use of inexpensive bonded copper.
562 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

' .+ 1. w 9 ++ --F s- 7

Ls _ i TOP VIEW
: I

xrAL

TD
---1
1

4. --
1.-CHASSIS
BONDIR

I +
aa
1-. ---- N D LIJ
TT
}

BOTTOM EDGE

2
SHIELD

Figure 5

DRILLING LAYOUT FOR CONVERTER PLATE AND INTERSTAGE SHIELD

To minimize oxidation marks (finger ply. Power requirements are 20 milliamperes


prints, etc.), the board may be cleaned with at 125 volts d.c. and 6.3 volts a.c. at 0.7
a liquid copper cleaner after all holes are ampere. A regulated power supply is recom-
drilled and it is handled thereafter by its mended. Plate voltage for the 6CW4 is ap-
edges. The oxidation of the copper affects plied to pin 3 of the plug, separate from the
only the appearance of the unit, not its voltage for the other stages so that the r -f
performance. After construction and adjust- stage may be disabled during transmissions,
ment are completed, the various components leaving the local oscillator and mixer stages
may be masked with paper tape and the operating. Coaxial BNC connectors are em-
board sprayed with a clear plastic aerosol ployed for terminations to the antenna and
spray to maintain the clean copper color. tunable -j.f. receiver cables.
The drilling layout (figure 5) shows
placement of the major components. Note Converter Adjustments Before power is ap-
that a half -inch border is allowed around plied to the unit, all
the outside edge of the plate to provide wiring should be checked and the tuned
clearance for the lip of the chassis -box. All circuits resonated to the frequencies in-
parts and soldering must be located within dicated in figure 3. A grid -dip oscillator
this boundary, making the usable plate area should be used to check the various fre-
3" X 5". A small shield cut from scrap cir- quencies. The crystal oscillator stage should
cuit board is soldered to the plate midway function before the 6CW4 is inserted in
between coils L. and L3. The coupling ca- the socket. Operation of the oscillator may
pacitor between the coils is centered in a be checked by listening to a nearby receiver
5/16 -inch hole drilled in the shield. The or by noticing the change in plate current
capacitor consists of two parallel lengths of of the triode section of the 68A. A mil -
plastic-covered hookup wire, one connected liammeter may be inserted in series with pin
to L_ and the other connected to L3. The No. 4 of the power plug for this observation.
wires are parallel for about one -half inch to Once the mixer and oscillator stages are
obtain approximately 0.5 pf coupling ca- working, a signal from an external oscillator
pacitance. may be heard if the signal source is brought
A four -pin chassis- mounting plug is used near coil L;, of the converter. The 6CW4 is
for connections to the external power sup- now placed in its socket and an external

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK An "Antioverload" Converter for 50 MHz 563

Figure 6

THE "ANTIOVERLOAD" CONVERTER


Excellent high -signal overload characteristics are featured in this simple converter. Antenna
receptacle and 6BZ6 r -f amplifier tube are at the left end of the unit. A tube shield should
be placed over the 6BZ6. The r -f gain control is on the front of the chassis box. The 43 -MHz
conversion crystal and 6C4 oscillator are at the right, with the 6BA7 mixer to the rear. The
converter is built on a copper -laminate phenolic circuit board.

signal generator (or antenna) connected to 26 -2 An "Antioverload"


input receptacle J1. Coil L2 and L:, are Converter for 50 MHz
peaked at 50.0 and 51.0 MHz, respectively.
Coil L, is peaked at 14.0 MHz and coil L; In metropolitan areas having a high con-
is peaked at about 17 MHz. If the converter centration of 50 -MHz activity, it may be
is to be used principally at the low -fre- prudent to sacrifice a bit of noise figure to
quency end of the 6 -meter band, coils L:, gain the advantage of having good overload
and L may be peaked considerably closer in capability for strong local signals. In many
frequency to coils L2 and L,. Final adjust- instances, freedom from crosstalk and over-
ment of the tuned circuits (which is not load is of more importance than achieving
critical at all) should be done with the an- the best possible noise figure which, because
tenna attached and while listening to a of auto ignition noise and other background
weak signal. Alternatively, a noise genera- interference, often cannot be used to ad-
tor may be used for optimum adjustment. vantage.
564 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
6BZ6 6BA7
R -F AMP. 33 MIXER
+240 V. +235 V.
Ir
4
L2 +115V. L3 e 33
50-54
Ji
MHz
pi 47K
a -11 MHz

l
7

L1\ c> C2r 10 a -F OUTPUT

.-i
I

470 TO RECEIVER
lo +1.0V.
J C
2.2 K

c
470
6e = in G
1W.

R, ADJ. GAIN PLUG


511
2 PI_
-o O- HEATERS
4 2 63V.,0.75A.
6C4 +eov. L7 o
3 1

HEATERS O5C.

f
1,5
6BA7 6C 15K
3-MHZ i lw.
+105v.
41
I
3613326 5 3 4 %TAL 3 MA.
PIN 2
PI 1 T1
470
C
476L .00E. 470

NOTES; ALL RESISTORS I/2 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.


60Z6 VOLTAGES MEASURED WITH R -F GAIN CONTROL SET
FOR ZERO OHMS.
C = CERAMIC CAPACITOR

M. SILVER MICA CAPACITOR

Figure 7

SCHEMATIC OF ANTIOVERLOAD 50 -MHz CONVERTER


C, -10 -pf miniature. (Johnson 160 -107 or equivalent)
J,- Coaxial receptacle, BNC type UG -625/U
L,-2 -turn link of hookup wire outside ground end of Lr
L -7 turns No. 18, 1/2-inch diameter, turns spaced wire diameter (B 6 W 3003)
L, -10 turns same as L,
L , 1.3-2-turn link of hookup wire inside of L, and L,. See text
L,--B turns same as L,
L -10 turns No. 28 enameled wire closewound on 1/2-inch diameter slug -tuned form. (J. W.
Miller No. 41A- 000CB1 or equiv.)
L, -40 turns No. 28 enameled wire closewound on 1/4" diameter slug -tuned form. (J. W. Miller
No. 42A- 000C111 or equiv.)
L 3 turn link of hookup wire wound over B -plus end of L1
P,-4 -pin chassis mounting plug. (Cinch -Jones P-304AB or equiv.)

The 50 -MHz converter described in this mixing oscillator. Coupling between the r -f
section (figure 6) is a popular design on the amplifier plate coil (L1) and the 6BA7
West Coast, particularly in areas of high mixer grid coil (L,;) may be varied to suit
6 -meter activity and areas in proximity to the strong -signal situation by adjustment of
high -power Channel -2 television transmit- link coils L, and L.
ters. The converter has good sensitivity, an The 6C4 crystal oscillator is capacitively
acceptable noise figure of about 5 decibels, coupled to the 6BA7 mixer, and the former
and excellent high -signal overload char- employs a 43 -MHz third- overtone crystal
acteristics. It is the "city ham's" 50 -MHz to produce a 7- to 11 -MHz intermediate
converter par- excellence. frequency for signals in the range of 50 to
54 MHz. Plate voltage for the 6C4 oscilla-
Circuit Description The schematic of the
tor is fed separately from the rest of the
antiorerload converter is
converter so the oscillator may be turned
shown in figure 7. A 6BZ6 semiremote -cut- off during periods of transmission.
off pentode is used as an r -f amplifier. The
6BZ6 has a cathode gain control (R1) to Converter Construction The 50 -MHz convert-
permit adjustment of stage gain when strong er is built on a 4" X
local signals are encountered. A 6BA7 6" copper -laminate (two sides) phenolic
pentagrid mixer having an exceptionally circuit board. A 4" X 6" X 2" aluminum
large dynamic signal range is used, in con- chassis box serves as a base and a shield for
junction with a 6C4 fundamental -frequency the wiring and components. All components

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK An "Antioverlood" Converter for 50 MHz 565

4- TOP VIEW, CHASSIS PLATE

L.
a-

FRONT EDGE J
2

3
TOP

}
POTENTIOMETER

BEND UP
G0

FRONT VIEW OF BOX 6BZ8 SHIELD

Figure 8

DRILLING LAYOUT FOR CONVERTER PLATE, SOCKET SHIELD, AND


CHASSIS BOX

except the manual gain control (R1) are Placement of the major components may
mounted on the chassis plate. The gain be seen in the underchassis view (Figure 9)
control mounts on the chassis box as shown and the drilling layout (Figure 8). The
in Figure 8. A short length of flexible hook- three 50 -MHz coils are made of sections of
up wire connects the potentiometer terminal niiniductor coil stock. A heated razor blade
to a phenolic tie -point mounted on the held with pliers is a good tool to sever the
plate. The ground terminal of the gain con- plastic ribs when cutting the coil stock to
trol is grounded to the plate by a separate length. The coils are mounted in place by
lead so that an electrical connection is made their leads.
if the converter is operated outside of the A small shield is placed across the 6BZ6
box. This permits the chassis plate to be socket to prevent oscillation of the r -f stage.
swung up and out while the converter is The shield is cut from thin "flashing" cop-
aligned and tested. per and measures 2" long by 3/44' high. It
The usable area of the chassis plate is 3" is soldered to the chassis plate at either side
X 5" since a one -half inch border around the of the socket and to the socket center post.
plate must be left to clear the chassis base The shield should be placed in position be-
lip. All parts (except the gain control) fore wiring is started.
must be located inside the border. Self - Most of the small components are sup-
tapping screws secure the chassis -plate to ported by their leads, between socket pins,
the box. or from socket pin to nearby phenolic tie-
566 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 9

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF CONVERTER


Left to right across the lower edge of the chassis -plate are tuning capacitors C,, C. and C,. A
copper flashing shield straddles the 6116 tube socket at left. Adjacent ends of coils L, and L,
are spaced about 3/a" apart, with "cold" ends facing each other (center of chassis). Interstags
coupling is adjusted by positioning links inside the coils. A phenolic tie -point insulator located
to one side and between the two coils serves to support the ungrounded link c ction.
Other ends of links are grounded to chassis plate. Mixer tube socket is at right of chassis,
with oscillator socket directly above it.

point terminals. All leads are short and the r -f and mixer stages. The 6C4 may be
direct. The drilling layout shows the lo- operated from the 250-volt supply without
cation of the major components. If other regulation if an additional series dropping
components are substituted for the ones resistor of 50,000 ohms, 2 watts is placed be-
used, it would be wise to check the layout tween pins 3 and 4 of plug P,. Filament
before drilling any holes as space is rather power for the converter is 6.3 volts at 0.75
limited in some areas.
ampere.
Adjustment of A regulated supply voltage All wiring should be checked before
the Converter of 105 volts at 3 milliamperes power is applied to the converter. The 6C4
is required for the oscillator oscillator is checked in the manner described
and 250 volts at about 25 milliamperes for in the previous section of this chapter. The

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A Nuvistor Two -Meter Converter 567

6BA7 and 6BZ6 tubes are inserted in the be stagger- tuned. Capacitor C2 is the
proper sockets, the converter is attached to sharpest tuning of the three circuits, and
a receiver tuned to 7 MHz and a low -level should be peaked at the center of the oper-
50 -MHz signal is injected into antenna re- ating range to be covered. Coil Ls should be
ceptacle (J,) of the converter. The various adjusted to provide maximum gain at the
tuning capacitors are adjusted for maximum center of the operating range. As a starter,
signal. capacitor C, should be peaked at 50.5 MHz,
Final adjustment of coupling coils L, and capacitor C2 at 51 MHz, and capacitor C:,
L; should be done after the user has had at 52 MHz. If the converter is to be used
experience with the converter in the pres- only in the lower one megahertz of the
ence of strong local signals. With all cir- band, all circuits may be peaked at 50.5
cuits peaked for maximum signal, the link - MHz. Adjustment of link coil L, and tun-
coupling coils should be adjusted for mini- ing of input capacitor C1 have an effect on
mum signal consistent with good reception the noise figure of the converter. These ad-
and the prevailing state of nearby strong justments may be made on a weak signal or
signals. Too close coupling will limit the with the aid of a noise meter.
ability of the converter to withstand strong
local signals and too loose coupling will re- 26 -3 A Nuvistor Two -Meter
sult in an excessive loss of gain. Adjust-
ment of the link coils coupled with experi-
Converter
mentation with the gain control will achieve
the ultimate in usable sensitivity and excel- The wide acceptance of the nuvistor
lent overload capability. tube as an r -f amplifier for vhf reception
For flattest response across the whole 50- has shown its superiority over conventional
MHz band, capacitors C1, Cand C, should triodes for weak -signal reception. When
used with a nuvistor tetrode mixer stage,
moreover, the performance of the 6CW4
as a low -noise r -f amplifier is considerably
enhanced.
Described in this section is a three- nuvis-
tor converter for 144 MHz that exhibits a
noise figure close to 3 decibels (figure 10) .
The circuit may be modified for "antiover-
load" characteristics for protection from
strong local signals while still retaining its
excellent noise figure.
Circuit Description The schematic of the
nuvistor two -meter con-
verter is given in figure 11. A 6CW4 is
used as a low -noise r -f amplifier in a neutral-
ized, grid- driven configuration. The mixer
stage uses a 7587 nuvistor tetrode which
Figure 10 combines low lead inductance with ex-
tremely high transconductance and re-
OBLIQUE VIEW OF TWO METER
duced input loading. A minimum of local -
NUVISTOR CONVERTER
oscillator injection is required and as the
This all-nuvistor converter provides superior tube has high conversion gain, it provides
performance on the two -meter band. Across
the near edge (left to right) are the slug - good i -f output signal voltage.
tuned output coil (L ), the 7857 nuvistor, the A second 6CW4 is used as a "hot -cath-
interstage coils (L; and L,), followed by the
6CW4 nuvistor and r -f tuning capacitor C,. ode" conversion oscillator employing a
The 6CW4 crystal oscillator stage is at the 39.33 -MHz overtone crystal. The third
back (right) with coaxial receptacle .1 near harmonic of the crystal frequency appears
the crystal. The power plug is at the rear
(left). The complete converter is built on a in the plate circuit of the 6CW4 stage (118
copper -plated, phenolic -base circuit board. MHz) providing an intermediate- frequency
568 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

JI
LI

o
Le
0005y1
-e- .
6CW4+65

5O
u
(745MHZ)
V.

*L1
Lz

6.66
C3

I
(7L;MHI)

_
7587
+103

21150 v
/SOOT
M
7V.
V.

IeH

NO '470
C430
(E4MHr)
L4

) L5 J2
26-30
26- -MHz 1- FOUTPUT TO RCCCI V CR

6 T50
M J M PLUG
PI
+105V. HEATERS 6.3 V.
O 0
Cs (SEE rEXT) 001
.001-T-
111
4 2

6CW4
L7 2 XTAL p
(779MN7) (3 r.33MNt) BLANK'
NOTES: ALL RESISTORS 7/2 -WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIfIEO.
6////CW4 6CW4 7567
G. CERAMIC CAPACITOR
M. SILVER MICA CAPACITOR
10/12
500
-e-

Figure 11
SCHEMATIC OF TWO -METER NUVISTOR CONVERTER
C,-0.5- to 5 -pf tubular trimmer (Erie 532A or equiv.)
Cr C,- 3.3 -pf tubular ceramic (Centralab TCZ -3R3 or equiv.)
C,-2.2 -pf tubular ceramic (Centralab TCZ -2R2 or equiv.)
C5,C. -30 -pf ceramic (Centralab DD or equiv.)
J BNC receptacle type UG -625/U
L, -5 turns #16 bare wire, (/4" diameter, spaced wire diameter. Tap 2 turns up and adjust for
best noise figure
L,, L;4 turns #26 enamelled wire, y4" diameter, close wound on slug -tuned form (CTC -PLST
or equiv.)
L5-11 turns #26 enamelled wire, 3/e" diameter, closewound on slug -tuned form (CTC -LS3 or
equiv.)
LS 3 turns insulated wire closewound around 8-plus end of L,
1,-5 turns #26 enamelled wire, 3 /j'
diameter, closewound on slug -tuned form (CTC-LS3 or
equiv.)
L-7 turns #26 enamelled wire, 1/4" diameter, closewound on slug -tuned form (CTC -PLST or
equiv.)
6,-25 turns #30 enamelled wire, wound on 1- megohm, %2 -watt resistor, approximately 5/16"
long; adjust for neutralisation (see text)
Note: All S00 -pf ceramic capacitors are disc type (Centralab DD-S01 or equiv.).
All 500 -pf silver mica capacitors are silver button type (Erle 370-C8-501K or equiv.).
Nuvistor sockets are Cinch 133 -65 -10-0.011 or equiv.

range of 26 to 30 MHz. For lower i -f of copper -laminate (two sides) phenolic cir-
ranges, only the crystal and the i -f output cuit board. A similar size inverted aluminum
coil (L,) need be changed. If an i -f range chassis 1 %z" deep is used as a shield box.
of 14 to 18 MHz is desired, a conversion Layout of major components, the nuvistor
crystal frequency of 43.3 MHz should be socket shield, and the nuvistor mounting
used. The plate circuit of the oscillator is
hole are shown in figure 12. Because of their
now tuned to 130 MHz, however no
small size, nuvistor sockets are clamped
changes are necessary in the tuned circuit.
Output coil L, requires 22 turns for cover- (rather than bolted) to the chassis by bend-
ing two lugs on the socket. After the chassis
age of the 14- to 18 -MHz range.
hole is drilled, two notches are filed to en-
The oscillator is coupled to the grid of
sure a tight fit of socket to chassis. For
the mixer stage by the stray capacitance of
a wire run from the grid end of mixer coil
grounding, both socket lugs are soldered
L3 to an unused lug on the plate end of
to the chassis. All ground connections for
the nuvistor socket should be made to the
oscillator coil L7. No further coupling is
socket lugs, except in the case of the r -f
required.
amplifier, which uses the base shield as the
Converter Construction The converter is built common ground return. This shield is cut
on a 3" X 4" sheet from a thin piece of copper and is soldered

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HANDBOOK A Nuvistor Two-Meter Converter 569

DIA.
T SHIELD PLATE NUVISTOR SOCKET HOLE if
SEND 90

a.
(f
4 2
POWER PLUG

Le BNC COAX
NTENNAI
32 2
+
SOCKET

5NC COAX
(OUTPUT)
"28 > r DIA.

L7
STANDOFF +f20 3"
HOLE POR
TOP CAP
LEAD y +! DIA.
INSULATOR

+
C9 C7 Ce
+*38 + 538 C1
+ 16 DIP
*20 +
L4 -LS L3 L2
{ DIA. + +
*20
+
20
Ce
+ 38 SEE FIG FO

CHASSIS LAYOUT

Figure 12

DRILLING LAYOUT FOR CONVERTER BOARD (G), BASE SHIELD LAYOUT (E),
AND NUVISTOR SOCKET HOLE (F).

to socket pins 8 and 10 and to the chassis. tuning eliminates the need for squeezing
As in all vhf construction, good grounds and adjusting the coils for correct tuning.
are essential and all ground- return leads Use of the layout of figure 12 ensures that
should be short. Connection to the top cap the coils are mounted in the proper posi-
of the 7587 is best made with a short piece tion with unwanted coupling and spurious
of steel (piano) wire looped into a tight -fit- feedback paths eliminated.
ting, one -turn coil. Note that all components are held clear
All coils except the input coil have been of the chassis edge so that they do not inter-
wound on slug -tuned forms to provide neat fere with the lip of the chassis box (figure
construction and ease of alignment. Slug- 13).
570 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

PPP-

_
" 0

40, A 1 *;
r` r
.031

Q
Figure 13

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF TWO -METER CONVERTER


Layout of the principal components are shown in this view. The r -f input circuitry and
6CW4 r -f amplifier socket are at the left. The socket shield is seen end -on. Interstage cou -
piing coils L and L are in the foreground, center, with i -f output coil L at right. At the rear
of the chassis plate are the components of the 6CW4 oscillator and the power plug.

Converter Adjustments Alignment of the nu-


vistor two -meter con-
verter issimple. A grid -dip oscillator is used
to adjust all coils to the correct frequencies
with tubes and crystal in their respective
sockets. Coils L1, L_, and L3 are dipped
near 146 MHz; coil L. to 28 MHz; coil
L,; to 40 MHz; and coil L7 to 118 MHz.
Next, connect the antenna and receiver /PVC ISSV
to the converter and apply power. Require- Figure 14
ments are 105 volts (regulated) at 2S mil- MODIFICATION OF 6DS4 R -F STAGE FOR
liamperes and 6.3 volts at 0.4 ampere. Com-
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
pare the measured voltages with those in-
dicated in the schematic. All voltages are
with respect to ground and may vary by the i -f receiver is tuned across the proper
10!; or so. A high- resistance meter should range. If no signals are heard, oscillator
be used for best accuracy. operation should be checked by removing
If the grid -dip adjustments are made cor- the crystal from the socket. With the crys-
rectly, two -meter signals should be heard as tal removed, the background noise of the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A Nuvistor Two -Meter Converter 571

receiver should fall off. A slight adjustment r -f stage socket. Neutralizing coil L. is ad-
of oscillator cathode coil L, may be neces- justed by starting with a few extra turns
sary to start oscillation. Oscillator plate coil and removing one turn at a time to find the
L7 should be peaked for maximum oscilla- point of minimum signal feedthrough when
tor output. the other tubes are operating. This adjust-
Tune in a signal about 145 MHz and ad- ment is not critical.
just r -f amplifier plate coil L for maximum
indicated signal. Repeat at 147 MHz and "Antioverlood" Strong local two -meter sig-
adjust mixer grid coil L. Find a signal near Modification nais may, under certain cir-
146 MHz and adjust the r -f input circuit cumstance~, cause overloading of any two -
(L1, CO for maximum signal. meter converter designed for low noise figure
The r -f amplifier should be properly and weak- signal reception. Cross modula-
neutralized for best noise figure. The fila- tion can be reduced in this converter by
ment lead should be opened at the 6CW4 the use of automatic gain control (agc or

Figure 15
FRONT VIEW OF TRANSCEIVER
The transceiver panel measures 1218" wide by 658" high. The two large controls at center
are for final amplifier tank and vfo tuning. On the left area of the panel are the modulator
balance control (top), r -f gain adjustment, receiver volume, and microphone gain control
(next to the microphone jack). The lower switch is the main power control (S ) and the meter
switch is at the top, right. Below the plate tuning control are the grid tuning adjustment and
the function switch, S On the right of the panel are the carrier level control, R , and the
.

antenna loading capacitor, C The cabinet is a wrap- around style made from two pieces of
.

perforated aluminum sheet bent into a U -shape and riveted together at the sides. Panel and
cabinet are primed and painted with aerosol (spray) paint.
572 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

avc) and the substitution of a 6DS4 semi - The source of the agc voltage in the com-
remote -cutoff nuvistor for the sharp -cutoff munications receiver may be found by
6CW4. The agc control voltage is taken studying the schematic and locating the agc
from the communications receiver used as line in the chassis wiring. The agc voltage
the i -f strip. Because the agc voltage in a (as measured with a vacuum -tube volt-
typical communications receiver is not de- meter) should vary from zero volts at no
veloped until a reasonably strong signal is signal to about -10 volts at maximum sig-
received, the converter still retains maxi- nal level. The receiver must have zero volts
mum sensitivity for weak -signal reception. on the agc line in the absence of signals or
Modification of the converter is simple. this system will not work.
The 6DS4 is substituted for the 6CW4 and
one resistor and two capacitors are added to
the circuit as shown in figure 14. The agc
26 -4 A Single -Band
control voltage is obtained from the re- SSBTransceiver
ceiver. The original grid resistor (47K) is
lifted from ground and rewired through
new resistor R, to the spare contact on the
power plug. Capacitors C. and C are added
Probably the most popular item of equip-
ment for SSB operation is the transceiver
a complete station in one compact package.
-
close to R1. Since many of the tubes and components

V, Vz Ti V3 Va VS

MIC PI-
NETWORK

CI Ca

TRANSMITTER
LCoTo'r N J SECTION

Ve V7 e TuNE

YI
z FREQUENCY CONTROL
SECTION
SEE COIL DATA FOR TUN/NG RANGE

RECEIVER SECTION
TO PI-NET.
Ve V,o V,1 Ta V,z V,S VI
TUNED
9MHz I.F.
CIRCUIT

EXTERNAL
SPEAKER

Figure 16

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SINGLE -BAND SSB TRANSCEIVER


Fifteen tubes are used in a multipurpose circuit. Common r -f talk circuhs and i -f filter sys-
tem simplify construction and reduce cost. A single vfo tunes both receiving and transmitting
sections.

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HANDBOOK A Single-Band SSB Transceiver 573

are common to both the transmitting and A 12AU6 (operated at slightly reduced fila-
receiving functions, the transceiver can be ment voltage) serves as the oscillator tube
built compactly and rather inexpensively, (Vs).
and it is well suited for both fixed -station The 9 -MHz i -f signal passes through the
and mobile operation. selective crystal lattice filter (ACF -4) and
The most economical and least complex is amplified in a common i -f stage (V,)
transceiver to build is one designed for use which is transformer coupled to a second
on a single amateur band. Multiple mixing (receiving) i -f stage (V ,,) and then fed
schemes and complex coil catacombs are to a product detector (V12). At this point
thus eliminated, and the "birdie" problem in the circuit, carrier is injected in the
is greatly simplified. Shown in this section detector from the 6U8A common crystal
is a 200 -watt PEP, single -band transceiver oscillator (VG) and the resulting audio
(figure 15) which may be used on any one product is amplified in one -half of the
amateur band from 160 to 20 meters. It 12AX7 dual triode (V) and the 6AQSA
is relatively simple in design and is an ideal output tube (V ,,) . A portion of the audio
"first" project for those amateurs interested signal returns to the 6ALS automatic gain
in building their own sideband gear. While control rectifier (V,:,) to provide an audio -
a commercial 9 -MHz crystal filter is used, derived agc voltage for the receiver section.
substitution of a homemade crystal filter is A fixed positive voltage taken from the
practical, further reducing the cost of the cathode of the 6AQSA stage provides delay
transceiver. voltage for the agc circuit to allow maxi-
mum receiver sensitivity to be realized with
The Transceiver The transceiver circuit is weak signals. Receiver volume is controlled
Circuit a proven one that has been in the grid of the 6AQSA stage instead of
employed in many com- the low -level audio circuit so that agc action
mercial units and is a version of the original is independent of the audio volume level.
W6QKI (Swan) circuit. Fifteen tubes are Transmission-In the transmitting mode,
used, including a voltage regulator and the the circuit takes the form of a single -con-
unit is designed to be operated from either version, crystal -filter SSB exciter, featuring
a 115/230-volt a -c primary supply or a a 7360 balanced modulator and a 6DQS
12 -volt transistor power pack (external). linear amplifier. Switching the circuitry
Operation of the single -band SSB trans- from receive to transmit is accomplished by
ceiver and the dual function of some of the a single relay (RY) which applies blocking
tubes and tuned circuits may be seen from bias ( -100 volts) to inactivate tubes used
an inspection of the block diagram of fig- only in the receiving mode. The relay also
ure 16. applies screen voltage to the 6DQS r -f am-
Reception -In the receiving mode, the plifier (V,,) and grounds the cathode of
circuit takes the form of a single- conversion the common 6BA6 i -f amplifier stage to
superheterodyne featuring product detection. nullify the receiving r -f gain control dur-
The received SSB signal is resonated in the ing transmission. The receiver r -f amplifier
antenna input circuit which, in this case, is stage remains connected to the plate circuit
the pi- network of the transmitter portion of the linear amplifier of the transmitter
of the unit. The network is capacitively section, but the 6BA6 amplifier is protected
coupled to a 6BA6- remote cutoff r -f ampli- from strong- signal damage by virtue of the
fier (V). The plate circuit (L, -C,) of the high negative bias applied to it in the trans-
6BA6 is common to both receiver and trans- mission mode.
mitter circuits. A 12BE6 (V,,,) serves as a When transmitting, the sideband carrier
receiver mixer, the input signal being mixed isgenerated by the common crystal oscillator
with the local vfo signal to produce a 9- and buffer stage (V). The carrier is coupled
MHz intermediate frequency. The vfo stage into #1 grid of the 7360 balanced modula-
is common to both transmit and receive cir- tor (V ;) and the audio signal from the
cuits and tunes approximately 200 kHz 12AX7 speech amplifier is applied to one
in the region of S to 8 MHz, the exact deflection plate of the 7360. The resulting
tuning range depending on the band in use. double-sideband signal passes into the crystal
574 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 17

SCHEMATIC, SINGLE -BAND TRANSCEIVER

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HANDBOOK A Single -Band SSB Transceiver 575

PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 17

C,, Ct 50 -pf each; two Hammarlund HF -S0 RFC,, -I mH choke; Miller 4652
,
ganged RFC, -Use Miller RFC -14 for 80 -40-20 meters;
C -20 -pf variable mica trimmer Miller RFC-3.S for :60 meters
Use
C,- 15-p, type APC. RY -4PDT, 12 -volt coil; Potter-Brumfield KHP-
C -235 -pf. Gap .024 "; Bud 1859 17-D 11
C,- 365 -pf per section; J. W. Miller 2113 S,- Centralab PA -2007
C.- 50 -pf. Centralab 827 T,, T5- 10.7 -MHz i -f transformer; capacitor X is
C,- SO -pf, type APC internal part of unit; Miller 1457
C,-? 04 -pf precision capacitor; Miller 2101 T -5000 ohms to 4 ohms; Stancor A -3877
CR, -IN34 Y, -Int local Crystal Co types CY6 -9L0
J,- Amphenol 80 -PC2F (9001.5 kHz) or CY6 -9Hl (8998.S kHz) as re-
J5- Coaxial receptacle. SO -239 quired
J,-Chassis receptacle; Cinch -Jones P -308A8 ACF- 4- International Crystal Co 9 MHz SSB Al-
MA- Calrad, 0 -1 ma d -c, 13/4" meter ter
PC -4 turns #I8 around 100 -ohm, 2 -watt resis- 1- Chassis, 10" x 12" x 3 ", Bud AC -413
tor -Box, 4" x S" x 3", Bud AU -1028
1

R -Meter shunt for300 ma. Use #30 enamelled, 1-Box, 4" x 4" x 2"; Bud AU -1083
wire wound on 47 -ohm, 1/2-watt resistor 2- Insulated shaft couplers; Johnson 104 -264
RFC, thru RFC,-2.5 mH subminiature choke; 1-Dial drive; Eddystone 892
Miller 70E- 253 -Al

filter which suppresses the undesired side - transceiver for 160 -, 80 -, 40 -, or 20 -meter
band and the carrier, which is already some- operation using standard components. The
what attenuated by the balanced modulator layout has been planned to allow short r -f
stage. The desired sideband is amplified in leads where necessary, and to permit proper
the common 6BA6 i -f stage and passed to circuit isolation. In most cases, resistors and
the 12BE6 transmitting mixer (V,) where bypass capacitors are mounted directly at
it is mixed with the vfo signal to produce the tube -socket pins with liberal use of tie -
an SSB signal on the same frequency as the point terminals to achieve solid construction.
signal being received. The SSB signal is The resistor network for balancing the volt-
further amplified in the 12BY7A driver age on the deflection plates of the 7360
stage (V,) and the 6DQS linear amplifier modulator tube is mounted on a separate
V,). When the pi- network plate circuit terminal board fastened to the side of the
of the 6DQ5 has been properly tuned for chassis, and a second terminal board is used
transmission, it is also tuned for optimum for mounting the r -f choke in the vfo
reception and requires no further adjustment cathode circuit and the associated capaci-
unless a large frequency excursion is made. tors (figure 21) The power plug, relay ter-
.

The same is true of the 12BY7A tuned minal strip, final amplifier bias potentiometer,
circuit (marked grid lune). and speaker jack are placed on the rear
Transceiver Layout
apron of the chassis.
The transceiver measures Final amplifier components are placed in-
and Assembly 121/4" wide by 61/4"
side the utility box bolted to the top rear
high by 101/4" deep. A
corner of the chassis. The chassis area be-
10" X 12" X 3" aluminum chassis is used
neath the 6DQ5 tube is cut out and covered
for the assembly, with the vfo components
with a perforated aluminum sheet, as are
mounted in two 4" X 4" X 2" aluminum
the top and rear of the box, to achieve prop-
utility boxes, one atop and one beneath the
er circulation of air around the tube.
chassis. The final amplifier plate circuit com-
ponents are inclosed in a third utility box
The vfo (figure 22) is placed at the
measuring 4" X S" X 3" in size. Layout of front -center of the chassis and is constructed
the major components may be seen in the on a 1/4-inch thick plate of aluminum meas-
drawings and photographs (figures 18, 19, uring 4" X 41" in size. The vfo tuning
and 20). The cabinet is a homemade wrap- capacitor is fastened to this sturdy base by
around type made of two pieces of perfo- mounting bolts from the underside of the
rated aluminum sheet bent into a U- shaped plate. A precision, silver- plated tuning ca-
inclosure and riveted together at the sides. pacitor having ball bearings and closely
Data is given in the tables for coils, crys- controlled torque is used in conjunction with
tals and frequencies to be used to build a a 10 -to -1 ratio epicyclic driving head to
576 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 18

TOP VIEW OF CHASSIS


The SSS transceiver is compact in size, yet not crowded on the 10" x 12" chassis. The use of
standard aluminum utility boxes for component enclosures provides excellent shielding at low
cost. The box covers have been removed to show interior layout. Ventilation is provided for
the horizontally mounted 6DQ5 linear amplifier tube by making a cutout in the chassis below
the tube and covering the opening with a sheet of perforated aluminum. A new box cover is
made of the same material. The relay to the right of the amplifier box is fully inclosed in
a dust cover. Along the rear apron of the chassis are the coaxial antenna receptacle, the
bias adjustment potentiometer, the power plug and relay terminal strip, with the speaker
jack at the far right.
The 12BY7A driver tube is located between the amplifier box and the front panel, with
the 12BE6 transmitter mixer to the right. The 6BA6 receiver r -f stage and 128E6 mixer are
between the relay and the vfo, with the 0A2 regulator behind the relay, adjacent to the
filter capacitor. The 9 -MHz i -f filter strip is at center with the 6BA6 common i -f tube behind it.
At the right, next to the vfo are (going back from the panel!: the 9 -MHz crystal, the
6U8A oscillator, the 7360, and the 6AQSA audio amplifier. At the extreme right of the chassis
are the 6AL5 agc tube, the 12AX7 speech amplifier stage and the 6BA6 receiver i -f stage.

achieve a smooth, backlash -free tuning sys- serve as a shield compartment for the vfo
tem. coil and circuit components. The vfo coil
One aluminum utility box is bolted to is made from airwound inductor stock
this mounting plate from the bottom side to (Ininidrrftor) securely affixed to a 1/4-inch

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HANDBOOK A Single -Band SSB Transceiver 577

GROMMET
VFO

)
GROMMET
XTAL L4 SHIELD
C7 BOX
O O
o Ci
o O

V
V13 L5 Ve 4/
o o
o 0
0
0
(/F USED)
I
If_
(- C2
I
o I I

o
V12

V1 C

V Vio V9

GROMMET
B B
O O C
GROMMET
Ta
0o I
RY
I
1
I

1
I

1
3K
25 Ww

V14 I I I

I I I I

T3 9MHzFILTER Vis
I

ol
B B

v1;
Ti
V2
B 8
O

J3 J4 J2

Figure 19

UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF TRANSCEIVER

thick block of pleAiglas or other insulating of the utility box and is bolted to the box
material which, in turn, is bolted to the in line with the capacitor shaft and affixed
chassis with similar insulating blocks spac- to it with a flexible coupler. A 4!/," diame-
ing it away from the metal. ter circular piece of sheet plastic is at-
Operating voltages are brought into the tached to the drive head to form the tuning
under- chassis shield box via feedthrough ca- dial. It is spray -painted white and calibra-
pacitors and the vfo output leads are con- tion marks are lettered on it with India
nected to feedthrough bushings on the sides ink after final calibration is completed. Suf-
of the box nearest the transmitting and re- ficient clearance is left between the dial and
ceiving mixer tubes. A second utility box the chassis so the plastic does not rub on
is bolted to the top of the vfo plate, spaced the metal.
about % inch back from the front apron The front panel is spaced away from the
of the chassis to permit clearance for the chassis by virtue of the large nuts holding
dial and drive mechanism. The drive head the various controls on the front apron of
is passed through a 3/4-inch hole in the front the chassis and is affixed in place with a
578 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 20
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF THE TRANSCEIVER
The bottom plate has been removed from the vfo compartment to show internal layout. The
three -gong antenna loading capacitor, C, is bolted to the side apron of the chassis right) as
is the audio output transformer (left). Small components are soldered directly to tube socket
terminals and adjacent fie -point strips, leaving the sockets clear for voltage measurements.
See Figure 19 for placement of major components.

second set of nuts on the control bushings. Transceiver Wiring It is suggested that the
The Vs-inch space thus created provides receiver portion of the
room for the dial to rotate freely. A cutout transceiver be wired and tested first. The
is made in the panel in front of the dial sideband filter comes as a wired package
to match the appearance of the meter. The with matching transformers and requires
opening is covered with a section of ple.vr- only a slight modification. The mounting
glas or Incite inscribed with a hairline plate is cut down to a width of 13/4" to
indicator. A pilot light behind the dial pro- conserve space and new mounting holes are
vides proper illumination. The hole in the drilled along the edges of the plate. The
panel for the tuning shaft should be made filter assembly is then attached to the trans-
sufficiently large so the shaft does not touch ceiver chassis over a slot cut just behind
the panel, making the tuning mechanism the vfo assembly. The output connection of
independent of any panel movement. the filter assembly goes to the grid of the

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HANDBOOK A Single-Band SSB Transceiver 579

R4 Figure 23
160 V. R4 CT 180 V.

COIL DATA
L1, La
3/6' DIA. SLUG TUNED COILS
160 MCTCRS- 220H MILLER #21A224118/
80 METERS- 22M MILLER R 27225R8/
40 METERS - 151.111 MILLER 0211S3 Rel
20 METERS- 3.3.1.11.1 MILLER 2/336R81

L3
160 METERS - 53 TURNS 20 ENAMEL WIRE CLOSE WOUND.
1/4 DIA., I 3/4' LONG.
SPIN 2 PINS PINS/ 1

V BO METERS - 24 TURNS S le TINNED WIRE. AIR - DUX


7360 IO14A. 1 1/4' DIA., 1 3/4' LONG.
BALANCED MODULATOR NETWORK
40 METERS- 14 TURNS IS TINNED WIRE. AIR - OUA
IMH TO COIL 1014A. 1 1/4' DIA., I LONG.
RFC
20 METERS- I1 TURNS ,e TINNED WIRE. A/R -DUX
#8087. I DIA., I 1/2' LONG.

L. NOTE: Co TAPPED OPI La


FOR VARIOUS RANGES.
BAND TUNING RANGE
160 7200 -7000 kHz 9TURNS 20 TINNED WIRE 3/4'
3/4' LONG. TAP 4TH TURN
DIA.,
FROM GROUND END. AIR -DUX
0616. PAD CAPACITOR 51 -PF SM.
PIN7 PINT
12 AUG 80 5500 -5000 klO 12 TURNS 20
TINNED WIRE, 3/4'
616
DIA 3 /4LONG. A/R-OUX .

VFO COMPONENT MOUNTING BOARD PADDING CAPACITOR 100 -PF SM.

75 5200 -5000 kHz SAME COIL AS ABOVE. TAP STN


Figure 21 PHONE TURN FROM GROUND ENO. PAD-
DING CAPACITOR 180 -PF SM.

TERMINAL BOARD LAYOUT 40 6000 -6150 kHz 9 TURNS 20


TINNED WIRE .3/4.
DIA. 3/4' LONG. TAP 3RD TURN
FROM GROUND END. AIR -DUS
676. NO PADDING CAPACITOR.

6BA6 i -f amplifier tube (V2). The grounded 40 8100 -6150 kHz SAME DATA AS ABOVE, EXCEPT
PHONE TAP 2ND TURN FROM GND END
side of the input transformer secondary 20 5000 -3500 kHz SAME DATA AS FOR 80 METERS.
is lifted from ground, bypassed and con- 20 5200 -5550 kHz SAME DATA AS FOR 75 PHONE
PHONE ADJUST TRIMMER CS FOR DE-
nected to the 1000 -ohm decoupling resistor SIRED RANGE.

in the supply -voltage circuit. The other end


Ls
of this secondary winding is connected to 40 16000-15300510 3/6' DIA. SLUG -TUNED COIL.
the plate of the 12BE6 receiver mixer tube. ONLY 3 3 UM MILLER 21336R81
.

The primary winding is modified for bal- CRYSTAL DATA (VI)


160 METERS LOWER SIDERAND - USC 9001.5 Hl
80 METERS LOWER SIDCBAND - USE 9001.5 kHz

40 METERS LOWER SIDCBAND USE 9001.5 kHz

20 METERS UPPER SIDE BAND - USE S996.5 kHz

.)need input by grounding the junction of


the two 75-pf capacitors and connecting
the end of the winding to the plates of the
7360 balanced modulator tube through the
Figure 22 .001-N.fd coupling capacitors.
40 -METER VFO SCHEMATIC The driver (grid lune) capacitors (C1
The 40 -meter model of the single -band SU
C,) are Hammarlund HF -S0 units ganged
transceiver employs the second harmonic of together and mounted on the chassis by
the oscillator frequency. A doubler coil, L , means of the supplied brackets. A flexible
is placed in the plate circuit of the vfo in
place of the 4.7K load resistor. Tuning ca- coupling is used to extend the shaft through
pacitor C, is tapped down the grid coil to the front panel. The 12BY7A neutralizing
c the tuning range desired. Tap point and
padding capacitor data are given in Figure capacitor (CO is soldered directly to the
23. stator terminal of the plate -circuit capaci-
580 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
tor (CO of the amplifier stage. The final Figure 24
amplifier neutralizing capacitor (C1) is
placed on the side apron of the chassis in TUBE-SOCKET VOLTAGE CHART
front of the three -gang antenna loading TUBE 2 4
I 3 5 6 7 8 9
capacitor (CO. VI 12AX7 R- 50 o .e o 12 40 0 0 CT
T- 55 45
Transceiver Coils and Circuits -Coil and O I 0 12 0 0 CT

R- 0 0 0 6 175 75 .6
tuned -circuit data for the various amateur V2 6BA6 T- o o o 6 175 70 .5

bands are given in figure 23. For the 160 -, V3 12BE6


R- -40 0 0 12 220 220 -40
T- -1 6 o 12 210 e0 o
80 -, and 20 -meter bands, the fundamental R- O -35 0 0 12 CT 250 ISO 0
V4 12BY7
frequency of the vfo is employed. For 40- T- 4 -5 0 0 12 CT 250 1e0 0

meter operation, the plate circuit of the Vs 6DQ5 RT.: e 0 0-eO 0 6 0


T- !O o 1e0 -Co o e 1e0
vfo doubles the oscillator frequency to the Vs 6U8 R- 75 -40 160 6 0 180 0 0 -2
T- 75 0 100 e 0 35 0 0 -2
16 -MHz range. Lower sideband is used for
V7 7360 R- o teo -40 6 0 160 1e0 24 24
the 160 -, 80 -, and 40 -meter bands, and T- 0 75 -1 e 0 140 140 24 24

upper sideband for the 20 -meter band. Sub- Ve 12AU6 R-


T-
R
M
0
o
0
0
10
10
120 115
12o 11s
0
0
stitution of crystal Y, will reverse the side - Ve 6BA6 R- 0 0 O e 210 60 .2
7- -70 0 0 6 200 0 0
bands, as shown in the table. Additional
12BE6 R- -.5 0 0 12 180 e0 -.2
loading capacitance may be required for VIO T- -6 O 0 12 175 0 -107

proper amplifier operation on 160 meters VII 6BA6 R-


T-
O
-107
0
O
0
0
6
6
175 6O
175 140
.5
0
and may take the form of a 1000 -pf (1250 - V12 12AX7 R- 145 0 0 0 12 100 0 .4 CT
T- 175 -75 0 0
volt) mica capacitor placed in parallel with 12 100 0 .4 CT
R- 10 0 0 0 0 0
antenna loading capacitor Cr,,. V13 BALS T 0 -140 e o o o 0

VII BAQS R- 10 0 e 225160 0


Transceiver Alignment Before starting align- r- -s0 0 0 250 160 -60

VIS OA2 R- ISO 0 0 0/50 0 0


ment of the trans- T- 150 0 0 0 150 0 0

ceiver, it is suggested that a wiring check NOTE: MEASUREMENTS MADE WITH A 20,000 ONM-PER-VOLT
be made and a voltage check be done with a METER. NO SIGNAL INPUT, R-F CAIN ADVANCED
AUDIO GAIN OFF. FILAMENTS A.C.
TO MAX/MUM,

suitable power supply. No high voltage is


POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS
required to begin with, and the screen power
LOW VOLTAGE- 200 VOLTS AT 110 MA.
lead of the 6DQ5 should be temporarily dis- BIAS- 110 VOLTS NEGATIVE AT 10 MA.
connected at the socket pin and taped until HIGH VOLTAGE - 600 TO $00 VOLTS AT 300 MA.
FILAMENTS- 12 *VOLTS A.C. OR D.C. AT 3.7 A.
preliminary alignment is completed. After
the slider on the 300 -ohm high- voltage drop-
ping resistor has been adjusted to provide a
tap voltage of about 180, tube -socket volt- for maximum signal. A vacuum -tube volt-
ages should be compared to the voltage meter on the agc line is helpful in alignment.
chart (figure 24). The difference noted in When the test signal is injected at the
receive and transmit voltage in some cases plate terminal of the receiving mixer tube
is due to the cutoff bias being switched in (V1 ) tuning becomes rather sharp going
and out of the circuit by the changeover through the sideband filter. The filter is
relay. The relay is d -c operated, and for factory tuned and needs little adjustment
fixed -station service a 12 -volt d -c source other than peaking the top slugs of the two
must be used. When operating mobile this filter transformers. The secondary of the
relay terminal is jumpered to the 12 -volt d -c input transformer should be checked, but
filament supply. should not require adjustment more than
The receiver i -f system is aligned first one -half turn in either direction.
by injecting a 9 -MHz modulated test signal Before an "outside signal is received,
at the grid of the receiver i -f amplifier (V1, ) the variable -frequency oscillator must be
aligned to cover the desired operating range,
and tuning the slugs in transformer T., for
as listed in the coil table. The alignment
maximum audio signal in the attached speak- procedure is the same for any band; only the
er. The test generator is then moved back frequency range is different as indicated on
to the input grid of the common i -f am- the chart. Use of a good frequency meter
plifier (V.,) and transformer T, is adjusted (such as a BC -221) will be helpful at this

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HANDBOOK A Single-Band SSB Transceiver 581

point. With the 80 -meter unit as an exam- meter indication. The pi- network circuit,
ple, the vfo must tune from 5.5 to 5.0 -MHz of course, is in resonance for this operation,
for proper coverage of 3.5 to 4.0 MHz. as determined by a grid -dip oscillator.
The carrier crystal is at 9001.5 kHz to Up to this point, all tuning has been done
properly place the carrier on the slope of with carrier injection. For proper sideband
the filter for lower sideband output. Coil operation, the carrier must be removed and
L, of the 6BE6 transmit mixer is tuned to the unit excited by an SSB signal. The tech-
3.5 MHz with the aid of a grid -dip oscil- nique is to position the carrier crystal fre-
lator, the slug being adjusted with capaci- quency properly on the filter "slope" and
tor C, set near maximum capacitance. The then to balance out the carrier in the 7360
entire 80 -meter band can then be covered modulator stage. Capacitor C; varies the
by peaking the pi- network and grid- circuit frequency of the crystal oscillator a suffi-
tuning controls. cient amount to find the proper point for
Alignment of the transmitting circuits is the carrier on the passband slope of the filter.
best done with the v.t.v.m. using an r -f The adjustment of this point can best be
probe for signal indication. The function made by ear, when receiving a sideband
switch is placed in the tune position and the signal. Adjust capacitor C, until the re-
carrier -level control (R,;) advanced to- ceived audio of an SSB signal sounds natural
ward maximum. R -f voltage at the plate and pleasing. The crystal should be about
of the 6U8A oscillator should measure about 1500 Hz away from the 9 -MHz filter center
3 or 4 volts, and about the same value frequency. The frequency displacement, of
should be observed at the plate of the buffer course, will remain the same while trans-
section of this tube. Inasmuch as the filter mitting.
transformers and transformer T, have been Carrier null is accomplished by adjustment
adjusted previously, no further adjustment of the balance control (R,) on the panel.
of these circuits is required. The r -f probe The r-f probe is placed at the grid of the
can now be placed at the grid of the 6DQ5 6DQ5 stage and the function switch turned
amplifier tube socket and the slug in coil to transmit. No audio signal is desired. The
I._ adjusted for maximum r -f voltage read- balance potentiometer is adjusted for min-
ing. This peaks grid tuning so that coil L, imum indicated reading on the v.t.v.m.,
will track with the previous alignment of which should be 1 volt or less. Operation of
coil I.,. the audio system and balanced modulator
may now be checked by noting the voltage
Final Adjustment The 12BY7A stage should swing while talking into the microphone. A
and Neutralization now be neutralized. To sustained audio tone will swing the meter to
accomplish this, all pow- 30 or 40 volts peak reading. It is helpful to
er is turned off and the screen lead tempor- monitor the signal in a nearby receiver while
arily removed from the 12BY7A socket. these adjustments are being made.
With power again turned on, circuits reso-
nated, and the function switch in the tune Transmit Operation The screen -voltage lead
position, neutralization capacitor C, is ad- may now be reconnected
justed with a nonmetallic screwdriver for to the 6DQ5 tube socket and high voltage
minimum feedthrough of r -f voltage as provided for the plate circuit. Potentials be-
measured with the v.t.v.m. probe placed at tween 400 and 800 volts may be used for
the #1 grid terminal of the 6DQ5 socket. the 6DQ5, with proportionately higher out-
The screen lead to the 12BY7A socket is put at the higher plate voltages. An antenna
replaced when this operation is concluded. or dummy load must be connected to the
The same technique is employed with the transceiver to complete the final checkout
6DQ5 stage as was used with the driver and bias adjustment. The meter switch is
stage. With screen (and plate) voltage re- set for plate current and the function switch
moved from the 6DQ5, but with drive ap- for transmit. The bias potentiometer on the
plied, the v.t.v.m. is placed on the antenna rear apron is adjusted for a 6DQ5 resting
terminal of the transceiver and neutralizing plate current of 25 milliamperes. Antenna
capacitor C, adjusted for minimum volt- loading is done with the function switch in
582 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
the lune position. As the carrier control is ma. As the audio level is raised, speech will
advanced, the final -amplifier plate current kick the indicated current up to values in
will rise in a linear fashion. The amplifier the vicinity of 125 to 170 milliamperes
plate circuit is brought into resonance and depending on the individual voice. Too high
the grid circuit adjusted for peak plate cur- values of peak current will result in dis-
rent reading. Loading control C,, is adjusted tortion and splatter.
for further increase, reestablishing resonance The meter may be switched to read rela-
with the tuning control until the indicated tive power output which, in some cases,
cathode current reaches a value of 275 to will simplify loading the amplifier, especially
300 milliamperes. Full load current should during mobile operation, as tuning may be
not be run for more than 20 seconds at a done for maximum output reading under
time to achieve maximum amplifier tube a controlled level of excitation.
life. When the function switch is advanced The 80 -meter version of the SSB trans-
to transmit, amplifier plate current will ceiver is shown in the photographs. The
drop back to the original idling value of 25 only difference in a unit designed for a

Figure 25

200 WATT PEP SIDEBAND TRANSCEIVER FOR 80, 40, AND 20 METERS
Less thon a cubic foot in volume, this inexpensive transceiver will fit into today's "compact"
automobile. Unit may also be used with auxiliary 11S -volt a -c supply for the home station.
The major controls on the panel are (I. to r.): sideband switch (S,), SSB /a -m selector switch
(S ), audio volume (R ), microphone gain (R,), carrier injection (S 1, band- selector switch
(S ,), microphone jack (J), r -f gain (R), meter -selector switch (S.,), antenna loading capacitor
(C, ), and final amplifier tuning (C,;). The main frequency -control dial (C ) is at top center.
Wrap -around, perforated cabinet provides ventilation and acts as TV! shield.
Once adjusted for a particular band, the only tuning required is done with the vfo control.
Bandpass coupling allows large excursions in fr cy. The vfo tuning mechanism with
100:1 ratio makes sideband tuning a pleasure.

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HANDBOOK A 200 -Watt 3 -Band Sideband Transceiver 583

different band is modification of the r -f section is independent of the transmitter


coils and the vfo circuitry. Alignment and section to make construction easier and to
tuneup is the same for all bands. The trans- facilitate alignment. The final amplifier
ceiver may be used for c.w. by employing tank circuit, however, is used as the anten-
block -grid keying. Operation on c.w. is na input circuit for the receiver to take
with carrier control fully advanced and advantage of the high Q of the circuit and
function switch in the tune position while to conserve space. Only two relays are re-
transmitting. The switch is manually re- quired for receive -transmit changeover and
turned to receive for reception. these relays are actuated by the microphone
A discussion of suitable power supplies is push -to -talk circuit. One miniature relay
given in a later chapter of this Handbook. (RY2) grounds the grid of the r -f ampli-
fier in the receiver (V) for protection
during transmissions and a second relay
26 -5 A 200 -Watt 3 -Band (RY,) switches various voltages between
Sideband Transceiver transmit and receive circuits. Full auto-
matic gain control (agc) is incorported in
A mobile SSB transceiver covering three the receiver, together with an auxiliary r-f
bands can be built utilizing few more parts gain control. When transmitting, an auto-
than a single -band unit, and without re- matic level control (alc) system reduces
quiring any great increase in size over a flat- topping and serious overload distortion.
single -band model. This compact and inex- The single panel meter may be switched to
pensive triband transceiver (figure 25) is de- read cathode current of the linear amplifier
signed for 80 -, 40 -, and 20 -meter operation stage or relative power output at the an-
at levels up to 200 watts peak envelope pow- tenna receptacle.
er input. Upper sideband, lower sideband, The transceiver is designed around the
or amplitude modulation may be transmit- McCoy 9 -MHz sideband filter, utilizing the
ted on each band. Push -to -talk circuitry is sum and difference products created by mix-
included and the transceiver may be operated ing with a 5 -MHz vfo signal to cover the
from a six-or twelve -volt d -c power source 80- and 20 -meter bands. Forty-meter out-
or from a 115 -volt a -c supply. Weighing put is obtained by premixing the vfo signal

only 10" X 12" X 61/2" in size


enough to fit into "compact" cars!
-
only a few pounds, the transceiver measures
small
with a 21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator to pro-
vide a tuneable 16.5 -MHz variable- frequen-
cy injection signal. This, mixing in turn
with the 9 -MHz sideband signal, produces a
Circuit Description A block diagram of the difference frequency in the 7 -MHz range.
transceiver is shown in The Receiver Portion -The receiver por-
figure 26. Fourteen tubes and two voltage tion of the unit starts with a 6BA6 remote -
regulators are used. As practically all mobile cutoff r -f amplifier (V11) bandpass -coupled
operation is done on voice, the tuning range to a 6BE6 mixer (V,,,) whose injection
of the transceiver can be limited to the grid receives mixing voltage from the com-
phone segments of the bands used. With mon 6AU6 vfo (Vi) via the buffer stage
such a restricted tuning range, bandpass (V,). The 6EA8 buffer functions as a pre -
coupling between low -level r -f stages is mixer for the vfo on 40 meters when the
practical in both the transmitting and re- cathode of the triode section is grounded to
ceiving sections of the unit, thus elimi- activate the 21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator.
nating the need of variable tuning controls The intermediate -frequency output of the
for several stages. The variable- frequency
6BE6 receiver mixer is 9 MHz and the i -f
oscillator is common to both transmitting
and receiving sections and tunes only 350 signal is link -coupled via L,; to the input of
kHz, which is ample range for the 80 -meter the 9 -MHz crystal filter (FL,). A matching
band and provides full coverage of the 40- transformer couples the low output imped-
and 20 -meter bands. Although several of the ance of the filter to the grid circuit of the
tubes in the unit are common to both trans- common i -f amplifier (V,,). The received
mit and receive sections, the receiver r -f signal is capacitively coupled from this
584 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

V, V T3 VS T4 Ve

PI-
ETWORK

TRANSMITTER SECTION To RY 2

5.0-5.3MHz OR 16.0-16.3MMr
I PDI. S RHz 2 rLt V3 Ve
Y,
Y3
0E6
PREMIX 2/ 5 MHz

3. 0 -3.33 MC.
FREQUENCY CONTROL SECTION

RECEIVER SECTION Vis. V,4


TO PI- NET.
V9 Ta aces
V Viz AUDIO
SANDPASS
RY2 COUPLER EXTERNAL
e0 -40-20 SPEAKER
AEDI
AUDIO

Figure 26

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSCEIVER


Frequency -control section of unit is common to both receiver and transmitter sections. Beam-
deflection type 7360 serves os carrier oscillator and modulator, followed by 9 -MHz crystal
sideband filter and i -f amplifier stage. Variable- frequency oscillator and mixing oscillator for
7 -MHz operation are also common to both sections of transceiver. Transmitter
section com-
prises microphone amplifier and transmitter mixer followed by two linear amplifier stages.
Receiver section consists of r -f amplifier and mixer followed by additional i -f stage, product
detector, and audio amplifier. Simple push -to -talk circuit switches configuration from transmit
to receive.

stage to a second 6BA6 receiver i -f ampli- over switch is routed through the main
fier (V15) whose output circuitry is capaci- changeover relay (RYIB) so voltage is
tively coupled to a 6BE6 product detector applied to the carrier oscillator when trans-
(V12). Oscillator injection for SSB reception mitting, regardless of the setting of the
is from either of the two sideband crystals SSB a -m switch (S;,).
in the grid circuit of the 7360 carrier Mobile operation requires a receiver hav-
oscillator -balanced modulator (V_) which is ing a reserve of audio power and the audio
common to receive and transmit sections. section is designed to meet this requirement.
Collector plate voltage is removed from the Two 6EB8 triode -pentode tubes (V,,, V1,)
7360 during reception by relay RY,C but are employed, with the pentode sections
the oscillator section always functions since used as a push -pull audio stage. One triode
deflector and screen voltage is applied in section of the first 6EB8 is used as an audio
either mode. phase inverter and the second triode is used
The 6BE6 product detector (V,2) may as the driving amplifier for the phase in-
be switched to function as a plate detector verter. The two dual -purpose tubes take up
for reception of a -m signals (S,ABC). This no more space than the usual two -tube am-
changeover requires disabling the 7360 car- plifier stages but produce nearly 5 watts of
rier oscillator, but since this oscillator is re- high -quality audio. The speaker is not in-
quired for transmitting, the a -m change- corporated in the transceiver, since use of

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HANDBOOK A 200-Watt 3-Band Sideband Transceiver 585

the speaker in the auto radio is contem- tor removed from the amplifier stage of a
plated. For home use, an auxiliary speaker surplus SCR -274N /ARC -5 transmitter. Only
is incorporated in the 115 -volt a -c power the worm gear and frame assembly are used
unit. and the original capacitor plates are re-
The Transmitter Portion -The transmit- moved (figure 28). A double bearing 140 -
ter portion of the unit starts with a 12AX7 pf receiving -type variable capacitor is in-
two -stage speech amplifier (V1) driving a stalled in the frame in place of the original
deflection plate of the 7360 carrier oscilla- capacitor assembly, slipping the spring -
tor-balanced modulator (V2). When trans- loaded drive gear over the shaft of the new
mitting, voltage is applied to the collector capacitor so that it engages the worm gear
plates of the 7360 via relay RY,C and the as did the rotor of the original capacitor.
carrier is generated by the triode section The free space inside the framework is used
of the tube functioning as a crystal oscil- to mount the various components of the
lator. Choice of upper or lower sideband is vfo as shown in the photograph. An alumi-
made by proper crystal selection by means num plate is bolted to the back frame to
of sideband -selector switch S,. The balanced - support the tub: socket (V7) and an L-
modulator plate circuit of the 7360 is link - shaped shield is bolted over the top and
coupled to the 9 -MHz filter for rejection end of the frame to inclose the assembly.
of the unwanted sideband and passage of the A circular dial cut from 1/16 -inch plastic
desired sideband to the common 6BA6 i -f or plexiglas is placed on the large gear in
amplifier (V:,). The sideband signal is then lieu of the original metal dial. The new
transformer- coupled to the 6BE6 transmit- dial is spray -painted white on the front and
ter mixer (V'). This mixer stage receives calibration marks are lettered with India
its mixing voltage from the vfo and buffer ink. The complete vfo is bolted to a base
premixer stages (V7, V5) in the same man- plate of %8" thick aluminum, slightly larger
ner as the receiver. Output of the 6BE6 in area than the capacitor framework. The
transmitter mixer is at either 80, 40, or 20 completed assembly is then bolted to the
meters and is bandpass -coupled on the desired transceiver chassis with the center of the
band to a 12BY7 amplifier- driver (V,). dial at the center line of the chassis. The
This stage, in turn, is bandpass- coupled to plastic dial will extend below the front
a neutralized 6DQ5 (V) serving as a apron of the chassis, requiring a slight
class -AB, linear amplifier. The final tank amount of clearance so that it does not rub.
circuit of the amplifier is a pi- network The panel is spaced away from the chassis
configuration providing good harmonic at- apron by the lock washers and nuts that
tenuation and ease of adjustment. fasten the various controls, allowing clear-
Transceiver
ance for the dial. The panel is secured in
Transceiver construction is place with a second nut on each control.
Construction straightforward and should The upper edge of the panel and the rear
be no problem for the ad- lip of the chassis are bolted to the wrap-
vanced amateur. The vfo is built as a sep - around cabinet to provide a rigid structure
arate unit and may be tested and aligned immune to vibration.
before it is installed in the transceiver. The Component Layout-Most of the major
receiver portion of the unit should be wired
components are mounted atop the chassis as
and tested before the various transmitter
shown in figures 29 and 30. The antenna
stages are completed. The transceiver is
constructed on a 10" X 12" X 3" steel receptacle (J:,), power plug (P,) and jack
chassis. Layout of the major components and for the external speaker (J_) are placed on
shield partitions are observed in the photo- the rear apron of the chassis and all other
graphs and drawings. The 6DQS amplifier major controls are mounted on the front
tube socket is recessed so that panel height panel with the exception of the phase -bal-
is only 6 %2 ". Standard parts are used ance capacitor (CO and voltage- balance po-
throughout with the exception of the vfo tentiometer (R._) which are placed on the
tuning capacitor. The vfo is built as a unit chassis to the rear of the 7360 tube socket.
on the frame of a worm -gear driven capaci- These controls need be adjusted only in the
586 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 27

SCHEMATIC OF TRANSCEIVER

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HANDBOOK A 200-Watt 3 -Band Sideband Transceiver 587

PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 27

C, -20 -pf differential capacitor (E. F. Johnson #32 copper wire wound on 47 -ohm, t/3-
160-311) watt resistor placed at cathode terminal
C C -12 -pf ceramic variable (Centralab CRL - of 60Q5
827) RFC- 2.S -mH, 300-ma. (National R -3000)
C, -50 -9f (Hammarlund MAPC) RY 3PDT relay, 12 -volt d -c coil (Potter-Brum-
C-- 140 -pf (Hammarlund MC -140M) field KM -14D or equiv.)
C, -25 -pf ceramic variable (Centralab CRL -827) RY DPDT relay, 12 -volt d-c coil (Potter -Brum-
C thru C,t 50 -pf ceramic variable ( Centralab field KM -11D or equiv.)
CRL -827) S A, B, C -3 -pole, 2- position wafer switch
-1S -pf (Hammarlund MAPC). (Centralab CRL PA1007)
-
C
C, 235 -pf (Bud 1859) S A, B; SA, B; S,A, B; S.A, B;S, -2 -pole ceramic
C 1200 -pf, 3 -gang broadcast -type capacitor wafer sections (Centralab PA -2 each,
(J. W. Miller 2113) ganged on Centralab PA -301 index as-
CR, thru CR -Diode, ,434 or equivalent
1 sembly)
FL,-9-MHz crystal sideband filter (McCoy 558- T,-Transformer, 10.7 -MHz TV 1 -f type, (J. W.
9, McCoy Electronics, Mt. Holly Springs, Miller 1463). (x indicates internal compon-
Pa.) ent)
M -0 -1 d -cmilliammeter, 13/4 square (Cal -Rad, T , T , T,-Transformer, 4.5 -MHz TV interstage
or equiv.). type .(J. W. Miller 6270). (c indicates inter-
PC- Parasitic choke. 7 turns #18e. wire on 100 - nal component)
ohm, -watt composition resistor
1 1,- Universal output transformer, 10K plate -to-
P,- 8-contact chassis -mounting plug (Cinch- plate (Stancor A -3823)
Jones P- 308AB) Y,-8898.S -kHz crystal (furnished with FL,)
R,- 1- megohm potentiometer with switch S, Vi- 9001.5 -kHz crystal (furnished with FL)
attached Y,-21.50 -MHz crystal (International Crystal
R -Meter shunt for 300 -ma range. Approx. 10 Co. FA -S)

initial alignment and ordinarily require no hand. These are ready -made 4.5 -MHz TV
further attention. replacement interstage transformers (T2, T:,,
The main bandswitch runs down the and T,). They are used without alteration
center line of the under -chassis area with and provide the desired bandpass effect by
wafer sections S,_- (inclusive) bolted indi- virtue of stagger- tuning between 3.8 and
vidually to the small partitions that act as 4.0 MHz.
interstage shields. Switch wafer S, for the A great deal of the wiring may be done
6DQ5 amplifier plate tank coil is mounted before the shield partitions or switch as-
in the amplifier compartment on the rear semblies are put in place. The switch wafers
apron of the chassis below tank coil are installed one at a time, beginning with
with the connecting wires from the coil the receiver segment at the rear of the
brought below deck through an oblong hole chassis. The side and front shield plates are
in the chassis. The shaft of this switch is made of thin aluminum and are installed
ganged to the main bandswitch shaft by last, being bolted to each other, the switch
means cf a link -and -arm arrangement shown partitions, and the chassis to make a rigid
in figure 31. Two small lever arms are made assembly (figure 33).
by taking apart a flexible shaft coupler. Terminal boards are used for the small
One arm is slipped over the main band - components of the balanced modulator and
switch shaft at the point where it enters audio systems. Other small components are
the under- chassis shield plate behind the mounted to tube- socket terminals and tie -
main panel, and the second arm is attached point terminal strips.
to the fiber extension shaft driving the am-
plifier switch wafer (S,) mounted on the Testing and The transceiver will operate
rear apron of the chassis. The two lever Alignment with any power supply capable
arms are interconnected by a narrow strip of of delivering between 500 and
aluminum having a hole at each end for 800 volts at an intermittent load of 250
small bolts to secure it to the two lever milliamperes for the final amplifier, and
arms. Panel bushings in the shield plate act 250 volts at 125 milliamperes for the re-
as bearings for the switch shafts. ceiver and exciter sections. Bias requirement
The bandpass coils are constructed as in- is -50 volts at 5 milliamperes (adjustable).
dicated in the coil table figure 32) with For fixed -station use and bench align-
the exception of the coils for the 80 meter ment, a voltage- doubler power supply using
588 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

operating range of the oscillator. A BC -221


frequency meter will aid in this effort. The
21.5 -MHz crystal oscillator (V ) and pre-
mixer stage can be adjusted with a vacuum -
tube voltmeter and r -f probe placed at the
switch arm of S5 A. With the bandswitch in
the 80- or 20 -meter position, a voltage will
be observed at this point and the slug of
coil L10 adjusted for maximum indication.
This coil is broadly resonant in the 5 -MHz
region and is tuned for an output reading
of not over 2 volts r.m.s.
With the bandswitch in the 40 -meter
position, the cathode of the triode section
of the 6EA8 premixer is connected to the
cathode of the pentode section, energizing
the crystal -oscillator stage and changing
the circuit to a cathode- coupled mixer. The
slug in the crystal- oscillator coil (L11) is
adjusted for maximum r -f voltage at the
grid of the triode section of V ... The pre-
mixer coils (L and L.,) are tuned for max-
imum r -f voltage at the arm of switch
SSA. The voltage measured at this point is
the 16 -MHz product of the crystal and
Figure 28

CLOSEUP OF TRANSCEIVER OSCILLATOR


vfo frequencies.
Receiver I -F and R0 -meter Alignment -
The receiver i -f amplifier is aligned by dis-
Stable vfo for triband transceiver is made abling the vfo and injecting a 9 -MHz signal
from frame of SCR -274N capacitor. Capacitor at the input grid (pin #7) of the 6BE6
plates are removed and 140 -pf capacitor sub-
stituted. A small bracket bolted to the frame receiver mixer (V,,,). The i -f coils (L L5,
supports padding capacitor C . Airwound vfo L;) and the primary only of transformer T,
coil is in foreground, cemented to a 14 -inch
thick block of polystyrene which is bolted to are tuned for maximum signal response us-
capacitor frame. Oscillator tube socket is ing avc voltage as indication of resonance.
mounted on side of capacitor and tie point
behind it supports cathode r -f choke and var- With the bandswitch in the 80 -meter posi-
ious mica capacitors. Connections to vfo unit tion and the vfo functioning, a 4.0 -MHz
are terminated at lug strip mounted below signal is injected at the antenna receptacle
the tube socket.
and the primary of r -f transformer T,
tuned for maximum signal. This transformer
a TV replacement transformer works very is stagger -tuned by peaking the secondary
well. Two 6.3 -volt windings in series will at 3.8 MHz and checking at several points
provide filament voltage and this may be in between where a further slight adjust-
rectified to provide direct current to operate ment of the slugs should result in a fairly
the relays. A -50 volt bias supply for the flat response over the desired 200 -kHz
final amplifier stage is also required. range. It will be noted that the final am-
Alignment of VFO and premixer-The plifier tank adjustment (which is the input
first step in the alignment procedure is to circuit when receiving) must be peaked
adjust the main vfo to tune the range of slightly when tuning from one end to the
5.0 to 5.35 MHz. Since the vfo is made as
a separate assembly, it may be aligned and
tested before installation on the chassis by
other of the 200 -kHz range.
Receiver Alignment, 40 and 20 Meters
The tuning of the 40- and 20 -meter band -
-
applying voltage to the various terminals pass r -f coils is done in a different manner.
and monitoring the frequency in a well - The grid coils (L,:;, L_5) are temporarily
calibrated receiver capable of tuning the unsoldered from the bandswitch (S,B) to

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HANDBOOK A 200 -Watt 3 -Bond Sideband Transceiver 589

i't alletfll(Mt
- o o a) ,......'1.
t 1? f
Figure 29

TOP VIEW OF TRI BAND TRANSCEIVER


Identification of various components may be done with comparison with chassis layout draw-
ing (figure 30). Variable frequency oscillator is centered behind panel which is spaced away
from chassis to allow clearance for circular dial. Pilot lamp is atop oscillator compartment,
with oscillator padding capacitor (Ch) adjustable from top of compartment. Carrier crystals
and their padding capacitors (C -C) are visible below panel meter at right. Across the rear
chassis apron are (I. to r.): Antenna coaxial receptacle (J), power receptacle (P,) and speaker
jack (J.).

remove them from the active circuit and a coils are then resoldered to the bandswitch
grid -dip oscillator is used to set the fre- terminals and the 6B6 r -f amplifier tube
quency of the primary circuits (L__, L_,) by )
(V is removed from its socket. This raises
adjustment of the slugs. The 40 -meter plate the resonant frequency of the primary wind-
coil is adjusted to 7.3 MHz and the 20- ings so they will not affect the adjustment
meter plate coil to 14.35 MHz. The grid of the grid circuitry. The grid coils are
590 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
SPEAKER
J2fPLUG POWER
PLUG, II
n

11
P1
ANTENNA
CONNECTOR -J3
Ls
L6
F L,
9 MHz
FILTER
o Tz o
L22 L24

L3
L4 Ti

-
o T3 o
L13 Lis

-- -
V7
L7 BAUE
L17 L19
Li
Ti o
Lz 10-o jjF
450 V. L UNDER -CHASSIS SHIELD

o PHENOLIC
SHAFT
C10 R20
OL11
V2 VFO ASSEMBLY
7360
C2 C3

Yi \- A A_A i Yz

METER "1*--PLEXIGLASS
DIAL

Figure 30

PLACEMENT OF MAJOR COMPONENTS ON TRANSCEIVER CHASSIS

CHASSIS DECK
SHIELD PARTITI TO PANEL Transmitter Alignment Alignment of the
ALUMINUM
STRIP transmitter section is
.f(N".t. ARM FROM done with the high voltage disconnected and
\3-1.I
1 COUPLER
SHAFT TO FINAL AMPLIFIER SWITCH INDEX SHAFT
with screen voltage removed from the 6DQ5
SWITCH SEGMENT.
Se S4 -ST
amplifier. If the 0A2 screen -regulator tube
is wired so that the dropping resistor goes
to pin #1 and the screen lead to pin #5, the
screen voltage will be disconnected by re-
Figure 31 moving the 0A2 from its socket, since the
BANDSWITCH ARM DETAIL 0A2 has an internal jumper between these
pins.
Much of the transmitter alignment is
then dipped to 7.0 and 14.0 MHz. With the completed once the receiver section has been
r -f tube back in its socket, the transceiver adjusted. The 7360 balanced -modulator
can be turned on and checked for receiver plate coil (L1) is tuned first, placing the
operation on each band. r -f probe of the v.t.v.m. at the grid (pin

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 200 -Watt 3 -Band Sideband Transceiver 591

Coil is 1" diam., 212" long, tapped at 10


Z-POLY TUBE and 18 turns from plate end. (Air -Dux
GRID 820-D10:.
GROUND
Note: L , L and L are mounted in 33" square
shield cans similar lo transformer T,.
B

PLATE
#7) of the 6BE6 transmitting mixer (V,)
LS -3 COIL FORM
to obtain an r -f voltage reading. The trans-
mitter circuitry is energized by pressing the
push -to -talk switch on the microphone
(with the microphone gain control R,
BANDPASS COIL turned down). The carrier control (R3) is
turned on and advanced to provide carrier
injection until a reading is obtained on the
x X x v.t.v.m. The slug of coil L, is adjusted for
N
4.1 8 S maximum r -f indication. The phase -balance
AI
capacitor (CO should be set for equal ca-
COMPONENTS FOR BALANCED COMPONENTS POR AUDIO AND PRO -
pacitance and the voltage -balance potenti-
MODULATOR CIRCUIT. DUCT DETECTOR CIRCUIT.
ometer (R2) set near the center of rotation.
TERMINAL BOARD LAYOUT
When the carrier control is turned off, the
indicated r -f voltage will drop and balance
Figure 32
potentiometer R;, should be adjusted for a
COIL TABLE FOR TRANSCEIVER minimum r -f reading. This is the adjust-
ment for carrier suppression and at this
L -12 bifllar turns ,24 in all) "24 enamel wire,
closewound on slug -tuned form, 12" diam. time the phase -balance capacitor should be
(National XR -50). Tune to 9 MHz adjusted slightly to achieve lowest possible
L,-4 turns 1,24 hookup wire around center of
L,
r -f reading. Both controls affect carrier sup-
L -4 turns a24 hookup wire on "cold" end of pression and are slightly interlocking and
L3
L.-30 turns a 30 enamel closewound on
should be adjusted in sequence for lowest
L , L ,
5/16" diameter form. Tune to 9 MHz reading on the v.t.v.m. The whole process
L -4 turns $24 hookup wire on "cold" end of may be monitored with a receiver used as
L
L -12 turns a24 enamel closewound on 1/4' an r -f probe with the antenna lead placed
diam. slug -tuned form /CTC -L53 or equiv.). near the socket of the 6BE6 transmitter
Tune to 16 MHz
L -8 turns a24 enamel wire closewound on
mixer tube (V1).
3e" length of 2" diam. polystyrene tubing
7 Carrier Oscillator Adjustment- Capaci-
slipped over top end of coil to make
L
tors C, and C_ across the upper- and lower -
premixer transformer. Tune to 16 MHz
1.,,,-Ferrite rod loop -antenna coil "loopstick" ,
sideband crystals are used to trim the crystal
with turns removed to resonate to 5MHz frequencies for proper positioning of the
(J. W. Miller 6300)
LIB 15 turns #24 enamel wire closewound on carrier on the slope of the sideband filter.
Vs" diam. slug -tuned form (CTC -L53). Tune To realize the rated sideband rejection of 40
L;to3011).
21.5 MHz
turns "20, 3," diam.,
77/3 3 )4" long (B & W decibels, the carrier oscillator should be
Tunes 5.0 to 5.35 MHz placed 1500 Hz above or below the 9 -MHz
L , L , L enamel wire close-
--30 turns (130
center frequency of the filter. Carrier sup-
wound on 3/3" diam. slug -tuned form (CTC -
L53). Tune to 7 MHz pression is also affected by proper position-
L L, , L -25 turns "30 enamel wire close- ing of the carrier frequency on the filter
wound on 3/4" length of 2" diam. poly-
styrene tubing cemented to top of L L , , slope. When making the frequency adjust-
L to make bandpass transformer see
ments, carrier suppression should be checked
sketch). Tune to 7 MHz
L, L, L -14 turns r28 enamel wire close- on both upper -and lower-sideband positions.
wound on 3'8" diam. slug -tuned form (CTC - The minimum voltage reading with carrier
L53). Tune to 14 MHz
L, , L , L -12 turns .028 enamel closewound on turned off should be very nearly the same
38" length of 1.2" diam. polystyrene tubing with either crystal. Final adjustment may
cemented to top of L , L L to make ,

bandpass transformer. Tune to 14 MHz be made with voice modulation, striving for
L -Final amplifier tank coil. 32 turns "16 good audio quality on either sideband as
wire, with 16 turns spaced twice wire
diameter; 16 turns spaced wire diameter monitored in a nearby receiver.
592 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

IN FL III se

Figure 33

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF TRANSCEIVER


Placement of shield partitions about tuned circuits may be seen at right side of chassis.
Trimming capacitors for 40- and 20 -meter circuits are mounted on pa 'ons as are switch
decks. First switch segment behind front panel is S The three -gang antenna loading capacitor
.

is bolted to the side apron of the chassis near antenna receptacle and tank switch wafer S .

The opposite side apron is used to mount the audio output transformer (T ) and two terminal
boards that support most of the resistors and capacitors in the audio and balanced modulator
circuits. Terminal strips and tie points are used to mount small components securely to resist
vibration encountered in mobile work. The antenna relay (RY ) is mounted on the rear apron
above the 68E6 (V, ) socket. The voltage changeover relay RY. is mounted in the center of
the chassis area between the i -f amplifier tubes and the audio tubes.

Bandpass Adjustment-The bandpass cir- tuned for uniform 6DQ5 drive -voltage read-
cuits in the linear amplifier stages of the ing over the 200 -kHz tuning range with the
transmitter are aligned in the same manner r-f probe placed at the grid of the 6DQS. A
as the receiver circuits using carrier injec- maximum of 15 to 20 volts rms can be
tion from either sideband crystal. The 40- obtained with full carrier injection. Under
and 20 -meter coils are checked with a grid - final operating conditions, the 40- and 20-
dip oscillator as before, but the 80 -meter meter coils may require some slight adjust-
transformers (T,, T4) as well as the second- ment for uniform drive across these bands.
ary of T are adjusted with voltage applied Amplifier Neutralization-The last step
to the transmitter and the transformer slugs is to neutralize the final amplifier stage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 200-Watt 3-Band Sideband Transceiver 593

CHART 1

TUBE SOCKET VOLTAGE CHART

TUBE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

V1 100 -2 0 F F 180 -0.5 1 -


V2 3 150 - F F 220 220 18 18

V3 - 0 F F 220 100 1.8 - -


V4 - 2 F F 240 75 0 - -
Vs 2 - 0 F F F 240 110 0

V6 -50 F - 150 -50 - F 150 -


V8 100 - 125 F F 200 3 3 -
V9 - 0 F F 220 100 1.8 - -
V19 - 2.5 F F 225 80 0 - -
V11 - 1.8 F F 220 100 1.8 - -
V12 - 0.8 F F 200 35 0.8 - -
V13 1 - 100 F F 3 - 180 240

V,4 70 - 175 F F 3 - 180 240


NOTES:
Readings taken with 20,000 ohms -per -volt meter and may vary 10 %.
Voltages -0 on pins 6, 7, 8, 9, of V2 on receive.
Voltage -120 on pin 2 of V2 on receive.
R-f gain and audio gain fully advanced.

POWER -SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

Low voltage -250 volts at 115 ma receive High voltage -600 to 800 volts at 300 ma, xmit only
80 ma xmit Filaments -12.6 volts a.c. or d.c. at 4 A
--50
Bias volts d.c. 5 ma Relay -12 V.D.C. 80 ma, xmit only

With plate and screen voltage removed and up to 200 watts peak input may be run to
grid drive applied to the 6DQ5, neutraliza- the 6DQS without overheating the tube.
tion is accomplished by placing the r -f probe Carrier injection and tune -up conditions, on
at the antenna receptacle and adjusting neu- the other hand, impose maximum dissipa-
tralizing capacitor C,:, for minimum r -f tion conditions on the tube and tune -up
indication when the 6DQS tank circuit is operation at full input should be limited to
tuned to resonance. periods of 20 seconds or less in one minute
Final Anmhlificr Adjust men /-
Amplifier as tube dissipation runs near 65 watts or so
under these conditions. With the average
bias is adjusted to provide 50 ma of resting
current. The transceiver should be coupled voice, peak plate- current indication on the
to a dummy load and loading and grid drive meter will run below 50 percent of the full
(carrier insertion) adjusted to provide the carrier injection plate current, even taking
desired input level.
into account the alc action of this circuit.
Thus, under intermittent carrier tune -up
Antenna loading requires that a fixed
at 800 volts plate potential, maximum plate
ratio of grid drive to plate -load impedance
current may run as high as 275 to 300 mil-
be achieved. Maximum drive level is fixed liamperes, with indicated voice peaks run-
and loading is accomplished at this level ning about 125 to 175 milliamperes meter
and may be increased until flat- topping is reading. Excessive peak plate current read-
first observed on a monitor oscilloscope. ings under voice conditions indicate flat -
Advantage is taken of the high peak-to -av- topping and consequent distortion of the
erage -power ratio in the human voice, and signal.
594 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
432
26 -6 A 432 MHz Low ANTENNA
MN,

Ill MO 29 MHr
Noise Converter System

The vhf converter system described in


this section enables the builder to construct
a low noise 432 -MHz converter in easy
stages. The "building- block" technique
makes sure that each stage is working prop-
erly and permits circuit changes to be made --t-,
POWER
on an experimental basis without disman- SUPPLY 1

tling the whole converter. As an example,


the mixer and local -oscillator stages may be Figure 34
built first and used for local point -to -point
work. At a later stage, the low noise r -f BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 432 -MHz CONVERTER
and i -f amplifiers may be added to achieve SYSTEM
the ultimate in low -noise reception short of The 432 -MHz low -noise converter is built in
a parametric amplifier.
four separate packages: the r -f amplifier, the
mixer, the i -f amplifier and the oscillator
Tried and proven in 432 -MHz moon - multiplier ' LO) unit. Each unit is a separate
bounce communication, this converter sys- entity and may be built and tested by itself.
if the mixer and LO units are built first, the
tem is a worthy addition to any serious vhf converter may be used for local reception
station. while the other units are being built. Simple
and foolproof, this inexpensive converter
system provides the near ultimate in 432-
System Description The 432 -MHz converter MHz reception.
is built in separate stages
and converts a 432 -MHz signal to 29 MHr Low Noise R -FAn r -f amplifier for serious
where it may be tuned in on a good com- Amplifier for 432 -MHz work maybe built
munications receiver serving as a tunable i -f 432 MHz around modern transistors
strip. The converter employs a crystal -con- to provide moderate gain
trolled local -oscillator chain, and the r-f at a good noise figure. This amplifier pack-
circuits require no critical tuning after in- age employs a 2N3478 NPN transistor that
itial adjustments are made. The converter is sells for about two dollars or less. Used in
a true "hybrid" type since it employs a
a common -emitter circuit, the transistor
transistor r -f stage, a diode mixer, a nuvistor provides about 9 decibels gain with a typical
i -f amplifier, and conventional miniature noise figure of about 3.5 decibels. The con-
tubes in the local- oscillator /frequency -mul- verter achieves maximum rejection to un-
tiplier chain. A noise figure of about 3.5 wanted signals by the use of two tuned
decibels is achieved with this circuitry. Mod-
input circuits and a third tuned output cir-
ular construction is used, with each stage cuit. No difficulty has been experienced with
contained in its individual aluminum box. interference from local TV or f -m stations
This technique provides excellent circuit as sometimes is the case when an untuned
isolation between stages, and allows the build- input circuit is used. Input and output cir-
er to check out one stage at a time before cuits are properly adjusted to provide a
going on to the next. Copper -clad phenolic good match to coaxial lines. Power required
circuit board is used to achieve a good r -f to operate the unit is 9 volts at 2 ma. Two
ground in each unit, in addition to simplify- of these r -f stages are required to completely
ing construction. The small aluminum boxes override the noise figure of a diode mixer
housing the units may be assembled on a
stage, but use of one unit will improve re-
chassis or rack panel at the operator's con-
ception to a marked degree.
venience. A power supply is not shown,
but the power requirement for each stage R -F Amplifier Circuit
The 2N3478 is used
is given. The block diagram of figure 34 in an unneutralized,
shows the manner in which the units are common -emitter configuration. Two tuned
interconnected. circuits (C, -L, and C:, -L_) are used in the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 432 MHz Low Noise Converter System 595

coupling is varied by changing the value of


coupling capacitor Co, which should be be-
tween 2 and 3 pf. A small mica or ceramic
capacitor may be used, or a capacitor made
of short lengths of plastic- covered wire
twisted together for about one inch is satis-
factory. Input coil L, is tapped for direct
connection to a 52-ohm coaxial line and coil
L_ is tapped for proper match to the low -
impedance transistor base. The first input
circuit is isolated for d.c.
Inductors L1, L2, and L:, are "hair -pin"
loops made of %4 -inch wide thin "flashing"
copper. This configuration provides excel-
lent Q and is easy to form with heavy
Figure 35
scissors. Base bias is provided by a divider
THE 432 -MHz TRANSISTOR R -F from the 9 -volt supply, and emitter bias is
AMPLIFIER also provided. The emitter bias resistor is
amplifier is inclosed in a ready -
The simple r -f bypassed with a low- inductance button -mica
made aluminum box. The 9 -volt power lead
and coaxial connectors are mounted on the capacitor. To ensure low- inductance leads,
top of the box. Piston -style trimming capaci- the transistor is mounted without a socket
tors are adjusted from the top. Once tuned,
the r -f amplifier may be placed in a remote directly on the shield isolating the input and
location, if desired. output circuits. Replacement or changing
transistors may be easily done by mounting
base circuit. The tuned circuits are mounted each transistor on a separate shield and by
so as to be undercoupled. The degree of changing the shields. The output circuit,

Lt C2 La 2N3478 L3 FO uP L
+ S0- + ig
ANTENNA SHIELD I,

JI OUTPUT I C.455 ttZ-9


J2 ti e Ci141
Jf-Ti) +sHlEt+l110-.ig1 4+ EREn=lri
++ te
IY-C I

1
I

I
l
rII
iw 7' Z T
T Ti
-Due
it-1 ,y
2.1R 9.9K
NOTE: ALL RESISTORS 0.25 WATT CHASSIS LAYOUT SHIELD
UNLESS OTHERWISE VIEWED FROM
SPECIFIED.
-O 9V. +
INPUT SIDE.

NOTE: I. ALL INDUCTORS VIEWED ON EDGE.


2 ALL INDUCTORS MADE OF III INCH WIDE

1
7 STRIPS OF 1 /6I INCH THICKNESS FLASHING
COPPER.
3. ADJACENT EDGES OF L2 LS ARE 13/16
1 +1 INCH APART.
4. SN /ELO MADE OF 1 /9I INCH THICKNESS
CONNECT BASE 112 FLASHING COPPER.
LEAD HERE CONNECTS
HERE FOR 5 WE ARE BUTTON CAPACITORS (ERIE 29221
!
C

CONNECT SOIL OUTPUT SU


INPUT HERE Cs LEAD
GOES HERE

O
Figure 36
SCHEMATIC AND LAYOUT FOR 432 -MHz R -F AMPLIFIER
C , C , C 0.5-
to 8 -pf piston trimmer capacitor. JF0 PC3S -H080 or equiv.
C -3 -pf ceramic capacitor. (see text:
RFC -7 turns W22 e., %9 -inch long (Ohmite Z -460)
J, J -DNC connector, chassis mounting. UG -657/U or equiv.
Sox -4" x n x IS /e" (Bud 3002A)
596 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 37

UNDER - CHASSIS VIEW OF 432 -MHz R -F AMPLIFIER


Placement of the larger components on the copper- plated phenolic circuit board may be seen.
The two input circuits are at the left, with the coupling capacitor (C ) made of lengths of
twisted wire between them. The intrastage shield and transistor are at center, with the
output circuit at the right. Phenolic board is bolted to aluminum box in the corners.

L3 -C4, iscoupled to the output receptacle the input end of the chassis and capacitor
through a blocking capacitor. Additional C, is mounted with the lead pointing to-
feedthrough capacitors are used to decouple ward the transistor shield. The lead of ca-
power leads passing through the wall of the pacitor C, points toward receptacle J_. Cut
inclosure. the inductors from thin copper (see illustra-
tion), shape them, and solder in place, start-
R -F AmplifierThe amplifier is built in an ing with inductor L,. An insulated standoff
Construction aluminum box measuring 4" terminal is used to support the r -f choke and
X 2/8" X 15/8" (Bud 3002 - the two adjacent resistors. The intrastage
A). A piece of copper-clad shield is drilled for the transistor and mount-
(one side) phenolic board (see figure 37) is ing holes and mounted with lips facing the
mounted on the inside of the box, copper input end of the chassis. The emitter bypass
side towards the viewer, to provide a good capacitor is soldered on the input side of the
r -f ground. All grounds are made to the shield near the transistor mounting hole. The
copper foil. Small 4 -40 screws in the corners mounting lugs of the capacitor serve as
of the board affix the board to the box and feet. The 2N3478 is finally mounted by
ground it to the box. carefully soldering the ground lead (shortest
The first step is to drill the board and of the four) to the shield, with the transis-
mount the coaxial connectors, followed by tor suspended upside down and centered in
the feedthrough capacitors. The leads on the hole. The shield lead is tinned at the
piston capacitors C,, C,, and C, are trimmed point it solders to the metal plate. A heat
to a length of 5/16 inch. Capacitor C, sink must be used between the solder point
is mounted with the lead pointing toward and the transistor. Long -nose pliers are ef-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 432 MHz Low Noise Converter System 597

lead to the tab, using the heat sink. The


emitter lead is carefully bent to make a
short connection to the emitter capacitor
mounted on the shield. Leave a slight bend
in all transistor leads to avoid undue strain.
The remaining components may now be
soldered in place.

Adjusting the Set the three piston capaci-


R-F Amplifier tors at midrange. Connect an
antenna feedline to the input
receptacle and couple the amplifier to the
mixer stage via a short length of RG-58/U
Figure 38 (52 -ohm) coaxial line. Apply the 9 -volt
THE 432 -MHz MIXER UNIT supply and, using a steady test signal on
432 MHz, adjust the input capacitors and
This simple stripline mixer utilizes a 1N21-
series crystal diode. On the top of the box the output capacitor for maximum signal.
are (I. to r.): Input receptacle (J, l; Piston - With receivers having a "scotch" S -meter
style i -f tuning capacitor (C.); i -f output re- (used as a tunable i -f) it may be easier to
ceptacle (J). At the right front is the strip -
line tuning capacitor (C1). The local- oscillator observe relative signal output by using an
injection receptacle (.1), is on the left end of a -c voltmeter across the audio output of the
the chassis.
receiver. The input tuning capacitor C,
should be set to the maximum capacitance
fective as a heat sink, or an alligator clip that will allow maximum signal. The perfec-
may be used. Do the job quickly with a tionist may wish to adjust the inductor taps
soldering gun or 15 -watt iron. Once the to achieve optimum noise figure. A good
shield is affixed in position, the hase lead coaxial relay with shorting contacts on the
is carefully bent toward inductor L,. If receive side should be used to protect the
the lead is too short, solder a small tab on transistor from excessive r -f voltage during
L, to take up the gap, and solder the base transmission periods.

e
i
e

-
CI 'STANDOFF MTG
CI FOR
LS

J3 C2 CR1MTa

t + --
le
J3. I -F OUTPUT le

-- . ++- --__.
CHASSIS LAYOUT

INJECTION J2 JI,SIGNAL INPUT


INPUT L2
Li INDUCTOR L3 INDUCTOR ENO
MTG. HOLE

32 MC.
MIXER UNIT
H
MTG. HOLE
I, I 11, -

FLASHING COPPER COPPER 3/32 THICK

Figure 39

SCHEMATIC AND LAYOUT OF 432 -MHz MIXER UNIT


CI-0.5- to 5.0 -pf piston trimmer capacitor (JFD).
C -1.0- to 20 -pf piston trimmer capacitor (JFD). See text.
CR -Mixer diode, 1N21 series (see text).
1,, j,
J. -BNC connector, chassis mounting. UG -657/U or equiv.
Box -4" X 2,e" X 1,8" Bud 3002A).
598 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
Mixer Unit for The 432 -MHz mixer unit to achieve maximum sensitivity. The cheaper
432 MHz (figure 38) consists of a 1N2ID or E, however, is adequate for
simple quarter -wave strip- most work and is entirely suitable when
line circuit built in a rectangular aluminum r -f stages are employed ahead of the mixer.
box. A 1N21- family diode is used as a mixer. The i -f bypass capacitor (C2) must be
An i -f output signal at 29 -MHz is obtained effective at 432 MHz and is shown as a
from a 432 -MHz received signal with the piston type. It is used to resonate the link
injection unit described later, but other circuit between the mixer and the i -f am-
intermediate frequencies may be easily ob- plifier, but it can be replaced with a low -
tained. Inductive coupling is used for both inductance, fixed capacitor if the cost of
local- oscillator injection and signal output. the piston type is prohibitive. An inexpen-
The mixer is coupled to a low noise i -f sive fixed capacitor may be built by sand-
amplifier through a short length of coaxial wiching a thin piece of Teflon or polyethy-
line as shown in the block diagram. lene between a 3/,t" X 1/2" piece of copper
Circuit Description plate, and securing it to the plated board
The 432 -MHz stripline
with nylon screws.
circuit consists of induc-
tor L:, resonated by capacitor C,. Local -os- Mixer Construction The mixer is built in an
cillator injection is inductively coupled to aluminum box measuring
the stripline and an injection frequency of 4" X 21/8" X 1 %8" (Bud 3002A) A piece .

403 MHz is used to produce a 29 -MHz of copper-clad (one side) phenolic board
intermediate frequency. If the mixer is used (figure 40) is mounted on the inside of the
without the benefit of the transistor r -f box, and a piece of the same material is
stage ahead of it, a 1N2IF diode is suggested fastened to the inside end of the box where

Figure 40

SIDE VIEW OF MIXER UNIT


The simple aluminum stripline is seen across the center of the chassis box. Receptacle J, and
injection loop L. are at the upper left, with the signal input loop and receptacle J, immedi-
ately below the stripline. The fuse clip for the diode is near the center of the line, with the
tuning capacitor (C,), at the right. The i -f output receptacle (J,) is in the foreground.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 432 MHz Low Norse Converter System 599

eceptacle J_ is placed. Small 4 -40 screws When fastening the two halves of the
are placed near the corners of the boards to aluminum box together, two additional #6
fasten them in place, and the boards are sheet -metal screws should be used on each
soldered together where the two edges meet. side of the box to ensure good r -f contact
The boards are removed from the box after between the halves.
this operation and the remaining holes
Adjusting the Connect the 432 -MHz mixer
drilled. A single 6 -32 screw secures the
Mixer Unit unit to the oscillator /multi-
ground end of inductors L, and L. The
center pin of receptacle J, is cut short to plier unit, the i -f system,
allow clearance between inductor L1 and and a suitable antenna. Set the i -f system
the pin, as shown in the photograph. to 29 MHz and turn on a nearby, stable
Spacing between L, and L:, is about I/8- 432 -MHz test signal. Set capacitor Co at
inch. A 1/4-inch high insulator with a midrange. With the oscillator /multiplier cir-
fuse clip attached is used to support the base cuits peaked, a diode current of about 0.5
end of the mixer diode. A pin receptacle ma should be achieved. Tune in the i -f
from an octal socket makes connection to signal and peak capacitors C, and C_ for
the small end, and is soldered to a short, maximum observed signal.
1/4 -inch wide copper strap fastened to in- Oscillator /Multiplier This local oscillator
ductor L:,. This permits the diode to be Unit for 432 MHz (LO) unit employs two
easily changed with minimum effort. The tubes and a 3rd -over-
local oscillator injection loop (L,), should tone crystal in the 40- to 50-MHz range to
be as small as practical and still permit 0.5- provide injection voltage for a 432 -MHz
ma diode current. The ground end of in- converter unit. By choosing the proper crys-
ductor L2 is soldered to the copper board tal frequency, an i -f output of 7, 29, or
adjacent to the nearby BNC receptacle 50 MHz may be obtained for a 432 -MHz
mounting nut. For maximum transfer of input signal. An optional feature is remote
power from the local oscillator to the mixer vernier tuning of the local crystal oscillator
diode the sum of the length of inductor L, (and thereby the received signal). This
the coaxial cable, and the output link of the feature is extremely useful when tuning for
injection unit should be a half wavelength weak DX signals and SSB stations. Filament
(electrical) or multiple thereof at the in- power is 6.3 volts at 0.48 ampere and 150
jection frequency. volts d.c. (regulated) at 15 ma. The unit
will deliver more than enough power to a
diode mixer to develop better than 0.5
milliampere of diode current.
The LO Circuitry A 12AT7 double triode is
used in a cathode oscil-
lator /tripler circuit. A 44.777 -MHz 3rd -
overtone crystal is used when a 29 -MHz
i-f signal is desired for 432 MHz. The plate
circuit of the first triode section is resonated
at the overtone frequency (f). The plate
circuit of the second triode section is tuned
Figure 41 to the third harmonic (f:,), 134.331 MHz.
THE OSCILLATOR -MULTIPLIER UNIT
Inductive coupling is used between this cir-
cuit and the following stage to minimize
The LO features o varactor- controlled remote the transfer of undesired harmonics. Coils
tuning circuit. Components are mounted on an
inexpensive aluminum box. Atop the chassis L, and L, are made from a single length of
(I. to r.) are: f X I output receptacle J , 12A17 inductor stock. The spacing between the
oscillator (with crystal behind it), tip jacks for
alignment, and 6AKS multiplier tube. Output adjacent ends of the coils is %8 inch. The
receptacle J: is at far right. Tuning capacitors 6AK5 plate circuit is tuned to the ninth
C,, C., and C, are in the foreground. Output
tuning capacitor C, is to the right of the 6AKS harmonic (f,,, 403 -MHz). Inductor L; is
tube. a hairpin loop of 3 '16 inch wide "flashing"
600 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
JI
(fx1) nL5. VIEWED ON EDGE.
OUT FLASHING COPPER,
3 /1e' WIDE.
O- m I
Le, SAME SIZE.
L2 MADE OF R20 WIRE.
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L3 L
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L5

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REMOTE TUNING CNT. Xi C2 (f59)

(f ) OUT

270 70 KIOK
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12A1 GARS
9
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REMOTE VERNIER TUNING
(OPTIONAL)

NOTE. ALL RESISTORS V2 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED

Figure 42
SCHEMATIC OF LOCAL OSCILLATOR MULTIPLIER
C,, C. -20 -pf (Johnson 20M11 miniature) (B 6 W 3006)
C,-9 -pf (Johnson 9M11 miniature) L -2 turns as per L,
C,-5-pl (Johnson SMI? miniature) PL,- 3-circuit chassis mounting (Cinch -Jones P-
C- Variable capacitance diode (5.2- to 31 -pf, 303A0)
Pacific Semiconductor V -12 Voricop) RFC -50 -MHz choke (Ohmite Z -50 or equiv.)
J.-Coaxial receptacle, UHF or BNC type
.1,, X,- Third -overtone crystal. Use 44.777 MHz for
L,-9 turns #20 e., closewound, 3/e in. diam. 29 -MHz i -f; 42.444 MHz for 50 -MHz i -f; 42.500
L.-One turn loop at 11-plus end of L, MHz for double c sien to 7 MHz (see text)
L -3 turns spaced I/ inch, I/2 inch diam. Chassis -Bud CU -2106A

copper strap. The coupling inductor, L,;, is 28 MHz using an auxiliary i -f amplifier,
approximately the same size as L and is described later.
mounted parallel to it, about 3/16 inch The second optional circuit is remote
away. vernier tuning of the crystal oscillator by
Two optional circuits are available to the means of a capacitance diode (l'aractor)
user. The first option provides LO injection across the crystal -oscillator plate circuit.
at both the ninth and fundamental overtone Excellent vernier tuning is provided by this
frequencies. By using both the ninth and simple circuit. A blocking capacitor serves
the fundamental frequency of a 42.5 -MHz to remove the d -c plate voltage from the
3rd -overtone crystal, a converter with first diode, and an r -f choke isolates the tank cir-
and second mixer stages could be built that cuit from the external control circuit. At the
would convert 432 MHz to 49.5 MHz (for remote- control point, a ten -turn potentiom-
good image rejection) and then convert eter, limiting resistor, and battery are
again to 7 MHz where many receivers have used to adjust the diode voltage, thereby
better performance than at 28 MHz. This tuning the overtone crystal over a narrow
option was not exercised in this design, as range. The values indicated will provide a
good receiver performance was achieved at tuning range of about 3 kHz at 432 MHz.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK A 432 MHz Low Noise Converter System 601

Figure 43

UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF OSCILLATOR- MULTIPLIER UNIT


The 12AT7 socket is at the left, with the crystal socket to the front. Inductors L. and L at
center are cut from a single piece of coil stock. Components of 6AKS multiplier stage are
fixed to small copper sheet mounted under tube socket and output tuning capacitor. Tuning
capacitors C,, C., and C, are across rear of the chassis.

A counter dial reading from 0 to 1000 for the 6AKS stage should be short and direct.
10 turns of the potentiometer will provide The socket for the 12AT7 is oriented so that
good bandspread when tuning a few kHz pin 6 faces the 6AKS socket, which has pin
for a weak moonbounce signal. A shielded 1 facing the 12AT7 socket. Point -to -point
cable connects between the remote control wiring is used with many components
unit and the LO unit. The plus terminal of mounted directly to socket pins or to adja-
the battery connects to the cathode of the cent ground lugs or tie points.
tuning diode. If the builder elects to omit
this feature, the portion of the circuit in Adjustment of Tune -up procedure of the
the dotted inclosure may be eliminated. the LO Unit LO unit is simple and
straightforward. Power is ap-
Construction of The LO unit is built in an plied, including bias to the tuning diode (if
the LO Unit aluminum box measuring used). The f, and f, circuits are adjusted
S' " X 3" X 2'/R" (Bud for maximum negative voltage read by a
CU 2106A). Layout of major components
is shown in the photographs (figure 43).
high- resistance meter at test point J.
This
is the grid bias voltage of the 6AKS and
Note that a piece of thin copper sheet is should approximate three volts. Connect a
fastened to the inside of the box where the low -range milliammeter across test points
6AKS socket is mounted. This provides a J, and J, and watch for a faint change in
good r -f ground for this stage. All leads in 6AK5 plate current while adjusting the
602 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

output circuit (f ). Plate current is about


7.5 milliamperes. Final adjustment of the
oscillator plate circuit and multiplier is
made while listening for a crystal -controlled
432 -MHz test signal on a communications
receiver fed by the complete converter. The
resulting i -f signal will be stable when the
oscillator tuning is set correctly and the
crystal is controlling the frequency. Incor-
rect setting of the oscillator capacitor can
result in loss of frequency control, and a
resulting rough sounding i -f signal.
Figure 44
An I -F Amplifier Intermediate - frequency
for the 432 -MHz THE LOW -NOISE 29 -MHz I -F AMPLIFIER
amplification following a
Converter diode mixer is a must. In This nuvistor amplifier should be used to im-
prove the noise figure of the communications
addition to amplifying the i -f signal, the i -f receiver used as a 29 -MHz i -f strip. Input and
stage also helps set the noise figure of the output coaxial receptacles are located atop
the box, as are the slugs for adjustment of
over -all system. In many cases, the com- tuned circuits. Amplifier also serves os a good
munications receiver used as the i -f system 10 -meter broadband preselector.

does not have a low -noise r -f stage as it is


not needed in the high- frequency region. from the 6CW4 cathode circuit. A low -
This simple i -f amplifier provides the neces- impedance link circuit couples the i -f
sary gain at a low noise figure and may be amplifier to the communications receiver.
used with any communications receiver. Power required for the i -f amplifier is 6.3
A 6CW4 nuvistor is employed in a volts at 0.135 ampere and 70 volts d.c. at
grounded -grid circuit with two tuned in- S ma.
put circuits and one tuned output circuit. The I -F AmplifierTwo tuned circuits are
The input circuit is tapped to match a low - Circuit used between the mixer
impedance coaxial input, and provision is unit and the 6CW4 to
made for metering the diode mixer current. achieve good selectivity. Coils L, and L_
Capacitive coupling between the input cir- are separated sufficiently to make the cir-
cuits provides d -c isolation of the mixer cuit undercoupled, and the extra coupling
5
sM L2

+
LI
SRIELD
I

-F
INPUT 6CW4
L3 j, FOLD

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C.045515 LAYOUT SHIELD
GND V 'I0V.,5MA
Figure 45

SCHEMATIC, LOW -NOISE I -F AMPLIFIER


L, L -18 turns 028 enam. on 38 -inch diam. form ,brass slug). Tap 5 turns from ground end
for L , 4 turns for L (National XR -90 form, or equiv.)
.

L -19 turns 028 enam. on 35 -inch form (powered -iron slug). 3.10- to 6.8 -. hy. IJ. W. Miller
4405)
L -3 turns insulated wire at 8 -plus end of L
Box -4 x 218" x 1, 8" (Bud 3002A)

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HANDBOOK A 432 MHz Low Noise Converter System 603

- ..,,_ ..

Figure 46

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF I -F AMPLIFIER


Input circuits are at left, with shield across nuvistor socket at center of chassis. Output
circuit is at right. Socket shield is soldered to circuit board used os chassis.

is provided by a small capacitor. Diode in order to achieve a snug fit. The shield is
current of the preceding mixer stage is soldered to the copper -clad board after all
monitored by inserting a low resistance 0- parts are mounted. The side flanges of the
to-1 d -c milliameter in jack J,. The cath- shield should make contact with the sides
ode of the 6CW4 is tapped down on the of the box and it may be fastened in posi-
input circuitry to achieve a good impedance tion with sheet -metal screws after final as-
match. The three circuits may be stagger - sembly.
tuned if fairly flat response is desired over 1-F Amplifier The amplifier is connected to
the 28- to 30 -MHz range. Power leads are Adjustment the mixer stage and to the
decoupled by feedthrough capacitors to communications receiver by
reduce fundamental- frequency pickup. coaxial lines. A 29 -MHz or 432 -MHz test
Amplifier Construction The i -f amplifier is signal may be used, depending on whether
built in an aluminum or not the mixer stage is available. The
box measuring 4" X 2 %g" X 15/8" (Bud slugs of coils L, and L. are peaked for max-
3002A). A piece of copper -clad (one side) imum signal, followed by adjustment of
phenolic board is mounted on the inside of coil L:,. A check across the 10 -meter band
the box with a 4 -40 screw in each corner. A will show if the amplifier circuits need to
shield of thin "flashing" copper straddles the be stagger -tuned to flatten the response.
nuvistor socket, isolating the input circuit Optimizing The As is, two of these simple
from the plate circuit. The grid terminal 432 -MHz R -F r -f amplifier units will out-
of the socket is bent down to the shield Amplifier perform most vacuum -tube
and soldered to it. The notch in the shield amplifiers by several decibels
to clear the socket should be filed to shape of noise figure at 432 MHz. Little adjust-
604

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Receivers and Transceivers

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Figure 47

SUN NOISE RECORDING MADE WITH CONVERTER BY W4HHK


The transistor preamplifier and converter described in this section were used to make this
chart recording of sun noise at 432 MHz. An 18 -foot dish was used, with the sun passing
across the stationary dish. A maximum noise of about 3.25 decibels were recorded, showing
the usable sensitivity of the converter. W4HHK reports that the converter exhibits unusually
good rejection to out -of -band signals (TV, etc.).

ment need be made when using the 2N3478 optimum value of resistance is not critical
transistors, or other transistors of this gen- (plus or minus a few hundred ohms) and
eral family. No doubt better and cheaper may easily be determined by listening tests.
transistors will be developed over the years
as the trend to transistor television receivers 26 -7 The Deluxe
grows. With suitable modifications in the HBR Receiver
bias circuitry, this circuit will work well
with other transistor types. One of the most popular receiver designs
The gain and noise figure of this circuit in recent years has been the HBR circuit,
may be set by adjustment of the base - the creation of Ted Crosby, W6TC, and
ground resistor (2.7K). The optimum value others. Described in this section is a mod-
of resistance may vary slightly between ernized version of this popular receiver in-
transistors, even of the same type. To op- corporating many improvements over the
timize the circuitry, therefore, it is only earlier HBR models. The Deluxe HBR am-
necessary to replace the fixed resistor with ateur -band receiver is expressly designed
a SK potentiometer and to adjust it for for high -quality performance on SSB and
optimum gain and noise figure on a weak c.w. and has a high order of selectivity and
signal. It will be found that the lower the stability. It has good dynamic signal range
value of the base -ground resistance, the to help protect it from excessive cross mod-
lower will be the current drain and circuit ulation caused by strong signals and fea-
gain. When the resistance is too high, the tures high-Q r-f circuits for "up front"
stage will break into oscillation. Before the selectivity. Best of all, the receiver may
point of oscillation is reached, the signal -to- be built for a modest price and without the
noise ratio of the stage will deteriorate. The use of special metal- handling tools.

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 605

Figure 48
THE DELUXE HBR RECEIVER
The 19 -tube HBR receiver is a double -conversion superheterodyne covering the amateur
bands. Employing plug -in coils, the receiver combines simplicity of design with good r -f
selectivity. Delayed automatic gain control and an efficient product detector make the re-
ceiver well suited for SSB reception. Layout of the panel controls may be seen in this photo-
graph. To the left of the main tuning control are the antenna trimmer (C and the r -f gain
control (R ), with the Q- multiplier tuning (C, centered below. To the right of the main tuning
control is the first i -f gain potentiometer (R with the noise limiter switch (S ! and the
1

100-kHz calibration oscillator switch to the right. Across the lower edge of the panel are
I. to r.): Q- multiplier control (S ), bandwidth- adjust potentiometer (R ), mixer -gain potentio-
meter (R ), second i -f gain potentiometer (R ), .node selector switch (5 ), audio -gain potentio-
meter (R ) and agc time- constant switch (S). Below, to the right are the phone jack and the
main power switch.

The Deluxe HBR receiver (figure 48) is receiver in such a way as to accommodate
a double conversion superheterodyne employ- his particular operating conditions, and this
ing nineteen tubes. A high -C electron - flexibility has proven to be one of the out-
coupled oscillator is used in the first con- standing features of this receiver. A delayed
version stage to combine a good order of agc system provides ample control for local
stability with circuit simplicity. Receiver signals, yet allows full sensitivity for weak
coverage is restricted to the high- frequency signals.
amateur bands only( 80 through 10 meters), Auxiliary circuitry includes a 100 -kHz
and inexpensive plug -in coils are used to sim- transistor crystal calibrator, i -f noise limiter,
plify receiver construction and to achieve S- meter, and Q- multiplier. Construction of
high -Q circuitry. Separate gain controls are the Deluxe HBR receiver is done on two
provided for the r -f stage, the first i -f stage, chassis, with the r -f circuitry placed on a
the second mixer, and the low- frequency separate small chassis that may be assembled
i -f system. These adjustments permit the and tested as a separate unit, if desired. Re-
operator to establish the over -all gain of the ceiver r -f alignment is easily accomplished
606 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
VI4 VIS
DET -AUDIO AUDIO
1r
VI V2 VS V9 V9 Vio I 2AU7
R IST MIX. TI I.F. T2 2ND MIX. T3 T4 I.F. TS

95kN BSkH,

GAIN GAIN
V12
PROD. DET.

Vil
CD NOISE
LIMITER
100 kHz
CALIB. V13
OSCILLATOR BFO
BAND RANGE (MN,)
so 5.1- 5.6 VIA V17 V4 V19
40 S.4-5.7 AVC AMP. NYC DIODES RECTIFIER REGULATOR
20 9.2-9.375
15 9.7 -9.95
10 13.2-14.05

Figure 49

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE DELUXE HBR RECEIVER


The deluxe HER receiver employs a tunable first oscillator (V,) and a crystal -controlled second
oscillator (V -) The d harmonic of the tunable oscillator is used for operation above 40
meters. Separate gain controls are incorporated In the receiver to enable the user to set the
stage gains for optimum reception. Use of 1615 -kHz Erst intermediate frequency provides
good image rejection while second intermediate freq y of 85 kHz provides excellent
adjacent -channel selectivity. Extra operating aids such as Q- multiplier, S-meter, and noise
limiter make SSE reception a pleasure.

by separate bandset and bandspread adjust- injection is used on the 20- ,15- , and 10-
ments using an auxiliary signal source. meter bands.
Electrical and mechanical bandspread
The Receiver A block diagram of the Deluxe tuning are both employed in this receiver.
Circuit HBR receiver is shown in fig- A high -ratio tuning dial (110:1) is used,
ure 49.
The R -F Section
the amateur bands between 80 and 10
-
The receiver covers
permitting easy tuning of SSB signals. In
addition, a tapped -coil bandspread technique
(see Radio Receiver Fundamentals chapter)
meters with sufficient overlap at the band is employed (figure 51). The tuning rate of
edges for auxiliary activities such as MARS. the high- frequency oscillator (expressed as
Plug -in coils are employed in the r-f tuned a percentage of frequency) may be matched
circuits. The r-f stage employs a 6BZ6 to the rate of the r -f and detector stages by
semiremote -cutoff pentode (V1) to provide
maximum weak- signal performance while proper adjustment of the padding capacitors
in the bandspread circuit.
still allowing freedom from crosstalk and
front -end overload. The r -f stage gain con- The I -F Section -Two intermediate fre-
trol is normally run open and is only backed quencies are used in the Deluxe HBR re-
off in the presence of strong local signals. A ceiver. The first intermediate frequency is
1615 kHz which provides good image re-
6BC5 serves as a high -gain, low -noise mixer
jection in the high- frequency range. The
(V_), with conversion oscillator injection on
second intermediate frequency is 85 kHz
the control grid. The injection level is ad- which provides excellent adjacent -channel
justable to provide optimum signal -to -noise selectivity. Separate gain controls are pro-
level consistent with good overload capabil- vided for the two i -f sections and also for
ity. The first conversion oscillator (V.1) is the second mixer stage. Normally, the i -f
a 6BH6 in a plate- feedback circuit having and mixer gains are retarded as the re-
good frequency stability. Fundamental-fre - ceiver has more than sufficient gain for all
quency injection is employed on the 80- modes of operation. Ample selectivity is
and 40 -meter bands and second -harmonic available at 1615 kHz to prevent broadcast

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Reciever 607

and 1650 -kHz navigational -aid signals from (V,;) and a 12AU7 double triode (V16)
causing interference to desired signals. A comprise the agc system. The double -diode
6BJ6 (V5) is used in the high- frequency circuit (V,;A and B) and the 470K/0.01-
i -f stage, followed by a 6BC5 (V6) second pH RC combination determine the "on"
mixer. The second conversion oscillator is time of the attack network, permitting the
a 6C4 (V;) in a crystal -controlled Pierce 0.1 -fd agc capacitor to charge up in a
circuit. The conversion frequency is 1.7 relatively quick time. The capacitor remains
MHz. charged, as the 12AU7 (V16A) triode is
Small, high -Q i-f transformers designed cut off by this action, and there remains no
for 100 -kHz operation are padded down to discharge path to ground in the agc circuit,
85 kHz to provide excellent over -all selec- even when the voltage across the RC net-
tivity. The nose of the selectivity curve is work is removed. The time constant of the
under 2 kHz in width, with the over -all release network is considerably longer, and
passband measuring about 4 kHz wide at 60 is adjusted by the "slow- fast -off" agc switch
decibels below the reference signal level. A (S,). After a predetermined period, the
12AX7 Q- multiplier (V8) provides addi- voltage across this network decays sufficient-
tional i -f selectivity for c -w reception or ly to permit the triode release gate (V,6A)
may be used to place a rejection notch at to conduct and discharge the agc line ca-
any point in the i -f passband to attenuate pacitor. A slight degree of delayed agc
interference. An i -f noise limiter employing action is provided by applying fixed bias to
a 6AL5 diode clipper (V11) is employed in the attack diode to prevent the circuit
the plate circuit of the last 8f -kHz i -f from being tripped by background noise or
The Detector, AGC and Audio Section
Dual detectors are provided in the Deluxe
-
amplifier stage. Clipping level is adjustable. weak signals.
A single 12AU7 triode section followed
by a 6AQ5 provides sufficient audio level
HBR receiver. A 7360 is used as a product for earphone reception, or to drive a speaker
detector for SSB and c -w reception (V,_) to good room volume. Feedback is incor-
with local-oscillator injection on the control porated in the 6AQ5 stage to provide
grid. The i -f signal is injected at one deflec- smooth audio response.
tion plate, with the resulting output con- The S -Meter and Power Supply-The S-
taining signal components produced by the meter consists of a simple v.t.v.m. that
product of the input signals. The desired compares agc voltage against a fixed volt-
audio component is selected and filtered in age reference. The 6CB6 bridge plate cir-
the plate circuit of the 7360. A 6BH6 beat - cuit (V) is balanced for a meter null with
frequency oscillator (V12) serves for c -w no signal input to the receiver, and agc
and SSB reception. A 12AU7 infinite -im- voltage in the presence of a signal unbal-
pedance detector (V14) is used for a -m re- ances the bridge, causes a reading on the
ception. meter proportional to signal strength. The
The agc system makes use of an audio - meter may be used for all modes of recep-
controlled hang circuit especially designed tion, providing useable readings on c -w
for SSB and c -w modes. It features a very signals as well as SSB or amplitude modu-
rapid response that prevents receiver over- lation.
load on a syllabic burst of SSB, instantly re- The power supply utilizes a choke input
ducing the receiver gain. The gain reduc- circuit, with critical voltages regulated by
tion remains in effect as long as the signal is an 0A2. Standby is accomplished by relay
in evidence, then hangs on for about 0.5
RY which breaks the r-f stage cathode and
second after the removal of the signal. This
speaker circuits of the receiver when actu-
sequence reduces to a minimum the usual
"thump" that occurs at the start of a ated by the VOX circuit of the transmitter.
syllable and removes the "rush" of back- A separate filament transformer is used for
ground noise at the end of a syllable, both the oscillator tubes, permitting them to run
of which occur with less sophisticated agc continuously, thus drastically reducing the
circuits. A choice of fast or slow release warmup drift of the receiver, especially in
action may be made. A triple diode 6BC7 a humid location.
608 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

Figure 50

SCHEMATIC OF HBR RECEIVER

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 609

PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 50

C A, B, C- 5- 23 -pf, 3- section. Miller 2102, or S -Two- section, 2 -poles per section, 4- position.
Polar C28 -143 -6 015 Centralab PA -2010
(Note: one rotor plate must be removed
from each section of the Polar capacitor to
T,, T - 1800 -kHz transformer. Pad to 1615 kHz
with 62 -pf silver micas. Miller 1730
achieve proper bandspread. The Miller unit T,, T,, T- 100 -kHz high -Q transformer, 2.5 -kHz
needs no modification) bandwidth. Pad with 130 -pf silver micas to
C -15 -pf Hammarlund MAPC -15B 85 kHz. Miller 1709. For 3 -kHz bandwidth,
C -2 -pf Hammarlund MAPC -15 with all but one use Miller 1710 transformers
rotor and one stator plate removed. T,- 132 -kHz bhp transformer padded to 85 kHz
C , C , C -See coil table, figure 57. (Hammar- with 17S -pf silver mica. Remove compres-
lund type MAPC) sion trimmer and use threaded bushing of
C -10 -pf Centralab 822EZ trimmer as mount for lugs to hold wires
C -740-pf Hammarlund APC -140B from bfo coil. Miller 012 -MS
C -7 -pf Centralab 822EZ T. -SK to 4 ohms. Stancor A -3877
Centralab 822AZ T, -3:1 audio interstage. Triad A -31X
Le L., L,-See coil fable, figure 57 T,-550-volt c.t., 110-ma. S volt 2 amp., 6.3
L 3.5 -mH Miller 9003 volt S amp. Triad R -12A
L,, L, -6- henry, 110 -ma, Triad C -11X T, -6.3-volt 1 amp. Stancor P -6134
L.-0.7 -mH, tapped. Miller 9012 S- meter -0 -I d-c milliammeter
RFC,100-mH Miller 960 Chassis -(1) 10" x 14" x 3" (2) S" x 7" x 2"
RFC, -50-mH Miller 958 BFO box -2s/%" x 2" x 4"
RT -dpdt relay with coil to match transmitter Cabinet -IS" x 11" x 9 ". Wyco CR -7725
control circuit Dial- Eddystone 898
S -Single -section, 3 -pole, 3-position. Centralab
PA -2006

Receiver A receiver such as this is a 6 -32 spade bolts mounted in the corners of
Constrrcfion complex device and its con- the smaller unit. Placement of the subchassis
struction should only be under- is shown in figure 54.
taken by a person familiar with receiving Alignment of the dial on the panel is
equipment and who has built and aligned determined by the positioning of the main
equipment approaching this complexity. The tuning capacitor (C,A -B -C). The capaci-
first step is to lay out the chassis, panel, tor used is a high -quality unit having full
tuning dial, and larger components in a ball -race bearings front and back and a
"mockup" assembly to ensure that the re- controlled torque. This unit provides mini-
ceiver will go together without a conflict mum drag on the geared dial. The tuning
between the components. The receiver is capacitor is mounted above the chassis on
built on an aluminum chassis measuring two bolts as shown in the various illustra-
10" X 14" X 3". A chassis having welded dons. Note that the capacitor is insulated
seams with triangular braces in each corner from the top of the chassis and the dial, the
is recommended for maximum rigidity. The rotor frame being grounded by a separate
complete receiver fits in a steel cabinet ground strap running from the capacitor
measuring 11" X 15" X 9". A series of 1/8- frame to the under -chassis area of the r -f
inch holes are drilled around the upper edges unit. This grounding technique avoids
of the sides and back of the chassis for spurious ground loops in the r -f assembly
ventilation and another series of 3/B- inch that may give rise to regeneration and in-
holes is drilled across the rear top and bot- stability. The tuning capacitor is driven via
tom edges of the cabinet. The bottom of a rigid insulated bushing and the supporting
the cabinet, in addition, is "honeycombed" bolts are adjusted and locked after align-
with 3/8 inch holes. Additional holes are also ment of the front panel, thus assuring mini-
required in the rear of the cabinet for mum dial drag.
various cables and terminations to plugs The receiver chassis rests on the floor of
and receptacles mounted on the rear apron the cabinet and the chassis is mounted nearly
of the chassis. flush with the bottom edge of the panel.
The r -f circuits of the receiver are built The dial assembly is positioned as shown in
on a steel subchassis measuring 5" X 7" X the layout drawing (figure 55). It is sug-
2" which is mounted above the main chassis gested that the r -f chassis be temporarily
as shown in the photographs. The subchassis placed on the larger chassis after mounting
is affixed to the main chassis by means of the tuning capacitor and dial placement
610 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

study of the photographs and layout draw-


L3A OSC.
ings. Use of a paper layout template for
drilling the chassis is recommended.
The R -F Assembly-The three plug -in
Lae coils, the tuning capacitor, the r -f tubes
(6BZ6, 6BC5 and 6BH6), together with
the first 1615-kHz i -f transformer (T, )
are mounted on the subchassis. An above -
L 2A DE T.
chassis shield compartment isolates r -f coil
L, from the tuning capacitor and from the
oscillator coil (L:1). A second compartment
o
Lee isolates the mixer coil (L,). The 6BZ6 and
5
6BC5 tubes are in the same compartment as
coil L,. A small shield plate is required
across the bottom of the 6BZ6 socket and
is notched to fit directly over the socket,
LIA R.F.
isolating the grid wiring from the plate cir-
CIA
cuit. The various 6BZ6 bypass capacitors
LIB are grounded to the shield plate, as is the
center stud of the socket.
Figure 51 Ceramic sockets are used for the plug -in
coils and for the 6BH6 oscillator tube. The
BANDSPREAD SYSTEM FOR RECEIVER
socket for coil L, is placed so that pin 4 is
A simple and pr bandspread system is
used in the Deluxe HBR receiver. Because the adjacent to pin 1 of the 6BZ6 socket. Coil
oscillator operates "offset" in frequency from socket L. is oriented in the same manner
the detector and r -f circuits, a tapped band - with respect to the 6BC5 socket. If the
spread system is used to allow the oscillator
to track when similar tuning capacitors are socket for coil L, has a metal mounting
ganged. The oscillator operates on the high - plate, an application of "coil dope" or
frequency side of the received signal on 80
and 40 meters, and on the low- frequency side cement should be placed around the ceramic
on the higher bands. Adjustment of the coil to eliminate movement between the socket
tap provides the a tuning rate. This
must be smaller than that of the detector and the plate, providing a solid mounting
and r -f stage, because the oscillator covers o for the oscillator coil. Use #18 solid wire
smaller range than the other stages, when
both ranges are expressed as a percentage of for wiring socket connections to avoid in-
fr cy. Minute frequency co ions are stability caused by lead movement in the
taken core of by the "Ose. Trim" capacitor r -f assembly. The lead from pin 3 of the
(C;), and r -f stage alignment is accomplished
by means of the "R -f Trim" capacitor (C.). oscillator coil socket to the stator of capaci-
Padding capacitors for each band are placed tor C,C should be #12 wire for best me-
Inside the plug -In coil forms.
chanical stability. All power connections to
the r -f subchassis are made to a multiter-
then be checked before any holes are cut in minal strip mounted on one wall of the unit.
the panel. The panel is held in position by The connection between i -f transformer T,
means of the various hexagonal control
on the subchassis and the 6BJ6 i -f amplifier
nuts. Two sets of nuts are used, one to hold
socket (pin 1) is made via a small feed -
the control to the chassis (and to space the
through insulator mounted on the rear wall
panel from the chassis) and the second to
fasten the panel firmly to the chassis. The of the subchassis, the lead from the insula-
spice between panel and chassis accommo- tor passing through a grommet mounted in
dates the lower lip of the steel cabinet, which the chassis deck of the under -chassis area.
may be cut down in length and width to The I -f System-The 6BJ6 i -f amplifier
facilitate placing the receiver in the cabinet. (161 kHz), transformer T_ and the second
S

The chassis, subchassis, dial, and panel mixer (6BC5, V,;) are located on the main
should be assembled and studied before the chassis directly behind the r -f subchassis.
chassis holes are drilled. Placement of the The 12AX7 Q- multiplier is placed in the
remaining components may be done from a rear left corner of the chassis, with the 6C4

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 61 1

Figure 52
REAR OBLIQUE VIEW OF RECEIVER
R -f components are mounted on a subchassis placed atop receiver chassis (right). The chassis
is held in position by spade bolts in the corners. The main tuning capacitor is insulated from
the chassis and grounded to it by a separate strap. It is held in position by long bolts
insulated from the chassis by fibre washers.
Along the rear apron of the chassis ore (1. to r.): power cord, line fuse, speaker jack,
accessory socket, notch -depth potentiometer (R,), and antenna receptacle. Ventilation holes
may be seen around the edge of the chassis. A plug -in silicon rectifier is in use in place of
the 5V4.

crystal oscillator and 1.7 -MHz crystal at The noise limiter and detector tubes are
the right end of the i -f strip, as seen in the near the front of the chassis, adjacent to
photographs. The 85 -kHz i -f system is posi- i -f transformer T. The product detector
tioned from front to back along the center and audio system are to the right -front of
of the chassis. The transformers are oriented the chassis.
so that plate and grid leads to adjacent
Beneath the chassis (figure 56), the bfo
sockets are short and do not cross over each
components are housed in an aluminum box
other. Sockets, too, are oriented to provide
measuring 2" X 23/4" X 4", centered under
short grid and plate leads.
The AGC, Audio, and Power Systems
The power supply occupies the right rear
- the bfo tube socket. Various chokes and
transformers are mounted to the side wall
corner of the chassis, with the `S -meter ad- of the chassis, with the Q- multiplier con-
justment' and "S -meter zero' potentiometers trols mounted on a subpanel placed near the
placed in front of the power transformer. rear of the receiver. Extension shafts couple
612 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

ma AIN Mk .111

Figure 53
TOP VIEW OF RECEIVER
Major above- chassis components may be seen in this photograph. Directly behind the 5 -meter
(upper left) are the 6AQ5 and 7360 tubes and nearer the power transformer are the 6BC7
and the 12AU7 agc tubes. Adjacent to the power transformer are the two S -meter potentiom-
eters. To the right of the power transformer are the 5V4 rectifier and the dual 40 -40 ;:fd
filter capacitor. Next to the capacitor (towards the panel) are the 0A2 regulator and the
6CB6 5 -meter tubes and the agc test -point jack. Closer to the panel is the bfo transformer
(T) with the bfo tube between it and the panel. Down the center of the chassis )rear to
front) are the 1.7 -MHz crystal, 6C4 oscillator, 85 -kHz transformer )T ), i -f amplifier 6BJ6 (V
transformer T , i -f amplifier 6BJ6 (V, ), and transformer T (near panel). To the left of trans-
former T are the 12AU7 (V ) and the 6AL5 (V I. The a n I control (R ) is to the side of
transformer T
Along the rear of the chassis (at right) are the slug of coil L (in the corner), 12AX7 (V
6BJ6 (V 1, transformer T, and 100 -kHz test point. At the front of the chassis (between the
subchassis and the panel) are the 100 -kHz crystal and associated components. Note that the
tuning capacitor is coupled to the dial with an inflexible (rigid) coupling and short shaft
extension. The flat ground strap on the main tuning capacitor may be seen passing through
a slot to the under -chassis area where it is grounded.

these controls to the panel dials. Panel separate leads running from the filament
bushings are placed on all extension shafts. transformer to each branch. To reduce r -f
ground- current intercoupling, all grounds
Receiver Wiring The receiver should be for a single stage should be returned to that
wired in an orderly man- stage, preferably to a common ground point
ner, a stage at a time. The power supply near the tube socket. The cathode, agc -by-
and filaments should be wired first. The pass, and screen capacitors, for example, can
builder should avoid overloading the fila- all return to a ground connection near the
ment wiring by wiring the sockets in sev- cathode pin of the socket in question. Com-
eral branches of four to five tubes, with ponents should be grouped about a socket

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 613

6 +-
COMPONENTS CENTERED
ALONG TN/S LINE.
5
POWER TRANSFORMER
-F CRASSI 7
R
APPROX 3f 3f
o

SRI[LD ASS'Y.
*
17

COMPONENTS CENTERED
io W ALONE STS LINE
R

2W

Q
W,2

ON
2+ I.D.
Z.;

42
u

COMPONENTS CENTERED
ALONG TANS LINE.

\"CT\OUT\ ,+
#*
31.1*- ... -2+ F = DIMENSION TO BE CHECKED IN PRELIMINARY ASSEMBLY.

Figure 54

TOP CHASSIS LAYOUT OF MAJOR COMPONENTS

where possible, and not "stacked" above the should run in shielded braid, with the
socket so the latter can be reached for volt- braid grounded at both ends of the leads.
age measurements. The i -f system and crystal conversion
Before bfo transformer T6 is mounted, oscillator may be checked by injecting a
the compression -type mica trimmer capaci- 1615-kHz test signal at the grid of the
tor is removed from the case and the trans- first i -f amplifier tube (V;) . The complete
former reassembled. A 25 -pf ceramic trim- receiver, less the r -f assembly may be com-
mer (C11) in parallel with a 175 -pf silver - pleted and checked, stage by stage as work
mica capacitor are mounted under the chas- progresses.
sis in the bfo inclosure. This substitution
removes a slight frequency instability The R -F Circuits Plug -in coil data is given
noted on SSB signals due to the flexing of in the accompanying table.
the spring on the compression capacitor. The coils are easy to wind and the receiver
After the power supply has been wired is simple to align. Five -pin, 11/4-inch diam-
and tested, the audio system may be checked eter polystyrene coil forms, available from
out by applying an audio signal to the top Allied Radio Co., Chicago, Ill. (catalog
end of the audio gain control (R;) . The number 46 -Z-696) are used. Figure 57
bfo may be checked for proper operation summarizes the windings and shows them in
with a v.t.v.m., if handy, by measuring the relation to the coil pins. All coils are tightly
rectified r-f voltage at the plate of the wound in the same direction on the form,
6BH6 oscillator tube, which should be about and an air padding capacitor is mounted
10 volts. Power leads from the bfo inclosure within the form. The MAPC -style capaci-
614 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

-4-4 A
e
Zi , -4-
2 h -
REF. POINT
FOR DIAL CUTTING AND DRILLING TEMPLATE
PROVIDED WITH DIAL I

- -fr,
/ 1

/ -- -\ 11I
SJ
1

\ .-TL
1

i S-MITER

-.--,
CUT OUT TO MATCH

9
l 1
I

,
\
4-
OIDIAL
1

_ ll
I-
-EID

4i-

-
H
4
I ,-I
I

4E0- Tti
15

NOTE' ALL PANEL HOLES FOR CONTROL SNAPTS ARE VO/A. HOLES FOR TOGGLE SWITCHES ARE I- O /A.

Figure 55

PANEL LAYOUT FOR DELUXE HBR RECEIVER

tor used as a trimmer should have brass The amount of wire for the winding is
(not aluminum) plates for best frequency estimated and one end of the length is
stability. The Hammarlund units are recom- cleaned, passed through the predrilled hole
mended. The trimmer capacitor is held in above pin 1, and into the pin. It is brought
place by Duco cement, plus the wire leads out the end of the pin and quickly soldered
running to it from the proper base pins. A with a hot iron. Hold the pin with a long -
silver -mica padding capacitor is used in the nose pliers acting as a heat sink so that the
oscillator coil assembly and is mounted in coil form will not be deformed by excessive
position as shown in the drawing. The rotor heat. The free end of the length of wire is
terminal of the MAPC padding capacitor is now attached to a vise or stationary object.
connected to the r -f ground end of the coil The wire is straightened by a gentle pull,
winding and the stator to the topmost turn and wound on the coil form under tension,
(grid) of the coil. rotating the top of the form towards you,
The first step is to wind the primary coil
keeping the wire taut at all times. When the
(B winding). Make two small holes in the
sidewall of the form for the connections to proper number of turns are on the form,
pin 1 and pin 5. The holes are about % -inch grasp the winding to prevent it from un-
apart with the pin -5 hole close to the point raveling and cut the wire a few inches
where the bottom turn of the secondary longer than the length needed to go through
winding will be placed. This allows suffi- the predrilled hole above pin f and to pro-
cient space to slide the primary winding up trude through the pin. Clean the end of the
or down the coil form to provide the proper wire, thread it through the form and out
degree of coupling between the windings. the pin. Pull it taut, solder the wire to the

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 615

lik swam It

Figure 56

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF RECEIVER


CI-multiplier controls and selector switch are mounted on small aluminum bracket in lower
left corner of chassis, with cutout for access to r -f area directly in front. Bio components are
mounted in aluminum box at right, front. Power leads to bfo stage are shielded. The output
transformer and agc transformer are mounted to the side wall of the chassis next to the
bfo box, with the larger filter chokes to the rear. Oscillator filament transformer is mounted
on rear wall of the chassis. Note corner braces bolted to lower lip of chassis for extra
rigidity.

pin tip and trim off the excess length. approximate the turn spacing as the coil is
Scrape the pin free of rosin and solder. wound, and the spacing may be adjusted
The same technique is used for the larger after the winding is finished, if necessary.
secondary winding. An extra hole is needed The winding can be temporarily wound on
in the coil form for the tap connection to the form in order to determine the position
the winding. The tap hole is somewhat of the tap hole. Once the winding is posi-
larger than the others (make it about Y4" tioned, the enamel on the wire is scraped
diameter) to permit the joint to be soldered away at the tap point and a small length of
without the iron damaging the low- melting wire soldered at this spot, passed through the
polystyrene form. The ends of the secondary tap hole and out through pin 3.
winding are not soldered until the additional The last step is to fix the MAPC padding
wires of the MAPC padding capacitor are capacitor in place and to mount the auxiliary
also inserted in the same pins. It is easy to silver -mica padding capacitor used in some
616 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO

COIL TABLE
L'A,L2A 29 TURNS No 26, L18: 57/6 TURNS No 26. L IA. L2A. 111/2 TURNS No. LIB: 3-7/6 TURNS No. 26,
CLOSE -WOUND. THEN 31/2 SPACED 3/6 IN. FROM LIA. 22. LENGTH 15/16 INCH. SPACED 5/16 IN. FROM LIA.
TURNS SPACED I/4 INCH, L2 B 9 -7/6 TURNS No. 26 TAPPED AT
THEN 4 TURNS CLOSE-W.0
1/4 TURNS. L2B: 3.7/6 TURNS No. 26.
SPACED 5/16 IN FROM L24 LEA: 6.1/2 TURNS No. 22. SPACED 7/16 IN. FROM L2A.
TAPPED AT 31-1/4 TURNS; L3B, 11.7/6 TURNS No. 26, 14 MHz LENGTH 1/2 IN. TAP'D AT
(TOTAL 36-1/2 TURNS).
L3B' 11-7/6 TURNS No 26,
SPACED 3/16 IN. FROM L3A. 6-1/4 TURNS. SPACED I/O IN. FROM L3A.
3.5MHz L3A: 15 TURNS No 22 CLOSE - C4,C5: 25 -PF AIR PADDER
WOUND, THEN 312 TURNS Ce. 50 -PF AIR PADDER,
SPACE -WOUND OVER 5/16 +200 -PF SILVER MICA.
IN., TAPPED AT 16 -1/4
TURNS (TOTAL 161/2 T'S).
C4, CS:S0 -PF AIR PADDE R. LIA,L2A: p 1/2 TURNS No 22 LIB' 3.7/6 TURNS No. 26,
C6:75 -PF AIR PADDER. LENGTH 7/6 IN; TAP'D AT SPACED SA6 IN. FROM L1 A.
2-1/4 TURNS. L2e: 3 -7/6 TURNS No. 26,
21MHz L3A: 5 -1/2 TURNS No. 22 SPACED SA6 IN. FROM L2A.
LENGTH 3/61N, TAP'D AT L3B 6.7A! TURNS No. 26,
LIA. L24. 6-1/2 TURNS No. 22, Ll B. 2 -7/6 TURNS No. 26. '1/4 TURNS. SPACED 5/32 IN. FROM L3A.
CLOSE -WOUND, THEN 16 SPACED 7/16 IN. FROM LIA. C4.CS: 25 -PF AIR PADDER.
TURNS SPACE-W.13 TO AN L2B: 3 -7/6 TURNS No. 26, Ca- SO -PF AIR PADDER
OVER -ALL LENGTH OF 11N; SPACED 3/6 IN. FROM L2A. +140 -PF SILVER MICA.
TAPPED AT 9-3/6 TURNS. L3B: 10 -7/6 TURNS No. 26,
(TOTAL 22 -1/2 TURNS ) SPACED 3/32 IN FROM L3A.
7 MHz L3: 6 -1/2 TURNS No.22, LIA,L2A, 5-1/2
CLOSE -W'D THEN 7 T'S
TURNS No 22. LIB: 3-7/6 TURNS No. 26,
LENGTH IS /16IN; TAPPED SPACED 361N. FROM LIA
SPACE -WOUND TO AN 0/ER- AT 2-3/6 TURNS.
ALL LENGTH OF 9/16 INCH; L2B: 3 -7/6 TURNS N. 26,
L3A S 1/2 TURNS No. 22,
1
SPACED 3/6 IN. FROM L24
TAPPED AT 13 -1/4 TURNS, 28MHz LENGTH 1/2 IN; TAPPED L3B: 6 -7/6 TURNS No 26.
TOTAL 13-1/2 TURNS ) AT 5 -1/4 TURNS. SPACED 5/32 IN FROM L3A
C4, :SO -PF AIR PADDER C4,C5: 25 -PF AIR PADDER
Ce.50 -PF AIR PADDER, C6: 50 -PF AIR PADDER,
+66 -PF SILVER MICA. +47 -PF SILVER MICA.

NOTES;
ALL COILS WOUND WITH ENAMELED WIRE ON 1f
- INCH DIAMETER POLYSTYRENE 5 -PIN PLUG -IN FORMS,
(ALLIED RADIO 46-Z-495) TAPS ARE COUNTED FROM BOTTOM END OF COIL.
ON 'A' COILS, TURNS SHOULD BE EVENLY SPACED TO LENGTH SPECIFIED; 'B"
COILS ARE CLOSE -WOUND.
"A' AND 'B "COILS ARE WOUND IN SAME DIRECTION.

TAP 2
PIN 3
S

2 4 2 1 5 4
(A) (B)

Figur. 57
COIL TABLE FOR DELUXE HBR RECEIVER

oscillator coils. Lengths of bare wire are toothpick. The fixed padding capacitor of
soldered to the rotor and stator terminals of the oscillator coil is mounted between one
the variable capacitor. The wires pass into stator post of the MAPC capacitor and the
pins 2 and 3, with the rotor going to pin 2 wire dropping down from the MAPC rotor
(r -f ground) and the stator going to pin 3. to pin 2. The assembly of MAPC capacitor
Once the wires of the MAPC capacitor are and fixed padding capacitor is soldered to-
in place, along with the ends of the second-
gether before the unit is slipped into the coil
ary winding, the pins may be soldered. Be- form.
fore soldering, check that no wires interfere When one set of coils is finished, it may
with the rotation of the capacitor and that be placed in the receiver and the circuits ad-
the capacitor may be turned easily without
justed to the approximate frequencies by
the rotor binding on the side of the coil means of a grid -dip oscillator.
form. When soldering is completed, the
MAPC capacitor may be wedged in place be- Receiver Alignment The i -f system of the
fore cement is applied using a length of Deluxe HBR receiver is

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 617

aligned first, followed by the r -f section. test signal loosely coupled to the plate of
While an experienced builder can align the the 6BC5 first mixer (V2). Transformers
receiver "by ear ", it is recommended that a T, and T2 are aligned for maximum re-
BC -221 (or LM) frequency meter be used sponse at this frequency. Gain controls are
for alignment along with a grid -dip oscilla- retarded to prevent overload as receiver
tor and a general -coverage receiver. Align- gain rises. Instability may be noted when
ment is done by injecting signals of various controls are advanced to a position of maxi-
frequencies into the receiver and peaking mum gain. The receiver has a large reserve
the adjustable capacitors of the tuned cir- of gain, and with correct alignment, no sign
cuits for maximum response. If the test of oscillation will be apparent at normal
signal is modulated with an audio tone, the operational gain levels.
receiver response may be noted on a high R -f Alignment -R -f alignment is ac-
impedance a -c voltmeter placed across the complished by adjustment of the various
speaker output terminals. If the test signal padding capacitors in the plug -in coils, and
is unmodulated, the receiver S -meter may by varying the inductance of the coils if
be employed, or a vacuum -tube voltmeter need be. Two adjustments are necessary-
placed across the agc line may be used. tracking and bandspread. Both of these ad-
I -f Alignment -The receiver bfo is used justments are performed on the high-fre-
for alignment of the 85-kHz i -f system. quency oscillator circuit and are then re-
With the "function switch" in the bfo posi- peated for the mixer and r -f circuits. The
tion, the second harmonic of the bfo is ad- procedure is best carried out first on a low -
justed to 170.0 kHz using the low- frequency frequency band, and the 40 -meter adjust-
range of the BC-221 frequency meter. A ments are chosen as an example. The align-
small amount of signal from the bfo is ment chart shows that the proper 40 -meter
coupled into the plate circuit of the second alignment is achieved when the high -fre-
mixer tube (V,;) and transformers T, T,, quency oscillator stage tunes the 5.4- to 5.7-
and T; adjusted for maximum response. To MHz range while the r -f and mixer stages
couple the bfo to the second mixer, run a tune the 7.0- to 7.3 MHz range. The first
length of wire from the top of the 7360 step is to adjust the oscillator range for
socket (remove the tube and probe pin 3) proper bandspread, which is accomplished
to the mixer. Wrap the wire around the with the aid of the BC-221 frequency meter.
bulb of the mixer. Switch S, is set in the The BC-221 is set to 5.4 MHz and the
SSB position for this procedure. Once the main tuning dial of the receiver is adjusted
i -f system is aligned to 85 kHz, the bfo so that the tuning capacitor is about 90
may be adjusted for proper c -w and side - percent meshed. Oscillator trimming ca-
band selection. This is done with the BC- pacitor CA is set at mid -capacitance. Oscil-
221 frequency meter, adjusting the second lator padding capacitor Cc (in the coil form)
harmonic of the bfo to 168.4 kHz for SBI is adjusted until the frequency of the oscil-
reception and to 171.6 kHz for SB2 re- lator is 5.4 MHz, as measured on the fre-
ception. The bfo is adjusted to 169.2 kHz quency meter. The dial reading of the re-
for c -w reception. Note that SRI and SB2 ceiver is noted and the BC-221 is then set
alternate between upper and lower sideband. to 5.7 MHz. The main tuning dial of the
On 80 meters where the high- frequency receiver is adjusted to tune the high -fre-
tuning oscillator is higher than the received quency oscillator to the same frequency,
signal, upper sideband is reversed from the which should occur with the tuning ca-
20 -meter situation, where the tuning oscil- pacitor about 10 percent meshed. If it does
lator is lower than the received signal. not, the oscillator padding capacitor (CO
Once the low- frequency i -f system is should be readjusted to properly place the
aligned, the 1.7 -MHz conversion crystal and 5.7 -MHz checkpoint on the receiver dial.
6C4 oscillator tube are plugged in and If the padder must be increased in capaci-
crystal operation is checked by tuning the tance to align the circuit to 5.7 MHz, it
general coverage receiver to 1.7 MHz and indicates the tap on the oscillator coil is too
noting stable oscillator operation. Next, high and that the portion of the winding
the BC -221 is tuned to 1615 kHz and the between the tap and ground must be spread
618 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
CHART 1.
VOLTAGE CHART FOR RECEIVER
Measurements made with VTVM. All controls 1/2 advanced except r -f gain which is fully
advanced. Q- multiplier on boost, Function switch on 582, avc on fast,Noise limiter on.

TUBE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

V, -0.4 0.9 6.3 0 125 125 0.9 - -


V, 0 4.25 6.3 0 240 125 4.25

V, -4.1 0 6.3 0 50 88 0 - -
V, - 250 - 280 - 280 - 250 -
V,. -0.3 31 6.3 0 235 215 0 - -
V 0 31 6.3 0 240 220 31 - -
V: 110 - 6.3 0 110 -15 0 - -
V, 230 0 2.8 0 0 -0.7 -0.5 0 6.3

V. -0.26 31 6.3 0 240 225 31 - -


V, -0.26 31 6.3 0 240 225 31 - -
V 240 165 6.3 0 240 0.12 240 - -
V,; 7.6 110 -1.8 6.3 0 76 24 20 20

V -34 0 6.3 0 150 72 0 - -


V 230 0 16 0 0 74 0 2.7 6.3

V,,, 0 12.8 6.3 0 235 235 0

V,,; 0 -0.7 -0.3 0 0 235 0 7 6.3

V,, 0.13 -0.3 0 6.3 0 0.13 13.2 -7.6 9.1

V -0.26 4.1 6.3 0 235 235 4.1

slightly apart to decrease the inductance. tuned to the 5.4 -MHz oscillator point. The
If the padder must be decreased in capaci- test signal should be heard in the receiver,
tance, it indicates that the tap on the coil and the detector padding capacitor adjusted
is too low, and therefore the portion of the for maximum response. The signal generator
winding between tap and ground must be is now set to 7.3 MHz and the receiver dial
bunched together to raise the inductance. tuned to the 5.7 -MHz oscillator point. The
By slight adjustment of the lower portion detector padding capacitor is readjusted for
of the oscillator coil winding, the 5.4 -MHz maximum response, noting whether the ca-
and 5.7 -MHz points may be placed near the pacitance is increased or decreased. The
ends of the tuning dial, and the proper winding below the tap of the mixer coil
coverage is positioned on the dial without (L_) and ground is now adjusted in the
necessitating readjustment of the padding fashion described for the oscillator coil until
capacitor in the oscillator coil. If more or the setting of the padding capacitor remains
less bandspread is desired, the tap on the
the same at both ends of the tuning range.
coil may be moved a fraction of a turn,
changing the inductance of the winding be- This adjustment is repeated with the r -f
low the tap. stage, with the r -f trimming capacitor (C._)
Once the oscillator circuit tracks across set at mid -scale. With due care, the whole
the appropriate range, the mixer tube may alignment operation should take less than an
be placed in its socket, along with mixer hour for the first set of coils, and with ex-
coil, L. The BC -221 frequency meter is perience the adjustments to the remaining
adjusted to 7.0 MHz and the receiver dial coils may be done in less time.

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HANDBOOK The Deluxe HBR Receiver 619

CHART 2. in the r -f and mixer. Some compensation for


TUNING CHART FOR THE RECEIVER misalignment in the r -f stage may be
achieved with antenna trimmer capacitor
Band Stage C1 Max. C, Min.
C,. Maladjustment of the mixer tuned cir-
3500 4000
80
R F.
DET. 3500 4000 cuit can result in a loss of sensitivity, es-
OSC. 5100 5600 pecially on the 1 f - and 10 -meter bands.
R.F. 7000 7300 The correct level of first oscillator in-
40 DET. 7000 7300
OSC. 5400 5700 jection to mixer V, determines mixer gain.
14.0 14.35
Coupling capacitor C- should be set at the
R.F.
20 DET. 14.0 14.35 minimum value consistent with maximum
OSC. 6.2 6.375
strength of a weak signal as read on the
R.F 21.0 21.5 S- meter.
15 DET. 21.0 21.5
OSC. 9.7 9.95 Oscillator feedback is determined by the
R.F. 28.0 29.7 degree of coupling between the primary and
10 DET. 28.0
13.2
29.7
14.05
secondary windings of coil L3. Insufficient
OSC.
feedback may be noted by erratic oscillator
Adjustment of the 20 -, 15- and 10 -meter operation, frequency instability, or low con-
coil sets follows the same technique used version efficiency in the first mixer stage.
for the 40- and 80 -meter coils, except that Excessive feedback is characterized by a
the second harmonic of the oscillator fre- hissing or "squegging sound on received
quency is used for signal injection. Even signals, or perhaps by erratic frequency
so, the oscillator tuning range should be ad- excursions as the oscillator is tuned. Feed-
justed at the fundamental frequency with back adjustment, however, is not critical and
the aid of the frequency meter. the coil data is optimized for the correct
After alignment has been completed, the degree of feedback consistent with smooth
dial of the receiver may be calibrated. The and proper operation.
last step is to cement the coil windings in Gain and r -f selectivity of the r -f circuits
place. Do not coat the entire winding but of the receiver may be varied by adjusting
use five or six vertical lines of plastic cement the degree of coupling between the primary
to hold the turns in place. and secondary windings of mixer coil L_.
S-meter Adjustment -With the receiver The separation between the windings may
in operation and the 6CB6 (V, ) removed be increased to %8 inch to prevent over-
loading by strong signals and desensitization.
from the socket, the sensitivity control is
adjusted to permit full -scale S -meter read- The receiver gain will, of course, be reduced
ing. The 6CB6 is inserted in the socket and accordingly. A reduction in the number of
(after warmup) the agc switch is set to off turns of the antenna winding of coil L,
and the zero -set control adjusted for zero may be helpful in some cases.
meter reading. Because of the open construction of the
Final Touchup Adjustments -Once the Deluxe HBR receiver and the use of plug -in
receiver is operating and signals are received, coils, it is the "experimenter's delight" and
final alignment may be done. Correct adjust- many interesting variations and modifica-
ment of coils L, and L, is especially impor- tions may be done to the basic receiver once
tant on the higher- frequency amateur bands. it is operating properly. The receiver is a
The true indication of proper tracking is valuable addition to the station of an active
the action of the MAPC padding capacitor amateur.

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CHAPTER TWENTY -SEVEN

Low -Power Transmitters


and Exciters

The transmitter is the "heart" of the


amateur station. Various forms of amplifiers
and power supplies may be used in conjunc-
tion with basic exciter "building blocks" to
form complete transmitting systems which
satisfy a wide range of needs. Several differ-
ent types of low -power transmitting equip-
ment for the hf and vhf range are described
in this chapter along with a version of the
electronic key. For the experimenter who is
interested in the construction phase of ama-
teur radio, these units should offer interesting
ideas and techniques which might well fit
in with the over -all design of his basic sta-
tion equipment. The component nomencla- Figure 1

ture outlined in figure of the Receivers and


1
BASIC SIX -METER EXCITER
Transceivers section is employed in the fol- This broadband 50 -MHz exciter delivers 3
lowing chapter. watts without retuning over a -MHz range
1

and is suitable to drive most high -gain tet-


rodes of the 100 -watt power category. The
27 -1 General Purpose 6U8 oscillator -multiplier is at the left with
the 6CL6 doubler at the right. Directly above
Exciters for 6 and the crystal is the oscillator coil L and to the
right are the interstage coils !L and L
2 Meters To
the right is doubler coil (L ). The output jack
(J ) is to the right of the 6CL6.
It is convenient to build vhf equipment
in small units to achieve greater flexibility, The 50 -MHz exciter delivers about 3 watts
improved shielding, and ease of modification. and the 144 -MHz exciter about 6 watts of
This concept is demonstrated in these broad- power output. This level is sufficient to drive
band, packaged exciters designed for use most class -C tetrode amplifiers in the 100 -
in the SO- and 144 -MHz amateur bands. watt power category and some high -gain
The units may also be used for drivers for tetrode tubes up to the half-kilowatt power
uhf gear in the higher- frequency region. level.

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6- and 2 -Meter Exciters 621
6U8A 6CL6
05C. (6.25-90MN) rims. -QUAD (250 -270MM) DOUBLER (46 -54 MHz)
68

X, J3
"--o) 50 MHz

6
if
,00 n = 00,
68
220

+250 v
+250 v

Jt to J,. J2
+ 250 v

6116* .00,
ALL RESISTORS I WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE
NOTED
ALL .001 OF ARE DISC CAPACITORS.
Hi.
6CL6

00, Jt
Figure 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

SCHEMATIC OF SIX -METER EXCITER


C thru C -Silver -mica capacitors. See figure 4 for coil data. The 12 -ohm resistor from
test point
J to ground shunts meter M to 0- to 5-ma range. Separation between
coils L, and L is about
14 inch. Either link coil may have to be reversed to obtain maximum grid
drive to 6CL6.

The Basic The basic single -channel ex-


Exciter Circuit citer for the I0 -MHz band is
h
GAMs7e shown in figure 2. The triode
section of a 6U8A is a tuned -plate oscilla-
tor for crystals in the range of 6.25 to 9.0
MHz. Figure 4 lists the choice of crystals
for each band and the frequencies to which
the resonant circuits in each stage are tuned
for output in the 50- and 144 -MHz bands.
A fundamental- frequency type crystal oscil-
lator is used instead of an overtone circuit
for improved frequency stability and better
c -w keying. The pentode section of the
6U8A serves as a tripler or quadrupler de-
pending on the crystal frequency and the
band in which output is desired. The third
stage, a 6CL6 pentode, always operates as
a frequency doubler. Inductive coupling is
used between the frequency -multiplier stages
to attenuate the various unwanted harmonic
frequencies generated by the multipliers.
The r -f output of the 6CL6 doubler is link -
Figure 3
coupled to the coaxial output circuit by a
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF small coil wound around the B -plus end of
SIX -METER EXCITER the plate tank coil.
Small components are grouped around tube
To obtain output in the 144 -MHz band
sockets. Common ground connection to lug un- a fourth stage -a
push -pull 6CL6 frequency
der bolt of each socket is used. Oscillator
coil is at left, L, and L. at center, and L at
-is
tripler added to the basic exciter (fig-
right. Link is wound around "cold" end of ure 6) . This new stage is inductively cou-
coils. For use as a transmitter, it is recom- pled to the 6CL6 doubler by a simple
mended that output link be series tuned to
ground with 25 -pf capacitor as is done with bandpass coupler covering the 48.0- to
2 -meter exciter. 49.33 -MHz range. The plate circuit of the
622 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO
Figure 4
COIL AND CRYSTAL TABLES
FOR VHF EXCITERS
L1 4.2 to 8.7 . 30 turns No. 30 e. close -
wound, 4" long, wound on 31e" dia. form,
ironcore. CTC type LS -3, 5 MHz.
L2, 13 1.4 to 2.0 Ah. 18 turns No. 22 e. close -
wound, 1/2" long, wound on 2/e" dia. form,
ironcore. CTC type LS -3.
L4 0.4 to 0.6 h. 11 turns No. 22 e. close -
wound, 1/2" long same as L2.
Link 3 turns No. 16 I., 1/2" dia., wound over
B+ end of IT
L5 Some as L4, except for center tap.
L6 0.120h. 4 turns No. 14 e., 5/e" dia., 12/e"
long, 4 turns per inch, with 3/e" space al
center for L2.
Link 2 turns No. 14 e., 5/e" dia., 3{," long.

OPERATING FREQUENCY CHART Figure 5

Output Xtal and Mull. Doubler Tripler BASIC TWO -METER EXCITER
(MHz) L1 -C1 L2-C2, L4-C4,
L6-C6
ITC, Push -pull 6CL6 (or 6360)tripler stage is added
L, -C, to exciter of figure 2 to reach 2 meters.
6.25- Crystal switch and multiple crystal sockets
6.75 MHz 50.0- are added. Panel controls (I. to r.) are: crys-
30
8.334-
25.0-
27.0 MHz 54.0 MHz
tal switch, coils L, and L,, coils L and l, and
plate- tuning capacitor C,. Separate oscillator
9.0 MHz coils are used for each crystal and are
6.0- mounted behind the two octal sockets used os
144 6.166 MHz 24.0-
crystal mounts.
48.0- 144.0-
8.0- 24.66 MHz 49.33 MHz 148 MHz
8.222 MHz
6CL6
6CL6 TOI PL ER
DOUBLER (48.0 -4933) e
tripler stage is tuned to 144 MHz and out- L4 L5 7
put taken from a pickup link inserted at
is
the center of the plate coil.
Proper operation is monitored by grid -
current metering in the various multiplier
stages, accomplished with a 0 to 1 -ma d -c
meter. The metering circuit provides a full
scale reading of ma at test point J, and
1
ALL .001 tIF
S ma at 1.. and J:,, The screen voltage for AND 220 PF
ARE DISC
the multiplier stages has been brought out CAPACITORS

to separate pins on the power receptacle so


that these circuits may be used for power
control, or may be keyed for c -w operation.
Exciter Each basic exciter is built on
Construction a small aluminum chassis box Figure 6
which provides good shield-
ing and easy access to the under -chassis PUSH -PULL -6CL6 TRIPLER STAGE
wiring. A 4" X S" X 3" box is used for C -Silver mica
the 50 -MHz exciter. All components are C -Johnson 160-211
See figure 4 far coil data.
mounted on the half of the box which forms
an open -end chassis as shown in the photo-
graphs. A similar parts layout is followed 5" X 7" X 3" box is used to provide addi-
for the 144 -MHz exciter except that a tional space for the tripler stage.

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HANDBOOK 6- and 2 -Meter Exciters 623

Sockets and other components are posi- tuned for maximum meter indication (about
tioned to permit very short interconnections. 0.3 ma). Adjust the slug so that the oscil-
The coils in the bandpass coupler in the lator starts immediately each time plate volt-
grid circuit of the tripler stage (L, -L5) are age is applied.
placed on a small angle bracket mounted be- Screen voltage is next applied to the
tween the two 6CL6 tripler sockets and the multiplier section of the 6U8A and the
driver tube socket. The coils are spaced 5/e" 6CL6 is placed in its socket. The 8.45 -MHz
center -to- center and are mounted 3/4" below crystal is substituted for the 8.375 -MHz
the chassis. A second small angle bracket unit and the slug in coil L2 is adjusted for
supports the 144 -MHz tripler plate- tuning maximum 6CL6 grid current (about 1.3
capacitor. ma). This step is followed by adjustment of
Extension shafts for the tripler tuning the slug of coil L. for maximum grid cur-
adjustments brought out through the front rent using the 8.375 -MHz crystal. Switch-
of the chassis are made from !!" lengths
1 ing crystals back and forth and adjusting
of 1/4" diameter brass rod. A tapped hole for
a 6 -32 screw is placed in one end of two of
the rods and a screwdriver slot is cut in the
opposite end. After the coils have been
mounted to the bracket, a 6 -32 nut is run
on the slug shafts and a brass extension
threaded on each coil shaft and locked in
position by the nut. The shaft is supported
in position by a panel bushing.
The tripler plate- circuit tuning capacitor
(CO has a 3 /16" diameter shaft and the
extension for this control is attached to it
by a special coupling made of a short length
of ?/g" diameter brass rod, drilled at one end
for the capacitor shaft and at the other end
for the panel shaft. The coupling is soldered
ro the panel shaft and is drilled and tapped
for a set screw for the smaller shaft. Figure 7
All disc ceramic capacitors are placed in
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF
position with the shortest possible lead length
TWO -METER EXCITER
and those units which bypass the screen -grid
terminals in the various stages should be Crystal switch, multiple crystal sockets, and
oscillator plate coils are at the left. Switch is
connected between the screen and cathode a 2 -pole, 4-position ceramic deck; one pole
(ground) pins of the respective tube socket. switching the crystals and the other pole
switching the coils. Broadband circuit Li-L, is
Most resistors are soldered between socket mounted on bracket near the center of the
pins and tie -point terminals. Power leads are chassis, with 6CL6 tripler sockets at right.
run close to the chassis to reduce r -f pickup. Air -wound tank coil 1, and butterfly tuning
capacitor are at right.
Exciter The 50 -MHz Exciter -The ex-
Adjustment citer is adjusted for broadband the slugs of coils L_ and L, will permit
operation between 50 and 51 substantially constant 6CL6 grid current
MHz. Two crystals at approximately 8.375 to be measured at test point J2 across the
and 8.450 MHz (output frequencies of appropriate frequency range.
50.25 and 50.7 MHz respectively) are used The next step is to connect a suitable
for initial adjustment. After the wiring has dummy load, such as four #47 pilot lamps
been checked, power is applied to the 6U8A (6.3 -volt, brown bead) in parallel to output
tube. The negative terminal of a 0 to 1 -ma receptacle J:, and apply all screen and plate
d -c meter is connected to test point J, and voltages to the exciter. The slug of plate
the positive terminal of the meter is coil L, is adjusted for maximum bulb bril-
grounded. The slug of oscillator coil L, is liance. Using various crystals in the proper
624 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO
range, the exciter coils may now be repeaked The power output of either exciter is
to provide nearly constant power output ample to drive any of the popular twin
from the exciter across the lower 1 -MHz beam -power tubes designed for operation in
portion of the six -meter band. the vhf spectrum (832A, 829B, 815, 5894,
When the 50-MHz exciter is coupled to etc.). Sufficient drive also exists for a single
the grid circuit of a succeeding amplifier 4X1S0A, 4CX2S0B, or 4CX300A tetrode
through a short length of coaxial line, plate at a power level up to several hundred watts.
coil L, should be readjusted so that maxi-
The 6360 A single 6360 double
mum drive to the amplifier occurs at about
Frequency Multiplier tetrode may be substi-
50.3 MHz. If the amplifier grid tank is then
resonated for maximum drive at about 50.6 tuted for the push -pull
MHz, little variation in drive will be noticed 6CL6 multiplier stage (figure 8). Higher
over the 1 -MHz operating range. plate voltage-up to 350 volts -may be
The 144 -MHz Exciter -The procedure applied to the 6360, provided that this
outlined for the 50 -MHz exciter is followed voltage is applied only to this stage and not
for the 144 -MHz exciter, with the plate to the rest of the exciter. Power output of
circuit of the 6U8A tripler tuned to 24.15 the 6360 will be about 10 watts at the
MHz and the grid circuit of the 6CL6 higher plate potential.
doubler tuned to 24.45 MHz. The plate cir-
cuit of the 6CL6 is tuned to 48.3 MHz, 27 -2 A 175 -Watt
(crystal frequency of 8.05 MHz). The grid SSB Exciter
coil of the push -pull tripler stage is peaked
for maximum grid current (about 2.5 ma) Building a single -sideband exciter or
at 48.9 MHz (crystal frequency of 8.1 S transmitter is simpler and less expensive
MHz). This staggered- tuning adjustment than construction of a -m equipment of
should result in little variation of grid cur- equivalent power rating. Physically, the
rent in either the doubler or tripler stages SSB exciter can be made more compact
over the range of 144 to 148 MHz. and lighter in weight for an equivalent de-
The tripler plate tuning capacitor (CG) gree of "talk power" as compared to the
is resonated to the operating frequency and a-m equipment. The wide acceptance of SSB
should be retuned each time a shift in fre- has produced suitable inexpensive parts and
quency greater than 200 kHz is made. components so that it is now no longer
difficult or expensive to build and align a
high- quality SSB exciter. Only the simplest
6360
TRIPLER of test equipment is required and the use of
6CL6
DOVBLER 9-33 MM) a commercial crystal sideband filter in the
L4 L5 3 Le
exciter eliminates critical circuit adjust-
144 MIR ment and tinkering. In addition, the side -
band suppression may be easily optimized
and spurious responses attenuated to a great
degree.
The exciter described in this section (fig-
ure 9) is of a proven design and is recom-
ALL .001.1.1F
AND 220 Pi
ARE DISC
mended to those experimenters wishing to
CAPACITORS build their first piece of sideband trans-
mitting equipment.
The Exciter This filter -type exciter incorpo-
+250V. +250V. +250 -350V. Circuit rates all the desirable features of
more expensive exciters, covering
the amateur bands between 10 and 80 meters
Figure 8 with a minimum of controls and adjust-
ments. The output stage utilizes a pair of
ALTERNATIVE 6360 TRIPLER CIRCUIT highly linear 65 50 tetrode tubes run at a

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HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 625

Figure 9

SIDEBAND EXCITER PACKS PLENTY OF PUNCH!


This custom -built exciter provides 175 watts PEP input for SSB or c -w operation between 3.5
and 29.5 MHz. The homemade cabinet is spray painted light gray while the panel is painted
two -tone gray. The main tuning dial is to the right of the slide -rule dial plate assembly. The
three controls below the dial are (I. to r.): r -f level (R ), amplifier plate tuning (C, ), and
amplifier loading (C, ). The band -selector switch is centered below the plate tuning control,
with the grid tuning control (C ) and key jack on opposite sides. At the lower left is the
sideband -selector switch (S,) with the carrier -injection potentiometer (R -S ) directly under-
neath. Audio gain control (R,) is above the microphone jack. The a -c power switch is at the
far right, next to the three -position function switch (S ). Bandswitch has two ten -meter posi-
tions for two 500 -kHz segments.

PEP input of about 175 watts. A block product of these two signals is used as the
diagram of the exciter is shown in figure 10. basic exciter frequency range of 3.5 to 4.0
The sideband generator is designed around MHz, which appears in the plate circuit of
a 9 -MHz crystal lattice filter and consists the mixer stage. All the higher amateur
of a 7360 oscillator /balanced modulator bands are derived by mixing this SSB signal
(V7) with a 12AX7 speech amplifier (V1) with an auxiliary crystal oscillator. The out-
modulating one deflection plate of the 7360. put from the 6BA7 mixer is bandpass cou-
The sideband filter has low- impedance in- pled to a 12BY7A (V3) which operates as
put and output terminations and is link - an amplifier on the 80 -meter band and as a
coupled to the output circuit of the bal- second mixer for all the higher- frequency
anced modulator. The filter drives a 6B6 bands. The mixing oscillator is a 6C4 (V10)
i -f amplifier stage (V7) to bring the signal whose output is always higher in frequency
up to the proper mixing level. Two carrier than the desired mixer product. A second
crystals in the grid circuit of the 7360 os- 12BY7A (V4) serves as the driver stage for
cillator section permit sideband selection. the two parallel connected 6550 tetrode
The 9 -MHz SSB signal is coupled to the amplifier tubes. The 6550 tubes are chosen
#2 grid of a 6BA7 mixer (V,), and here it to provide the required power output
is combined with the 5.5- to 5.0 -MHz out- with the minimum degree of intermod-
put of a very stable vfo. The difference ulation distortion. The measured third- and

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626 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO
MIC. VI-AUDIO
VS
.1 AMP. ANT

V2 Ve V3 V4
V7 -MOD.. 9MN[ FILTER I.F. MIX. MIX. -AMP. AMP.

FL -1
-CO - 12eV7 12BY7
PI-
NETWORK

o v9
VFO (D V,O
OSC. Ve

L
TUNE AMP.
Y, g
USB LSB
Y2
B+ REG. +e0OV. +LV
4 4 S3A
POWER
SUPPLY
REG. Y3 - - -Y7
V r1 X TALS

Figure 10

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SSB EXCITER


A 9 -MHz crystal lattice Alter and 7360 oscillator /mixer simplify circuitry and provide superior
results in this compact SU exciter. Covering the amateur bands between 80 and 10 meters,
the exciter utilizes two low-distortion type 6550 tubes in the linear amplifier stage. A double- ,
conversion circuit is used, with the vfo c ing the range of S.S to 5.0 MHz for 80 -meter
operation. A second, crystal-controlled e sion oscillator mixes the SSB signal for operation
on the higher- frequency bands. A solid -state power supply provides all d-c voltages for the
exciter.

fifth -order distortion products of these tubes ond position (c -w) of the function switch
under the given operating parameters run provides c -w operation (with carrier in-
better than 30 decibels below one tone of jection) and the third position (PTT) places
a two -tone test signal. This degree of dis- the exciter in readiness for push -to -talk
tortion is f to 10 decibels less than other voice operation.
small tetrodes of the same power capability. The power supply makes use of a low -
Spurious products are reduced by incor- cost TV -type replacement transformer in
poration of a low -pass filter (L.,, L5, and a bridge circuit utilizing inexpensive silicon
associated capacitors) in the output circuit diode rectifiers. The center tap of the trans-
of the vfo stage to suppress the second and former is utilized for the necessary lower
higher order harmonics of the oscillator. In d -c voltages. Regulated voltage for the var-
addition, careful design of the various tuned ious oscillators is provided by an 0A2 regu-
circuits ensures that unwanted "birdies" are lator tube and a separate zener diode regu-
held to the very minimum. lated supply provides operating bias for the
The exciter is activated by two relays 6550 amplifier tubes. The complete sche-
which are energized by a push -to -talk matic of the exciter is shown in figure 11.
switch on the microphone. All tuning ad-
justments are accomplished with a single Exciter The general layout of the ex-
meter that measures the cathode current of Layout citer may be seen in the var-
the final amplifier, plus an auxiliary grid - ious photographs (figures 12 and 15). An
current meter. A three-position function 11" X 17" X 3" steel chassis is used for the
switch (S7A-B) enables the operator to foundation. The final amplifier assembly
zero -in an a chosen frequency without above the chassis is inclosed in a three -sided
placing an interfering signal on the air or inclosure measuring about 71/2" long by
without disabling his receiver. The zero 41/2" deep by 6" high. The sides are made
position of switch S; also disables the micro- from perforated aluminum sheet. A two -
phone circuit so that the exciter cannot be sided L- shaped aluminum dust cover com-
accidentally turned on in this mode. A sec- pletes the inclosure.

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HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 627

Under the chassis, the vfo components are from the amplifier section of a "surplus"
inclosed in a U- shaped shield made of light AN /ARC -S (SCR -274N) transmitter (any
aluminum sheet measuring about 4" square model). It has wide plate spacing, glass
and 2 3/4" high. The tuned circuits and bead insulation, and a smooth worm gear
6AU6 socket are mounted on a heavy %8" drive that lends itself very nicely to the
thick aluminum plate measuring 4" X 5" assembly of a simple home -made slide rule
mounted atop the chassis above the alumi- dial. The vfo coil is a section of miniduclor
num shield. The shield has 1/4" lips bent on stock securely cemented to a 1/4" thick
all sides to fasten it to the chassis and to square of plexiglas which is solidly
the side apron of the chassis. The balanced mounted on two ceramic pillars inside the
modulator and speech amplifier tubes are vfo shield compartment. The coil is placed
at the opposite end of the chassis, and their to one side of the chassis away from sources
under -chassis components are contained of heat.
within an L- shaped aluminum inclosure at
the panel. The design of the bandswitch as- The Main The assembly details of
sembly, placed at the center of the chassis, is Bandswitch Assembly a typical bandswitch
shown in figure 13A. and coil section are
The final amplifier tube sockets are shown in figure 13A. The coils and asso-
mounted on a sheet of perforated aluminum ciated padding capacitors are preassembled
which is bolted above a cutout in the chassis to the shield plate and wired before the
to permit good circulation of air past the plate is mounted to the chassis. Although
sockets and envelopes of the tubes. The leads the bandswitch shaft is positioned along
from the tap on the amplifier plate coil the centerline of the chassis, the switch
(L20) pass down through a slot cut in the wafers are placed slightly off center on the
chassis to the ceramic bandswitch segment partition (see illustration) to allow space
(S5A -B) which is driven by the main band- for the ganged APC capacitors (CAA -B) .
switch assembly. The switch segment is These capacitors are insulated from the par-
fastened to the back apron of the chassis tition (ground) and from each other, and
and is connected to the bandswitch by a are ganged with insulated flexible couplings
phenolic shaft extension. to the panel control. As each set of coils is
A small U- shaped aluminum shield is identical for any one band and is wired to
placed across the center of the 6550 sockets the switch section in an identical manner
to isolate the plate parasitic chokes and on each partition, a satisfactory degree of
leads from the nearby grid wiring. The tracking is achieved by the use of parallel
shield forms a compartment about an inch padding capacitors. These capacitors are
wide over the sockets, as can be seen in the mounted near the top lip of each shield par-
under -chassis photograph (figure 15). To tition. Isolating the two APC capacitors
minimize heat under the chassis the 40K, avoids a possible source of undesired inter -
20 -watt high -voltage bleeder resistors are stage coupling caused by circulating ground
mounted in a vertical position above the currents. The crystal oscillator coils are
chassis by means of a long bolt placed ver- mounted on the front side of the partition
tically in the rear corner of the final am- nearest the panel, with leads from the
plifier inclosure. The 6S0 -ohm, 25 -watt re- switch wafer left long enough to be at-
sistor in the B -plus voltage dropping net- tached to the tube and crystal socket be-
work is mounted in the same manner to the neath the bandswitch catacomb.
outside of the amplifier inclosure near the
hieh- voltage filter choke. The Dial The slide -rule dial is patterned
The most critical assembly of any good Assembly after a "short -wave style" dial
SSB exciter is the vfo which must have and is made from a flat plate of
rigid construction and use the best available aluminum mounted to triangular brackets
parts for the job. Silver mica padding ca- that fasten it to the chassis. The center of
pacitors, a ceramic tube socket and a pre- the plate is cut out leaving a rectangular
cision tuning capacitor ensure the stability hole, and a sheet of clear plerigla.c (spray -
of this unit. The tuning capacitor is taken painted white on the front) is fastened to
628 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

Figure 11

SCHEMATIC, 175 -WATT SIDEBAND EXCITER

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HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 629

PARTS LIST FOR FIGURE 11

C,-15-pf differential capacitor. Johnson 160- PC- Parasitic suppressor. 100 -ohm, 1 -watt re-
308 sistor, wound with 4 turns # 18 enam.
C,, Cr C,, C -12 -pf ceramic capacitor. Centra- RFC, -2.5 mH, 300 ma. National R -3000
lab 822 RFC., RFC, -2.5 mH, 100 ma. National R -100
C,, C -35 pf Hammarlund MAPC RFC , RFC., RFC, -750 H. National R -33
C,, C,.-50 pf Hammarlund APC RFC -I Miller 4652
mH, 100 ma.
C -150 -p1 tuning capacitor front ARC-S trans- S,, S,, S,,S,- Bandswitch. Four Centralab PA -2
mitter ceramic decks, each two -pole six-position,
C,A- B -35 -pf Hammarlund APC ganged with in- with Index Assembly PA -301
sulated coupling T,-10.7-MHz I-f transformer (tune to 9 MHz).
C -50 -pf ceramic capacitor. Centralab 827 Miller 1463
C,,,-30-pf ceramic capacitor. Centralab 822 T.- Bandpass transformer (3.5 -4.0 MHz). See
C -50 -pf APC padder for 3.5 MHz figure 138
C-
C,,-250-pf, 0.024 spacing. Bud 1859
365-pf per section. Miller 2112
CR,-1N34A
T.-6.3 volts, ampere. Wire in reverse
Stancor
1

T,-800-volt c.t., 200 ma; 6.3 volt, S ampere;


PC -8412
CRr CR -1N1695 (400-v. PRY, 600 ma) 1,- 8998.5 kHz (McCoy)
CRS Eight diodes, four per leg. N4005 (600 -v. Y.- 9001.5 kHz (McCoy)
PRY, 1 amp) 1,- 11.000 MHz for 40 -meter operation
CH SH, 200 ma. Stancor C -1646 Y- 18.000 MHz for 20 -meter operation
C14,-5H, ISO ma. Stancor C -1710 1,- 25.000 MHz for 15 -meter operation
CH,- Low -inductance choke (primary winding 1,- 32.500 MHz for 10 -meter operation (28.5-
of S0L6 output transformer) 29 MHz)
CH, CH, -Line filter choke. Miller 5218, or f8 Y -33.000 MHz for 10 -meter operation (29.0-
turns # 16 e. 3/e diameter, 1I/2" long 29.5 MHz)
MA -0 -500 d -c milliammeter. Simpson 2" Wide- Z -18 -volt, 1 -watt diode. 1N4746A
vue Note: Bandswitch has two 10 -meter positions.

the rear of the plate with 4 -40 bolts or the weight of the exciter (less the trans-
"pop" rivets. A slider moves along the former) is quite small.
smooth top edge of the plate and carries the After the exciter is assembled and wired,
pointer over the dial face. A dial cord is at- a voltage check should be made. The sche-
tached to a drum mounted on the large matic shows various voltages derived from
gear of the vfo tuning capacitor and drives the B -plus divider network. The no -load
the pointer via small dial pulleys taken from high voltage is approximately 800 volts,
an obsolete slide rule dial. As the gear moves dropping to about 750 volts with a 200 -ma
almost 360 degrees for 180 degree rotation load. The 12BY7A driver tube operates at
of the capacitor, a 21/2" diameter drum will 300 volts, as do the screens of the 6550
provide almost 7" of pointer travel. The dial tubes. The vfo and crystal oscillator receive
cord passes around the bottom of the dial regulated voltage from the 0A2, and all
face on idler pulleys placed at the corners, other stages are supplied from the 210 volt
then back to the vfo cord drum. tap of the supply network. Bias for the final
Wiring and Testing It prudent to wire the
is
amplifier is regulated at - 36 volts by
the Exciter
means of the zener diodes.
exciter in sections and to Oscillator Alignment -The vfo may be
get one section at a time adjusted to the 5.5- to 5.0 -MHz range by
in working order before proceeding to the
loosely coupling it to the station receiver and
next section. It is suggested that the speech
checking the tuning range against the re-
amplifier, 7360 stage, and 9 -MHz amplifier ceiver. Better yet, a BC -221 (LM) fre-
be wired and tested first. The next step
quency meter may be used. Alternatively,
would be to wire and test the vfo, first
mixer, and I 2BY7A amplifier. An auxiliary alignment may be checked by placing the
power supply can be utilized for these tests. bandswitch in the 80 -meter position and
Next, the crystal oscillator, driver, and final listening for the mixed signal in the 80-
amplifier stages are wired and tested, fol- meter range. The values of inductance and
lowed by completion of the power- supply capacitance given for the vfo tuned circuit
and control wiring. If the power transform- allow slightly more than 500 -kHz coverage
er is not mounted until the last step, it will and the optimum frequency placement on
be quite simple to move the unit about as the main tuning dial is done by adjusting
630 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

Figure 12

TOP VIEW OF SIDEBAND EXCITER CHASSIS


Layout and placement of the major above-chassis components may be seen in this photo-
graph. The vfo tuning capacitor is mounted at the corner of the chassis with the dial drive
cord passing over idler pulleys placed on the back corners of the dial assembly. Directly
behind the dial assembly are the conversion oscillator and associated crystals. The two tubes
located below the panel meter are the balanced modulator (right) and the speech amplifier,
with the two sideband- selector crystals next to the front panel. Between these components
and the high -voltage filter capacitors are located the screwdriver adjustment of the chassis -
mounted modulator balance controls and the slug adjustment of the balanced modulator plate
coil (L,). The two 12BT7A tubes are in line with the 6C4 crystal oscillator, just in front of the
final amplifier inclosure.
Between the two extension shafts for the final amplifier pi- network capacitors Is the 80-
meter bandpass transformer, with the 68A7 mixer tube to the left. The 6AU6 vfo tube is be-
hind the ARC -5 type tuning capacitor, next to the crystal filter, with the 66A6 i -f amplifier
tube and transformer to the right. The 0A2 voltage- regulator tube is adjacent to the high -
voltage filter choke, with the bias control potentiometer (Ry) next to it.

the padding capacitor (C6) in the oscillator sideband is selected by sideband switch S,
circuit. and the trimmer capacitor across the crystal
The conversion oscillator is adjusted by in use is adjusted to place the oscillator
proper tuning of the plate circuit, checking frequency at the correct point on the slope
oscillation with a low -range voltmeter placed of the sideband filter. This is done by moni-
at the test point (TP,) in the grid circuit toring the signal from the filter and adjust-
of the 6C4 oscillator. The voltmeter reading ing the proper trimmer for natural sound
indicates the degree of crystal activity. Once of voice modulation.
adjusted to frequency, this circuit requires Modulator Alignment -The alignment is
no further attention. The upper or lower accomplished with the aid of a vacuum -tube

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 631

FIVE CERAMIC
TRIMMERS BOLTED on and advanced, a small reading will be
TO TOP LIP OF
evident on the v.t.v.m. The slug of the
PARTITION
balanced modulator coil (L1) is adjusted for
maximum reading. The probe is next moved
to the #2 grid (pin 7) of the 6BA7 mixer
(V,). Function switch S7 is placed in the
zero position to close the cathode circuit of
the 6BA6 amplifier stage and the slugs of
transformer T, are tuned to achieve a maxi-
mum indicated signal level of 6 to 10 volts.
To adjust carrier suppression, the carrier
TYPICAL BANDSWITCH AND COIL ASS'Y. switch (S2) is turned off (the v.t.v.m.
reading should drop considerably) and the
carrier null potentiometer (R2) is adjusted
for minimum meter reading. Differential
capacitor C, will affect the suppression, and
3 -4MHz
0
BANDPASS TR ANSrORMER
these two controls should be adjusted alter-
nately for the minimum possible meter read-
Figure 13 ing.
Bandhass Transformer Alignment -Band-
A- Sandswitch and coil assembly. Two assem-
blies are required. The partition is made of pass transformer T_ is aligned with the band -
light sheet aluminum with 14" lips bent on all switch placed in the 80 -meter position and
sides to mount it to the chassis and side sup- with the r -f probe placed at the plate (pin
ports. The rotor of capacitor C. is insulated
from ground and joined to the similar capaci- 9) of the 6BA7 mixer tube (Vs). The
tor on the opposite partition with an insulated exciter vfo is adjusted for a carrier fre-
coupler. The rotor is grounded to a common
ground (ground lug at the bottom of the quency of 3.S MHz (vfo frequency of Si
partition, below the bandswitch). The switch MHz) and carrier is inserted to obtain a
segment is mounted with 4 -40 bolts and metal
spacers to the partition with a similar size
meter reading. The primary capacitor (C4)
section of copper -clad phenolic circuit board
spaced 1'2" behind it. The ground connections
of the various coils are returned to this 2
board, which is grounded to the common
ground lug by a short flexible lead.
C- Bandpass transformer assembly. The two
MAPC 35 -pf capacitors are mounted on a
phenolic board 13/4" it 11/2 ". The double coil Is
wound on two 1/2" diameter lengths of poly-
styrene tubing slipped over a 1/4" diameter
polystyrene rod. Each section of tubing is O O
1/3" long, and the spacing betwn the coils is
3/e ". The primary winding (plate) is 55 turns,
k30 enam., bank -wound over 1" length. The
secondary winding (grid) is 45 turns, #30
nam., wound in similar fashion. A piece of
phenolic board the same size as the top
mounting board supports the coils by means
NV e+ NV
of 4 -40 bolts and spacers. Two long 6 -32
bolts join the sections and secure them to the PHENOLIC OR FIBERGLAS SHEET - CENTER CUT OUT.
shield can. The construction is similar to that RESISTORS MOUNTED ON BACK OF BOARD.
of an air -tuned I -f transformer. Adjustment of
the bandwidth is made by varying the spacing Figure 14
between the two windings.
DIODE RECTIFIER ASSEMBLY

voltmeter having an r -f probe. The probe is The eight silicon diodes are mounted on the
phenolic board by means of brass eyelets.
placed at the input terminal of the sideband The 220K equalizing resistors are mounted on
filter, and the differential capacitor (C1) the reverse side of the board in parallel with
each diode. The assembly is mounted below
in the 7360 circuit is set for balanced ca- the power transformer on the side apron of
pacitance. The balance potentiometer (R2) the chassis by means of 6 -32 bolts and spac-
is set near the center of its range. With the
rs. A cutout is made in the apron of the chas-
sis in line with the assembly for proper cool-
carrier -injection potentiometer (R:,) turned ing and ventilation.
632 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

Figure 15

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF SSB EXCITER


The bandswitch catacomb occupies the front -center of the under -chassis area. The bandswitch
assembly is fastened to the front apron of the chassis with the switch segments mounted on
the shield partitions as shown in figure 13. Two sideplates complete the assembly. The final
amplifier pi- network switch segment is mounted on the rear apron of the chassis and is
driven by a phenolic extension shaft and metal coupling. The balanced modulator and speech
amplifier components are placed in an L- shaped shield at the left front of the chassis area.
Connection between the modulator plate tank circuit and the sideband filter !right of chas-
sis) is made via a length of RG -174/U coaxial cable, seen as a black line running across the
chassis. The bottom plate of the vfo compartment has been removed to show the placement
of the oscillator coil and padding capacitor, which may be adjusted from the top of the
chassis.
The silicon -diode rectifiers in the power supply are mounted on a phenolic board placed
on the left apron of the chassis, near the rear corner. The final amplifier tube sockets are
mounted on a small rectangle of perforated aluminum to provide ample ventilation, with a
U- shaped shield seen on -edge around the plate pins and parasitic chokes. To the right of the
final amplifier bandswitch segment are the two control relays, with the 80 -meter amplifier
padding capacitor between the relays and the bandswitch. The bias transformer and filter
capacitors are at the rear of the chassis to the right of the relays.

of the transformer is adjusted for maximum reading. When the dial is tuned across the
meter reading. The probe is now moved to 80 -meter band the voltmeter reading should
the grid (pin 2) of the 12BY7A amplifier / remain relatively constant, indicating proper
mixer (V) and the transmitter vfo is adjusted alignment of the bandpass circuit.
for a carrier frequency of 4.0 MHz (vfo Amplifier Alignment-The plate circuit
frequency of 5.0 MHz). With carrier in- of the 12BY7A amplifier /mixer is untuned
jection, the secondary capacitor (C,) of the for 80 -meter operation and the remaining
transformer is tuned for maximum meter alignment on this band is accomplished with

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 175 -Watt SSB Exciter 633

Li, L2 Balanced modulator coil. 12 bifilar turns tion and the vfo adjusted for carrier output
(24 in all) No. 24 e. 1/2" dia., 114" long at 7.5 MHz, the ganged capacitors are set at
on National XR -50 form. near -minimum capacitance. The 40 -meter
Link: 4 turns No. 24 e around tenter of L1.

5.0-5.5 MHz vfo coil. 12 turns No. 20, 3/4"


padding capacitors across coils L and L,,;
L3 are adjusted for maximum meter reading.
dia., 7/a" long. (Air -Dux 616T.) It is advisable to double -check frequency
L4, L5 Low -pass filter. Each: 28 turns No. 26 close - with a grid -dip meter to ensure that the
wound on 1/4" dia. fiber rod.
circuits are resonant at the desired frequen-
L6 11 MHz. 26 turns No. 24 e. Closewound on cy. The conversion oscillator operates on the
2/e"die. polystyrene rod, 11/4" long high- frequency side of each amateur band
L7 18 MHz. 18 turns as above
La 25 MHz. 12 turns as above
and it is possible to inadvertently tune the
LO 32.5 MHz. 8 turns as above driver circuits to the crystal frequency in-
L10 33.0 MHz. 7 turns as above stead of the sideband frequency during the
80 meters. 60 turns No. 20 closewound on
initial alignment procedure. A check with
Lls
2/e" dia. polystyrene rod. the grid -dip meter will disclose this error.
Ill' 116
40 meters. 20 turns No. 26 as above As tuning is done with inserted carrier,
(padded with 82 pf.) removing the carrier should cause the
L12, 20 meters. 18 turns No. 24 as above
L17,
Lit
15 meters. 9 turns No. 22 as above
v.t.v.m. reading to drop to practically zero.
Lie
L14,
L1, 10 meters. 7 turns No. 20 as above If this is not the case, the circuits may be
Pi- network coil (Pi -Dux 121206)
erroneously tuned to the crystal frequency.
L20 11/4" dia.,
9 turns 11/2" long and 14 turns /e" long,
11
The multiple tuned circuits may now be
No. 14 wire (18.60). adjusted on each higher- frequency band,
Tap from plate end: 10 meters, 2 turns with the ganged capacitors set at minimum
15 meters, 3 turns and alignment of the padding capacitors
20 m , 8 turns
40 meters, 12 turns
done at the high- frequency end of each
band.
Figure 16 Final Amplifier Adjustment- Before ap-
plying screen or plate voltage to the final
COIL TABLE FOR 175 -WATT amplifier, it must be neutralized. The r -f
SSB EXCITER probe is placed at the plate pin of one 6550
Small coils are wound on homemade coil tube and carrier is inserted. Neutralization
forms cut from ?g" diameter polystyrene rod. is best done on the 20 -meter range, with
Forms are 1,4" long, with small holes drilled
2 apart to secure ends of windings. Bottom driver circuits resonated to provide maxi-
of coil forms are tapped for 4 -40 bolts for mum grid drive to the amplifier stage. The
mounting to coil partitions. Commercial J8" loading capacitor (C1;) is set to maximum
diameter forms may be substituted at con-
siderable increase in cost. capacitance and the tuning capacitor (C,1)
is adjusted for maximum indicated voltage
(resonance). Neutralizing capacitor C1_ is
the r -f probe placed on the grid (pin ) S
adjusted for minimum voltage reading on
of one 6550 socket. Plate and screen voltages the meter, with the tuning capacitor re-
are removed from the 6550's. The vfo is adjusted after each change of the neutral-
set for a carrier frequency of 4.0 MHz and izing capacitor.
the ganged capacitors (CA -B) are set near Once the amplifier stage is neutralized
minimum capacitance. The padding capaci- and the exciter circuits properly aligned,
tor across 80 -meter coil L,:, in the 12BY7A the complete exciter may be tested with a
driver stage is adjusted for maximum meter suitable dummy load for complete opera-
reading, with the r -f level potentiometer tion. Final- amplifier plate loading and ex-
(R,) advanced about quarter rotation from citation level are both indicated on the
the minimum voltage position. single meter in the cathode circuit of the
The multiple -tuned circuits in the 12BY7A amplifier stage. The tune -up sequence is the
stage for the higher- frequency bands are same on any band: the function switch (S -)
aligned with the probe positioned at the is placed in the push -to -talk position, the
grid of one of the final amplifier tubes. audio gain control (R,) is turned down,
With the bandswitch in the 40 -meter posi- sideband selector switch Sl is placed in the
634 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

_-
_- -.

Figure 17
THE HBT -200 SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER- EXCITER
The HBT -200 is a high -performance SSB exciter covering the 80- through 70 -meter
amateur
oands. The main tuning dial is at the upper left, calibrated every 100 kHz, with readout to
one kHz on the vernier window. Main panel controls are (I. to .): Upper row -calibrate level
R ), pilot lamp, main tuning control, mixer- driver tuning (C. , C. ), final
amplifier tuning (C ),
final amplifier bandswitch (S I. Center row -sideband- selector switch (S,), Carrier balance
potentiometer (Rd, function switch (S ), audio gain control (R,), main bandswitch (S ), drive
level potentiometer (R,), meter switch (S ), final amplifier loading (C,.). Bottom row -key
jack, VOX hold (R ), antitrip (R:), microphone ack, p.a. bias control (R,), r -f sensitivity (R )

and operate -tune switch (S 1.


The panel is drilled then coated with aerosol "gray hammertone" finish. Decal lettering
is then put on and when dry, the panel is aerosol sprayed with Krylon clear plastic. Rear of
cabinet is cut out to pass various power plugs, and has a cutout area near the 61468 tubes
(covered with screen) for additional ventilation.

proper position for the band in use, and serted carrier is removed, the plate current
carrier- injection switch S2 is turned off. will drop back to the original idling level.
When the push -to -talk switch on the micro- The final step is to determine the ratio of
phone is closed, the plate meter will indicate grid drive to plate current loading. If this
an idling current of about 70 ma. The car- ratio is improperly set, the exciter will "flat-
rier control is turned on and advanced top" before full output level is reached
slightly, and grid tuning is peaked for a (excessive -drive, light- loading condition),
rise in plate current. The plate tank capaci- or transmitter output will be low (insuffi-
tor is tuned for current dip and loading cient- drive, heavy- loading condition). Ex-
adjustments are made using regular pi -net- citation is set by means of the r-f level
work procedure. Maximum loaded plate cur- control (R1) which may be calibrated for
rent with full carrier insertion is 200 to 240 each band. To do this, it is necessary to place
ma and this value is reached by advancing a O to 1 d -c milliammeter between test
the carrier control, together with an in- points 2 and 3 in the grid circuit of the
crease in amplifier loading. When the in- final amplifier stage. No grid current will be

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 635
V2 VT ve VT Vv VII
P BAL. FIRST SECOND THIRD
CARRIER OSC MOD 9MHz FILTER MIXER MIXER MIXER 134X5-8 I15
en- lse
EL I 11.0-11 65
210-2165
28 0-26 65
USB .2865.2P50
LSe 51 R2
Cw CARRIER SAL
VI
MIC. SPEECH

o MIXINGo ATALS TUNING OSC.


RI Y4-157M14 VS-Y10 (6 0 -6 63MNZ)
GAIN
V4A VSA VAB VI3
VOX AMP. VOX DC AMP. VOX RELAY DRIVER
I/2
2ATT
Rs
DRIVE
RIO
VSB V14 V13
VOA HOLD ANTI -VOX BEYER AMP. AM.
Rs
P.A.IIA3
ALC

RTg PI -
AL' R An NETWORR

Figure 18
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HBT -200 TRANSMITTER- EXCITER

drawn until the peak of the r -f driving The tune -up procedure for c.w. is the
signal exceeds the bias level (a nominal same as above except that carrier is inserted
-36 volts). Maximum power output will and the audio gain control turned down.
be obtained in class -AB, Service when the A -m operation is possible by inserting suffi-
amplifier tubes are driven just to the point cient carrier for a plate current of about
of grid current and with plate loading then 100 ma and advancing the gain control
adjusted for maximum power output at a while monitoring the ratio of grid drive to
plate current of 200 to 240 ma. Using car- antenna loading with an oscilloscope to
rier insertion, then, the point of grid current achieve maximum modulation level without
is monitored on the temporary test meter and distortion.
plate loading is adjusted for the proper
plate current. The setting of the r -f level
27 -3 The Deluxe HBT -200
control is logged and carrier is removed
and the transmitter modulated by voice. SSB Transmitter- Exciter
The audio gain control is advanced until,
with the r -f level control untouched, the The Deluxe HBT -200 SSB transmitter -
grid- circuit test meter just indicates a exciter is a companion unit to the HBR
flicker of grid current: one scale division or receiver described in an earlier chapter. De-
less. The setting of the audio gain control is signed for high quality SSB and c -w per-
then logged. This calibration procedure formance, the HBT -200 is capable of 200
should be run on each amateur band and the watts PEP input on amateur bands between
settings of the controls noted for future use. 80 and 10 meters (upper or lower sideband)
If desired, a small 1 -inch diameter milliam- and features automatic load control (alc) ;
meter may be panel mounted on the unit VOX or push -to -talk operation; all -band
for a continual check of the amplifier peak coverage and a nuvistor -type, high -C vfo.
signal driving point. It should be noted The transmitter has a high order of fre-
that under maximum peak voice conditions, quency stability and a very minimum of
the plate meter will swing to about 100 spurious "birdies" and image signals.
ma. Operation may be monitored with an The HBT -200 transmitter (figure 17) is
oscilloscope to check "flat -topping." designed around easily obtainable compo-
636 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO
MIXER TUNING
7
,oeo VII TeA
o 7360 TeB eO
TOC-0 3N

lo
TOE 5aE
ro 001. 53F TOE T60-0
.

S 3C ^ y I 1 2 N

FROM N 11,__. CMC


50
e
0.1 C1s_ J
f-T-IU eHIl
53G{$ii
.01 C14 .100-100
=0.1
1.]00V.
+180 V. REG.

r V12
oo, 2.711

39
I La GPO ION 1211

Op
To Sao
9
JJ C11
CIO C13

L c' ot- - - 7.5V. REG +75 V. REG.


- +300V.

C 2
V3 Ti Ve
.-1-1II DIl c 7360 68A6 TOT]
a O8N
3 1

7 Ya -L2N II Ce
6CW4 3 ?9
SI

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C IW 080 N

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.05
R2
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CARRIER
4 -r i2.2M
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BALANCE
To vox CALIBRATION LEVEL
TO V0R RELAY
VIA
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UIC.
711

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+75 V. REG. (Va,V6, Vto,Via
+
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z5

1.300 V.

FIGURE 19A

SCHEMATIC, AUDIO, EXCITER, VFO AND THIRD MIXER STAGES


C C , C11-4-25 -pf trimmer, NPO. Centralab 822AZ ,-9-MHz crystal 558 filter. McCoy Electronics 48-
C , C -25 -pf differential capacitor.
Johnson 148 -302 81 (alternate: McCoy 32 -81).
C -100 -pf dual -bearing capacitor. Polar C28 -141, or SA thru I- Seven -section, 14 -pole (total), 2 -6 posi-
J. W. Miller 2101 tion ceramic switch. S A thru N is made of
C -22 -pf NPO ceramic. Centralab TCZ 22 Centralab PA -305 index assembly with six PA -3
C, 22 -pf N -750 ceramic. Centralab TCN 22 wafers. 51 is Centralab PA -304 index assembly
C, , C, -700 -pf NPO ceramic. Each: two Centralab with one PA -3 wafer. Three Centralab P -320
TCZ 300 plus one Centralab TCZ 100 in parallel intersection shields are used
C,A, 8, C- Three -gang, 100 -pf variable. Polar C28- S A -See figure 19C
143. Two outside rotor plates plus 4 additional
rotor plates removed from section C,,C (or J. W.
Miller 2103)

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 637
V13 Vt4-6146B V15-6146B
6CL6

-
ANT
J2
Pct
Pcz
EPc4 E Pc

So3i, RFC 1
7 2.!-

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C1e
is
PC3 }{ +eoo v Re
R-F SENSITIVITY
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01

4-300 V.
Re
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2011
DRIVE LEVEL
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SK

RF
100

SSA S5
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leo IIH Sa
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ALC GAIN o011_
RFC 1011
ALC 2. SW,

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11 N647 Y1 C I9 P.A. BIAS Se OPERATE ..TUNE

1 1-,sK
100

68 K/111/
Re
as K
o.I_ ISK ]K
1w - 2w zw
R7 - -150V.
33K -
ALC BIAS TO VOX
RELAY

+300 V. REG.
V? V9
T3 7360 T4 7380
01 /C .001 001
C

68K
=1
1 T24
211

47011 3
dl-ICS d
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6 se
710
Sac. 0

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C
I01 I
?;M
01

+160v. REG
i AI

TO VOX
1 DI
T01

+ 180 REG.
OTg
TD.II.Qj 1w

`2. 7
11
K

MIXER BAL. R4 MIXEReL


ve
SK
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2.1 sK e
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6Cw4 t,2 K
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2K LIC, D

+75v REG.
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C
12K

r
01

+75v. REG.
4-300v.

Figure 19B

SCHEMATIC, MIXERS, LOCAL OSCILLATOR, AND AMPLIFIER STAGES


C -25 -pf differential capacitor. Johnson 148 -302 S -Single -section, 6-position ceramic switch. Centra-
C -Same as C , figure 19A lab 2501
C -350 -pf, KV. Johnson 154 -2
1

C, -Three section, 365 -pf per section, broadcast


PC, t t 4 #20 enam. around 47 -ohm, -watt
composition resistor
1

type. J. W. Miller 2113 PC, -4 turns # 14 enam., Ye" diam, around 47-
C -1S -pf Hammarlund HF -15X ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor
M -0 -1 d-c milliammeter. 47 ohms resistance. Simp- Cabinet-Wyco CR -7725.
son 1212A
638 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO
2R C-W KEYER
w VOX RELAY

TO V90 o
`
RYIA Ve
I RY1
PL-1 1

CAL TRANSMIT, - 0.1 SOD 100 R

iRVI
PTr
Sze
TUNE
T
cw I

1
--
B.SV.

TOAILOD 1eR
KEYD

TO PA BIAS
CONTROL R

000 1N5 SW 7.5 V.RE:


+ + TO FIL. V12
1000
VSA 1N536 v. 1N2971
1O0w e VFO Fl L. REGULATOR
VOX AMP, ANTI -TRIP
Rio
VA .02 1OOR TOR -F CIRCUITRY
SCHEMATIC A-B
} 12A17 6
FROM
VIA
1
1
g N647 g 1
.02

(VON) IM
FILS 21 .Dt RrID
= R 1.6 KV

.111
0

O O O O O b d O I
I
GNO
2 3 3
B.Sv. -150y. 300V. 300V. 600V.
C A 20MA ISO MA REG. 250 MA.
"---v-'
7

EXT. CONTROL
10
ANTI-
VOA
I11CVR-SPKR.1
TERMINAL CONNECTIONS

Figure 19C

SCHEMATIC, VOX, AND CONTROL CIRCUITS


S /A -D- Four -pole, two- section, 2-6 position. Centralab PA 2011.
RY, -Four -pole, double -throw relay. Potter-Brumfield MG -170 (110 -volt)

nents, including the prefabricated exciter hand key, bug, or electronic keyer. A sep-
tuned circuits. Nuvistor tubes are used in arate power supply is used with the trans-
the local -oscillator stages and the filament mitter to reduce the weight of the unit
voltage of the vfo is regulated to achieve and to keep heat -producing components out
maximum frequency stability. A high qual- of the transmitter enclosure. Transmitter
ity 9 -MHz sideband filter having superior alignment is easily accomplished without the
shape factor ensures a clean, crisp SSB sig- need of complicated test equipment.
nal.
The power output of the transmitter is Transmitter block diagram of the HBT-
A
better than 100 watts PEP on all bands and Circuitry 200 transmitter is shown in
is sufficient to drive most of the popular figure 18 and the schematic is
"grounded- grid" linear amplifier tubes, al- given in figures 19A, B, and C. The filter
through the HBT -200 will give a good ac- system of sideband generation is used, and
count of itself on the air when operated as -is. the transmitter employs bandswitching of
The efficient alc circuit allows a degree of the various r -f stages in 650 kHz segments
speech compression that imparts a "punch" between 80 and 10 meters. Sufficient over-
to the signal and ensures that voice modula- lap may exist at the band ends for auxiliary
tion is held at a high level at all times. activities such as MARS.
In addition to the SSB features, the HBT- The R -F Section -A
7199 is used as a
200 incorporates semiautomatic break-in key- two -stage speech amplifier (V,) to drive one
ing for c -w operation, utilizing either a deflection plate of a 7360 balanced modu-

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HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 639

Figure 20
REAR VIEW OF HBT -200 TRANSMITTER CHASSIS
Symmetrical arrangement of components prevents crowded appearance of transmitter chassis.
The nuvistor vfo is in the cast aluminum box at the center of the chassis, with its output
coupled via a coaxial line to the third mixer stage. Aluminum shield separates 6146B am-
plifier plate tank circuit from low -level stages. On rear apron of chassis are (I. to r.): An-
tenna receptacle (J 1, rear shaft of bandswitch S surrounded by hf oscillator coils .L A -E .

Counterclockwise, coils are: 80- 40- 20 -1S -10 meters. To the right of the coil assembly are the
power receptacles and speaker jack. At the extreme right are the second mixer balance
control (R and the first mixer balance control (R ).

Atop the chassis, in the foreground are the 1S -MHz crystal Y with the 6CW4 nuvistor
tube behind it; the 7360 first mixer (V ) to the left, along with transformer T Behind the
.

mixer stage are the 6BA6 i -f tube and the crystal filter. To the right, rear near the panel:
are the three carrier -frequency crystals, the 7360 balanced modulator, the 6CW4 carrier oscil-
lator tube and the slug adjustment of coil L,.
Immediately in front of the vfo box are the 7199 audio tube, the 12AT7 relay tube, and
the 12AT7 d -c amplifier. In front of these tubes are the 7360 third mixer (V J and transformers
(T A, B, C). Towards the near edge of the chassis are the 7360 second mixer (V ), the 6CW4
mixing oscillator (V ), and the hf crystals (Y -Y. ). To the right are the two voltage -regulator
tubes.
Next to the shield partition at the left are four r -f transformers (T A, B, C, D,), and im-
mediately behind them transformers T D and E. Buffer plate coils L A -E are chassis- mounted
adjacent to the 6CL6 socket. Magnetic shields are placed on the 7360 tubes (Millen 80801 -D3'.

lator (V ). The carrier signal is generated at of upper or lower sideband, or c.w. The d -c
9 MHz by a 6CW4 nuvistor oscillator (Ve). voltage applied to the second deflection
Three crystals are provided to permit choice plate of the 7360 balanced modulator may
640 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

be adjusted by carrier- balance potentiometer circuit layout does not require it; however
R2 to null the unwanted sideband and car- the stage should be checked for stability as
rier in the plate circuit. Carrier injection for changes in wiring or layout may require that
c.w. or for calibration is accomplished by neutralization be added. If so, the neutral-
unbalancing this circuit by means of switch izing technique employed in the final am-
S2A and level -control potentiometer R,_. plifier may be applied to the driver stage.
A 9 -MHz crystal lattice filter (FL,) hav- The final linear amplifier uses a pair of
ing excellent skirt selectivity is transformer - 6146B tetrodes connected in parallel and
coupled between the balanced modulator and operated in class -AB, mode. The plate cir-
the 6BA6 intermediate- frequency amplifier cuit is a conventional pi- network using an
(V6). Alc voltage is applied to the grid of r-f voltmeter to measure relative r -f power
the 6BA6 to provide proper control and to output. Extra capacitance is added to the
reduce flat- topping of the SSB signal under output section of the pi- network on the 80-
overdrive conditions. meter band to achieve proper loading into
A second 7360 is used as the first mixer a 50- to 70 -ohm antenna system.
(V7) and a 6CW4 nuvistor serves as a Grid, screen, and cathode currents of the
15.3 -MHz crystal oscillator (V8), convert- final amplifier are monitored by multimeter
ing the SSB signal to 6.3 MHz for further M, and a tune -operate switch (S6) reduces
mixing into the various amateur bands. (If screen voltage to protect the final amplifier
a 6.3 -MHz crystal filter is available, the tubes during loading and tuning adjust-
V7 and V8 stages may be omitted and the ments.
i -f amplifier stage modified for 6.3 MHz A fraction of the r -f plate voltage is
operation). This particular intermediate fre- selected by a capacitance bridge (C,., plus a
quency is chosen since the creation of spur- 5 -pf ceramic series capacitor) and is recti-

ious mixer products that fall in the amateur fied and filtered to obtain an alc voltage,
bands is less severe than with a 9 -MHz which is fed via filter RFC, to the grid of
intermediate frequency. the 6BA6 i -f amplifier.
The basic 6.3 -MHz SSB signal is fed to The VOX and Control Section-Voice-
a second mixer stage utilizing a 7360 (Va). control (VOX) voltage is derived from the
The 6CW4 nuvistor mixing oscillator (V,,,) speech amplifier and further amplified in a
makes use of appropriate crystals to provide separate VOX amplifier (V4A). The VOX
six channels of SSB which may be mixed and antiVOX signal (from the receiver) are
into the amateur bands with a minimum of rectified, filtered, and passed through a d -c
"birdies" and beats. The six intermediate amplifier (V5A) to the VOX relay circuit
SSB channels are combined in a third 7360 (V,B) . The VOX relay is a 4pdt device,
mixer stage (V11) with the signal from two circuits of which are used to energize
the master variable oscillator which employs the transmit pilot light (PL,) and to actuate
a 7587 nuvistor (V12) and tunes the 6.0- to the auxiliary circuits (antenna relay, etc.).
6.65 -MHz region. This provides an SSB tun- A third relay circuit provides standby block-
ing range of 650 kHz on each position of ing bias for the second mixer stage (V )
the bandswitch. Six tunable bands are thus and the fourth circuit actuates the c -w
generated, covering the various amateur keyer (V5B) and removes blocking bias
bands with generous overlaps up to 10 from the final amplifier stage.
meters. On this band a total of 1.3 MHz is The sequence of c -w operation is as fol-
covered in two ranges (either 28.0 to 29.3 lows: Closing the transmitter key grounds
MHz or 28.4 to 29.7 MHz may be utilized the grid of keyer tube (V.,B) which actu-
by proper choice of conversion crystals Y ates the control relay tube when the emis-
and Y10). sion switch S: is placed in the c -w position.
Satisfactory image suppression is achieved The relay is held closed by virtue of an
by the use of double- tuned, ganged circuits adjustable RC network (VOX -hold) in the
between the last mixer and driver stage. A bias leg (R11) for normal c -w speeds. The
6CL6 is used as the driver (V,3) with the maximum time constant is about 1.5 second.
drive level controlled by screen potentiome- Longer delays may be achieved by increasing
ter R,;. The 6CL6 is not neutralized since the the value of the 0.22-pfd capacitor in the

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HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 641

grid circuit of the relay tube. For push-to-


talk operation, the VOX circuit is disabled
and the relay tube is actuated by the micro-
phone switch.
Regulated voltages are derived from the
external power supply by two voltage -reg-
ulator tubes in the exciter, working from the
+ 300 -volt supply line. Regulated voltage
for the filament of the vfo is obtained from
a six -volt doubler circuit and a zener diode.

Transmitter An SSB transmitter of this


Construction quality is a complex device
and its construction should
only be undertaken by a person familiar
with SSB techniques and who has built and
aligned equipment approaching this degree
of complexity. The construction sequence
follows that outlined for the HBR receiver.
First, the chassis, panel, tuning dial, and
large components are laid out in a "mock-
up" assembly to ensure that the transmitter
may be assembled without a conflict be-
tween the components. Finally, the trans-
mitter is assembled and wired, a few stages Figure 21
at a time, which are tested as construction CLOSEUP OF VFO ASSEMBLY
progresses. The vfo is solidly built in a cast aluminum
The transmitter is built on an aluminum box. The shaft of the vlo tuning capacitor
(C
7 is centered in the box and about 11/2
chassis measuring 10" X 14" X 3" and fits inches below the top edge. The vfo coil is
in a steel cabinet measuring 11" X 15" X 9". wound on a grooved form which is mounted
to an aluminum angle bracket that supports
Study of the various photographs will show the tuning capacitor. The 7587 nuvistor is
general construction details and layout of mounted on the top of the box, as is the
the larger components. A preliminary layout temperature compensating capacitor (C, ) at
the right. Output from the vfo is taken from
is made, using a cardboard panel. The con- the coaxial fitting at the left.
trols are laid out as shown in figure 17,
using the dial template and placing the up- stages operating on one frequency are pro-
per-left dial bolt 1%8 inches from the left tected from other stages operating on a dif-
edge of the panel and 11/16 inch down from ferent frequency. Thus, the 6146B and
the top edge. Placement of the dial deter- 6CL6 stages are contained within an in-
mines the position of the main tuning capac- closure which is further subdivided to iso-
itor shaft (C;) which, in turn, determines late the pi- network output loading capacitor
the position of components within the vfo (C,7) from the adjacent grid circuit com-
inclosure (figure 21) . Placement of other ponents. Another shield runs across the band -
important components are fixed by the posi- switch, isolating the crystal oscillator stage
tion of the main bandswitch assembly (S:,) (V,,,) from the nearby mixer stages which
which is placed one inch below the level of are placed nearer the front of the band -
the chassis deck and 61/8 inches from the switch. Individual compartments isolate the
right end of the chassis, as viewed from the low- frequency and audio stages and prevent
front. The under -chassis area is broken into leakage from the carrier oscillator, ensuring
shielded cubicles made up of light alumi- proper isolation across the crystal filter and
num sheet, held in position with 4 -40 hard- restricting the low- frequency signals to one
ware and aluminum angle stock cut into area of the chassis.
brackets (figure 22). The shields isolate the Once the "mockup" is approved, the panel
various circuits and are arranged so that may be drilled and then used as a template
642 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

ait

Figure 22
UNDER- CHASSIS VIEW OF HBT -200 TRANSMITTER- EXCITER
The transmitter is wired and tested in stages for simplicity and reliability of operation. Inter -
stage shields are employed between circuits of different operating frequencies. Shields are
slotted so that power leads may pass through the shields, yet permit the shields to be taken
out for wiring and easy access to coils and components. Bandswitch shields are also slotted
so that they may be installed after bandswitch is wired to the second mixer. Crystal oscil-
lator coils L A -E are mounted to the rear apron of the chassis and are placed in position after
bandswitch has been mounted and wired.
Power amplifier loading capacitor (C, is at upper left, with its shield and below it are
(

the 61468 sockets. A common ground point is used for each socket. The shaft of p.a. neutral-
izing capacitor C projects through the chassis between the sockets. The plate coils of the
6CL6 stage (L A -E) are grouped around the front section of the main bandswitch, with the
shielded microphone jack mounted over the switch section. The third mixer balance potenti-
ometer (R) is mounted to the rear bandswitch partition.
At the right of the chassis is the balanced modulator and carrier -oscillator compartment,
with the crystal padding capacitors in view, as well as the differential capacitor (C ). Con-
trol relay RY, is mounted to the center shield partition to the left.

to drill the holes on the front chassis apron. 2 2" X 7 %2" X 1/4" Fiberglas board with
!

The control nuts arc used to space the panel I -inch spacers. The board, in turn, is
/2

from the chassis. mounted to the rear of the Eddystone 898


vernier dial with similar spacers. The vfo
VFO Assembly The schematic of the vfo is
given in figure 19A and an tuning capacitor is mounted to the alumi-
interior view of the assembly is shown in num box which is positioned on the chassis
figure 21. The vfo is built in a cast alumi- so that the capacitor may be driven by the
num box measuring 41/2" X 31/," X 2" dial mechanism with no noticeable binding
(Eddystone 650) which is mounted to a or tension on the shaft. The capacitor is

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HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 643

Figure 23
COIL AND T RANSFORMER DATA
L 9 MHz oscillator coil. Approx. 24H. J. W. and 20 -meter portion: S turns of 3/16"
Miller 42A-226 -CB1. diam. tubing, 1- 11/16" inside diameter,
L. -15.3 MHz oscillator coil. Approx. 1.14 H. 11/4" long. Three turns from plate end to
J. W. Miller 42A -106 -C111. 1S -meter tap. Third section is 40- and 80-
Li-Plate of 6CW4 hf oscillator (V, ). meter portion: 10 turns #I2 wire, 2" In-
Band Ou. Freq. J. W. Miller C (pf) side diameter, six turns per inch. Four
(MHz) Coil turns for 40 -meter portion. (Illumitronix
80 16.45 42A- 106 -C81 75 "Pi -Dux" 1608 -D6 cut to size).
40 19.85 42A- 106 -CBI 62 T, -9 -MHz 558 transformer, bifilar wound. J. W.
20 26.95 42A- 476 -CBI Miller 1739.
15 33.95 42A- 336 -C81 T -9 -MHz 558 transformer. J. W. Miller 1741.
10 41.45 42A- 226 -CBI T -9 -MHz transformer (10.7 MHz i -f trans-
10 41.95 42A- 226 -C81 former. Pad windings with 24 -pf silver
adjusted to approximately the following
(L, mica capacitors). J. W. Miller 1451.
inductance: 80 meters, 1.1 H; 40 meters, T -6.3 -MHz transformer. J. W. Miller 1800-1.
0.98 H; 20 meters, 5H; 15 meters, 3.1 T- Second Mixer transformer for V, stage.
H; 10 meters, 2.1 H). Band Frequency (MHz) J. W. Miller No.
Note: L A (80- meter) and LB (40- meter) coils
80 10.15 1800 -6
are supplied 8 -plus through a 12K resistor.
Others are supplied 8 -plus directly. This is 40 13.55 1800 -5
20 20.65 1800 -4
done to equalize the difle in output
15 27.65 1800 -3
between the fundamental and overtone
10 35.15 1800 -2
mode crystals.
L -Oscillator coil. 103/a turns #22 enam. wound
10 35.65 1800 -2
to a length of 15/16 inch on 1/4-inch diam. 7,-Third Mixer transformer for V stage.
ceramic form. National XR -71 with slug re- Band Frequency (MHz) J. W. Miller No.
moved. Approx 1.5 H with Q of ISO. 80 3.5 -4.0 1800 -11
L -Plate coil of 6CL6 stage (V ). 40 7.0 -7.3 1800 -10
Band Freq. (MHz) J. W. Miller Coil uN 20 14.0 -14.35 1800 -9
15 21.0 -21.45 1800 -8
80 3.5 -4.0 42A -155 -CB1 15.0
10 28.4-29.05 1800 -7
40 7.0 -7.3 42A- 686 -C81 6.0 29.05 -29.7 1800 -7
10
20 14.0 -14.35 42A -226 -C81 2.2
15 21.0 -21.45 42A -106 -C8l 1.2 Crystals-Y,, Y,-supplied with filter.
10 28.4 -29.05 42A -106 -C81 0.7 7,-9.000 MHz. McCoy Type M -1.
10 29.05 -29.7 42A -106 -C81 0.7 Y -15.30 MHz.
(remove 1 turn) Y;- 16.415 MHz.
L -Plate coil of 61468 amplifier stage. Y,- 19.681 MHz.
Plate coil is made in three sections. First Y.-26.950 MHz.
section is 10 -meter portion: 6 turns of V, -33.95 MHz.
3/16" diam. copper tubing, %" inside di- V,-41.45 MHz.
ameter, IN" long. Second section is 15- Y -41.95 or 49.2 MHz.

coupled to the dial by means of a metal wired, tested, and the shield placed around
coupler. The vfo assembly may be wired these stages. The B+ distribution circuits,
and tested as a unit before it is placed on control and VOX assemblies and audio
the transmitter chassis. A regulated 7.S -volt stages are wired next, tested, and the audio
filament supply is used with the vfo to shield positioned. The mixer and driver
provide 6.3 volts at the tube socket through stage are wired next, and the vfo installed.
the d -c resistance of the filament chokes The last step is to wire the final amplifier.
(RFC,, RFC_). Placement of under -chassis components is
Transmitter
"tight," especially in the vicinity of the
A unit of this complexity
bandswitch and use of miniature components
Wiring should be wired and tested in and terminal boards mounted to the inter -
stages so as to simplify as- stage shields is recommended.
sembly. It is suggested that all filament Buffer tuning capacitor (C,:,) and mixer
wiring be completed and the carrier oscil-
lator and balanced modulator be wired first,
tuning capacitor (C)
are mounted to an
tested, and the shield placed around this insulating plate as the rotor of capacitor C,-.
is at B+ potential and is coupled to the
assembly. The shield (and others like it)
should be slotted so that it may be installed ganged capacitor and to the dial with in-
and replaced without displacing the power sulated couplings. Capacitor section C,-,C
leads. Next, the i -f amplifier, first mixer has half the rotor plates removed to provide
and 15-MHz high- frequency oscillator are proper tracking, as outlined in the parts list.
644 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

Power wiring is done with #18 shielded Carrier Oscillator- Modulator Adjustment
wire (filament leads) and #22 shielded wire -The first step is to adjust the carrier
for other interconnections. oscillator frequency with the r -f probe of
Transmitter Bandswitch Assembly-The the v.t.v.m. placed on pin 3 of balanced
main bandswitch is made up of seven cer- modulator V:,. The plate coil (L1) of the
amic switch decks and may be seen in the carrier oscillator is tuned to the high -fre-
under -chassis photograph. The deck nearest quency side of oscillation, using the 8998.f-
the panel is the plate circuit switch for the kHz sideband crystal. With the BC -221
driver stage (S3I) and is mounted to the frequency meter coupled to the modulator,
panel index assembly. The remaining sec- the crystal trimmer capacitors (C1, C2, and
tions are placed towards the rear of the C:,) are set to provide the proper injection
chassis and are driven from the front section frequencies of 8998.3, 9000.0, and 9001.E
via a metal shaft coupler. The section nearest kHz. If necessary, the oscillator inductor is
the index assembly is S:,H (secondary circuit readjusted for reliable operation with each
of transformer TO and immediately behind carrier crystal to provide a peak -to -peak r -f
this section is an integral mounted shield measurement of about f to 8 volts. (Some
plate. Behind the plate are sections S,F and v.t.v.m. scales are calibrated in rms, and
S,G (one deck for each section). A chassis may be converted to a peak reading by
shield cuts across the switch behind these multiplying the reading by 1.41) .
sections, and to the rear of the shield are The r -f probe is now moved to the sec-
sections S3C, D, and E (made up of two ondary of transformer T1 (pin C) and the
decks). Another integral mounted shield c -w carrier crystal (9000 kHz) selected.
plate separates these sections from the rear Carrier balance control R2 is turned fully
switch segment (S:,A and B). Leads should clockwise and the slugs of transformer T,
be attached to the three rear switch seg- are adjusted for maximum voltmeter indi-
ments before the switch is placed in posi- cation. Check the null action of control R_
tion, and the oscillator coils (L,A, B, C, and at this time. Adjust R_ and C, to obtain
D) mounted to the rear apron after the best carrier null. The microphone is now
switch is placed on the chassis. The leads connected, the carrier unbalanced and the
from the switch are trimmed and wired r -f signal at the secondary of transformer
to the proper coils and terminals. Wiring is T, monitored for proper a -m voice modu-
done with tinned, bare wire, cut to length lation as heard in a nearby receiver. Leav-
and covered with insulated tubing. ing the carrier unbalanced, the r -f probe
is moved to the plate circuit of the 6BA6
Transmitter The HBT -200 transmitter may i -f amplifier and the slugs of transformer
Alignment be aligned with the aid of a T_ are adjusted for maximum voltmeter
BC -221 (LM) frequency me- indication. Now connect the probe to pin
ter, a vacuum -tube voltmeter with r -f 9 of the first mixer tube (V7) and adjust
probe, a dummy load, and a general cover- transformer T3 for maximum indication.
age receiver. An audio oscillator, grid -dip When the carrier is now nulled out by the
meter, and oscilloscope are convenient test carrier balance control, a clean 9 -MHz SSB
items but not indispensable. signal will be observed when voice modula-
After checking transmitter wiring and tion is used. (Adjustment of transformers
assembly, filament voltage and all d -c volt- T, and T, for optimum filter passband will
ages (with the exception of 6146B screen be done later) .
and plate voltages) are applied to the trans- Mixer and 1 -F Circuit Alignment -The r-f
mitter. Drive level control R,; is set for probe is placed on pin 3 of the first mixer
zero 6CL6 screen voltage, and ale bias con- (V7). Using the receiver as a monitor, plate
trol R7 is set for maximum negative alc coil L_ of the 15.3-MHz crystal oscillator
bias. Function switch S., is placed in the (V.) is adjusted to the high- frequency side
tune position. In this position, VOX relay of resonance for a peak indication of about
RY, will be energized and normal operating 8 to 10 volts on the v.t.v.m. The probe is
bias will be applied to the second mixer and now moved to pin 9 of the second balanced
amplifier stages. mixer (V.,) and the slugs of interstage

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HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 645

transformer T, adjusted for maximum sig- 90;; meshed to about 60 %f meshed, and on
nal with capacitor C, set at mid -capacitance. 40 meters the capacitor range goes from
Carrier injection is used, and balancing out 50'; to 60% meshed. On the higher bands,
the carrier with control R_ will provide a the capacitor only makes a small movement,
6.3 -MHz SSB signal. but still tunes rather sharply.
The next step is to adjust the 6CW4 The meter switch (Sa) is now set to
high- frequency conversion oscillator stage measure final amplifier grid current and
(V,,,). The slug of the plate coil for each the slugs of coils L,A through L,E are ad-
bandswitch position (L:,A through L,E) is justed for maximum indicated grid drive on
adjusted to the high- frequency side of each band. Drive level is controlled by the
resonance for a peak measurement of 5 to 6CL6 screen potentiometer (R). Use the
10 volts at pin 3 of mixer tube V,,. The p.a. bias potentiometer along with the drive

mixer (V )
probe is now moved to pin 9 of the third
and the primary and second-
ary slugs of transformers LA through LE
level control to adjust the sensitivity of the
meter. Drive is generous and will easily pin
the meter, even at the near -zero setting of
are adjusted for maximum indicated signal the drive control.
on each band, using carrier injection. Mixer Balance Adjustment-The com-
It may not be possible to completely reso- munication receiver is now tuned to H.3
nate the secondary windings of the 10 -, 15 -, MHz and loosely coupled to the secondary
or 20 -meter transformers because of the of interstage transformer T, with a shielded
added probe capacitance, but final alignment lead. The first mixer balance controls (R3
can be accomplished later. All preceding and C,) are adjusted for minimum S-meter
adjustments should now be repeaked for reading. Following the same technique, the
maximum signal. receiver is tuned to 26.95 MHz and loosely
The BC -221 frequency meter is now cou- coupled to pin 9 of the second mixer stage
pled loosely to the vfo and the main tuning (V). The second mixer balance control
capacitor (CO set near zero capacitance. (R,) is adjusted for minimum indicated
Padding capacitor C is adjusted to place signal, with the bandswitch placed in the
the vfo at 6.65 MHz. The tuning range 20 -meter position. In like manner, the re-
should now run from 6.65 MHz to 6.0 ceiver is loosely coupled to pin 2 of the
MHz with some overlap. After temperature 6CL6 amplifier, the exciter adjusted to 40
stability has been achieved, the differential meters, and the third mixer balance control
compensating capacitor C,,, is adjusted for (R,) is adjusted for minimum carrier as
minimum long -term drift. Capacitor C monitored at the vfo frequency (6.0 to
can be readjusted to compensate for adjust-
ments to C,,, as far as frequency is con-
cerned.
6.65 MHz).
Alignment of the Crystal Filter Circuit
The secondary of transformer T, and the
-
The r -f probe is now placed at pin 3 of primary of transformer T_ should now be
the third mixer (V) and the output level adjusted to provide the proper impedance
of the vfo stage is observed. It should be match to the crystal filter consistent with
about 5 to 8 volts, peak, as the vfo is tuned good passband characteristic. If this circuit
across its range. The probe is now moved is improperly adjusted, the passband will be
to the input grid (pin 2) of the 6CL6 unsymmetrical, or uneven, with an un-
driver stage (V13) and the slugs of inter - natural emphasis given to certain audio fre-
stage transformers LA through T,;E are quencies. A simple adjustment technique is
adjusted for maximum indicated signal on to strive for the best sounding signal on
each band, with ganged tuning capacitor both upper- and lower -sideband positions.
C -C,:, set approximately as follows: 80 This may involve shifting the USB and
meters (3.75 MHz), 3/4 meshed; 40 meters,
LSB carrier frequencies slightly. This tech-
'/2 meshed; 20 meters, 1/4 meshed; 10 and
15 meters, %8 meshed. The initial setting
nique will suffice unless the transformers
of the capacitor gang and the slug adjust- are badly out of alignment (they are factory
ments are somewhat self -compensating. On tuned). If it is desired to check adjustment,
80 meters, the capacitor range goes from a more formal and complex approach makes
646 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

Figure 24

CLOSEUP OF FINAL AMPLIFIER COMPARTMENT


The plate circuit of the 61468 amplifier stage is shielded from the low -power stages of the
transmitter. Behind the two tubes (left) are the chassis- mounted neutralizing capacitor
(C ) and the ale gain capacitor (C,,). Below the plate inductor is the 1000 -pf loading
capacitor. The plate inductor is made of three coils. The 10 -meter section is at the left,
parallel to the front panel, and is mode of 3/16 -inch diameter copper tubing. The 15- and
20 -meter section is placed at right angles and is also made of 3/16 -inch tubing. The 40- and
80 -meter section is at the right and is wound of #12 wire. The plate bandswitch is driven
by a flexible coupling and is mounted at a slight angle to prevent the contacts from being
damaged as the exciter is placed in the cabinet.

use of the BC -221 frequency meter and the mate amplitude, and corresponding to the
V. t. v.m. peaks shown in the filter passband curve
Remove one crystal from the carrier oscil- published in the data sheet supplied with
lator and inject the output of the BC -221 the filter. These peaks occur at approximate-
into the grid circuit of the carrier oscillator ly 8999.2 kHz, 9000.0 kHz, and 9000.8
(V2). The BC-221 will then drive the ex- kHz for the filter specified. The dips in the
citer in the place of the crystal. Connect the filter passband should be no more than one
v.t.v.m. probe to the 6CL6 plate circuit. A decibel below the peaks, corresponding to a
definite peak, or series of peaks, will be difference of 0.89 on the v.t.v.m. For ex-
found in the reading of the v.t.v.m. as the ample, if the peaks are set at 10 volts on
BC -221 is tuned through the passband of the meter (by adjustment of the drive con-
the filter. The goal is to adjust the second- trol), the dips, or valley should be approxi-
ary of transformer T, and the primary of
transformer T2 to obtain three peaks in the
filter passband, all having the same approxi-
mately 8.9 volts.
Functional Test and Neutralization
Once the operation of the low level r -f and
-

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HANDBOOK HBT -200 SSB Transmitter 647

Figure 25

HBT -200 TRANSMITTER AND HBR RECEIVER MAKE A MATCHED PAIR AT K6OPZ

audio stages is satisfactory, operation of the pacitance. The r-f probe is connected to the
function switch should be checked for prop- plate cap of one 6146B and neutralizing
er PTT, VOX, CAL, TUNE, and CW capacitor C,, is adjusted for minimum volt-
operation. Remember that in normal stand- meter indication.
by, the second mixer (V9) is biased to cutoff. Amplifier Stage Adjustment -Plate and
In the CAL position the second mixer is screen voltage are applied to the amplifier,
operative but the 6146B stage is biased to and the operate -tune switch (S,;) is set to the
-150 volts. PTT, VOX, TUNE, and CW tune position (low screen voltage). Reso-
are identical as far as transmitter operation nance is established and drive removed
is concerned except that alc is grounded from the stage. Switch S,; is set to the oper-
out in the CW position. ate position and bias potentiometer R9 is
The exciter stages are now adjusted for adjusted for 40 ma static plate current. Car-
10 -meter operation and grid drive to the rier is now inserted and the drive level ad-
final amplifier is adjusted to provide half - vanced to provide an indication of in-
scale meter reading (screen and plate volt- creased amplifier plate current. Resonance
age removed). Resonate the amplifier plate - is established, with the transmitter operating
tuning capacitor for a dip in grid current, into a dummy load, and the transmitter is
with the loading capacitor set at half ca- tuned and loaded in the usual manner to
648 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

an indicated cathode current of about 270


to 290 milliamperes, at the point where grid
current just begins to be noticed (less than
0.05 milliampere). An r -f power output
meter will be useful during the initial tune -
up.
ALC Adjustment -The last step is to ad-
just the alc level. With the transmitter
properly loaded at maximum signal level (us-
ing two -tone or voice modulation and a
monitor oscilloscope), the ale bias poten-
Figure 26
tiometer R; is set so that ale action is
noted by a slight reduction in transmitter Compact transistorized keyer can be operated
as a fully automatic key or semiautomatic
output power. The ale capacitor (C,,,) is "bug ". Instrument is shown with a Vibroplex
advanced from minimum capacitance for "Vibro- Keyer" connected to it. A standard
reasonable alc gain. Alc bias runs approxi- hand key may be c steed to the binding
posts at the left. Potentiometers are Speed
mately 4 volts, but adjustments are as much and Weight. Below these controls are (left)
a matter of personal preference as technical the power switch and (right) the auto -semi-
auto switches. Binding posts across the bottom
achievement. Sufficient alc range exists to are (I. to r.): hand key, hand -key ground,
achieve a good degree of speech compres- dash, ground, and dot. Pilot lamp is at the
center, top, of the panel and tone oscillator
sion. For example, the alc bias may be set to volume control is at the rear, adjacent to the
activate the circuit at 3 /4 output power speaker. Complete keyer is housed in a small
level, with the ale gain capacitor set to aluminum utility cabinet.
cause almost complete alc cutoff action of
the 6BA6 as full drive level is reached. Too keyer is the built -in tone oscillator which
much alc action will cause objectionable allows the operator to monitor his keying
audio distortion, so an on- the -air check of at all times.
alc settings should be made, monitoring the
alc voltage with a v.t.v.m. Keyer Circuit The schematic of the transistor
Power- Supply Requirements -The exter- Details keyer is shown in figure 27.
nal power supply may be an IVS -rated unit, The circuit consists of a free -
as discussed in the Power Supplies chapter of running (dot) multivibrator (Q,, Q,), a
this Handbook. Requirements are: -150 flip -flop (dash)multivibrator (Q,, Q,,), an
volts at 20 ma, 300 volts at U0 ma, 300 OR gate (Q, Q,) and a transistor -con-
volts regulated at 30 ma, and 800 volts at trolled relay circuit (Q.,). A half -wave
a peak current of 250 ma. If the regulation rectifier (1N2861) provides d -c voltage to
of the 300 -volt supply is good, the regulated control the keying speed, and a voltage
and unregulated requirements may be met in doubler (two 1N2858) utilizing the 6.3-
a single source of about 200 -ma peak ca- volt winding of the power transformer pro-
pacity. vides the d -c operating voltage for the unit.
The dot mllltiz'ibrator controls the for-
27 -4 A Transistor Keyer mation of dots and the repetition rate of
this circuit determines the rate at which
This compact transistorized keyer may be dots are produced, and hence the keying
operated either as a semiautomatic key speed. When the vibro -key (S,) is open,
(automatic dots) or as a fully automatic the dot multivibrator is inoperative (tran-
key (automatic dots and dashes). The sistor Q_ nonconductive) by the biasing
keying function is performed by a high- action of clamp transistor Q.,. When the
speed relay permitting the keyer to be elec- paddle of the vibro -key is moved to the dot
trically isolated from the keyed circuit. A position (to the left in figure 27) the clamp
double -pole, double -throw relay is used so transistor is made inoperative and the dot
that one set of relay contacts may be used multivibrator becomes a free -running cir-
to mute the station receiver during key - cuit. The square -wave signal developed at
down condition. An extra feature of the the emitter of multivibrator transistor Q.,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistor Keyer 649

DOT RATE CONTROL


por MULTI- DASH FLIP -FLOP 100K 2N1302 10K
WEIGHT CONTROL

3.9K SIK

I.
TO TRANSMITTER
200

Q1-2N404S -- Q2 Q4 Qe 1 N 2858
.01
39K 66 2N404 S0 2N404 2N4045
I68K

Q3
2N 1302 1N34A 1N34

OR GATE

2N1302 Q6

10K 10K
Q10 2N404,s Q11

TONE OSCILLATOR

ALL RESISTORS 1/2 WATT


UNLESS OTHERWISE NO FEO.
_ +ll -60V.

1N2858
1N2858 1/w N2861
10K

0
123,40
z
53

AUTO. F

S1 2TO 1N26513 6.3Vp


-
1 .

V16130-KEYER
1SK
R SEMI A VTO
KEY
2000
15 +
g+
1YHAND +8 V. 117 V..60 CPS

NOTE. ALL RESISTORS 1/2 WATT UNLESS


OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

Figure 27

SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTORIZED KEYER


RY -D-c relay with 2500 -ohm coil and operating current of 4 ma. Potter -Brumfield Ml -11D,
or equivalent
T,- Push -pull output transformer (14K to voice coil). Stancor A -3496
T,-Power transformer. 125 volts at 15 ma, 6.3 volts at 0.6 amp. Stancor PS-8415 or PA -8421.

is then applied to the base of transistor Q- to the collector of multivibrator transistor


in the OR gate. During the positive alterna- Q,, which assures that clamp transistor Q.
tion of this signal, the OR gate will permit will be held inoperative and that action of
current to flow through the relay control the multivibrator -once begun-will con-
transistor Q, and through the keying relay tinue until a full cycle is repeated.
RY in series with the collector of this tran-
The ratio of on time to off tiare of the
sistor.
Once a dot is initiated by moving the pad- dot multivibrator is controlled by the set-
dle of the vibro -keyer to the dot position, ting of the 10K base -bias potentiometer and
the action will continue (regardless of the this ratio is termed weight. In most cases,
position of the paddle) until both the dot an operator will wish the weight control in
and the space following it are formed. This the center, or neutral position, but occasion-
feature is accomplished by the feedback cir- ally it may be desirable to change the ratio
cuit from the base of clamp transistor Q. of dot (on) time to space (off) time.
650 Low -Power Transmitters THE RADIO

The dot rate is controlled by the d -c DOT FORMATION


voltage applied to the 1 -pfd and 51K re- PADDLE CONNECTING DOT CONTACT OF VIBRO -NEVER TO ONO.)

Q7 CURRENT
sistor- capacitor network in the multivibra-
tor base-collector circuit. The more negative RELAY CURRENT
the voltage on the movable arm of the
DASH FORMATION
weight potentiometer, the faster the timing (PADDLE CONNECTING DASH CONTACT OF V /DRO -NEVER ro END.)
capacitors will charge to the conducting Q7 CURRENT
potential of the multivibrator transistor
(not conducting at that instant) . The max- QE CURRENT

imum charging potential is set at 60 volts


RELAY CURRENT
which corresponds to a maximum keying
speed of about 40 words per minute. Higher
speed may be obtained by reducing the value
Figure 28
of the 10K, 1 -watt series resistor in the
power supply to boost the speed- control GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF KEYING
voltage. Resistance should not be reduced FUNCTION SHOWING WAVEFORMS FOR
below 1K, however, or the voltage across TRANSISTORS Q -, Q., AND RELAY
the filter capacitor will be excessive. Mini- CURRENT
mum keying speed is about S wpm and is
determined by the value of the multivibra- Q or flip -flop transistor Q., (or both) is ap-
tor capacitors. These timing capacitors plied to the OR gate.
(nominally 1.0 f) should be paper or When a dot is produced, only the dot
plastic units of good quality. multivibrator supplies the keying signal to
the OR gate. For this condition, OR gate
The Dash When a dash is generated, the
Flip -flop
transistor Q controls the operation of the
paddle of the vibro-key is moved relay circuit. The relationship between the
to the dash position (to the right current through the transistor and that
in figure 27). The clamp transistors (Q:,
through the relay is shown by the dot
and Q,;) which hold the dot multivibrator formation waveforms in figure 28.
and the dash flip -flop stages inoperative When the paddle of the vibro -key is
during the open -key condition, will not positioned to ground the dash contact, the
conduct due to the application of increased dot contact is also grounded through the
bias. As a result, the dot multivibrator and
IN28S8 steering diode resulting in simul-
the dash flip -flop stages operate simultane- taneous operation of the dot multivibrator
ously-a required condition for the forma- and the dash flip -flop. Signals will now be
tion of a dash. applied to both OR gate transistors, and the
The signal from the emitter of multi- relay will be energized for an interval three
vibrator transistor Q and that from the times as long as that required to make a dot.
emitter of flip -flop transistor Q,, are applied The dot and dash waveforms illustrate this
to the OR gate transistors (Q; and Q, re- relationship.
spectively). The keying relay is energized
during the positive alternation of these sig- The Tone The voltage drop across the coil
nals, whether applied separately or simul- Oscillator of the keying relay and the 1.2K
taneously. The dashes produced are three resistor is the d -c supply voltage
times as long as the dot by virtue of the for transistors Qin and Q
in the tone
following action: Assume that there is no oscillator. For current to flow through
voltage drop across the transistors of the these circuits, the relay amplifier transistor
multivibrator and of the flip -flop when (Q.,) must receive a keying signal from the
they are conducting. Assume also that the OR gate. The tone oscillator, therefore,
switching time is zero. As mentioned pre- operates only when dots and dashes are
viously, the keying relay will be energized being produced. The 50K potentiometer in
whenever the positive alternation of the the collector circuit of transistor Q:, con-
signal from either multivibrator transistor trols the volume of the oscillator.

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HANDBOOK Transistor Keyer 651

Figure 30
Closeup of circuit board of transistorized keyer
Figure 29 showing dot multivibrator circuit (left) and
dash flip -flop circuit (right). In the center are
SIDE VIEW OF KEYER the three transistors comprising the OR gate
and relay control. The board immediately in
Side oblique view of transistorized keyer back includes circuitry for the side -tone oscil-
showing location of speaker, transformers, lator and biasing network.
and filter capacitors. Six- terminal strip con-
nects to contacts of double -pole, double -throw
relay (RY). Phenolic terminal boards are sup-
ported from front panel by long bolts and flop and its clamp transistor and the OR
spacers. Electrolytic capacitors are mounted gate. The front board contains the tone os-
to tie point strips bolted to surface of
inclosure. Towards far side of the phenolic cillator and voltage bridge for the dot and
board are mounted the 1.0 -pf capacitors of the dash clamp circuit.
dot multivibrator. Transistors Q, Q , and Q. The power supply, keying relay, speaker,
are positioned between the capacitors. Tran-
sistors Q Q , and Q are near center of the
, output transformer, and potentiometers are
board, and transistors Q , Q , and Q are in all mounted to the case. The speaker cone is
the foreground.
covered with a small square of perforated
aluminum sheet to protect it from damage.
The keyer may be operated as a semi- All relay contacts are brought out to the
automatic key (bug) by placing switch S, rear of the keyer to the six terminal strip.
in the semiauto position. Although the dots Two circuits may be keyed simultaneously,
are produced automatically, the automatic and the relay also provides normally closed
keying circuits are bypassed when the pad- or normally open circuits. The second set
dle of the key is moved to the dash position, of contacts may be used to mute the sta-
and the dashes must be produced manually. tion receiver during the key down condition.
Note: Some relays do not have nonmetallic
Keyer The complete keyer is housed strikers on either the pole pieces or the
Construction in a miniature aluminum case armature. Consequently the relay action is
4" high, Srr wide and 6" deep. somewhat sluggish. This condition can be
The major circuitry is mounted on two corrected by drilling and tapping the arma-
phenolic boards stacked one behind the other ture and installing a 2 -56 brass screw. The
and mounted to the front panel of the case screw is adjusted so that 2 mm. to 6 mm.
by bolts and spacers. The rear board (seen protrude from the armature. A lock nut is
in figure 30) contains the multivibrator used to prevent a shift in the position of the
circuit and its clamp transistor, the flip- screw.
CHAPTER TWENTY -EIGHT

The trend in design of transmitters for a -m excitation for high -level amplifiers run-
operation on the high- frequency bands is to- ning up to the 1000 -watt power limit. The
ward the use of a single high -level stage. amplifiers shown in this chapter may be
The most common and most flexible ar- easily driven by such exciters.
rangement includes a compact bandswitching
exciter unit, with 15 to 100 watts output 28 -1 Power Amplifier
on all the high- frequency bands, followed Design
by a simple power -amplifier stage. In many
cases the exciter unit is placed on the oper- Choice of Either tetrode or triode tubes may
ating table, with a coaxial cable feeding the Tubes be used in high- frequency power
drive to the power amplifier, although some amplifiers. The choice is usually
operators prefer to have the exciter unit in- dependent on the amount of driving power
cluded in the main transmitter housing. that is available for the power amplifier. If
This trend is a natural outgrowth of the a transmitter -exciter of 100 -watt power ca-
increasing importance of vfo operation on pability is at hand (sideband or a -m) it
the amateur bands. It is not practical to would be wise to employ a power amplifier
make a quick change in the operating fre- whose grid- driving requirements fall in the
quency of a transmitter when a whole suc- same range as the output power of the ex-
cession of stages must be retuned to reso- citer. Triode tubes running 1- kilowatt in-
nance following the frequency change. An- put (plate- modulated) generally require
other significant factor in implementing the some 50 to 80 watts of grid- driving power.
trend has been the wide acceptance of com- Such a requirement is easily met by the out-
mercially produced 100- to 250-watt trans- put level of the 100 -watt transmitter which
mitter- exciters. These supply SSB, c -w and should be employed as the exciter. Tetrode

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Power Amplifier Design 653

TOANTENNA TO ANTENNA
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

UNBALANCED COAXIAL BALANCED TWIN- LINE


FEED SYSTEM TEED SYSTEM
BIAS 110 V.

Figure 1 Figure 2

LINK- COUPLED OUTPUT CIRCUITS CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL


FOR PUSH -PULL AMPLIFIERS AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
The mechanical layout should be symmetrical
and the output coupling provision must be
tubes (such as the 4 -250A) require only 10 evenly balanced with respect to the plate coil
to 15 watts of actual drive from the ex- C1-Approx. 1.S -pf per meter of wavelength
per section
citer for proper operation of the amplifier C,-Refer to plate tank capacitor design in
stage at 1- kilowatt input. This means that Chapter 11
C,-May be 500 -pf, 10,000 -volt type ceramic
the output from the 100 -watt transmitter capacitor
has to be cut down to the 15 -watt driving NC-Max. usable capacitance should be great-
level. This is a nuisance, since it requires the er, and min. capacitance less than rated
grid -plate capacity of tubes in amplifier.
addition of swamping resistors to the output 50% greater air gap than C,
circuit of the transmitter -exciter. The triode 11,-100 ohms, 20 watts. This resistor serves
as low -Q r -f choke
tubes, therefore, would lend themselves to RFC,-All-band r -f choke suitable for plate cur-
a much more convenient driving arrange- rent of tubes
ment than would the tetrode tubes, simply M M.-Suitable meters for d-c grid and plate
currents
because their grid -drive requirements fall All low-voltage .001-Add and .01-Add bypass
within the power- output range of the ex- capacitors are ceramic-disc units (Centra-
citer unit. lab DD or equiv.)
L1 -50 -watt plug -in coil, center link
On the other hand, if the transmitter -ex- L:Plug -in coil, center link, of suitable power
citer output level is of the order of 15 to rating
Note: Parasitic chokes may be required in grid
40 watts sufficient drive for triode tubes or plate leads.
running 1- kilowatt input would be lacking.
Tetrode tubes requiring low grid- driving
power would have to be employed in a high - It is possible to use the link circuit in
level stage, or smaller triode tubes requir- either an unbalanced or balanced configura-
ing modest grid drive and running 250 tion, as shown in figure 1, using unbalanced
watts or so would have to be used. coaxial line, or balanced twin -line.
Common technique is to employ plug -in
Power Amplifier Either push -pull or single - plate coils with the push -pull amplifier stage.
Design- Choice ended circuits may be em- This necessitates some kind of opening for
of Circuits ployed in the power ampli- coil- changing purposes in the "electrically
fier. Using modern tubes tight" enclosure surrounding the amplifier
and properly designed circuits, either type is stage. Care must be used in the design and
capable of high -efficiency operation and low construction of the door for this opening
harmonic output. Push -pull circuits, whether or leakage of harmonics through the opening
using triode or tetrode tubes, usually employ will result, with the attendant TVI prob-
link coupling between the amplifier stage and lems.
the feed line running to the antenna or the Single -ended amplifiers may also employ
antenna tuner. link- coupled output devices, although the
654 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
trend is to use pi- network circuits in con- Plate Feed The series plate- voltage feed
junction with single -ended tetrode stages. shown in figure 2 is the most
A tapped or otherwise variable tank coil may satisfactory method for push -pull stages.
be used which is adjustable from the front This method of feed puts high voltage on
panel, eliminating the necessity of plug -in the plate tank coil, but since the r -f voltage
coils and openings into the shielded enclosure on the coil is in itself sufficient reason for
of the amplifier. Pi-network circuits are be- protecting the coil from accidental bodily
coming increasingly popular as coaxial feed contact, no additional protective arrange-
systems are coming into use to couple the ments are made necessary by the use of series
output circuits of transmitters directly to feed.
the antenna. The insulation in the plate supply circuit
should be adequate for the voltages encoun-
28 -2 Push -Pull Triode tered. In general, the insulation should be
Amplifiers rated to withstand at least four times the
maximum d -c plate voltage. For safety, the
Figure 2 shows a basic push -pull triode plate meter should be placed in the cathode
amplifier circuit. While variations in the return lead, since there is danger of voltage
method of applying plate and filament volt- breakdown between a metal panel and the
ages and bias are sometimes found, the basic meter movement at plate voltages much
circuit remains the same in all amplifiers. higher than one thousand.
Filament Supply The amplifier filament trans- Grid Bias The recommended method of ob-
former should be placed taining bias for c -w or plate mod-
right on the amplifier chassis in close prox- ulated telephony is to use just sufficient fixed
imity to the tubes. Short filament leads are bias to protect the tubes in the event of ex-
necessary to prevent excessive voltage drop citation failure, and to obtain the rest by
in the connecting leads, and also to prevent the voltage drop caused by flow of rectified
r -f pickup in the filament circuit. Long fila- grid current through a grid resistor. If de-
ment leads can often induce instability in an sired, the bias supply may be omitted for
otherwise stable amplifier circuit, especially telephony if an overload relay is incorporated
if the leads are exposed to the radiated field in the plate circuit of the amplifier, the re-
of the plate circuit of the amplifier stage. lay being adjusted to trip immediately when
The filament voltage should be the correct excitation is removed from the stage.
value specified by the tube manufacturer The grid resistor (R1) serves effectively as
when measured at the tube sockets. A fila- an r -f choke in the grid circuit because the
ment transformer having a tapped primary impressed r -f voltage is low, and the Q of
often will be found useful in adjusting the the resistor is poor. No r -f choke need be
filament voltage. When there is a choice of used in the grid -bias return lead of the am-
having the filament voltage slightly higher plifier, other than those necessary for har-
or slightly lower than normal, the lower monic suppression.
voltage is preferable. If the amplifier is to The bias supply may be built on the am-
be overloaded, a filament voltage slightly plifier chassis if care is taken to prevent r-f
higher than the rated value will give greater from finding its way into the supply. Ample
tube life. shielding and lead filtering must be employed
Filament bypass capacitors should be low for sufficient isolation.
internal inductance units of approximately
.01 fd. A separate capacitor should be used The Grid Circuit As the power in the grid
for each socket terminal. Lower values of circuit is much lower than
capacitance should be avoided to prevent in the plate circuit, it is customary to use a
spurious resonances in the internal filament close- spaced split- stator grid capacitor with
structure of the tube. Use heavy, shielded sufficient capacitance for operation on the
filament leads for low voltage drop and lowest frequency band. A physically small
maximum circuit isolation. capacitor has a greater ratio of maximum to

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HANDBOOK Push -Pull Triode Amplifiers 655

minimum capacitance, and it is possible to All r -f leads should be made as short and
obtain a unit that will be satisfactory on direct as possible. The leads from the tube
all bands from 10 to 80 meters without the grids or plates should be connected directly
need for auxiliary padding capacitors. The to their respective tank capacitors, and the
rotor of the grid capacitor is grounded, leads between the tank capacitors and coils
simplifying mounting of the capacitor and should be as heavy as the wire that is used
providing circuit balance and electrical sym- in the coils themselves. Plate and grid leads
metry. Grounding the rotor also helps to to the tubes may be made of flexible tinned
retard vhf parasitics by bypassing them to braid or flat copper strip. Neutralizing leads
ground in the grid circuit. The LC ratio in should run directly to the tube grids and
the grid circuit should be fairly low, and plates and should be separate from the grid
care should be taken that circuit resonance and plate leads to the tank circuits. Having
is not reached with the grid capacitor at a portion of the plate or grid connections to
minimum capacitance. That is a direct in- their tank circuits serve as part of a neu-
vitation for instability and parasitic oscilla- tralizing lead can often result in amplifier
tions in the stage. The grid coil may be instability at certain operating frequencies.
wound of No. 14 wire for driving powers Excitation In general it may be stated
of up to 100 watts. To restrict the field and Requirements
thus aid in neutralizing, the grid coil should
that the over-all power re-
quirement for grid- circuit ex-
be physically no larger than absolutely neces-
sary. citation to a push -pull triode amplifier is ap-
proximately 10 percent of the amount of
Circuit Layout The most important consid-
the power output of the stage. Tetrodes re-
eration in constructing a quire about 1 percent to 3 percent excita-
push -pull amplifier is to maintain electrical tion, referred to the power output of the
symmetry on both sides of the balanced cir- stage. Excessive excitation to pentodes or
cuit. Of utmost importance in maintaining tetrodes will often result in reduced power
electrical balance is the control of stray output and efficiency.
capacitance between each side of the circuit
and ground. Push -Pull Symmetry is the secret of suc -
Large masses of metal placed near one side Amplifier cessful amplifier design. Shown
of the grid or plate circuits can cause serious Construction in figures 3 and 4 are views of
unbalance, especially at the higher frequen- a 1- kilowatt amplifier designed
cies, where the tank capacitance between for operation in amateur bands between 80
one side of the tuned circuit and ground is and 10 meters. The circuit corresponds to
often quite small in itself. Capacitive un- that shown in figure 2, with the addition of
balance most often occurs when a plate or parasitic suppressors in the grid leads to
grid coil is located with one of its ends the triode tubes.
close to a metal panel. The solution to this Larger triode tubes such as the 810 and
difficulty is to mount the coil parallel to the 230TH make excellent r -f amplifiers at the
panel to make the capacitance to ground kilowatt level, but care must be taken in
equal from each end of the coil, or to place amplifier layout as the interelectrode capac-
a grounded piece of metal opposite the itance of these tubes is of importance. One
"free" end of the coil to accomplish a ca- tube and one neutralizing capacitor is placed
pacity balance. on each side of the tank circuit to permit
Whenever possible, the grid and plate coils very short interconnecting leads. The rela-
should be mounted at right angles to each tive position of the tubes and capacitors is
other, and should be separated far enough transposed on each side of the chassis, as
apart to reduce coupling between them to shown in the illustrations. The plate tank
a minimum. Coupling between the grid and coil is mounted parallel to the front panel
plate coils will tend to make neutralization of the amplifier on a phenolic plate support-
frequency sensitive, and it will be necessary ed by the tuning capacitor which sits atop a
to readjust the neutralizing capacitors of small chassis -type box. The grid -circuit tun-
the stage when changing bands. ing capacitor is located in this box, as seen
656 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

Figure 3 Figure 4
UNIQUE CHASSIS LAYOUT PERMITS LEFT-HAND VIEW OF KILOWATT
SHORT LEADS IN KILOWATT AMPLIFIER OF FIGURE 3
AMPLIFIER Above shielded meter box is the protective
Large size components required for high -level "microswitch" which opens the primary power
amplifier often complicate amplifier layout. circuit when the panel door is not closed. Tube
In this design, the plate tank capacitor sits sockets are recessed in the chassis so that
astride small chassis running lengthwise on top of tube socket shells are about 1'2-inch
main chassis. Inductor is mounted to phenolic above chassis level. On right side of amplifier
plate atop capacitor. Variable link is panel (facing it from the rear) the tube socket is
driven through right -angle gear drive. Plate nearest the panel, with the neutralizing ca-
circuit is grounded by safety arm when panel pacitor behind it. On the opposite side, the
door is opened. Note that plate capacitor is capacitor is nearest the panel with the tube
mounted on four TV -type capacitors which directly behind it. This layout transposition
serve to bypass unit, and also act as supports. produces very short neutralizing leads, since
A small parasitic choke is visible next to the
connections may be made through the stator
grid terminal of the 810 tube. of plate tuning capacitor.

in figure S. An external bias supply is re- 28 -3 Push -Pull


quired for proper amplifier operation. Oper- Tetrode Amplifiers
ating voltages may be determined from the
instruction sheets for the particular tube to Tetrode tubes may be employed in push -
be employed. pull amplifiers, although the modern trend
Whenever the amplifier inclosure re- is to parallel operation of these tubes. A
quires a panel door for coil changing access, typical circuit for push -pull operation is
it is wise to place a power interlock on the shown in figure 6. The remarks concerning
door that will turn off the high -voltage the filament supply, plate feed, and grid bias
supply whenever the door is open! Such a in Section 28 -2 apply equally to tetrode
door will also require extra r -f "weather- stages. Because of the high circuit gain of
stripping" to be mounted around the open- the tetrode amplifier, extreme care must be
ing in order to keep the inclosure r -f tight. taken to limit interstage feedback to an

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HANDBOOK Push -Pull Tetrode Amplifiers 657

Figure 6

Figure 5 CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL


TETRODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF
Push -pull amplifier uses many of the same
1- KILOWATT TRIODE AMPLIFIER components required by triode tubes (see
The grid -circuit tuning capacitor and plate - figure 2). Screen supply is also required.
circuit r -f choke are contained in the below - B- Blower for filament seals of tubes
chassis inclosure formed by a small chassis C -Low internal inductance capacitor, .001
mounted at right angles to the front panel. fd, 5 KV. Centralab type 8585 -1000
The bandswitch coil assembly for the grid NC -See text and figure 7
circuit is mounted on two brackets above this PC- Parasitic choke. 50 -ohm, 2 -watt compo-
cutout. A metal screen attached to the bottom sition resistor wound with 3 turns s 12
of the amplifier completes the TVI -proof enam. wire
i nclosure. Note: Strap multiple screen terminals together
at socket with ?g" copper ribbon. Attach
PC fo center of strap. Alternatively, PC
may be placed in the plate leads.
absolute minimum. Many amateurs have
had bad luck with tetrode tubes and have
been plagued with parasitics and spurious pf per tube, and under normal conditions
oscillations. It must be remembered with is sufficient to produce a highly regenerative
high -gain tubes of this type that almost full condition in the amplifier. Whether or not
output can be obtained with practically zero the amplifier will actually break into oscil-
grid excitation. Any minute amount of en- lation is dependent upon circuit loading and
ergy fed back from the plate circuit to the residual lead inductance of the stage. Suffice
grid circuit can cause instability or oscilla- to say that unless the tubes are actually neu-
tion. Unless suitable precautions are in- tralized a condition exists that will lead to
corporated in the electrical and mechanical circuit instability and oscillation under cer-
design of the amplifier, this energy feedback tain operating conditions. With luck, and a
will inevitably occur. heavily loaded plate circuit, one might be
Fortunately these precautions are simple. able to use an unneutralized push-pull tet-
The grid and filament circuits must be iso- rode amplifier stage and suffer no ill effects
lated from the plate circuit. This is done by from the residual grid -plate feedback of the
placing these circuits in an "electrically tubes. In fact, a minute amount of external
tight" box. All leads departing from this feedback in the power leads to the amplifier
box are bypassed and filtered so that no r -f may just (by chance) cancel out the in-
energy can pass along the leads into the box. herent feedback of the amplifier circuit.
This restricts the energy leakage path be- Such a condition, however, results in an
tween the plate and grid circuits to the amplifier that is not "reproducible." There
residual plate -to -grid capacity of the tetrode is no guarantee that a duplicate amplifier
tubes. This capacity is of the order of 0.25 will perform in the same, stable manner.
658 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
This is the one great reason that many ama- this area are bypassed and shielded within
teurs having built a tetrode amplifier that the compartment.
"looks just like the one in the book" find The base shells of the tubes are grounded
out to their sorrow that it does not "work by spring clips, and short adjustable rods
like the one in the book." project up beside each tube to act as neu-
This borderline situation can easily be tralizing capacitors. The leads to these rods
overcome by the simple process of neutral- are cross -connected beneath the chassis and
izing the high -gain tetrode tubes. Once this the rods provide a small value of capacitance
is done, and the amplifier is tested for para- to the plates of the tubes. This neutraliza-
sitic oscillations (and the oscillations elim- tion is necessary when the tube is operated
inated if they occur) the tetrode amplifier with high power gain and high screen volt-
will perform in an excellent manner on all age. As the operating frequency of the tube
bands. In a word, it will be "reproducible." is increased, the inductance of the internal

Amplifier screen support lead of the tube becomes an


The push -pull tetrode ampli -
Construction important part of the screen ground- return
fier should be designed around
"r -f tight" boxes for the grid - circuit. At some critical frequency (about
45 MHz for the 4 -250A tube) the screen -
and plate -circuit assemblies (figure 7). The
lead inductance causes a series- resonant con-
tetrodes are mounted on the chassis which
forms the common shield plate between the dition and the tube is said to be "self -neu-
tralized" at this frequency. Above this
boxes. The grid circuit is placed below the
frequency the screen of the tetrode tube
chassis and all power leads into and out of
cannot be held at ground potential by the
usual screen bypass capacitors. With normal
circuitry, the tetrode tube will have a tend-
ency to self -oscillate somewhere in the 120 -
to 160 -MHz region. Low-capacity tetrodes
that can operate efficiently at such a high
frequency are capable of generating robust
parasitic oscillations in this region while the
operator is vainly trying to get them oper-
ating at some lower frequency. The solution
is to introduce enough loss in the circuit at
the frequency of the parasitic to render
oscillation impossible.
Parasitic suppression is required with most
modern high -gain tetrodes and may take
place in either the plate or screen circuit.
In some instances, suppressors are required in
the grid circuit as well. Design of the sup-
pressor is a cut -and -try process: if the in-
ductor of the suppressor has too few turns,
the parasitic oscillation will not be ade-
quately suppressed. Too many turns on the
Figure 7
suppressor will allow too great an amount of
REAR VIEW OF PUSH -PULL fundamental frequency power to be ab-
4 -250A AMPLIFIER sorbed by the suppressor and it will overheat
The neutralizing rods are mounted on ceramic and be destroyed. From 3 to 5 turns of #12
feedthrough insulators adjacent to each tube wire in parallel with a 50 -ohm, 2 -watt
socket. Low voltage power leads leave the
grid -circuit compartment via Hypass capacitors composition resistor will usually suffice for
located on the lower left corner of the chassis. operation in the hf region. At 50 MHz, the
A screen plate covers the rear of the ampli-
fier during operation. This plate was removed suppressor inductor may take the form of a
for the photograph. length of copper strap (often a section of

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HANDBOOK Tetrode Pi- Network Amplifiers 659

the plate lead) shunted by the suppressor The pi circuit is usually shunt -fed to re-
resistor. move the d -c plate voltage from the coils
Because of the compact size of many tet- and capacitors. The components are held at
rodes, it is necessary to cool the filament and ground potential by completing the circuit to
plate seals with a blast of air. A small blower ground through the choke (RFC,). Great
may be mounted on the pressurized chassis stress is placed on the plate -circuit choke
to direct a stream of cooling air at the fila- (RFC,). This component must be specially
ment seals of the tube, and through the base designed for this mode of operation, having
to the glass envelope. Many transmitting low interturn capacitance and no spurious
tubes require special air sockets and chim- internal resonances throughout the operat-
neys to provide adequate cooling. Cooling ing range of the amplifier.
data for most popular transmitting tetrodes Parasitic suppression is accomplished by
may be obtained on request from the manu- means of chokes PC, and PC_ in the screen,
facturer. grid, or plate leads of the tetrode. Suitable
values for these chokes are given in the parts
list of figure 8. Effective parasitic suppres-
28 -4 Tetrode Pi- Network sion is dependent to a large degree on the
Amplifiers choice of screen bypass capacitor C1. This
component must have extremely low induct-
The most popular amplifier today for both ance throughout the operating range of the
commercial and amateur use is the pi -net- amplifier and well up into the vhf parasitic
work configuration shown in figure 8. This range. The capacitor must have a voltage
circuit is especially suited to tetrode tubes, rating equal to at least twice the screen po-
although triode tubes may be used under tential (four times the screen potential for
certain circumstances. plate modulation). There are practically no
A common form of pi- network amplifier capacitors available that will perform this
is shown in figure 8A. The pi circuit forms difficult task. One satisfactory solution is
the matching system between the plate of to allow the amplifier chassis to form one
the amplifier tube and the low- impedance, plate of the screen capacitor. A "sandwich"
unbalanced, antenna circuit. The coil and is built on the chassis with a sheet of insu-
input capacitor of the pi may be varied to lating material of high dielectric constant
tune the circuit over a 10 to 1 frequency and a matching metal sheet which forms the
range (usually 3.0 to 30 MHz). Operation screen side of the capacitance. A capacitor
over the 20- to 30 -MHz range takes place of this type has very low internal induct-
when the variable slider on coil L_ is ad- ance but is very bulky and takes up valuable
justed to short this coil out of the circuit. space beneath the chassis. One suitable ca-
Coil L, therefore comprises the tank in- pacitor for this position is the Centralab
ductance for the highest portion of the type 858S -1000, rated at 1000 pf at 5000
operating range. This coil has no taps or volts. This compact ceramic capacitor has
sliders and is constructed for the highest relatively low internal inductance and may
possible Q at the high- frequency end of the be mounted to the chassis by a 6 -32 bolt.
range. The adjustable coil (because of the Further screen isolation may be provided by
variable tap and physical construction) a shielded power lead, isolated from the
usually has a lower Q than that of the fixed
screen by a .001 -fd ceramic capacitor and
coil.
a 100 -ohm carbon resistor.
The degree of loading is controlled by ca-
Various forms of the basic pi- network
pacitors C, and C2. The amount of circuit
capacitance required at this point is in- amplifier are shown in figure 8. The A con-
versely proportional to the operating fre- figuration employs the so- called "all- band"
quency and to the impedance of the antenna grid -tank circuit and a rotary pi- network
circuit. A loading capacitor range of 100 coil in the plate circuit. The B circuit uses
to 2500 pf is normally ample to cover the coil switching in the grid circuit, bridge
3.5- to 30 -MHz range. neutralization, and a tapped pi- network
660 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
C2 L1 2
LO W-Z
1 11 1
OUTPUT
PC, PC2 ll' 3
ao 000
RFC2 TC3 S2 C< R FC 1

0'1
h TST _L
EACITATIOti 01 00 6

Hl, 1. NC y100

1r0

o
q
Hr Hl 001

E11. SCR
O
BfHV
100

M
001

C
BIAS 5 V 1

LOW -Z
OUTPur

EXCITATION

Figure 8

TYPICAL PI- NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS


A -Split grid circuit provides out -of -phase voltage for grid neutralization of tetrode tube.
Rotary coil is employed in plate circuit, with small, fixed auxiliary coil for 28 MHz.
Multiple tuning grid tank T1 covers 3.5 -30 MHz without switching
8- Tapped grid and plate inductors are used with "bridge- type" neutralizing circuit for tetrode
amplifier stage. Vacuum tuning capacitor is used in input section of pi- network
C- Untuned input circuit (resistance loaded) and plate inductor ganged with tuning capacitor
comprise simple amplifier configuration. R, is usually 50 -ohm, 100 -watt carbon resistor.
PC PC, -57 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor, wound with 3 turns #12 enam. wire
Note: Alternatively, PC, may be placed in the plate lead.

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HANDBOOK Tetrode Pi- Network Amplifiers 661

with the usual tuned grid circuit and neu-


tralizing capacitor and in their place employ a
noninductive load resistor in the grid circuit
across which the required excitation voltage
may be developed. This resistor can be of
the order of SO to 300 ohms, depending on
circuit requirements. Considerable power
must be dissipated in the resistor to develop
sufficient grid swing, but driving power is
often cheaper to obtain than the cost of the
usual grid- circuit components. In addition,
the low -impedance grid return removes the
tendency toward instability that is often
common to the circuits of figures 8A and 8B.
Neutralization is not required of the cir-
cuit of figure 8C, and in many cases parasit-

r
SSIRE SUSUPY
SCSE EN SUPPLY ic suppression may be omitted. The price
PLATE SUPPLY
that must be paid is the additional excitation
that is required to develop operating voltage
across grid resistor R,.
The pi- network circuit of figure 8C is in-
teresting in that the rotary coil (L2) and
the plate tuning capacitor (C:,) are ganged
ruNE together by a gear train, enabling the cir-
"COMMON cuit to be tuned to resonance with one panel
MINUS'
LEAD control instead of the two required by the
circuit of figure 8A. Careful design of the
rotary inductor will permit the elimination
Figure 9
of the auxiliary high- frequency coil (L,) ,
GROUNDED -SCREEN -GRID thus reducing the cost and complexity of
CONFIGURATION PROVIDES HIGH the circuit.
ORDER OF ISOLATION IN TETRODE
AMPLIFIER STAGE The Grounded -Screen For maximum shielding,
Configuration it necessary to operate
is
A- Typical amplifier circuit has cathode return the tetrode tube with
at ground potential. All circuits return to
cathode. the screen at r -f ground potential. As the
S -All
circuits return to cathode, but ground
screen has a d -c potential applied to it (in
point has been shifted to screen terminal
of tube. Operation of the circuit remains grid- driven circuits), it must be bypassed
the same, as potential diff between to ground to provide the necessary r -f re-
elements of the tube are the same as in
circuit A. turn. The bypass capacitor employed must
C- Practical grounded -screen circuit. "Common perform efficiently over a vast frequency
minus" lead returns to negative of plate
supply, which cannot be grounded. Switch spectrum that includes the operating range
Ss removes screen voltage for tune -up plus the region of possible vhf parasitic oscil-
purposes. lations. This is a large order, and the usual
bypass capacitors possess sufficient inductance
coil with a vacuum tuning capacitor. Fig- to introduce regeneration into the screen cir-
ure 8C shows an interesting circuit that is cuit, degrading the grid -plate shielding to
becoming more popular for class -AB, a marked degree. Nonlinearity and self -
linear operation. A tetrode tube operating oscillation can be the result of this loss of
under class -AB, conditions draws no grid circuit isolation. A solution to this problem
current and requires no grid -driving power. is to eliminate the screen bypass capacitor,
Only r -f voltage is required for proper by grounding the screen terminals of the
operation. It is possible therefore to dispense tube by means of a low- inductance strap.
662 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
Screen voltage is then applied to the tube by
grounding the positive terminal of the screen
supply, and "floating" the negative of the
screen and bias supplies below ground po-
tential as shown in figure 9. Meters are
placed in the separate- circuit cathode return
leads, and each meter reads only the cur-
rent flowing in that particular circuit. Oper-
Figure 10
ation of this grounded- screen circuit is nor-
mal in all respects, and it may be applied to INDUCTIVE TUNING ELIMINATES
any form of grid- driven tetrode amplifier INPUT TUNING CAPACITOR
with good results.

The Inductively The output capacitance 28 -5 Cathode- Driven


Tuned Tank Circuit of large transmitting Amplifier Design
tubes and the residual
circuit capacitance are often sufficiently The cathode-driven, or grounded -grid
great to prevent the plate tank circuit from amplifier has achieved astounding popularity
having the desired value of Q, especially in in recent years as a high -power linear stage
the upper reaches of the hf range (28- to for sideband application. Various versions of
54 -MHz). Where tank capacitance values this circuit are illustrated in figure 11. In
are small, it is possible for the output ca- the basic circuit the control grid of the tube
pacitance of the tube to be greater than the is at r -f ground potential and the exciting
maximum desired value of tank capacitance. signal is applied to the cathode by means of
In some cases, it is possible to permit the a tuned circuit. Since the grid of the tube
circuit to operate with higher- than -normal is grounded, it serves as a shield between the
Q, however this expedient is unsatisfactory input and output circuits, making neutral-
when circulating tank current is high, as it ization unnecessary in many instances. The
usually is in high- frequency amplifiers. very small plate -to- cathode capacitance of
A practical alternative is to employ in- most tubes permits a minimum of intrastage
ductive tuning and to dispense entirely with coupling below 30 MHz. In addition, when
the input tuning capacitor which usually iero -bias triodes or tetrodes are used, screen
has a high minimum value of capacitance or bias supplies are not usually required.
(figure 10). The input capacitance of the
circuit is thus reduced to that of the out- Feedthrough Power A portion of the excit-
put capacitance of the tube which may ing power appears in the
be more nearly the desired value. Cir- plate circuit of the grounded -grid (cathode -
cuit resonance is established by varying the driven) amplifier and is termed feedthrough
inductance of the tank coil with a movable, power. In any amplifier of this type, whether
shorted turn, or loop, which may be made of it be triode or tetrode, it is desirable to have
a short length of copper water pipe of the a large ratio of feedthrough power to peak
proper diameter. The shorted turn is inserted grid- driving power. The feedthrough power
within the tank coil by a lead -screw mech- acts as a swamping resistor across the driving
anism, or it may be mounted at an angle circuit to stabilize the effects of grid load-
within the coil and rotated so that its plane ing. The ratio of feedthrough power to driv-
travels from a parallel to an oblique posi- ing power should be about 10 to 1 for best
stage linearity. The feedthrough power pro-
tion with respect to the coil. The shorted
vides the user with added output power he
turn should be silver plated and have no would not obtain from a more conventional
joints to hold r-f losses to a minimum. Due circuit. The driver stage for the grounded -
attention should be given to the driving grid amplifier must, of course, supply the
mechanism so that unwanted, parasitic normal excitation power plus the feed -
shorted turns do not exist in this device. through power. Many commercial sideband

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HANDBOOK Cathode- Driven Amplifiers 663

R -F OUT R -F OUT

EMC

R-F oUT R -F OUT

EXC

O
Figure 11

THE CATHODE -DRIVEN AMPLIFIER


Widely used as a linear amplifier for sideband service, the cathode- driven (g -g) circuit
provides economy and simplicity, in addition to a worthwhile reduction in intermodulation
distortion. A -The basic g -g amplifier employs tuned input circuit. 6 -A simplified circuit
employs untuned r -f choke in cathode in place of the tuned circuit. Linearity and power
output are inferior compared to circuit of figure A. C- Simple high -C pi- network may be used
to match output impedance of sideband exciter to input impedance of grounded-grid stage.
D- Parallel -tuned, high -C circuit may be employed for bandswitching amplifier. Excitation tap
is adjusted to provide low value of SWR on exciter coaxial line.

exciters have power output capabilities of from the large amount of feedback inherent
the order of 70 to 100 watts and are thus in the grounded -grid circuit.
well suited to drive high -power grounded - A simplified version of the grounded -grid
grid linear amplifier stages whose total ex- amplifier is shown in figure 11B. This con-
citation requirements fall within this range. figuration utilizes an untuned input circuit,
and is very popular as an inexpensive and
Distortion Laboratory measurements made simplified form of the more sophisticated
Products on various tubes in the circuit circuit of figure 11A. It has inherent limita-
of figure 11A show that a dis- tions, however, that should be recognized.
tortion reduction of the order of S to 10 In general, slightly less power output and
decibels in odd -order products can be ob- efficiency is observed with the untuned -cath-
tained by operating the tube in cathode - ode circuit, odd -order distortion products
driven service as opposed to grid- driven run 4 to 6 decibels higher, and the circuit
service. The improvement in distortion varies is harder to drive and match to the exciter
from tube type to tube type, but some than is the tuned -cathode circuit of figure
order of improvement is noted for all tube 11A. Best results are obtained when the
types tested. Most amateur -type transmit- coaxial line of the driver stage is very short
ting tubes provide signal -to- distortion ratios -a few feet or so. Optimum linearity re-
of -20 to -30 decibels at full output in quires cathode circuit Q that can only be
class -AB, grid- driven operation. The ratio supplied by a high -C tank circuit.
increases to approximately -25 to -40 Since the single -ended class -B grounded -
decibels for class -B grounded -grid operation. grid linear amplifier draws grid current on
Distortion improvement is substantial, but only one -half (or less) of the operating
not as great as might otherwise be assumed cycle, the sideband exciter "sees" a low-
664 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

R -F OUT R -F OUT.

Figure 12
TETRODE TUBES MAY BE USED IN CATHODE -DRIVEN AMPLIFIERS
A- Tetrode tube may be used in cathode-driven configuration, with bias and screen voltages
applied to elements which are at r -f ground potential. I -Grid current of grounded -grid tube
is easily monitored by RC network which lifts grid above ground sufficiently to
permit
millivoltmeter to indicate voltage drop across -ohm resistor. Meter is a 0 -1 d -c milliammetera
1

in series with appropriate multiplier resistor.

impedance load during this time, and a very grounded -grid stage. The g -g linear ampli-
high -impedance load over the balance of the fier may have either configuration, although
cycle. Linearity of the exciter is thereby the majority of the g -g stages are single
affected and the distortion products of the ended, as push -pull offers no distinct ad-
exciter are enhanced. Thus, the driving vantages and adds greatly to circuit com-
signal is degraded in the cathode circuit of plexity.
the grounded -grid stage unless the unbal- The cathode circuit of the amplifier is
anced input impedance can be modified in resonated to the operating frequency by
some fashion. A high -C tuned circuit, stores means of a high -C tank (figure 11A). Reso-
enough energy over the operating r -f cycle so nance is indicated by maximum grid current
that the exciter "sees" a relatively constant of the stage. A low value of SWR on the
load at all times. In addition, the tuned cir- driver coaxial line may be achieved by ad-
cuit may be tapped or otherwise adjusted so justing the tap on the tuned circuit, or by
that the SWR on the coaxial line coupling varying the capacitors of the pi- network
the exciter to the amplifier is relatively low. (figure 11C). Correct adjustments will pro-
This is a great advantage, particularly in duce minimum SWR and maximum ampli-
the case of those exciters having fixed -ratio fier grid current at the same settings. The
pi- network output circuits designed expressly cathode tank should have a Q of 2 or more.
for a 50 -ohm termination. The cathode circuit should be completely
Finally, it must be noted that removal of shielded from the plate circuit. It is common
the tuned cathode circuit breaks the ampli- practice to mount the cathode components
fier plate- circuit return to the cathode, and in an "r -f tight" box below the chassis of
r -f plate -current pulses must return to the the amplifier, and to place the plate circuit
cathode via the outer shield of the driver components in a screened box above the
coaxial line and back via the center con- chassis.
ductor! Extreme fluctuations in exciter load- The grid (or screen) circuit of the tube is
ing, intermodulation distortion, and TVI operated at r -f ground potential, or may
can be noticed by changing the length of have d -c voltage applied to it to determine
the cable between the exciter and the the operating parameters of the stage (figure
grounded -grid amplifier when an untuned- 11A). In either case, the r -f path to ground
cathode input circuit and a long intercon- must be short, and have extremely low in-
necting coaxial line are used. ductance, otherwise the screening action of
Cathode -Driven Design features of the sin - the element will be impaired. The grid (and
Amplifier gle -ended and push -pull am- screen) therefore, must be bypassed to
Construetion plifiers discussed previously ground over a frequency range that includes
apply equally well to the the operating spectrum as well as the region

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HANDBOOK Cathode -Driven Amplifiers 665

of possible vhf parasitic oscillations. This is near full capacitance and the plate tank
quite a large order. The inherent inductance capacitor is adjusted for resonance (mini-
of the usual bypass capacitor plus the length mum plate current) . Drive is advanced until
of element lead within the tube is often suf- grid current is noted and the plate circuit
ficient to introduce enough regeneration into is loaded by decreasing the capacitance of
the circuit to degrade the linearity of the the plate loading capacitor. The drive is
amplifier at high signal levels even though increased until about one -half normal grid
the instability is not great enough to cause current flows, and loading is continued (re-
parasitic oscillation. In addition, it is often resonating the plate tank capacitor as re-
desired to "unground" the grounded screen quired) until loading is near normal. Finally,
or grid sufficiently to permit a metering cir- grid drive and loading are adjusted until
cuit to be inserted. PEP - condition plate and grid currents are
One practical solution to these problems normal. The values of plate and grid current
is to shunt the tube element to ground by should be logged for future reference. At
means of a 1 -ohm composition resistor, by- this point, the amplifier is loaded to the
passed with a .01 -fd ceramic disc capacitor. maximum PEP input condition. In most
The voltage drop caused by the flow of grid cases, the amplifier and power supply are
(or screen) current through the resistor can capable of operation at this power level for
easily be measured by a millivoltmeter whose only a short period of time, and it is not
scale is calibrated in terms of element cur- recommended that this condition be per-
rent (figure 12B). mitted for more than a minute or two.
The plate circuit of the grounded -grid The exciter is now switched to the SSB
amplifier is conventional, and either pi -net- mode and, with speech excitation, the grid
work or inductive coupling to the load may and plate currents of the cathode- driven
be used. There is some evidence to support stage should rise to approximately 40 to SO
the belief that intermodulation distortion percent of the previously logged PEP read-
products are reduced by employing plate cir- ings. The exact amount of meter movement
cuit Q's somewhat higher than normally with speech is variable and depends on meter
used in class -C amplifier design. A circuit damping and the peak to average ratio of
Q of 10 or greater is thus recommended the particular voice. Under no circum-
for ground -grid amplifier plate circuits. stances, however, should the voice meter
readings exceed SO percent of the PEP ad-
Tuning the Since the input and output justment readings unless some form of
Grounded -Grid circuits of the grounded - speech compression is in use.
Amplifier grid amplifier are in series, a To properly load a linear amplifier for
certain proportion of driv- the so- called "two- kilowatt PEP" condition,
ing power appears in the output circuit. If it is necessary for the amplifier to be tuned
full excitation is applied to the stage and the and loaded at the two -kilowatt level, albeit
output circuit is opened, or the plate voltage briefly. It is necessary to use a dummy load
removed from the tube, practically all of to comply with the FCC regulations, or
the driving power will be dissipated by the else a special test signal must be used. To
grid of the tube. Overheating of this ele- achieve a ratio of 2:1 between the tune -up
ment will quickly occur under these circum- condition and the PEP condition an audio
stances, followed by damage to the tube. pulser and single -tone driving signal may
Full excitation should therefore never be be used. Shown in figure 13 is a pulser
applied to a grounded -grid stage unless plate having a duty cycle of about 0.44. For a
voltage is applied beforehand, and the stage d -c meter reading of 880 watts input using
is loaded to the antenna. the pulser and a single audio tone, the PEP
Tuneup for sideband operation consists input level and corresponding amplifier
of applying full plate voltage and sufficient loading adjustments will satisfy the two -
excitation (carrier injection) so that a kilowatt PEP conditions. An oscilloscope and
small rise in resting plate (cathode) current audio oscillator are necessary to conduct this
is noted. The plate loading capacitor is set exercise, but these instruments are required

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666 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
6J5 tion but are not recommended because of
.0015
poor signal -to- distortion ratios.
AUDIO
INPUT Certain types of tetrodes, exemplified by
100 R ' 5 PULSCO AUDIO
the 4 -65A, 4X150A, 4CX300A, and 4CX-
OUTPUT
I000A should not be used as grounded -grid
amplifiers unless grid bias and screen voltage
are applied to the elements of the tube (fig-
ure 12A). The internal structure of these
MERITS S040
OR tubes permits unusually high values of grid
EQUIVALENT
current to flow when true grounded -grid
circuitry is used, and the tube may be easily
,ISV.ti damaged by this mode of operation.
The efficiency of a typical cathode -driven
Figure 13 amplifier runs between 55- and 6f- percent,
indicating that the tube employed should
AUDIO PULSER FOR HIGH -POWER have plenty of plate dissipation. In general,
TUNE -UP OF AMPLIFIER the PEP input in watts to a tube operating
This simple audio pulser modifies the audio in grounded -grid configuration can safely
signal to the sideband exciter so that it has a be about 2.5 to 3 times the rated plate
high peak -to- average power ratio. Amplifier
may be thus tuned for two kilowatt PEP dissipation. Because of the relatively low
input without violating the one -kilowatt average -to -peak power of the human voice
maximum steady-state condition. it is tempting to push this ratio to a higher
figure in order to obtain more output from
items for any well -equipped sideband station. a given tube. This action is unwise in that
For best linearity, the output circuit of the odd -order distortion products rise rapid-
the grounded -grid stage should be over - ly when the tube is overloaded, and because
coupled so that power output drops about no safety margin is left for tuning errors or
2- percent from maximum value. A simple circuit adjustments.
output r -f voltmeter is indispensable for
proper circuit adjustment. Excessive grid Neutralization At some high frequency
of the G -G Stage
the shielding action of the
current is a sign of antenna undercoupling,
and overcoupling is indicated by a rapid drop grid of the g -g amplifier
in output power. Proper grounded -grid stage deteriorates. Neutralization may be neces-
operation can be determined by finding the sary at higher frequencies either because of
optimum ratio between grid and plate cur- the presence of inductance between the ac-
rent and by adjusting the drive level and tive grid element and the common returns
loading to maintain this ratio. Many manu- of the input and output circuit, or because
facturers now provide grounded -grid oper- of excessive plate- cathode capacitance.
ation data for their tubes, and the ratio of Neutralization, where required, may be
grid to plate current can be determined from accomplished by feeding out -of -phase energy
the data for each particular tube. from the plate circuit to the filament circuit
(figure 14A) or by inserting a reactance in
Choice of Tubes Not all tubes are suitable series with the grid (figure 14B). For values
for G -G Service for grounded -grid service. of plate- cathode capacitance normally en-
In addition, the signal -to- countered in tubes usable in g -g service, the
distortion ratio of the suitable tubes varies residual inductance in the grid -ground path
over a wide range. Some of the best g -g provides sufficient reactance, and in some
performers are the 811A, 813, 7094, 4 -125A, cases even series capacitance will be required.
4 -250A, 4 -400A, and 4- 1000A. In addition, Typical tube electrode capacitances are shown
the 3 -400Z and 3 -1000Z triodes are specifi- in figure 15A. These can be represented by
cally designed for low distortion, grounded - an equivalent star connection of three ca-
grid amplifier service. The older types 837 pacitors (figure 15B). If an inductance (L)
and 803 are used extensively for g -g opera- is placed in series with Ce so that a resonant

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HANDBOOK Cathode- Driven Amplifiers 667

R -F OUT. R -F our.

Figure 14

NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR CATHODE- DRIVEN STAGES

Neutralization of the g -g stage may be necessary at the higher frequencies. Energy fed back
in proper phase from plate to cathode is used to neutralize the unwanted energy fed through
the tube (A). Reactance placed in series with the grid return lead (B) will accomplish the
same result. The inductance (L) usually consists of the internal grid lead of the tube, and
capacitor C may be the grid bypass capacitor. A series -resonant circuit at the operating
frequency is thus formed.

circuit is formed (figure 15C), point O will by proper choice of the bias bypass capacitor
be at ground potential (15D). This prevents (figure 14B). Below a certain frequency
the transfer of energy from point P to point determined by the physical geometry of the
K, since there now exists no common cou- tube, neutralization may be accomplished
pling impedance. The determination of by adding inductance to the grid- return
value C, and L are shown in figure 15. lead; above this frequency it may be neces-
It is apparent that when the plate- cathode sary to series tune the circuit for minimum
capacitance of the tube is small as compared energy feedthrough from cathode to plate.
to the plate -grid and the grid -cathode ca- Most tubes are sufficiently well screened so
pacitance, C, is a large value and the re- that series inductive neutralization at the
quired value of inductance L is small. In lower frequencies is unnecessary, but series
practical cases the value of L is supplied by capacitance tuning of the grid- return lead
the tube and lead inductance, and the grid - may be required to prevent oscillation at
to- ground impedance can be closely adjusted some parasitic frequency in the vhf range.

Cn-K

Ccx(CP-cxCr-x)t(CR-xxCs:-x)t(Cs:-x xC-a)
CP-R
1

(2/7r)2 x Cc

Figure 15

Tube electrode capacitances can be represented by an equivalent star connection of three


capacitors. If inductance is placed in series with C so that a resonant circuit is formed
drawing C , point 0 will be at ground potential.
668 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

Figure 16

3 -400Z LINEAR AMPLIFIER PACKS KILOWATT PUNCH FOR


THE SIX -METER OPERATOR
This compact kilowatt linear amplifier is suited for 558, c -w or a -m service in the 50-MHz
band. Utilizing the 3-400Z in o grounded -grid circuit, the amplifier requires neither bias nor
screen voltage. The homemade cabinet is an "r -f tight" inclosure which helps to reduce TVI
problems. Meters are shielded and are in the circuit at all times so no extra switching
circuits are required. Panel size is only 834" 13". Panel components are (I. to r.): Grid
meter, r -f output meter, and plate meter. In the line below the meters are: r -f output
calibration control, plate tuning, and antenna loading. Across the bottom of the panel are:
input tuning, filament pilot light, and high -voltage pilot light.

28 -6 A Kilowatt Linear watts carrier, amplitude- modulated). The


Amplifier for Six Meters cathode- driven (grounded -grid) configura-
tion is utilized and neutralization is unneces-
Described in this section is a high -power sary. Circuit components used are conven-
amplifier expressly designed for six -meter tional and efficient operation is obtained, as
operation. It is capable of 1- kilowatt PEP with any high- frequency amplifier by care-
input for sideband and c -w service, and will ful attention to circuit design and layout,
deliver a fully modulated carrier of about the use of short r -f leads, and proper ground -
200 watts as an a -m linear amplifier. A return techniques.
single Eimac 3-400Z zero-bias triode is used
in this efficient, compact unit which is cap- The Amplifier The schematic of the six -
able of delivering full output from an ex- Circuit meter amplifier is shown in
citer providing 35 watts peak drive (or 15 figure 17. A tuned -cathode

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HANDBOOK Six -Meter Kilowatt Linear 669

RECEIVER
3-400 Z 001 ANT.
PC PLATE STRAP 5 KV 2 L3 RELAY ANTENNA

50
4 2W
507I 190 ttt--- RFC 2 A
11 11
C2 'IC3 2-50 B
001

.001
KV
3 J1 TOEXCIT. CALIBRATE
140

.001
4
.0 1

TO R Y 0-1 MA

50K GRI0
10W 0- 200 MA

PLATE 01
0 -500 MA C 500

50 RFC 3
IOW Z -50
500

50 0 500 = C
_
G

C 6V
115 V ti GND. -H V +HV 115 V
JS J3 J4

Figure 17

SCHEMATIC OF SIX -METER LINEAR AMPLIFIER


B- Blower. 13 cubic feet per minute at 0.13 inches of water. Dayton 2C -782 or equivalent
C -140 pf Bud 1856
C -50 pf, 0.07" spacing. Hammarlund MC -505X
C -190 pf. Bud 1858

J -7V -type chassis -mount cord socket


L,- Bifilar coil. 3 turns, 18 -inch diameter copper tubing spaced to 2", tapped 34 turn from
grounded end. Inner conductor is No. 12 insulated or formvar wire (see text)
L. -Pi- section coil. 5 turns, 3/16 -inch copper tubing, spaced to 3". Inside diameter is 1118 ".
L; L- section coil. 4 turns, 18 -inch tubing, 3 -inch inside diameter, spaced to 213"
RFC,-3 AN choke. 48 turns No. 16 formvar wire closewound on Z" diameter standoff insulator. 1

RFC. <Ohmite Z -50 choke


BY- Coaxial antenna relay. Dow Key DK60 -G2C
T,-5 volts at 15 A. Stancor P -6433
Note: 0.1 1if, 600 -volt feedthrough capacitors are Sprague 80P -3. Meters ore Simpson Wide -Vue.

circuit (L, -C,) is used to preserve the wave- circuit is shown for using the linear ampli -
form of the driving signal and to reduce fier with a transceiver (figure 18).
harmonic distortion that may cause TVI.
The cathode coil is made of copper tubing TO
OR
EXCITER
TRANSCEIVER
and filament voltage is fed to the 3 -400Z JI
via the coil and an insulated wire passed
through the tubing. Excitation is tapped on
the coil at a point which provides a nomi-
nal 50-ohm load to the exciter.
The plate circuit of the amplifier utilizes
a pi -L network to achieve a high order of
001

3RVT
r
To L' Figure 18
harmonic suppression and a simple diode
voltmeter is used to monitor the r -f output SUGGESTED ANTENNA -RELAY CIRCUIT
voltage. An antenna relay (RY) is incor- FOR USING AMPLIFIER WITH
porated in the amplifier, and an alternative TRANSCEIVER

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670 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
Metering and It is necessary to measure and is made by merely shunting a portion
Suppression Circuits both grid and plate cur- of the plate strap with a composition resistor.
rent in a cathode- driven
amplifier to establish the proper ratio of grid Amplifier The amplifier is inclosed in an
to plate current. At the higher frequencies Construction "r -f tight" cabinet measuring
it is desirable to directly ground the grid of 13" X 83/" X 10 ". A stand-
the amplifier tube and not to rely on ques- ard 12" X 10" X 3" aluminum chassis is
tionable bypass capacitors to insure that the used, along with an 83/4" X 13" panel (cut
grid remains at ground potential. Grid cur- from a standard aluminum relay rack pan-
rent, therefore, is measured in the cathode - el). The cabinet is made by bending a sheet
return circuit of the amplifier by meter M,. of light aluminum (31" X I1 ") to fit
Plate current is measured in the B -minus lead around the panel. It is riveted to 13" X 11"
to the power supply by meter _. A simpli- bottom plate. The rear of the cabinet is a
fied metering circuit is shown in figure 19. sheet of perforated aluminum fastened to
the cabinet with 1/4-inch aluminum angle
Rs stock. Additional angle stock is cut to
3 -4002 'to- length and fastened to the front edge of
the cabinet to secure the panel. A 4 -inch
hole is cut in the cabinet directly above
the 3 -400Z and is covered with a small
sheet of perforated aluminum. This shielded
vent permits the heated air from the tube to
escape from the inclosure.
After the amplifier is completed and slid
within the cabinet, it is fixed in place by
means of sheet -metal screws placed at the
bottom edges of the chassis and around the
panel, making the inclosure as "r -f tight"
+B as possible.
POWER SUPPLY A meter shield is used to protect the
panel meters from the r -f field of the plate
circuit and to suppress r -f leakage from
Figure 19 the cabinet via the meter faces. The box-
METERING CIRCUITS FOR KILOWATT
like shield is attached to the panel by means
AMPLIFIER of aluminum angle stock which is held to
the panel by the meter mounting bolts. All
A -D -c meter circuit showing grid and plate
meters placed in low- potential return
paint is removed from the rear of the panel
leads. The B -minus of the power supply to provide a good ground connection to the
"Roots" above ground by virtue of the 50- meter shield and to the chassis and cabinet.
ohm resistor, which may be placed in the
power supply, if desired. The 3 -400Z tube requires forced -air cool-
8- Peak -responding voltmeter circuit useful for ing during operation and a blower (B) is
adjusting linsar for a -m service. mounted on the chassis and activated with
application of filament voltage. An F.imac
This amplifier was checked for parasitics SK -410 air -system socket and SK -416 air
and it was found that the usual plate para- chimney are used to achieve proper air flow
sitic choke was not required for stable oper- around the filament and plate seals of the
ation. A variation in circuit layout, how- tube. The air enters the under -chassis area,
ever, or changes in ground- return currents passes through the socket and is directed
may allow weak parasitic oscillation to take over the envelope and plate seal of the 3 -4002
place. If this condition is found, placement by the glass chimney placed over the tube.
of a parasitic choke in the plate lead will The air then passes out through the vent
suppress the unwanted parasitic. A practical placed in the cabinet directly above the
parasitic choke is shown in the schematic 3 -400Z.

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HANDBOOK Six -Meter Kilowatt Linear 671

Layout of the major components may be terminal. The two filament leads are covered
seen in the photographs. The air- system with lengths of cambric or plastic tubing,
socket is mounted on the underside of the over which is slipped a length of shield braid,
chassis in a 31/4-inch diameter cutout. The grounded to the chassis at both ends.
spring clips that hold the chimney in place The excitation tap on the coil is placed
fasten with the same bolts used to mount about 3/4 -turn from the bottom (bypassed)
the socket, which is oriented so that filament end. The exact tap point is not critical and
pins 1 and f are facing the front of the may be easily checked by adjusting it for
chassis. The cathode tuning capacitor (C1) minimum SWR on the coaxial line from the
is mounted on the front apron of the chassis exciter to the amplifier.
with insulated washers as the rotor is above The three grid pins of the 3 -400Z socket
ground by the amount of the filament volt- are grounded by passing a 1/4-inch wide
age. The cathode coil is a dual winding, made copper strap through the slot in the socket
of copper tubing having an insulated center adjacent to each grid pin and soldering the
conductor. A section of 1/4-inch soft - strap directly to the flat tab on the pin.
drawn copper tubing about a foot long is The straps are then bolted to the chassis
needed to make the coil. Before the coil is just clear of the socket. The lead from the
wound, the ends of the tubing are smoothed coaxial input receptacle (J1) to the coupling
with a file and a length of #12 cotton - capacitor adjacent to the cathode circuit is
covered (or formvar- insulated) wire is made of a length of RG -58/U coaxial line,
passed through the tubing. The coil is then with the outer shield of the line grounded
wound about a 3/4-inch diameter wood dowel at the input receptacle and also at the
rod used as a temporary form, spacing the mounting stud of the bypass capacitor for
three turns to a length of two inches. The the coil.
tubing is trimmed, and the inner wire is
left projecting about ten inches from each The Plate - Layout of the components
end. The coil is mounted close to the tube Circuit Assembly above the chassis are shown
socket (figure 21) with one end supported in figure 20. The plate
by the filament pins of the tube socket. The tuning and loading capacitors (Co and CO
inner conductor is trimmed to length and are mounted on 1z -inch ceramic insulators.
soldered to one filament pin, and the tubing The tuning capacitor is rotated 90 degrees
is connected to the other filament pin by on its side and held in position with small
means of a short length of copper strap about aluminum brackets. A common ground con-
-inch wide, cut from copper "flashing" nection made of a length of 1/a -inch wide
material. The end of the coil is equidistant copper strap connects the rear rotor terminals
from the filament pins. The strap encircles of the capacitors. In addition, the capacitor
one end of the tubing and is soldered in rotor wipers are connected to the common
place, with the other end soldered to the ground strap.
pin. The filament bypass capacitor is sol- A second strap grounds the rotors to a
dered directly between the filament pins of common ground point on the chassis under
the socket. A second short length of copper the stud of the high -voltage bypass capaci-
strap jumpers the first strap to the stator tor at the lower end of the plate r -f choke.
of the cathode tuning capacitor. The shafts of the variable capacitors are
The opposite end of the cathode coil is driven with insulated couplers to prevent
bypassed to ground by a ceramic capacitor ground -loop currents from flowing through
which also supports the coil. The inner con- the shafts into the panel.
ductor is bypassed to the outside tubing at The pi- section of the plate tank circuit
this point, and a length of copper strap (L2) is made of a length of 3/16 -inch di-
makes a connection to the rotor of the ameter copper tubing, the five turns being
tuning capacitor. The inner conductor con- spaced three inches long, with an inside di-
tinues over to the filament transformer and ameter of 11/8". The ends of the coil are flat-
a second length of #12 wire is run from the tened and drilled to be bolted to the stator
copper tubing to the second transformer lugs of the capacitor with 4 -40 hardware.

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672 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

Figure 20

TOP VIEW OF 3 -4002 LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR 50 MHz


Placement of the major components above the chassis may be seen in this photograph. The
meter shield has been removed for the photograph. Leads to the meter compartment are
shielded, and bypass capacitors are mounted at the meter terminals.
Across the rear apron of the chassis (I. to r.) are: receiver receptacle (i; terminal strip
(J ); Millen high -voltage connector (J ); Sprague feedthrough capacitors; and r -f exciter
receptacle (J,). At the bottom edge of the chassis are a ground connection and the relay
voltage terminal (J ).
The copper ground strap between the plate circuit tuning capacitors may be seen just
behind the antenna relay.

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HANDBOOK Six -Meter Kilowatt Linear 673
,Z.
The L- section of the tank coil (Ls) is A diode r -f voltmeter is mounted beneath
made of a length of %8 -inch diameter tubing the chassis in a small aluminum box posi-
and has four turns, 3/4 inch in diameter and tioned over the r -f feedthrough insulator
two inches long. The coil is placed at right which supports the end of the L-network
angles to the main tank coil and is bolted above the chassis. The lead from the volt-
between the stator of C3 and a ceramic feed - meter circuit to the calibrate potentiometer
through insulator. Large lugs may be placed on the panel is run in shield braid, as are
on the coil to facilitate bolting it in position. the leads from the center tap of the filament
The plate r -f choke is homemade, and is transformer. Tight rubber grommets are
wound on a 1/2-inch diameter ceramic in- used in all chassis holes to restrict air leaks.
sulator. A commercial choke may be used, if
desired. The base of the choke screws on Amplifier When the amplifier has been
the bolt of the high -voltage feedthrough Adjustment wired and inspected, it is ready
insulator on the chassis, and is bypassed at for initial checks. Air is di-
this point with a ceramic capacitor. The r -f rected into the tube socket by means of a
choke is positioned close to the 3 -400Z chim- temporary bottom plate (cardboard) taped
ney to permit a reasonably short plate lead, to the chassis. Filament voltage is applied
and the plate blocking capacitor is mounted and the blower motor should start. A strong
to the top of the choke with a length of blast of air out of the tube chimney should
strap which extends downwards toward the be noted. Tube filament voltage should be
plate tank capacitor. adjusted to 5.0 volts at the socket with an
The coaxial antenna relay is mounted on accurate meter. Filament voltage is now re-
the top of the chassis positioned so the moved and the input and output coaxial re-
output lead from the L- section of the tank ceptacles are temporarily terminated in 50-
circuit can be connected directly to the ohm, 1 -watt composition resistors, which
input receptacle. The connection is made by may be soldered across the receptacles for
trimming down a coaxial connector and this test. A grid -dip meter is tuned to 50
soldering a short length of #10 wire to the MHz and brought near the cathode coil
center terminal to make the connection to (the 3 -400Z being in the socket). The meter
the coil. The antenna receptacle of the relay should show resonance with the cathode
extends beyond the rear apron of the chassis tuning capacitor about two -thirds meshed.
and through the rear of the cabinet. The The plate tank circuit is now tested, with
receive receptacle is fed with a length of the tuning capacitor about one -half meshed
RG -58 %U coaxial cable which terminates and the loading capacitor about two -thirds
at the coaxial receptacle on the rear apron of meshed. Grid -dip resonance at these settings
the chassis. An auxiliary set of contacts on for 50 MHz may be achieved by slight al-
the relay are used to short out the 50K terations in the spacing of the pi- network
self -bias resistor in the cathode circuit of coil. The L- section should also show a dip
the 3 -400Z when transmitting. The resistor around 50 MHz.
serves to bias the tube to near cutoff during Once resonance of the tank circuits has
periods of reception to prevent noise being been verified, the 50 -ohm resistors are re-
generated which may interfere with recep- moved and the amplifier attached to the
tion of weak signals and also to reduce the exciter and coaxial antenna lead. A separate
standby drain on the power supply. The ground lead is run from the amplifier to the
relay is actuated by the control or VOX
power supply. A plate potential of 2500 volts
circuit of the exciter, and the relay coil
is recommended as a maximum (key -down)
should be chosen to match the voltage de-
livered from the exciter control circuit. value, and good operation can be obtained
Plate current metering is accomplished in down to 2000 volts. At the higher potential,
the negative lead to the power supply, and the resting plate current will be about 80
the negative of the supply is lifted above ma. Random variations in resting plate cur-
ground as described in the Power Supplies rent, or a show of grid current when the
chapter of this Handbook. controls are tuned (with no grid drive) is

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674 High- Frequency Power Ampl ifiers THE RADIO

Figure 21

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF LINEAR AMPLIFIER


The cathode circuit is mounted on the filament terminals of the air system socket (upper
left), with the tuning capacitor (C) insulated from the panel. Filament leads run from the
tuned circuit to the filament transformer mounted to the rear apron of the chassis. At the
right is the small aluminum box (cover removed) holding the components for the r -f output
voltmeter. The blower outlet is at the left corner of the chassis next to the feedthrough
capacitors.

an indication of parasitic oscillation and a ma at a grid current of about 140 ma.


plate parasitic choke should be installed. Proper loading is indicated by the ratio of
After plate voltage is applied, grid drive plate current to grid current, which should
is slowly injected until a plate current of be about 3:1.
about 130 ma is noted. The cathode circuit For operation as a linear amplifier for
is resonated for maximum grid current and SSB, carrier injection is used as described for
the plate tuning capacitor adjusted for plate - tuning and loading. The relative -voltage
current dip. Grid drive is increased and output meter is very useful in the tuning
loading adjustments made in the normal process and provides a continuous check on
manner for pi- network operation to achieve proper operation as it increases in proportion
a single lone (carrier) plate current of 400 to grid current. Maximum carrier input con-

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HANDBOOK 432 -MHz 500 -Watt Linear 675

ditions are as stated above, and under these remove the distortion on the peaks of the
conditions, the anode of the 3 -400Z will be signal. Under voice modulation, plate and
a cherry red in color. With carrier removed grid current will flicker a small amount
and SSB voice modulation applied, drive is upward.
advanced until voice peaks reach about 200 The combination of a peak- responding
ma plate current and about 70 ma grid cur- voltmeter, an oscilloscope, and an audio
rent. For c -w operation, the full 400 ma oscillator used with tune -up under 100 per-
plate current value may be run. cent single -tone modulation of the exciter
affords a relatively easy and accurate method
A -M Linear The amplifier may be used for of achieving proper a -m linear amplifier
Operation a -m linear service when prop- service.
erly adjusted. The amplifier ef- As with any cathode- driven amplifier,
ficiency at the peak of the modulation cycle drive should never be applied to the ampli-
is about 66 percent and efficiency under fier in the absence of plate voltage, as dam-
carrier conditions (no modulation) is about age to the grid of the tube may result. The
33 percent. As maximum plate dissipation proper sequence is to always apply plate
is 400 watts, the total a -m carrier input to voltage before drive, increasing the drive
the 3 -400Z is limited to about 600 watts level slowly from a minimum value as tun-
(2500 volts at 240 ma). In order to prop- ing adjustments are made.
erly load the amplifier to this condition for
a -m linear service, an oscilloscope and peak -
28 -7 A 500 -Watt
responding voltmeter are necessary. The r -f Amplifier for 432 -MHz
output voltmeter in the amplifier may be Linear or Class-C- Service
converted to a peak- responding instrument
as shown in figure 19B. In addition, a simple This amplifier is designed for SSB or c -w
1000 -Hz audio oscillator is used for the service at the half- kilowatt level in the
following adjustments. 432 -MHz amateur band. Making use of
Fcr preliminary tuneup, the a -m driver
is modulated 100 percent with the 1000 -Hz
tone. A driver capable of about 15 watts
carrier is required. The 3 -400Z amplifier is
loaded and drive level adjusted to 600 watts
input under this condition. Amplifier output
is monitored with the peak- responding volt-
meter, which is adjusted to full -scale reading
at the 600 -watt input level. Grid current
will run about %4 the plate- current value, or
approximately 60 ma. Once this condition
is reached, the modulation of the driver is
removed, leaving only carrier excitation. If
the linear amplifier is properly adjusted, the Figure 22
indication of the peak- responding voltmeter 500 -WATT STRIP -LINE AMPLIFIER FOR
should drop to one -half scale, corresponding 432 MHz
to an output drop to one -quarter power. The 8122 is used in a simple strip -line circuit
If the peak- voltage drop when modulation for high -power operation in the 432 -MHz band.
is removed is less than one -half, the plate Two aluminum chassis are placed back to
back to form the cavities and the strip -lines
circuit loading and grid -drive level of the are cut from aluminum plate. The amplifier is
linear amplifier must be adjusted to provide forced -air cooled by a blower mounted on the
rear of the assembly which forces air through
the correct ratio. This is an indication that the tube socket, past the anode of the tube,
antenna loading is too light for the given and out the vents cut in the top of the plate
grid drive. If this process is monitored with cavity. The r -f output cable is at the top of
the cavity and the grid meter and grid tuning
an oscilloscope, the point of flat -topping can capacitor (C are mounted on the front wall
I

be noted and drive and loading adjusted to of the grid cavity.


676 High -Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
simplified strip -line tank circuits, the am- T00 -220 V OC

plifier may be duplicated with a very mini-


mum of tools and sheet -metal work. At a J2 ANT

plate potential of 2000 volts, the amplifier OUTPUT


E TEST

will deliver about 250 watts with approxi- E SC ITER


COUPLING

JI

mately 5 watts drive power. 8122 L3


SCREEN-GRID RING TERMINAL

Amplifier The amplifier cabinet is made of


Design two aluminum chassis placed
LA
"
back to back to form grid and S

plate circuit inclosures. The strip -line cir- 18 200V


105
cuits are placed in these inclosures, with YOLTBI.SYED T.

the 8122 tube mounted in the partition sep- 12 6v


arating the inclosures. At this frequency, Figure 24
the output circuit is effectively isolated from
the input circuit by the use of series screen SCHEMATIC, 432 -MHz AMPLIFIER
neutralization. Input admittance at vhf (al- C,-Refer to text and figures 25 and 29A
C,-0.5 to 3.0-pf, glass piston capacitor. Erie
ways a problem) is reduced by use of three 680073
separate cathode leads which provide a low - C -7 to 4S -pf
trimmer. Erie TS2A -4
inductance r -f path to ground. One of the C-1.8 to 9.0 pf. Johnson 160 -104
C- 0.00I Mfd button capacitor. Erie 662-003 -102K
cathode leads -preferably the one from pin C,, C.- .001 -21d feedthrough capacitor. Erie 362-
4-can be series -tuned to ground with a 102
small trimmer capacitor. This provides an C,-Nigh -voltage blocking capacitor, see fig-
ure 29B
additional means for broadband neutraliza- C-Screen bypass capacitor. E. F. Johnson 124-
tion in the vhf spectrum. 113-1
J UG -290/U
receptacle
.1,-To fit antenna system
L,-Input coupling loop. See figure 27
L -Copper plate, 4 -5/16" long, 3/" wide
and
/s" thick
L;
E

Plate line. See figures 25 and 28A


L -Screen r -f choke. Ohmite Z-460 or equiva-
lent
L,- Filament choke. 8 turns #18 enam. wire,
diam., 1" long
1/2"
L, -Plate r -f choke. 11 turns #18 enam. wire,
S/16" diam., closewound
M-Grid meter. 0 -SO d-e milliamperes
Socket -E. F. Johnson 124 -311 -110
Chimney-E. F. Johnson 124 -111 -1
Finger Stock -Instrument Specialties Co., Little
Falls, N. J., 97 -115 and 97 -136
Blower-61/2 cubic feet/min. at 0.45" p
for 400 watts dissipation. 31/3 cubit feet/
min. at 0.2" pressure for 2S0 watts dissipa-
tion. Ripley 8445 -E

Figure 23 The 8122 ceramic tetrode requires forced -


TOP VIEW OF AMPLIFIER SHOWING air cooling during operation. The combined
PLATE LINE ASSEMBLY effect of this cooling, plus the heat dissipa-
The output coupling loop is mounted to the tion capability of the finned radiator permits
top plate of the inclosure. A capacitive probe
may be substituted for the loop for greater the tube to be operated at the maximum
flexibility of adjustment, if desired. In the anode dissipation of 400 watts. At this level
foreground is the plate -line tuning capacitor of plate dissipation, the anode core tempera-
(C,) which is a copper plate with finger stock
soldered to the lower edge (figure 29A). The ture is rated at 250 C for an air flow of
capacitor plate is driven by a lead screw from 6.5 cubic feet per minute.
the control knob at the end of the chassis.
The plate and screen r -f chokes are to the rear Circuit Details
of the strip -line. Strip -line assembly and anode
The grid of the 8122 is con-
connector for the 8122 are shown in figure nected to a half -wavelength
28A -B. strip -line which is tuned at its open end by

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HANDBOOK 432 -MHz 500 -Watt Linear 677
3z 34

..r...
L6
o
-
PLATE LINE (L3)
RADIATOR
,r-INSUL}ATORS
CERAMIC

fl i 1 fIINllllllll//NIIIIIIIIIIII/14
* -20 THREADED ROD
IILL
B II
walli=g7.4
CHIMNEY
E.F JOHNSON 124 -III -1

-E BY SSSON24SCR3EN-GRID
GRID LINE IL2) NoJ FLASHING COPPER
PRIS 72
SURROUNDS TUBE SOCKET;
o CUTOUT ALL SOLDERING MADE
TO THIS PLATE
GRIM
ERENT
0 -50MA
o 0 BLOWER

C4 4 -6-32 SCREWS

- SHIELD PARTITION 0
HOLD SCREEN -GRID
BYPASS AND COPPER
SOLDERING PLATE

Figure 25

CUTAWAY VIEW OF PLATE- AND GRID -LINE ASSEMBLIES


The plate line is mounted on two insulators and the sliding capacitor (C1) is shown at the
left, driven by a 1/4-20 lead screw. The B -plus bypass capacitor plate is mounted to the rear
wall of the inclosure and held in position by the 10 -32 mounting screw (figure 290). The
underside of the chassis deck is c d by a plate of flashing copper around the tube
socket (see figure 30). R -f ground returns are made to the copper plate. A bottom plate is
required for the grid compartment to seal the pressurised air chamber. The plate is held in
position with sheet -metal screws. (Note: All dimensions are given in inches).

a glass piston -type capacitor. The grid line fingers that must be insulated is determined
is made from a piece of copper plate %s -inch by various circuit parameters necessary to
thick which reduces r -f losses and helps obtain complete neutralization, and these
maintain the grid temperature at a safe vary from amplifier to amplifier. In some
level. A combination of fixed and resistor cases, none of the fingers need be insulated.
bias is used in the grid circuit, the fixed In any case, this extra neutralization tech-
bias making certain that the 8122 will be nique is not necessary unless the amplifier
operated within a safe range of anode dis- shows instability after neutralization in the
sipation should the driving power fail. The normal manner.
input coupling link (L,) is series -tuned to The Plate Line-The plate line must main-
reduce reactance and provide optimum cou- tain a low -loss connection with the plate of
pling between the exciter and the amplifier the 8122 to ensure satisfactory performance,
grid circuit. in view of the heavy circulating currents
Cathode pins 1 and 9 of the 8122 socket flowing in this portion of the amplifier. The
are grounded to the chassis. Pin 4 is series - plate line is a half -wavelength strip -line
tuned to ground by a small trimmer capaci- tuned at the open end by a specially con-
tor to provide the required neutralizing structed capacitor. This capacitor (CO is
adjustment. shown in figure 25, and the details of its
The screen (grid 2) of the 8122 is by- construction are outlined in the following
passed to ground at the operating frequency section. Power is transferred to the antenna
by a screen -ring capacitor. An alternative load via a link coupling arrangement shown
method of neutralizing the amplifier is ob- in the illustrations.
tained by eliminating one or more of the
screen -ring contact fingers. This is easily Amplifier The amplifier is mounted in
accomplished by lifting the contact finger Construction two aluminum chassis measur-
from the screen -ring terminal of the tube ing 13" X S" X 3 ". The chassis
and slipping a piece of teflon or polyethylene are fastened back to back to provide sepa-
sheet between the contacts. The number of rate compartments for the grid and plate
678 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

/- I4 CENTER
LOCATE SERIES
OF D. HOLES
FOR COOLING,
EQUIDISTANT
SPACING

- I16D. HOLE IN
PLATE LINE
CHASSIS

I0 HOLE DRILLED
IN GRID -LINE
CHASSIS FOR
SOCKET

-
DRILL 16 HOLES No. 33 DRILL
CLEARANCE HOLE FOR No. 4 SHEETMETAL SCREW

13

Figure 26
A- Detail of vent and socket holes in plate chassis
I- Detail of top plate for plate -line chassis
(Note: all dimensions in inches)

lines. Thus attached, all mounting holes (C.) . The remaining end is soldered to the
with the exception of the tube socket holes three grid -1 socket pins, as shown in figures
(whose diameters for the two chassis differ) 25 and 27. An aluminum bracket holds the
may be drilled to size. A %S -inch pilot hole grid tuning capacitor (C2) in position. The
is drilled through both chassis to correctly center of C2 and the bushing holding the
center the socket holes for accurate punch- tuning shaft must line up if smooth tuning
ing to final size. After all mounting holes is to be obtained. A shield (figures 25 and
have been drilled, the chassis are separated 30) is placed in the grid compartment to
and holes for the tube socket punched in isolate the grid meter from the r -f field.
each chassis. Figure 26A indicates the sizes Before the tube socket is assembled, all
and locations of the socket holes for both screen contact tabs should be removed from
chassis. the socket -that is, from pins 2, 7, and 10.
All electrical ground connections are The d -c connection to the screen is made in
soldered to a piece of "flashing" copper the plate compartment. Figure 31A shows
which surrounds the base of the tube socket. the method used for making this connec-
The copper is held to the base of the grid - tion.
line compartment by the four 6 -32 screws Details for the construction of the plate
that hold the screen bypass ring, which is line are shown in figures 25 and 28A. The
located in the plate compartment. bracket assembly that guides the 1/4-20
The grid line is held in place by soldering threaded plate capacitor tuning shaft should
one end to the tab of the piston capacitor be constructed close to the dimensions given

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 432 -MHz 500 -Watt Linear 679

iN SHAFT-lOaf
GUSHING

I/A BRASS ROO


BLOWER

4 4 - z - + 9

DRILL CLEARANCE HOLE


N TUNING SHAFT TO FIT

i f-
LI
,, LLEAD
CU SCREWAND
DER N PLACE
Tr_ i -
I _

27
I

NAT. FLASHING COPPER

Figure 27

SIDE VIEW OF GRID- CIRCUIT COMPONENTS


Assembly of grid line and tuning capacitor are shown in this illustration, with dimensions
for the input coupling loop (L,) given at the lower right. Shaft -lock bushings (Herman L
Smith 181) are used for grid and plate lead screws. Lock bushings are adjusted to provide
proper amount of tension on lead screws for reliable operation. Coupling loop L is placed
at right angles to grid line as shown in the bottom -view photograph.
The tuning shaft for piston capacitor C_ is drilled to fit .he lead screw of the capacitor and
is soldered in place after assembly is properly aligned.

in figure 29. An improperly constructed frequency for the strip -line with the top
bracket will result in an erratic ground cover in place.
for the plate tuning assembly. The dis- The B -plus r -f choke is connected to the
tance from the plate line to the ground plate line by one of the screws which hold
reference is I1 inches. This distance pro- the plate assembly together. The choke is
vides the correct impedance and resonant connected at the low -voltage point of the

r6 32 CLEARANCE MOLES

A'
}

'
1
j
TAPERED WOOD PLUG

l. FINGER STOCK
SOLDER TO PART A. C0
FLAT-HEAD SwyiO;6-3Y

2Z
.. MATERIAL OPFER

Figure 28
A- Detail of plate line (L.) and assembly
6- Recommended procedure for soldering finger stock to part A' of plate -line assembly.
(Note: 3/i -inch wide beryllium finger stock available from Instrument Specialties Co., Little
Falls, N. J. Stock No. 97 -136).
680 H igh- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

CLEARANCE HOLE 777


FOR IO -32 SCREW /

DRILL 6 -32
CLEARANCE

AT.9 COPPER
3
SOLDER FINGER STOCK
TO COPPER PLATE
(SEE NOTE) MAT. MICA 0.006 THICK
2

7
CLEARANCE HOLE
-DRILL HOLE TO FIT 10 -32 SCREW
SHAFT LOCK
4

GUIDE BRACKET
f
24
MAT. ALUMINUM
16

Figure 29 L
A- Details of construction of plate tuning capacitor C,.
(Note: Beryllium finger stock available from Instrument Specialties G 24
Co., Little Falls, N. J., Stock No. 97 -115)
S- Details of high -voltage capacitor C. Two sheets of .002 Mylar
may be substituted for the mica dielectric. MAT.
2 BRASS

line. The output -coupling probe is located up for one minute or so before other po-
in this area. The specially constructed high - tentials are applied. Plate voltage should al-
voltage bypass capacitor is made of a 1/32 - ways be applied before screen voltage: never
inch brass plate insulated from the chassis after it.
by a 0.006" thick piece of mica or teflon Neutralizing the Amplifier -The grid and
sheet. plate compartment covers are placed in
The 1/4-inch shaft -lock bushings are used position for the following test. After heater
to guide the shaft for the plate tuning ca- warmup time has been allowed, a small
pacitor and can be adjusted to provide the amount of drive power is applied to the
amount of drag required to maintain a good amplifier without plate or screen potentials
contact. supplied to the tube. Grid current at reso-
Soldering of the finger stock to the plate nance should be about 30 ma for S watts of
assembly can be simplified by use of a tap- drive power. If grid current is low, the fol-
ered wooden plug as shown in figure 28B. lowing adjustments should be made: (1)
The plug will hold the finger stock in place The cathode neutralizing capacitor (Ca)
and prevent excessive heat absorption during should be adjusted for maximum grid cur-
the soldering operation. rent. About half -capacity setting will be
Tuning and Heater power for the 8122 is nearly correct, although further adjustment
Operation 12.5 volts at 1.3 amperes. The may be necessary on application of plate
blower should come on with the and screen voltages. (2) Position the input
heater supply and the tube should be warmed coupling link (L1) for maximum grid cur-

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HANDBOOK 432 -MHz 500 -Watt Linear 681

FILE ORAL,
SLOT TO CLEAR
INSULATED LEAD
FOR SCREEN -GRID
CHOKE

SOLDER ,
CHOKE TO
FINGER
- CONTACT FINGERS

INSULATE LEAD WITH


SPAGHETTI TUBING
E FJOHNSON 124 -113 -I
SCREEN -GRID BYPASS RING

FILE SLOT WITH CARE


50
E
SILVEREDMICA
CAPACITOR

Figure 30 RG N.

SOLDER SHIELD

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF 432 -MH:


0.D. BRASS TARING 22 LONG
AMPLIFIER
The under -chassis area is divided into two it FLASHING COPPER

compartments. The left compartment is the r -f CROSS- SECTIONAL


SHAFT -LOCK BUSHING

inclosure for the grid line and the right com- VIEW

partment holds the meter wiring and the No O


ENAMEL COPPER
SOLDER COAx INNER CONDUCTOR
TO Na q BUS IL?)
power plug. A half- wavelength grid line is WIRE
TEFLON TUBING
used, tuned at the open end by a piston ca-
pacitor (C which is driven from the panel by
)
STRIP COAX CABLE FROM END 2 i.
COMB BRAID BACK. AND INSERT INNER
a short lead screw (figure 27). The input cou- POLo, INSULATOR THROUGH BRASS TUBE.
DER BRAID AND No0 BUSILT)IN PLACE.
pling loop (LI) is cut from a piece of flashing
copper and is supported between the input
connector and the resonating capacitor (C ).
Figure 31
The filament r -f choke (I. ) is behind the grid
line, adjacent to the cathode resonating ca-
A- Electrical connection to screen grid of 8122.
pacitor (C ). The bias lead from capacitor C
8- Construction details for output coupling
loop L,.
to the power receptacle is run in a length of
flexible shield, as is the bias lead from the
receptacle to the grid meter.
The amplifier should now be coupled to
a SO-ohm dummy load. This may consist of
rent and minimum SWR on the coaxial line a long length (100 feet or so) of RG -8/U
to the exciter. The grid -line tuning capaci- coaxial line terminated in a small 20 -watt
tor (CO and the input -link tuning ca- load. Plate voltage should be reduced to 700
pacitor (CO must be adjusted together with
the position of link L, with respect to the DRILL HOLES No 35 DRILL
CLEARANCE HOLES FOR No
-
grid line. Use of a SWR bridge in the feed -
SHEETMETAL SCREW I/O LONG
7
line will make this adjustment much simpler.
After the input coupling has been prop- r
erly adjusted, a preliminary check of the
amplifier neutralization may be made as fol-
lows: Adjust the plate -line capacitor (CO DRILL D
TO ACCOMMODATE

through its range and observe grid current. SHAFT -LOCK


BUSHING

No change in grid current should occur as 1


the capacitor is tuned through resonance. If m
there is a noticeable change, readjust the S j

cathode neutralizing capacitor (C3) slightly. MAT.


DRILL APPROX.
FOR COOLING
B D. HOLES

If the condition persists, further neutraliza- FLASHING COPPER

Figure 32
tion is accomplished by insulating one or
more fingers of the bypass ring from the Cover for plate -line compartment showing
screen -ring terminal of the 8122. Generally, vent holes and location of hole for coupling
loop. Cover is mounted to large top plate and
no more than two fingers have to be insu- attachment holes are slotted so that the cover
lated to obtain complete neutralization. In- and output loop assembly may be moved in
sulation of more than two fingers can result relation to plate line to establish proper de-
gree of coupling. When coupling is established,
in self -oscillation, which will be indicated cover is locked in position with sheet -metal
by excessive and erratic grid current. screws.
682 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
volts and screen voltage to 200. Plate and utility amplifier provides the experimenter
screen voltage should be applied simulta- with an inexpensive unit which can be
neously, or screen voltage may be applied quickly and easily modified to suit his taste
after plate voltage. The plate capacitor is and pocketbook.
then tuned to resonance and the probe cou- The design and layout of the U -2 ampli-
pling adjusted for maximum power output. fier are such that it may be built in the
Maximum power output does not neces- home workshop with a minimum of tools and
sarily occur at minimum plate current; little complicated metal work. Best of all,
therefore, some form of output power the basic design and assembly remains un-
measuring device is required. changed when various tube types are used.
At resonance with 700 volts on the plate Thus, the builder may start the project at the
and 200 volts on the screen, the power out- 1000 watt PEP level with four inexpensive
put should be about 100 watts. Plate cur- 811A's and later advance to the full legal
rent should be between 260 and 300 ma. PEP level with larger tubes, still making
Grid current should be about 25 to 30 ma. use of the basic U -2 amplifier package.
When the plate voltage is raised to 1500 Of particular interest is the use of the
volts, the power output will rise to about 4X150A family of external -anode tetrodes
235 watts. For a plate potential of 2000 connected as low -p. triodes. Normally un-
volts, power output will be 250 watts for suited for class -B grounded -grid operation,
500 watts input. these compact tubes are connected in a
The amplifier is designed for 50 -ohm out- unique cathode -driven configuration to
put termination and low -loss coaxial line function as semitriodes with the screen ele-
(Foam Heliax) should be used, as common ment of the tube deriving voltage from the
50 -ohm coaxial line (RG -8/U for example) exciting signal.
has prohibitively high losses at this operating
frequency. The Basic The basic circuit of the
Amplifier Circuit U -2 Linear Amplifier is
28 -8 The Utility 2- shown in figure 34A, with
a chart of various tube combinations and
Kilowatt PEP (U-2) their operating parameters given in figure
Linear Amplifier 35. The modifications necessary to adapt
the basic circuit for use with a particular
Described in this section is a general pur- tube type are shown in figure 34B and are
pose utility cathode -driven ("grounded - indicated within the dashed lines of the basic
grid") amplifier. Rated at a maximum input schematic. The utility circuit uses a single
of 2 kilowatts PEP, the U -2 Linear Ampli- tube, such as the zero-bias 3 -1000Z or -
fier can use the following tube combina- 400Z. Substitution of the tetrode 4 -1000A
tions at the discretion of the builder: or 4 -400A ( operated as high - triodes)
Two kilowatt PEP level-One 3- 1000Z, is indicated by the dashed screen grid in the
one 4- 1000A, two 3 -400Z, two 4 -400A, or schematic, which is operated at ground po-
two 4 -250A. 1250 -watt PEP level-Two tential. Socket pins 2, 3, and 4 are grounded
813. 1000 -watt PEP level-One 3 -400Z, in all cases, so tube substitution (4 -1000A
one 4 -400A, one 4 -250A, four 811A, or two for 3 -1000Z and 4 -400A for 3 -400Z) may
4X150A, 4CX250B or 4CX300A connected be accomplished without changing socket
as low -is triodes. connections.
By proper choice of components and cir- Use of two tubes in parallel is shown in
cuitry, the basic configuration of figure 33 figure 34B, the tetrode connection indicated
is used for any of the above listed tube by the dashed screen grids. Low-kt triode
combinations and only sockets, chimneys, connection of the external anode tetrodes is
filament transformer and associated minor shown in circuit 2, and connection for four
components need be changed to adapt the 811A's in parallel is given in circuit 3.
U -2 amplifier to any one of these various The Input Circuit -A tuned -cathode in-
tube combinations. Construction of this put circuit is used to reduce the intermod-

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HANDBOOK Utility 2 -KW Linear Amplifier 683

TUNE i
BAND

UTILITY
LINEAR
AMPLIFIEp

yr

Figure 33

UTILITY 2- KILOWATT PEP (U -2) LINEAR AMPLIFIER COMBINES


FLEXIBILITY AND ECONOMY
The U -2 linear amplifier is designed to utilize over a dozen combinations of transmitting
tubes at the discretion of the builder. Various tube types used in this unique amplifier are:
4- 1000A, 3- 10001, 3-400Z, 4 -400A, 813, 4CX250B, 4CX300A, and 811A. Featuring a tuned -
cathode, grounded-grid circuit, the U -2 amplifier permits change of tube types by substitu-
tion of a socket- mounting plate.
A pi- network plate -tank circuit is used, with the tuning capacitor centered on the panel and
the main bandswitch to the right. The grid and plate meters are mounted below the chassis
at the left, with the control switch for the amplifier centered below the main tuning dial.
The antenna loading capacitor is at the lower right. The amplifier is placed in a shielded
inclosure made of perforated aluminum sheet. The aluminum panel is spray painted with
zinc -chromate primer, followed by a flat gray. Lettering is done with India ink and a
lettering pen. The panel is then sprayed with clear acrylic paint to protect the lettering.

ulation distortion and to provide a better du.ilwinding, high -current r -f choke


load for the SSB exciter. The input SWR (RFC,) in series with the filament leads.
(as measured between the exciter and the The U -2 linear amplifier is biased to plate -
amplifier) runs typically 2:1 or less, de- current cutoff in the standby condition by
pending on the tube combination in use. .1 33K cathode resistor, which is shorted out
Drive power runs from 80 to 150 watts, as by contacts of the VOX relay for proper
discussed later. amplifier operation. Standby plate current
Since the r -f plate- current pulses return is reduced to virtually zero, permitting the
to the cathode of the tube(s) via the tuned use of an IVS -rated plate power supply with
circuit, it is necessary to use transmitting - the amplifier. "Diode noise" in a nearby re-
type mica capacitors at this point to with- ceiver is also eliminated during periods of
stand the high value of circulating r -f cur- reception. Grid and plate currents are mon-
rent. Filament isolation is achieved with a itored in the negative return leads, prevent-
684 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
PC1 601 TO
Try C9 Le ANT

VI
SEE ALTERNATE 10
RFC S2
DRAWING 1,283 - 2 C6 T
250 RFC4 00
CIO
.001=
6 N

TO Cg11-3-
EXCITER .001
C6 SMV

B+

L2 L4 L.DOg .01
= C C

01
C
'1 1
Tog

-- LINEAR
ON -OFF
IOW

o o TS
2 3
ON VOX GNO B-

Figure 34

SCHEMATIC OF U -2 LINEAR AMPLIFIER


WITH ALTERNATIVE TUBE COMBINATIONS

ing high voltage from being applied to the of the high- voltage power supply is thus
plate meter, and removing the grid meter above ground by virtue of the plate meter.
from the r -f grid circuitry. The negative A SO -ohm safety resistor is placed across the

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HANDBOOK Utility 2 -KW Linear Amplifier 685

PARTS LIST FORrIGURE 34


C -200 -pf, 2500 -volt mica capacitor. Sangamo H -5320
C, C -470 -pf, 2500 -volt mica capacitor. Sangamo H -5347
C , C -1000 -pf, 1250 -volt mica capacitor. Sangamo H -2210
C -250 -pf, 4.5 KV. Johnson 154 -16
C -3- section, 350 -pf per section, broadcast type (surplus)
C -0.01 pf, 600 -volt mica capacitor. Sprague H -1110
C -0.001 uf, 5 KV. Centralab 8585 -1000
C, ,C,,-0.001 f, 6 KV disc. Centralab DD -60
L , 1.,-(0.15 pH) 4 turns .16 enam. on National XR -50, t -inch diameter. Slug removed from
both coils
L ,L -(0.3/ :H) 6 turns .14 enam. on National XR -50 form. Slug removed from L
L -(1.3 pH) 13 turns .18 enam. on National XR -50 form
L- Barker & Williamson 850A bandswitching inductor (see text). Inductance as follows:
80 meters, 13.6 .,H; 40 meters, 6.5 .. H; 20 meters, 1.75 .41; 15 meters, 1.0 ,,H; 10 meters,
0.8 pH. Air -Dux 195 -2 may be substituted. This coil should be trimmed and tapped to
resonate as follows: 80 meters, 210 pf; 40 meters, 105 pf; 20 meters, 52 pf; 15 meters,
30 pf; 10 meters, 30 pf. Above capacities include output capacitance of tubes
RFC, -30- ampere choke. Barker & Williamson FC -30A
RFC',-200-.41, 1- ampere. Barker & Williamson 800
RFC -1.72 -..H, J. W. Miller RFC -144
RFC -2 -mH, 100 -ma. National R -100
PC -3 turns, 34 -inch diameter. Ohmite P -300 choke with turns removed
S-Centralab UD ceramic deck and P -270 Index Assembly
8- 115 -volt, 60 -Hz blower. For 4- 10001, 3- 10001, two 3 -4001, or two 4 -400A use 20 cu. ft. /min.
Dayton 1C -180 or Ripley LR -81. For single 3 -400Z or 4 -400A use 15 cu. ft./min. Fasco50745-
IN. For two 4X150A "family" tetrodes use 35 cu. ft. /min., 600 r.p.m. Ripley 8445 -E
T- Filament transformer. For 4- 1000A, 3- 10001: 7.5 volts at 21 amperes, Stancor P -6457. For
two 3 -4002 or two 4 -400A: 5 volts at 30 amperes; Stancor P -6492. For two 813: 10 volts at 10
amperes; Stancor P -6461. For four 811A: 7.5 volts at 16 amperes; Stancor P -6457. For two
4X150A "family" tetrodes: 6.0 volts at 5 amperes (use primary dropping resistor; Stancor
P -4089

ALTERNATIVE TUBE COMBINATIONS


Circuit -Two 3- 4007, 4 -400A, or 813. PC same as PC, see main schematic
1

Circuit 2 -Two 4X150A "family" tetrodes is low -.. circuit. PC , PC.-3 turns .16 enam. around
50 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistor
Circuit 3 -Four 811A. PC thru PC, same as for circuit 2 except coils are 4 turns
Sockets and chimneys -For 3 -1000Z use SK -510 socket and SK -516 chimney. For 4 -1000A use
SK -510 socket and SK -506 chimney. For 3 -4002 use SK -410 socket and SK -416 chimney. For
4 -400A use SK -410 socket and 5K -406 chimney. For 4X150A or 4CX2508 use 5K -640 socket
and SK -606 chimney. For 4CX300A use SK -770 socket (with integral chimney).

meter circuit to protect the operator in the Amplifier the U -2 linear amplifier is
unlikely case a meter coil is defective. Construction built on a 10" X 17" X 4"
The Plate Circuit -A
conventional pi- aluminum chassis and has a
network plate circuit is employed, making 10" high aluminum panel. The panel is cut
use of readily available components. The Q to fit the available cabinet. Construction of
of the plate tank circuit varies under load a suitable TVI -proof inclosure is discussed
from approximately 10 at 80 meters to over in the chapter "Workshop Practice." A bot-
20 at 10 meters, depending on the combina- tom plate is bolted to the chassis to pres-
tion of tubes in use. Plate- circuit efficiency, surize it and to provide proper shielding. A
however, remains good in all cases. The com- forced -air cooling system is required for all
plete circuit is designed to match the ampli- tube combinations except the 811's and
fier to a 50-ohm antenna system having a the 813's. The squirrel -cage blower is
SWR of 2:1 or less. An RL parasitic sup- mounted on the rear apron of the chassis
pressor is placed in the plate lead of each and forces the air into the chassis inclosure,
tube to suppress any tendency toward vhf through the air socket(s) and past the en-
oscillation. Neutralization is not required, velope and plate seals of the tube(s).
and the U-2 linear amplifier remains stable If changes in tube types are contem-
over the operating range of 3.5 to 29.7 plated, it is wise to make a removable plate
MHz. for the tube sockets as is done in this unit.
686 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

Zero- Plate Grid


Tube(s) PEP Input Plate Signal Ma Ma
(Watts) Volts Plate (Peak) (Peak)
Current
2500 160 800 250
3-1000Z 2000
3000 180 667 220
2500 70 800 200
4 -1000A 2000
3000 90 667 170
2500 150 800 280
2 X 3-400Z 2000
3000 200 667 240
4 -400A 2500 130 800 300
2 2000
4 -250A 3000 140 667 300
2 X 813 1000 2500 70 400 100
2500 75 400 140
3-400Z 1000
3000 100 333 120
2500 65 400 150
4 -400A 1000
3000 70 333 150
4X150A
2 X 4CX250B 1000 2000 35 500 0
4CX300A
4 X 811A 1000 1600 150 620 120

Figure 35
TUBE CHART FOR U -2 LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Typical operating parameters are given for twelve tube combinations. Zero-signal plate cur-
rent varies with no -load plate voltage, rising as plate voltage rises. The indicated values are
measured with no cathode bias (relay RY, closed).

The replaceable socket -mounting plate filament transformer and tube sockets. The
measures 10" X 7" and is fixed in place two current meters are mounted in match-
with 6 -32 bolts. However, if one particular ing holes drilled through panel and chassis,
tube or combination of tubes making use and the plate- circuit loading capacitor (C7)
of a common socket is to be used, it is is placed at the opposite end of the chassis
easier and quicker to drill the main chassis from the meters, beneath the main band-
for the required sockets and to eliminate switch assembly. This capacitor is mounted
the special plate. on aluminum brackets placed at the front
The plate -circuit tuning capacitor (CO and rear of the frame. Immediately behind
is centered on the chassis and mounted on the loading capacitor is the filament trans-
2 -inch high aluminum brackets which posi- former, mounted on its side by small alum-
tion the capacitor shaft at the same height inum brackets affixed to the core bolts. The
as the shaft of the main bandswitch as- transformer is positioned after the cathode
sembly. The bandswitch assembly is placed tank assembly is wired and the inclosure is
to one side of the chassis and drives the bolted in place.
cathode bandswitch (S,) by means of an The grid terminals of the tube socket(s)
insulated, flexible coupling and a right - arc grounded to the chassis by means of
angle gear unit. The cathode tank circuit short lengths of copper strap. In the case
is mounted in an inclosure beneath the chas- of the SK -410 and SK-510 sockets, the
sis, as is shown in figure 37. straps pass through slots in the socket wall
Placement of the under -chassis compo- and are soldered directly to the socket pins.
nents is conventional, and is shown in the Common ceramic sockets are not recom-
photographs. (figure 38A and B). The main mended for the 3 -400Z or the 3 -1000Z as
components remain the same for all tube the flow of cooling air is impeded and ex-
combinations, with the exception of the cessive lateral pressure is exerted on the

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HANDBOOK Utility 2 -KW Linear Amplifier 687

Figure 36

VERSATILE U -2 LINEAR AMPLIFIER MAY


USE VARIOUS TUBE COMBINATIONS
WITH HIGH EFFICIENCY
)Upper lefts- Single 3 -10002 operates at 2 KW
PEP level at plate potentials between 2500 and
3000 volts. The low drive requirement of the
3 -10002 (65 watts PEP) makes it ideal for
small exciters or transceivers. Tube and blower
are at right, with plate tuning capacitor at
center, mounted on small aluminum brackets.
Flexible coupling and right -angle drive unit
for cathode tank are shown at rear of plate -
circuit bandswitch assembly. Connection from
plate coil to loading capacitor passes through
58 -inch chassis hole at left which is sealed
with white silicone rubber sealant ( "bathtub
calk ") to pressurize chassis.
(Upper right)- 4 -1000A provides maximum
legal power level up to plate potentials of
3500 volts. Drive level is about 100 watts The Tuned Cathode Circuit-The simple
PEP, rising gradually as plate voltage is low- cathode tank circuit is composed of separate
ered. Minimum recommended voltage is 2700.
High -voltage connector is to the right of the fixed -tuned parallel- resonant circuits, one
blower, with coaxial antenna receptacle at for each amateur band. The coils are space
left end of chassis. Input connector is adjacent wound on slug -tuned forms (the slug is re-
to cathode coil mounting bolts which attach to
the rear apron of the chassis. Coils are (top to moved from the 10 -, 15-, and 20 -meter
bottom): 10, 15, and 20 meters, with 40- and forms) . A mica capacitor is placed across
80 -meter slugs to the left, below the coaxial
receptacle. the coil terminals, oriented in such a way
(Lower right) -two 3- 400Z's provide 2 KW PEP as to permit all cathode tanks to be grouped
"punch" with economy. Separate parasitic sup- about the bandswitch. Each tuned circuit
pressors are used, supported by plate r -f
choke centered between tubes and tuning ca- should be adjusted to resonance with the aid
pacitor. Ceramic -disc bypass capacitor is of a grid -dip oscillator before it is mounted
placed at bottom of choke and plate lead
passes through small grommet mounted on to the rear apron of the chassis. "Target"
tube socket plate. alignment frequencies are: 3.8, 7.2, 14.2,
21.3, and 28.6 MHz. The tuned circuits are
glass base and seal of the tube. A bypass then mounted in position, grouped around
capacitor is placed between the filament pins the bandswitch. The lower terminal of each
of each tube socket, and the filament circuit coil is grounded to the chassis at the mount-
is coupled to the tuned cathode tank and ing hardware of the form. The circuits are
the exciter through a .01-j.Lfd transmitting - wired to the bandswitch, and an aluminum
type mica capacitor. chassis measuring 4" X 4" X 8" is slipped
688 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

of the plate bandswitch. The cathode switch


is aligned on the mounting bracket to pro-
vide proper rotation of the arm, and to
permit easy action as the bandswitch knob
on the front panel is turned. The large
detent mechanism on the plate bandswitch
(S2) should be lubricated with a thin film
of grease to ease the switch tension. Proper
alignment of the cathode switch will pro-
duce an easy and foolproof single -control
bandchange system that is trouble -free and
inexpensive.
The Pi- network Plate Circuit-The plate
bandswitch turret may be used as -is for all
tube combinations listed. Plate- circuit Q
is slightly less than 10 at 3.5 MHz and if
a great amount of 80 -meter c -w operation
is contemplated it would be good engineering
practice to remove a few turns from the
end of the 80 -meter inductor to improve the
LC ratio and the circuit Q. On the other
Figure 37 hand, circuit Q is relatively high on the
10 -meter band. It may be necessary to in-
CLOS:UP OF TUNED -CATHODE TANK crease the spacing between the turns of the
CIRCUIT 10 -meter strap inductor, particularly when
The cathode switch is mounted to an alum- tubes having relatively high output capaci-
inum bracket beneath the chassis and is tance (such as the 811A or 813) are used.
driven from the main bandswitch assembly
by a right -angle drive unit and shaft coupling. In this case, removal of part of one turn
Every other contact of the switch is used to of the strap inductor may be necessary to
achieve 60- degree indexing. Detent mechanism permit the plate circuit to tune to the
of the switch is removed before installation.
Mica capacitors are soldered to coil terminals higher- frequency portion of the 10 -meter
with tinned wire. 80 -meter tank is at left, with band. Proper tank -circuit resonance may be
40- and 20 -meter tanks to the right. At lower
right are 10 -and 15 -meter tanks. Shield in- Quickly determined with a grid -dip oscil-
closure (above) is cut from aluminum chassis lator before the amplifier is placed in opera-
and is held in position with sheet -metal screws tion. Under normal circumstances (and
through the main chassis.
particularly when a single tube is used)
alteration of the 10 -meter strap inductor is
over the assembly, serving as a shield. The not necessary.
shield is held in position by small sheet -metal Under conditions of high antenna SWR
screws tapped through the main chassis. it may be necessary to parallel the plate -
The cathode bandswitch (S,) is driven circuit loading capacitor (C7) with a 500 -
from the shaft of the plate bandswitch unit or 1000 -pf transmitting -type mica capacitor
through the right -angle drive whose shaft to permit optimum amplifier loading, par-
passes through a rubber grommet on the ticularly on the 80 -meter band. The extra
chassis deck. The cathode-circuit bandswitch loading capacitor may be cut in the circuit
is mounted to the rear apron of the chassis by the addition of a ceramic rotary switch
on an aluminum angle bracket. The switch placed adjacent to the variable loading ca-
deck is a 12- position, shorting -type ceramic pacitor.
unit, with every other contact used to pro-
vide 60- degree indexing to match that of Use of External
Under normal circumstances,
the plate -bandswitch assembly. The spring - the 4X150A "family" of
Anode Tetrodes
loaded detent ball of switch S, is removed to external anode tetrodes (4X-
permit the switch to easily follow the index 150A, 4CX250B and 4CX300A) should

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HANDBOOK Utility 2 -KW Linear Amplifier 689

`*'
Figure 38

UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF U -2 LINEAR AMPLIFIER


A- Layout for single socket configuration for 3 -10002 or 4- 1000A. The pi- network output
capacitor and output r -f choke are at the left end of the chassis, with the filament
transformer to the right. Immediately right are the filament choke and cathode -circuit
relay. At the left is the cathode -circuit enclosure, with coupling capacitor C mounted on a
short ceramic insulator C below it. A mice bypass capacitor is placed between the fila-
ment terminals of the tube socket and the three grid terminals are grounded by short
pieces of copper strap. Behind the socket is the vhf choke and high- voltage bypass ca-
pacitors, which may be either disc or "TV doorknob" types rated at 6 KV or higher.
Bypass capacitors are placed across meter terminals.
B- Layout for dual socket configuration for two 3-400Z or 4 -400A. Sockets are connected in
parallel with tinned copper wire, and grid terminals are grounded with copper strap.
Mica bypass capacitors are placed across filament terminals at each socket. The filament
transformer is mounted on its side, attached to the chassis with aluminum brackets
affixed to the core bolts. If a four -section antenna loading capacitor is used, the filament
transformer and filament choke will have to be moved about for proper clearance. Place-
ment of parts is not critical as long as filament leads are kept short.

not be operated in the common class -B the output power of the amplifier. This
grounded -grid circuitry since the abnormally drive level is well within the capability of
high levels of grid current which occur may most modern SSB exciters or transceivers.
be destructive to the tube. It is possible and Because the screen of the tetrode is grounded
practical, however, to achieve good perform- in this unique circuit, the inexpensive air-
ance and low values of grid current by con- system sockets having no screen bypass
necting these tubes as a form of low - t capacitor may be used. The use of a ceramic
triode with the control grid strapped to the !octal (receiving type) socket for the
cathode (figure 40). The control grid still
has some effect on the electron stream, since
4X 1 f 0A or 4CX2 f 0B is not recommended
zero -signal resting plate current of this mode since the base temperature of the tube can-
of operation is low. Feedthrough power is not be controlled by application of cooling
quite high and, as a result, the drive level air. A high -speed (6000 r.p.m.) blower
of this mode of operation is about 80 to 90 should be used to supply the required volume
watts per tube, most of which appears in of air through the socket at the back -pres-
690 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO

Figure 39

EITHER TRIODE OR TETRODE TUBES MAY


BE USEDIN U -2 GROUNDED -GRID CIRCUIT
(Upper left) -Two 4 -400A tetrodes are operated
as grounded -grid triodes at 2 KW
class -B
PEP power level. Socket pins 2, 3, and 4 are
grounded, and combined grid and screen cur-
rents are monitored in negative -return lead
as shown in the schematic. Air -system sockets
and chimneys are used to provide proper
cooling for tube envelopes. Chimneys are held
in position by small clips fastened to socket
bolts.
(Upper right)- Popular 813's may be operated
as grounded -grid amplifier with socket pins
3, 4, and 5 grounded to socket- mounting bolts
with copper strap. Forced -air cooling is not re-
quired. but a small "phonograph motor"
(shaded -pole, induction motor, 3200 r.p.m.)
and 4-blade aluminum fan are mounted to
the amplifier inclosure to direct cooling air at
the anode area of the tubes.
(Lower right) -Four 811A triodes provide 1

kilowatt at rock -bottom economy. Four para-


sitic suppressors are used, attached to the top
terminal of the plate r -f choke. Use of a
small "phonograph motor" cooling fan
mounted to the amplifier inclosure is recom-
mended to circulate air about the tube en-
velopes. ure 35. In addition to the combinations given,
others may be used, such as four 4- 125A's
sure created by the anode cooler of these in parallel, grounded -grid circuitry. The
small tubes. surplus 803 tetrodes may also be used, or
any other practical combination of tubes
Various Practical The U -2 Linear Ampli - which exhibits a plate -load impedance fall-
Tube Combinations fier may use any one of ing in the wide range of 1500 to 3000 ohms
ten or more tube com- at a plate potential of 1000 to 3500 volts.
binations which are listed in the table of fig- Regardless of the tube(s) in use, care should

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HANDBOOK Utility 2 -KW Linear Amplifier 691

is noted, the frequency of oscillation may


be determined with the grid -dip oscillator
used as a wavemeter. The experimenter
TO LOAD
should conduct this test with caution since
high -voltage circuits are exposed and the
danger of accidental shock is present when
ro EnciT
the amplifier is operated without a protec-
tive inclosure.
8- B+
Proper parasitic suppression is accom-
Figure 40 plished by adjustment of the number of
turns on the plate parasitic suppressor (PC).
LOW -p CONNECTION FOR EXTERNAL If the inductor has too many turns, the
ANODE TETRODE shunt resistor will overheat on the 10- and
High-transconductance, external-anode tetrodes 15-meter bands. If the inductor has too
(4XISOA, 4CX25011, and 4CX300A) may be few turns, the suppression at the parasitic
operated in quasi -class -S mode with cathode
and grid elements driven in parallel. Screen frequency will be inadequate. The suppressor
grid is grounded and cathode- screen potential data given is very close to optimum value
(e) is derived from excitation voltage.
and if a weak parasitic oscillation is found
to exist, it may be further suppressed by
be taken to make sure the circuit is free of squeezing together the turns of the inductor
parasitic oscillations and is stable at the fre- to increase the inductance.
quency of operation. It should be noted that Once the amplifier has been found to be
the correct filament voltage for the 4X150A free of parasitic instability, it may be at-
"family" of tubes is 6.0 volts, which may tached to the exciter. The tuning capacitor
be obtained from a 6.3 -volt transformer and bandswitch are set for the band in use
with a suitable dropping resistor in the pri- and plate voltage is applied. A low level of
mary circuit. carrier injection is used as a test signal.
Drive is gradually increased to provide an
Amplifier Tuning Once the amplifier has amplifier plate current of 150 ma or so.
and Adjustment been wired and checked, Plate resonance is checked (the plate cur-
it is ready for preliminary rent dip is small under these conditions and
tuning adjustments; this is best accom- some form of output meter or SWR bridge
plished with the use of a grid -dip oscillator. between the amplifier and the dummy load
The bottom plate of the chassis should be is helpful). Plate loading is increased and
in place and the blower operating when fila- grid current will drop off accordingly. Grid
ment voltage is applied. The plate- circuit drive is raised and the loading process con-
loading capacitor is adjusted to maximum
capacitance and the bandswitch set to the Rvia Rvvc

80 -meter position. (The cathode circuits TO EXCITER TO ANT.


have been adjusted previously and require
no further attention). On 80 meters and
To SI, Ca To Le, Cr
each higher- frequency band, the plate tun-
ing capacitor is resonated to a mid -band Figure 41
frequency with the grid -dip oscillator and
TRANSCEIVE MODIFICATION
the setting of the capacitor logged. A dum-
my antenna is connected to the amplifier Simple relay modification permits amplifier
use with transceivers. Ry, is changed to three-
and plate voltage applied. Zero -signal resting pole, double -throw configuration. One set of
plate current is noted and the plate tuning contacts is used with the cathode standby cir-
cuit (see schematic) and the other two are
capacitor swung through its range while used to switch the amplifier in and out of the
grid- and plate- current meters are moni- circuit from the transceiver to the antenna.
tored. Any variation in plate current or a Original relay may be used in conjunction
with a miniature antenna relay having Stea-
show of grid current may be an indication tite insulation (Phillips -Advance type AM -2C
of parasitic oscillation. If such a variation with proper coil)
692 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
tinued until the grid- and plate- current will kick slightly about the zero value,
values given in the table are approximated usually in a negative direction.
at plate circuit resonance. As the range of
the loading capacitor (CO is quite large, 28-9 The "Tribander"
the proper setting of this control is rather
critical (to one or two dial divisions). Linear Amplifier
Loading operation should commence with for 20 -15 -10
the capacitor fully meshed for 80 and 40
meters, about half- meshed for 20 and 15 With the advent of the trap -tuned tri-
meters, and about one -third meshed for 10 bander beam, many amateurs are concentrat-
meters. Changes in loading should be done ing their efforts on the 20- , 15- , and 10-
a division or so at a time, and the final meter bands. In addition, low- frequency
capacitor setting logged for future use. operation is often impractical for amateurs
Off-resonance plate current will be only 100 located on small city lots and their activities
milliamperes or so higher than the resonant must be confined to the higher frequencies.
loaded value. This linear amplifier is designed for the
Once the proper ratio of grid to plate amateur whose principal interest lies in the
current has been established at the desired 14 to 30 -MHz spectrum. An amplifier
peak power level, the carrier is removed built specially for this range can be made
and the amplifier driven with an SSB voice smaller and more inexpensively than one
signal. Grid and plate currents will now that covers the complete 3.5- to 30 -MHz
approximate one -third to one -half those range.
noted for the peak power -level condition The unit described in this section is a one
listed in the chart. The amplifier should kilowatt PEP class -AB, cathode- driven
never be driven to the indicated peak cur- linear amplifier using two compact, ceramic
rent levels by a voice signal, as severe over- 4CX300A tubes. A novel and easily built
loading and consequent distortion will re- chassis- cabinet inclosure is employed, to-
sult. gether with the inexpensive model of the
When the low -p. connected external anode Eimac air- system socket. The amplifier is
tetrodes are used in the U -2 linear amplifier, small enough so that it may be placed on
indicated grid current is quite low and may the operating table next to the sideband ex-
vary from a few milliamperes to some neg- citer and receiver. Provisions are made for
ative value, depending on the degree of an- voice operation, or for operating the SSB
tenna loading and the characteristic of the exciter without the amplifier. At 2000
drive signal. Under a single tone (carrier) volts plate potential, third -order distortion
signal such as used for tuneup, grid drive
and plate loading should be adjusted so as to
products are better than
maximum signal input.
- 30 decibels below

limit indicated grid current to 10 milliam-


peres or less. The "target" grid current is Amplifier Circuit A high- perveance tube
zero, and will occur when the tubes are such as the 4CX300A
heavily loaded. Efficiency is best and inter - cannot be used in a conventional class -B
modulation distortion the least at this oper- grounded -grid circuit, since the element
ating point. Excessive antenna loading will geometry leads to high grid current and
be indicated by negative grid current, and to destructive values of grid dissipation.
excessive excitation will be noted by high The distortion -reduction characteristics of
positive grid current which should be limited grounded -grid circuitry, however, may be
to less than 50 ma in any case to protect retained in an acceptable cathode- driven
the tubes. Amplifier adjustment is not crit- circuit, wherein grid and screen operating
ical and may be easily accomplished by potentials are applied to the tube. The
gradually increasing drive level as the plate schematic of this amplifier which makes use
circuit loading is varied to achieve zero of such a circuit is illustrated in figure 42.
grid current at the peak power level. When Two 4CX300A tubes are employed, with
a voice driving signal is used, grid current the driving signal applied to the cathode cir-

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HANDBOOK Tribander Amplifier 693

cuit as is done in the common grounded - The Tribander linear amplifier construc-
grid configuration. Grid and screen ele- tion is novel in that no regular chassis deck
ments are at r-f ground, while normal is employed. The amplifier is built within an
Class -AB, grid -bias and screen potentials are inclosure made up of two aluminum chassis,
applied to the tubes. Under these condi- each measuring 10" X 14" X 3". One
tions, the power gain of the 4CX300A is chassis is inverted and serves as a pan with-
quite high; approximately 30 watts PEP in which the components are mounted. The
drive being required for full output. second chassis is placed atop the first and
The amplifier plate circuit is a simple serves as a top shield cover. This chassis as-
three -band pi- network, designed for a cir- sembly is hinged along the rear edge, and
cuit Q of 15. Since the low- frequency bands opens up much in the manner of a suitcase.
are not included, only two small self -sup- A single -piece front panel made of alumi-
porting air -wound coils are required. In ad- num is fixed to the lower chassis. The front
dition, the size of the pi- network loading apron of the top section is cut away to pro-
capacitance is considerably smaller than a vide clearance for the meters, switches and
capacitor necessary for all -band operation. capacitors. When the top section is closed,
The amplifier is controlled by a two -deck the cabinet is sealed by a strip of finger
progressively-shorting switch (S,) that re- stock that runs around the inside edges of
motely controls the auxiliary equipment and the lower chassis box. A length of "piano -
provides the operator with a choice of type" hinge fastens the rear edges of the
"tune" or "operate" modes. All control and two chassis together, and the inclosure
low- voltage power leads are suitably filtered halves are held in place by five panel bolts
by LC networks to suppress radiation of which screw into nut plates riveted to the
TVI- producing harmonics. lip of the lid, or top section.

Figure 42

TRIBANDER LINEAR
AMPLIFIER FOR
10 -15 -20 -METER
SIDEBAND
This one kilowatt PEP
linear amplifier is de-
signed for those ama-
teurs interested in the
higher - frequency DX
bands. Using two 4CX-
300A tubes, this com-
pact bandswitching unit
is ideally suited for ex-
citers having a PEP out-
put of about 30 watts.
Panel controls are 1. to
r.,: Screen meter, plate
meter, plate tuning,
plate loading. On the
left is the mode switch
(S ) and on the right
is the band switch (S.). o
Amplifier is mounted on
four rubber "feet" so
that cooling air may be
drawn from under the
cabinet. Geared tuning
dials, switch knobs, and
plate bandswitch are
salvaged from surplus
"TU" tuning drawers
from BC- 191/375 trans -
mitter.
694 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
EXC. R.P.
INPUT RY1 OUTPUT
RFC
Bt2 XV. 0 SOO
IDD
MU/ =ID RV RFC2
Su 2 ] S _ - r
EE RFC]
its V. 'U 1 0--
T
1TtT`
RFC,
T IH
C+ sa C2
+lH

ANT. RELAY
T T
3 RFC,
B+ SCR.
T
4 RFC,
slAS
R FC3

1,5V.1,e2S0 `r AT EACH
SOCKET

SIB
os+
AUX^ s RFC,
CONTROL o- T
SWITCH , NOTE: I. CAPACITORS C* ARE .007NF.. 100 V..,
TUNE 0/SC CERAMIC.
I. OPP
CONTROL
T T NS - I Z. AUX. 2. ONE CAPACITOR C
ON EACH CR /O

T 3. PILS. ANO SCREEN SOCKET TERMINAL (4-)


OPCRATC RFC, 4. TUNO
CONTROL S. OPERATE ]. INDICA TES PCCDTHRU CAPACITOR

GN0.0--ill

Figure 43

SCHEMATIC, TRI BANDER LINEAR AMPLIFIER


C, -50 pf,kv. Johnson 1SS -8
3 PC- Parasitic choke. Two turns T, -6.3 volt at 6 amp. Stancor
(50F30), 0.075" spacing #12, //2 -inch diam., wound P -6456. Adjust primary re-
C, -250 pf, 2 kv. Johnson 155 -6 about 47 -ohm, 2 -watt com- sistor to deliver 6.0 volts
(250F20), 0.045" spacing position resistor at tube sockets under load
t, -10 meter section: 3/2 turns, RFC, -VHF choke. Ohmite Z-144 Blower-35 cubic feet per min-
3/16" copper tubing, wound RFC,- 44 -h, 500 -ma., Ohmite ute. 6000 rpm, 115 volts
11/4" i.d. Adjust length to Z-14 a.c. Ripley #8445 -E
nate with C, 25% RFC -2.5 -mh, 300 -ma. National Feedthrough capacitors-Each
meshed. 15 -20 meter sec- R -300 of the eight control leads,
tion: 5 t , %B" copper RY, -Dpdt, 115 -volt coil, an- plus the two leads to the
tubing, wound 21/4" i.d. IS tenna relay. Advance AM- relay coil pass through
meter tap 3 turns from
"cold" (output) end
2C -I ISVA 0.001 -fd ceramic feed -
5, -Two -pole, 5- position pro- through capacitors. Centra-
M,-0-50 d-c milliammeter. Re- gressively shorting switch. lab type FT -1000
calibrated to -20 to +30 Two Centralab #P -1 decks, Sockets -Eimac SK-760 air sock-
ma. with #P -121 index assem- et. Place one 0.001 fd,
M,-0-500 d-c milliammeter bly 600 -volt ceramic capacitor
MS SPST lever-type "Micro - Si-Single-pole, S-position ce- from each screen terminal
switch" ramic switch from surplus to ground
"TU" tuning unit, or Cen-
tralab #2550

An aluminum partition divides the inte- function switch, and power lead filters. The
rior of the inclosure into two compartments larger compartment contains the two
(figure 44). The smaller compartment con- 4CX300A tubes, the plate circuit pi -net-
tains the blower motor, filament transform- work components and the antenna relay.
er, panel meters, auxiliary control relay, The partition is shaped to fit around the

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HANDBOOK Tribonder Amplifier 695

1111r
Figure 44
Ilr
INTERIOR VIEW OF LINEAR AMPLIFIER
Antenna relay Rye is placed in small aluminum box mounted to rear wall of cabinet directly
behind antenna loading capacitor. The two 4CX300A tube sockets are mounted on top of
aluminum shield can taken from oscillator coil section of surplus "command" transmitter.
Micro -switch on partition removes high voltage when cover is opened. Midget relay adjacent
to switch is added for auxiliary control circuits and is not required. At extreme left rear are
feedthrough capacitors mounted on aluminum plate, with r -f chokes beneath them. Filament
transformer is in corner of compartment, in back of mode selector switch. Pi- network
components are at right, with three plate blocking capacitors mounted to aluminum strip
supported by plate tank capacitor.

housing holding the tetrode tube sockets. directly to the bottom chassis "pan." The
As the standard air -system socket with pi- network capacitors and bandswitch are
built -in screen bypass capacitor is both ex- panel mounted, and the remaining com-
pensive and bulky, the smaller phenolic partment area is taken up by the plate coils,
socket having no screen capacitor was used r -f choke, and the plate blocking capacitors.
as an inexpensive substitute. Two of these Antenna relay RY, is mounted in a small
sockets will mount atop an oscillator shield aluminum shield box placed at the back of
can taken from a defunct surplus "Com- the compartment.
mand" transmitter. The can makes an in- Transmitter wiring is simple and straight-
expensive and r -f tight shield for the grid forward. All connections in the meter com-
and cathode components, and is mounted partment are made with unshielded wire.
696 High- Frequency Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
T

1 +2XV.
41 CHI RY2A
et SCR. (390V.)
1113)
20
SOO

VR105
IIF--o GNO.
(119)

115V. ti rie. ON VR105

eIAs
2 RY CR /0 (14)
IE TER
RESISTOR
1T
T 150

0115 V.111
p
Lo(

RYas (02)
ANT. RELAY

15 V.12
(O
TO RI. CNT.0 -AUX CONTROL
VOX- MANUAL RCCCIVCR
SWITCH (99)
TUNO CONTROL
3 7 3 7 3 7 (117)
TO VOX
CONTROL RELAY
[RATE' CONTROL
CONTACTS

Figure 45

SCHEMATIC, LINEAR AMPLIFIER POWER SUPPLY


CH, -6 h. at S00 ma.
P ,P,-115 volt pilot lamp and receptacle
RY, Dpst, 115 -volt coil. Potter -Brumfield MRSA,
115 volt a.c.
RY -Spot, 115 -volt coil, 20-amp. contact. Pot- The three ceramic capacitors that make up
ter- Brumfield PR3AY, 115 volts, a.c. the plate blocking unit are mounted atop
RY -Dpdt, 115 -volt coil, Potter -Brumfield MR-
11A, 115 -volt a.c. the plate r -f choke, and are fastened to the
SR- Silicon rectifier, 1 amp. Sarkes-Tarsian main tuning capacitor by means of an alum-
M -500 inum strap visible in figure 44.
1, -2.5 volts at 10 amp, 10 kv. insulation.
Stancor P -3060 Connection is made to the anode of each
T 2900 -2300 volts each side of c.t. at S00 tube by means of a 1/4-inch wide copper
ma. 115 -230 volt primary. Stancor P -8035
T -125 v., SO ma. Stancor PA -8421
strap encircling the air cooler structure. Air
Extra contact set of RY is placed in series is drawn through 1/4-inch holes in the bot-
with antenna relay control lead (#2) and tom pan by the blower, forced into the grid
RY,,, contacts to actuate antenna relay RY,
(figure 43) by VOX circuit. compartment, circulated upward through
the tube socket and cooling anode, and ex-
The relay leads pass through the internal hausted via 1/4-inch vent holes drilled in the
shield partition via high- frequency feed - top lid of the inclosure. The blower motor
through capacitors, and the exciter switch- goes on whenever the filaments of the tubes
ing leads to the contacts of the relay pass are lit.
through short lengths of RG-58 'U coaxial
line. The outer braided conductor of the Transmitter Control Switch S, controls the
line is soldered to a uhf -type "hood" (Ant- Circuits and transmitter and auxiliary
phenol type 83 -1H) to ensure r -f tight con- Power Supply equipment. All circuits
nections where the cables enter and leave are off in the first posi-
the amplifier compartment. tion. In the .second position, an auxiliary cir-

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HANDBOOK Tribander Amplifier 697

cuit is completed which can turn on the the high -voltage and bias supply energized.
station receiver or sideband exciter. The Using a voltmeter, the potentiometer should
third position turns on the amplifier tube
filaments and energizes the blower motor
be set to provide about - 60 volts on the
arm. The voice relay is energized dropping
to cool the tubes. Cutoff bias is applied to the cutoff bias out and the potentiometer
the tubes to eliminate diode noise often is carefully reset to provide a static plate
noticed in standby operation. The fourth current of 200 ma as read on the meter. In-
position applies full plate voltage and re- dicated screen current (bleeder current)
duced screen voltage to the amplifier for should be about 22 ma. When the voice
tuning operations, and the fifth switch posi- relay drops out, the plate current should
tion applies full screen voltage. Cutoff bias fall to zero.
is removed by the voice- actuated relay in The amplifier is now fed a small exciting
the power supply. Screen and plate currents signal (single tone) and tuned and loaded
are continually monitored by the two panel for a maximum plate current of 500 mil-
meters. The screen meter is recalibrated to liamperes. Screen current should now be
have an elevated zero point and reads -20 approximately 30 ma. (This is a total of
to + 30 milliamperes. Under certain con- screen and bleeder current.) The output
ditions, negative screen current can flow coupling is now increased slightly so that
and it is important to monitor this sensitive r -f output (as read on an r -f ammeter, or
indicator of amplifier operation. output voltmeter) drops about 2 percent.
The power -supply schematic is shown in Maximum linearity is obtained when the
figure 45. The high voltage supply uses amplifier is slightly overcoupled. Under
3B28 "hash- free" gas rectifier tubes and voice conditions, plate- current peaks should
provides 2000 volts d.c. at 500 ma and reach approximately 250 ma, as read on the
regulated 360 volts at 30 milliamperes. meter. No grid current should be read on
"Jumpers" in the base of the regulator tubes a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter placed across the
are wired in series with the primary relay grid- current terminals in the power supply.
circuit so that the supply cannot be ener- Any flicker of grid current indicates the
gized unless the tubes are in their sockets. amplifier is being overdriven, with a con-
A smaller half -wave semiconductor supply sequent severe increase in distortion. Under
provides operating and cutoff bias for the voice conditions, indicated screen current
amplifier. The bias relay may be actuated by will be relatively constant, since actual cur-
the voice circuit of the exciter to drop the rent drawn by the screen of the tubes will
bias to the correct amount during the time be less than + or - 10 ma., and this
small value is swamped out by the bleeder
the voice circuit is energized.
current, which is constant at 22 ma. Low
values of screen meter current (indicating
Transmitter The only initial adjustment is that the tubes are drawing negative cur-
Adjustment to set the operating bias level rent) indicates excessive loading; high values
and Tuning by means of the potentiometer. of screen current indicate insufficient plate
Initially, the arm should be set circuit loading.
at the high -potential end of the potentiom- Never apply excitation to this (or any
eter to apply full bias to the tubes. The other) grounded -grid amplifier without all
filaments and blower are turned on, and operating potentials applied to the tubes.
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE

Speech and
Amplitude -Modulation Equipment

Amplitude modulation of the output of a percent of the d -c input to the final stage.
transmitter for radiotelephony may be ac- A detailed discussion of the relative advan-
complished either at the plate circuit of the tages of the different methods for accom-
final amplifier, commonly called high-level plishing amplitude modulation of the output
amplitude modulation or simply plate modu- of a transmitter is given in an earlier chap-
lation of the final stage, or it may be accom- ter.
plished at a lower level. Low -level modula- Two trends may be noted in the design of
tion is accompanied by a plate- circuit systems for obtaining high -level amplitude
efficiency in the final stage of 30 to 45 per- modulation of the final stage of amateur
cent, while the efficiency obtainable with transmitters. The first is toward the use of
high -level amplitude modulation is about tetrodes in the output stage of the high -
twice as great, running from 60 to 80 per- power audio amplifier which is used as the
cent. Intermediate values of efficiency may modulator for a transmitter. The second
be obtained by a combination of low -level trend is toward the use of a high -level splat-
and high -level modulation; cathode modula- ter suppressor in the high -voltage circuit
tion of the final stage is a common way of between the secondary of the modulation
obtaining combined low -level and high -level transformer and the plate circuit of the
modulation. modulated stage.
High -level amplitude modulation is char-
acterized by a requirement for an amount of 29 -1 Modulation
audio power approximately equal to one -
half the d -c input to the plate circuit of the Tetrodo In regard to the use of tetrodes,
final stage. Low -level modulation, as for Modulators the advantages of these tubes
example grid -bias modulation of the final have long been noted for use in
stage, requires only a few watts of audio modulators having from 10 to 100 watts
power for a medium -power transmitter and output. The 6V6, 6L6, and 807 tubes have
10 to 15 watts for modulation of a stage served well in providing audio power out-
with one kilowatt input. Cathode modula- puts in this range. Recently the higher -
tion of a stage normally is accomplished power tetrodes such as the 4 -65A, 813,
with an audio power capability of about 20 4 -125A, and 4 -250A have come into more

www.americanradiohistory.com
Modulation 699

general use as high -level audio amplifiers. the radiated signal is concerned, at least so
The beam tetrodes offer the advantages of long as the linear modulation capability of
low driving power (even down to zero the final amplifier is not exceeded. So the
driving power for many applications) as problem becomes mainly one of constructing
compared to the moderate driving power a modulator /final- amplifier combination so
requirements of the usual triode tubes hav- that negative -peak clipping (modulation in
ing equivalent power-output capabilities. excess of 100 percent in a negative direc-
On the other hand, beam -tetrode tubes tion) cannot normally take place regardless
require both a screen -voltage power supply of any reasonable speech input level.
and a grid -bias source. So it still is expedient
Asyymetricol The speech waveform of the
in many cases to use zero -bias triodes or
even low -ic triodes such as the 304TL in Speech normal male voice is charac-
many modulators for the medium -power terized, as was stated before,
and high -power range. A list of suggested by high-amplitude peaks of short duration.
modulator combinations for a range of pow- But it is also a significant characteristic of
er output capabilities is given in conjunction this wave that these high -amplitude peaks
with several of the modulators to be de- are polarized in one direction with respect to
scribed. the average amplitude of the wave. This is
the "lopsided" or assymetrical speech which
Increasing the It has long been known has been discussed and illustrated in an
Effective Modu- that the effective modu- earlier chapter.
lotion Percentage lation percentage of a The simplest method of attaining a high
transmitter carrying un- average level of modulation without nega-
altered speech waves was necessarily limited tive -peak clipping may be had merely by
to a rather low value by the frequent high - ensuring that these high- amplitude peaks
amplitude peaks which occur in a speech always are polarized in a positive direction at
waveform. Many methods for increasing the the secondary of the modulation transform-
effective modulation percentage in terms of er. This adjustment may be achieved in the
the peak modulation percentage have been following manner: Couple a cathode -ray
suggested in various publications and subse- oscilloscope to the output of the transmitter
quently tried. in the field by the amateur in such a manner that the carrier and its
fraternity. Two of the first methods sug- modulation envelope may be viewed on the
gested were automatic modulation control scope. Speak into the microphone and note
and volume com pression. Both these meth- whether the sharp peaks of modulation are
ods were given extensive trials by operating polarized upward or whether these peaks
amateurs; the systems do give a degree of tend to cut the baseline with the "bright
improvement as evidenced by the fact that spot" in the center of the trace which de-
such arrangements still are used in many notes negative -peak clipping. If it is not
amateur stations. But these systems fall far obvious whether or not the existing polarity
short of the optimum, because there is no is correct, reverse the polarity of the mod-
essential modification of the speech wave- ulating signal and again look at the envel-
form. Some method of actually modifying ope. Since a push -pull modulator almost in-
the speech waveform to improve the ratio variably is used, the easiest way of reversing
of peak amplitude to average amplitude must signal polarity is to reverse either the leads
be used before significant improvement is which go to the grids or the leads to the
obtained. plates of the modulator tubes.
It has been proved that the most serious When the correct adjustment of signal
effect on the radiated signal accompanying polarity is obtained through the above pro-
overmodulation is the strong spurious -side- cedure, it is necessarily correct only for the
band radiation which accompanies negative - specific microphone which was used while
peak clipping. Modulation in excess of 100 making the tests. The substitution of an-
percent in the positive direction is accom- other microphone may make it necessary
panied by no undesirable effects as far as to reverse the polarity, since the new
700 Speech and A -M Equipment THE RADIO
R-F FINAL
microphone may be connected internally in MODULATOR

the opposite polarity to that of the original 5R4 -GY


on 836
one.
z

Low -Level The low -level speech clip -


Speech Clipping per is, in the ideal case, a
very neat method for ob-
taining an improved ratio of average -to-
peak amplitude. Such systems, used in con- AB eR-F
junction with a voice- frequency filter, can Moo, IlvAC
FINAL
give a very worthwhile improvement in the Figure 1

effective modulation percentage; but in the


normal amateur transmitter their operation HIGH -LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
is often less than ideal. The excessive phase The high -vacuum diode acts as a series lim-
iter to suppress negative -peak clipping in
shift between the low -level clipper and the the modulated r -f amplifier as a result of
plate circuit of the final amplifier in the large amplitude negative-peak modulating
normal transmitter results in a severe altera- signals. In addition, the low -pass filter fol-
lowing the diode suppresses the transients
tion in the square -wave output of the clip- which result from the peak -clipping action of
per -filter which results from a high degree the diode. Further, the filter attenuates all
harmonics generated within the modulator
of clipping. The square -wave output of the system whose freq y lies above the cut-
clipper ends up essentially as a double saw - off frequency of the filter. The use of an
tooth wave by the time this wave reaches appropriate value of capacitor, determined
experimentally as discussed in Chapter Thir-
the plate of the modulated amplifier. The teen, across the primary of the modulation
net result of the rather complex action of transformer (C) introduces further attenua-
tion to high-frequency modulator harmonics.
the clipper, filter, and the phase shift in Chokes suitable for use at L are manufactured
the succeeding stages is that the low -level by Chicago-Sta Co. The co values of
speech clipper system dors provide an im- capacitance for C,, C,, C, and C, are specified
on the installation sheet for the splatter -
provement in the effective modulation per- suppressor chokes for a wide variety of oper-
centage, but it does not insure against ating conditions.
overmodulation. An extensive discussion of
these factors, along with representative wave- High -Level One practical method for
forms, is given in Chapter Thirteen. Circuits Splatter Suppressor the substantial elimination
for some recommended clipper -filter sys- of negative -peak clipping
tems will also be found in the same chapter. in a high -level a -m transmitter is the so-

Figure 2

TOP VIEW OF THE


6L6 MODULATOR

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Design 701

called high -level splatter suppressor. As fig- vacuum rectifier and utilizes a large -size
ure 1 shows, it is only necessary to add a heater -type dual cathode requiring a warm -
high- vacuum rectifier tube socket, a fila- up time of at least 40 seconds before cur-
ment transformer, and a simple low -pass rent should be passed. The tube is rated at
filter to an existing modulator /final -ampli- an average current of 250 ma. For greater
fier combination to provide high -level sup- current drain by the final amplifier, two or
pression. more 836 tubes may be placed in parallel.
The tube (V1) serves to act as a switch The filament transformer for the cathode
to cut off the circuit from the high -voltage of the splatter- suppressor tube must be in-
power supply to the plate circuit of the sulated for somewhat more than twice the
final amplifier as soon as the peak a -c volt- operating d -c voltage on the plate -modu-
age across the secondary of the modulation lated stage, to allow for a factor of safety
transformer has become equal and opposite on modulation peaks. A filament transform-
to the d -c voltage being applied to the er of the type normally used with high -
plate of the final amplifier stage. A single - voltage rectifier tubes will be suitable for
section low -pass filter serves to filter out the such an application.
high- frequency components resulting from
the clipping action.
Tube V, may be a receiver rectifier with 29 -2 Design of Speech
a 5 -volt filament for any but the highest Amplifiers and Modulators
power transmitters. The 5Y3 -GT is good
for 125 ma plate current to the final stage, A number of representative designs for
the 5R4 -GY and the 5U4 -G are satisfactory speech amplifiers and modulators are given in
for up to 250 ma. For high -power high - this chapter. Still other designs are included
voltage transmitters the best tube is the in the descriptions of other items of equip-
high- vacuum transmitting tube type 836. ment in other chapters. However, those per-
This tube is equivalent in shape, filament sons who wish to design a speech amplifier
requirements, and average- current capabil- or modulator to meet their particular needs
ities to the 866A. However, it is a high- are referred to Chapter Six, Vacuum -Tube

6SJ7 6J5 6SN7 -GT r, V, T2


2

CRYSTAL
MIC.
J, 4.714
^ dd
4 \

103/F 1 m
4.714 tOUF
450

POWER CONNECTIONS SIB

B
- ,:ROUND
-6 3v
r 6 3 V

C - B250 -300v = MATCHED PAIR OF RESISTORS, 1 Yb


D- BIAS PLI
E-13i-250 -T50 v A B O E B TO
FINAL
(SEE FIGURE 4)
Figure 3

SCHEMATIC OF BEAM -POWER TUBE MODULATOR


M-0-250 d-c milliammeter T- "Poly -pedance" Modulation trans former
T -Driver transformer. Stancor A-4701, or UTC S-10 60 -watt level = Stancor A -3893, or UTC 5 -20
125 -watt level = Stancor A -3894
702 Speech and A -M Equipment THE RADIO
Amplifiers, for a detailed discussion of the Figure 4
factors involved in the design of such am-
RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDIT ONS FOR
plifiers, and for tabular material on rec- MODULATOR OF FIG. 3 FOR DIFFERENT TUBE TYPES
ommended operating conditions for voltage Plate -To-
and power amplifiers. Tubes Plate Screen Grid Plate Plate Power
y y Class Volts Volts Bias Load Current Output
t Z (El ICI IDl (Ohms) (MAI (Watts)
10- to 120 -Watt It is difficult to surpass 6V6GT AB, 250 250 -15 10,000 70 -80 10
Modulator with the capabilities of the
Beam -Power Tubes reliable beam -power tube 6V6GT AB, 285 285 -19 8,000 70 -95 15

when an audio power out- 6L6 AB1 360 270 -23 6,600 85-135 27
put of 10 to 120 watts is required of a
modulator. A pair of 6L6 tubes operating 616 AB2 360 270 -23 3.800 85 -205 47

in such a modulator will deliver good plate - 807 AB1 600 300 -34 10,000 35-140 56
circuit efficiency, require only a very small 807 AB, 750 300 -35 12,000 30-140 75
amount of driving power, and impose no
serious grid -bias problems. 807 AB2 750 300 -35 7,300 30.240 120

Circuit Included on the chassis of the


Description
29 -3 Genera Purpose
modulator shown in figure 2
are the speech amplifier, the Triode Class -B Modulator
driver and modulation transformers for the
High level class -B modulators with power
output tubes, and a plate -current milliam-
meter. The power supply has not been in-
output in the 125- to 500 -watt level usually
make use of triodes such as the 809, 811,
cluded. The 6SJ7 pentode first stage is cou-
8005, 805, or 810 tubes with operating plate
pled through the volume control to the grid
voltages between 750 and 2000. Figures 5
of a 6J5 phase inverter. The output of the
and 6 illustrate a general- purpose modulator
phase inverter is capacitively coupled to the
unit designed for operation in this power
grids of a 6SN7 -GT which acts as a push -
range. The size of the modulation trans-
pull driver for the output tubes. Trans-
former will of course be dependent on the
former coupling is used between the driver
amount of audio power developed by the
stage and the grids of the output tubes so
modulator. In the case of the 500 -watt mod-
that the output stage may be operated either
as a class -AB, or class-AB, amplifier.
ulator the size and weight of the components
require that the speech amplifier be mounted
The Output on a separate chassis. For power levels of
Either 6L6, 6L6 -G, or 807
Stage 300 watts or less it is possible to mount the
tubes may be used in the out-
complete speech system on one chassis.
put stage of the modulator. As
a matter of fact, either 6V6 -GT or 6F6 -G
tubes could be used in the output stage if Circuit Description The modulator unit
of General Purpose shown in figure 5 is
somewhat less power output is required.
Tabulated in figure 4 are a group of rec- Modulator complete except for the
ommended operating conditions for different high- voltage supply re-
tube types in the output stage of the modu- quired by the modulator tubes. A speech
amplifier suitable for operation with a crys-
lator. in certain sets of operating conditions
tal microphone is included on the chassis
the tubes will be operated class AB,, that is
along with its own power supply. A 6AU6
with increased plate current with signal but is used as a high -gain preamplifier stage
with no grid current. Other operating con- resistance coupled to a 12AU7 phase in-
ditions specify class-AB, operation, in which verter. The audio level is controlled by a
the plate current increases with signal and potentiometer in the input grid circuit of the
grid current flows on signal peaks. Either 12AU7 stage. Push -pull 2A3 low -p. triodes
type of operation is satisfactory for com- serve as the class -B driver stage. The 2A3's
munication work. are coupled to the grids of the modulator

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK General Purpose Modulator 703

6AU6 12A7 2A3 T1 VI T2


003
C GAIN
CRYSTAL
M C. 3
J' 4 7A

V2

4.7K tOUF
450
-T 2 + C 1"--BIS
9 1000-1250

SUPPLY IF USED,
OTNERW/SE SNORT
V.

TERMINALS.
CHI

i VVb
A
5Y3 -GT +JOv
S Y Y
* = MATCNED PAIR
RESISTORS, 1 Rb
TOUF
1S0
TOUF 430

50LF T3 T4
150
1000
115 1,

Figure 5

SCHEMATIC OF GENERAL PURPOSE MODULATOR


M -0 -500 ma. T -Suitable for tubes used.
7,- Driver transformer. Stancor A -4761 For 811 -A's = 6.3 volt, 8 amp. Stancor P -6308
T,- "Poly-pedante" Modulation transformer. For 810's = 10 volt, 10 amp. Stancor P -6461
300 -watt rating, Stancor A-3898 CM, -14 henry, 100 ma. UTC S-19. Stancor C -1001
500 -watt rating, Stancor A -3899 R IK, 10 watts, adjustable. Set for plate
T- 360 -0-360 volts, 1S0 ma. Stancor PC -8410 current of 80 ma. (no signal) to 2A3 tubes
(approximately 875 ohms).
V,, V,-See figure 6.

tubes through a conventional multipurpose the grid circuit of the modulator.


driver transformer. Cathode bias is em- For c -w operation the secondary of the
ployed on the driver stage which is capable class -B modulation transformer is shorted
of providing 12 watts of audio power for out and the filament and bias circuits of the
modulator are disabled.
Figure 6
500 -Watt Modulator When the modulator
SUGGESTED OPERATING CONDITIONS Adjustment
FOR GENERAL PURPOSE MODULATOR
has been wired and
Plate- Sine checked, it should be
To- Wave tested before being used with an r -f unit.
Tubes Grid Plate Plate Power
111, V Plate Bias Current Load Output A satisfactory test setup is shown in figure 7.
2 Voltage (Volts) (Mal (Ohms) IWattsl
A common ground lead should be run be-
809 700 0 70 -250 6,200 120
tween the speech amplifier and the modula-
811 -A 750 0 30 -350 5,100 175
tor. Six 1000 -ohm 100 -watt resistors
811 -A 1000 0 45-350 7,400 245
should be connected in series and placed
811 -A 1250 0 50 -350 9,200 310
across the high- voltage terminals of the
811 -A 1500 -4.5 32-315 12,400 340
modulator unit to act as an audio load. Bias
805
805
1250
1500 -16
0 148 -400

84-400
6,700
8,200
300
370
should be adjusted to show -
75 volts from
each 810 (if 810's are used) grid terminal
810 2000 -50 60-420 12,000 450
to ground as measured with a high -resistance
810 2500 -75 50-420 17,500 500 voltmeter. If an oscilloscope is available, it
8005 1500 -67 40.330 9,800 330 should be coupled to point "A" on the load
704 Speech and A -M Equipment THE RADIO

the modulator, this voltage should be de-


veloped at a cathode meter current of about
350 ma when the plate -to-plate modulator
impedance of the modulator is 18,000 ohms.
Under these conditions, the oscilloscope may
be used to observe the audio waveform of
the modulator when coupled to point "A"
through the 10,000 -volt coupling capacitor.
When the frequency of the audio oscillator
is advanced above 3500 Hz the output level
2500V OSCILLOSCOPE
of the modulator as measured on the a -c
Figure 7 voltmeter should drop sharply indicating
that the low -pass audio network is function-
TEST SETUP FOR 500-WATT
ing properly (if low -pass network is used).
MODULATOR
With speech waveforms and no clipping
the modulator meter will swing to approx-
resistor (figure 7) through a 500 -pf ceramic imately 150 to 200 milliamperes under 100
TV capacitor of 10,000 volts rating. The percent modulation at a plate potential of
case of the oscilloscope should be grounded 2500 volts. With speech waveforms and
to the common ground point of the modu- moderate clipping the modulator meter will
lator. swing to about 300 ma under 100 percent
A plate potential of 2500 volts is now ap- modulation.
plied to the modulator, and bias is adjusted
for a resting plate current of 50 milliam- 29 -4 A 15 -Watt
peres as read on a 500- milliampere meter
in the cathode circuit of the modulator. Be Clipper - Amplifier
extremely careful during these adjustments,
since the plate supply of the modulator is a The near -ultimate in "talk power" can
lethal weapon. Never touch the modulator be obtained with low -level clipping and fil-
when the plate voltage supply is on! Be sure tering combined with high -level filtering.
you employ the TV blocking capacitor be- Such a modulation system will have real
tween the oscilloscope and the plate -load "punch," yet will sound well rounded and
resistors, as these load resistors are at high - normal. The speech amplifier described in
voltage potential! If a high- resistance a -c this section makes use of low -level clipping
voltmeter is available that has a 2000 -volt and filtering and is specifically designed to
scale, it should be clipped between the high - drive a pair of push -pull 810 modulators.
voltage terminals of the modulator, directly
across the dummy load. Do not touch the Circuit The schematic of the speech
meter when the high - Voltage supply is in Description amplifier -clipper is shown in
operation! An audio oscillator should be figure 8. A total of six tubes,
connected to the audio input circuit of the including a rectifier are employed and the
exciter -transmitter and the audio excitation unit delivers 15 watts of heavily clipped
to the high -level modulator should be in- audio.
creased until the a -c voltmeter across the A 12AX7 tube is used as a two -stage mi-
dummy -load resistor indicates an rms read- crophone preamplifier and delivers approxi-
ing that is equal to 0.7 (707() of the plate mately 20 volts (rms) audio signal to
voltage applied to the modulator. If the the 6ALS series clipper tube. The clipping
modulator plate voltage is 2500 volts, the level is adjustable between 0 db and 15 db
a -c meter should indicate 1750 volts devel- by clipping control R_. Amplifier gain is
oped across the 6000 -ohm dummy -load re- controlled by R, in the grid circuit of the
sistor. This is equivalent to an audio output second section of the 12AX7. A low -pass
of 500 watts. With sine -wave modulation at filter having a 3500 -Hz cutoff follows the
1000 Hz and no speech clipping ahead of 6ALS clipper stage, with an output of S

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HANDBOOK Clipper -Amplifier 705

I2AX7 6AL5 12AU7 2A3 Ta


OS 0.1
CRYSTAL F-
MIC.
JACK54

47 100K
1W 1

fe.3v.
330

I
TO
CLASS -B
MODULATOR
UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED;

1
GRID CIRCUIT
EA.
8450V .

MAX.
ALL RESISTORS 0.3 WATT
ALL CAPACITORS IN 1./F
RESISTORS MARKED WITH ASTER/SK W
ADJUST ARE BALANCED PAIRS.
CLIPPING

-ee v
5U4-G
FILS
T1- 430 -0 -450 VOLTS AT 105 MA.
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER PSR -103 22K,2
12- CLASSE DRIVER TRANSFORMER 22K,2W
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER CDS -I EA.
230
40
V.
3
T3 -125 V. AT 15 MA.
STA PICOR AS-04/3 so
t W.
LPF -2 -LOW PASS FILTER UNIT
CHICAGO TRANS. LPF -2 SR
+
L_,- 12 N, 130 M A
.

CN /CAGO TRANS. RC -72130


2 A. TI T3 05.0`
SR -50 MA. REPLACEMENT TYPE SAG 1 2
SILICON RECTIFIER
110VM
O

GN0. 0
Figure 8

SCHEMATIC, 15 -WATT CLIPPER -AMPLIFIER

volts peak audio signal under maximum clip- that the heat of the soldering iron does not
ping conditions. A double -triode 12AU7 cause the resistors to shift value. The re-
cathode- follower phase inverter follows the sistors should be held firmly by the lead to
clipper stage and delivers a 100 -volt rms be soldered with a long -nose pliers, which
signal to the push -pull grids of the 2A3 will act as a heat sink between the soldered
audio driver tubes. The 2A3 tubes operate joint and the body of the resistor. If this
at a plate potential of 330 volts and have a precaution is taken the two phase- inverter
-68 volt bias voltage developed by a small outputs will be in close balance.
diode rectifier supply applied to their grid
circuit. An audio output of 15 watts is de- Adjustment of When
the wiring of the
veloped across the secondary terminals of the Speech amplifier has been
speech
the class -B driver transformer with less than Amplifier completed and checked, the
5 percent distortion under conditions of no unit is ready to be tested.
clipping. A 5U4 -G and a choke -input filter Before the tubes are plugged in the amplifier,
network provide unusually good voltage reg- the bias supply should be energized and the
ulation of the high- voltage plate supply. voltage across the 600 -ohm bleeder resistor
The resistors in the 12AU7 phase -in- should be measured. It should be -68 volts.
verter plate circuit and the grid circuit of If it is not, slight changes in the value of
the 2A3 tubes should be matched to achieve the series resistor (R:1) should be made until
best phase- inverter balance. The exact value the correct voltage appears across the bleeder
resistor. The tubes may now be inserted in
of the paired resistors is not important, but
the amplifier and the positive and cathode
care should be taken that the values are
voltages checked in accordance with the
equal. Random resistors may be matched on
measurements given in figure 8. After the
an ohmmeter to find two units that are alike unit has been tested and is connected to the
in value. When these matched resistors are modulator, R_ should be set so that it is
soldered in the circuit, care should be taken impossible to overmodulate the transmitter
706 Speech and A -M Equipment

803's
Ti 2

6 -WATT
Zs'o 25K
To To
DRIVER SPEECH MODULATOR
STAGE AMP. LOAD

OPERATING CHARACTERIST CS 94-2500v.


X X
EG -G (RMS)- 170 VOLTS
Figure 9 DRIVING POWER' 7 -8 WATTS
RESTING PLATE CUR.' SOMA.
ZERO BIAS TETRODE MODULATOR MAX. PLATE CUR . '340 MA
ELIMINATES SCREEN AND BIAS POWER OUTPUT' 510 WATTS
SUPPLIES SU PRESSOR VOLT '280 -340V

Low driving power and simplicity are key 115 V.'


features of this novel modulator. Tubes rang-
ing in size from 6AQ5's to 813's may be Figure 10
employed in this circuit.
T, -Class -B driver transformer INEXPENSIVE 500 -WATT
T -Modulation transformer
V V. -6AQS, 6L6, 807, 803, 813, etc.
MODULATOR USING 803 TUBES
R,, R, -Not used with 803 and 813 T,- "Poly- pedance" class -B driver transformer
ratio. Chicago -Stancor A -4761
2:1
T. -500 -watt output transformer. 18K primary,
regardless of the setting of R1. The gain 6.25K secondary. Chicago -Stancor A -3899
control (R,) may then be adjusted to pro- T -10 volts, 10 amperes. Chicago -Stancor P -6461

vide the desired level of clipping consistent M -0 -500 ma

with the setting of R.


Of great interest to the amateur is the
29 -5 Zero Bias circuit of figure 10, wherein 803 tubes are
Tetrode Modulators used as high -level modulators. These tubes
Class -B zero bias operation of tetrode will deliver 500 watts of audio in this con-
tubes is made possible by the application of figuration, yet they require no screen or
the driving signal to the two grids of the bias supply, and can be driven by an 8 -watt
tubes as shown in figure 9. Tubes such as amplifier stage. The use of 803 tubes (in
the 6AQS, 6L6, 807, 803, and 813 work contrast to 813's) requires a higher level of
well in this circuit and neither a screen sup- driving power which is offset by the fact
ply nor a bias supply is required. The drive that these tubes can often be purchased
requirements are low and the tubes operate "surplus" for less than four dollars. A pair
with excellent plate circuit efficiency. The of 2A3 tubes (figure 8) will suffice as a
series grid resistors for the small tubes are driving stage for the 803's. The power sup-
required to balance the current drawn by ply of the speech amplifier provides high
the two grids, but are not needed in the case voltage for the suppressors of the modulator
of the 803 and 813 tubes. stage.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER THIRTY

In view of the high cost of iron -core com- many cases compromises will be involved,
ponents such as go to make up the bulk of a particularly when the power supply is for an
power supply, it is well to consider carefully amateur station and a number of compo-
the design of a new or rebuilt transmitter in nents already on hand must be fitted into
terms of the minimum power supply require- the plan. As much thought and planning
ments which will permit the desired per- should be devoted to the power -supply com-
formance to be obtained from the transmit- plement of an amateur station as usually is
ter. Careful evaluation of the power supply allocated to the r -f and a -f components of
requirements of alternative transmitter ar- the station.
rangements will permit the selection of that The arrival at the design for the power
transmitter arrangement which requires the supply for use in a particular application
minimum of power supply components, and may best be accomplished through the use
which makes most efficient use of such pow- of a series of steps, with reference to the
er supplies as are required. data in this chapter by determining the
values of components to be used. The first
step is to establish the operating require-
30 -1 Power-Supply ments of the power supply. In general these
Requirements are:

A power supply for a transmitter or for a 1. Output voltage required under full
unit of station equipment should be designed load.
in such a manner that it is capable of de- 2. Minimum, normal, and peak output
livering the required current at a specified current.
voltage, that it has a degree of regulation 3. Voltage regulation required over the
consistent with the requirements of the ap- current range.
plication, that its ripple level at full current 4. Ripple voltage limit.
is sufficiently low for the load which will be
S. Rectifier circuit to be used.
fed, that its internal impedance is sufficient- The output voltage required of the power
ly low for the job, and that none of the supply is more or less established by the
components shall be overloaded with the operating conditions of the tubes which it
type of operation contemplated. will supply. The current rating of the sup-
The meeting of all the requirements of ply, however, is not necessarily tied down by
the previous paragraph is not always a a particular tube combination. It is always
straightforward and simple problem. In best to design a power supply in such a man-
708 Power Supplies THE RADIO

Figure 1

POWER- SUPPLY FILAMENT LINE VOLTAGE e PLATE


CONTROL PANEL VOLTAGE
0 VOLTAGE

i
25,00
A well- designed supply con-
trol panel has separate pri-
mary switches and indicator
lamps for the filament and
ON

4000 -- - 3000
ON

plate circuits, overload circuit


breaker, plate voltage control 3500 G 0
switch and primary circuit
fuses. PLATE VOLTAGE
OVERLOAD EMISSION
RELAY FINAL BIAS SCREEN FO\ECV
2 AMP 2 AMP. 2 AMP. 2AMP.
yjs t' $

ner that it will have the greatest degree of of inductance which the input choke must
flexibility; this procedure will in many cases have to keep the voltage from soaring when
allow an existing power supply to be used the external load is removed.
without change as a portion of a new trans- The normal current rating of a power
mitter or other item of station equipment. supply usually is a round -number value
So the current rating of a new power supply chosen on the basis of the transformers and
should be established by taking into consider- chokes on hand or available from the catalog
ation not only the requirements of the tubes of a reliable manufacturer. The current
which it immediately will feed, but also with rating of a supply to feed a steady load such
full consideration of the best matching of as a receiver, a speech amplifier, or a con-
power-supply components in the most eco- tinuously operating r -f stage should be at
nomical current range which still will meet least equal to the steady drain of the load.
the requirements. It is often long -run econo- However, other considerations come into
my, however, to allow for any likely addi- play in choosing the current rating for a
tional equipment to be added in the near keyed amplifier, an amplifier of SSB signals,
future. or a class -B modulator. In the case of a
supply which will feed an intermittent load
Current- Rating The minimum current drain such as these, the current ratings of the
Considerations which will be taken from a transformers and chokes may be less than
power supply will be, in the maximum current which will be taken;
most cases, merely the bleeder current. There but the current ratings of the rectifier tubes
are many cases where a particular power to be used should be at least equal to the
supply will always be used with a moderate maximum current which will be taken. That
or heavy load on it, but when the supply is is to say that 300 -ma transformers and
a portion of a transmitter it is best to con- chokes may be used in the supply for a mod-
sider the minimum drain as that of the ulator whose resting current is 100 ma but
bleeder. The minimum current drain from whose maximum current at peak signal will
a power supply is of importance since it, rise to 500 ma. However, the rectifier tubes
in conjunction with the nominal voltage of should be capable of handling the full 500
the supply, determines the minimum value ma.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Requirements 709

The iron -core components of a power changes in a -c line voltage must be held to
supply which feeds an intermittent load may a few volts at the output terminals.
be chosen on the basis of the current as These three problems are solved in the
averaged over a period of several minutes, normal type of installation in quite different
since it is heating effect of the current which manners. The high -power case where output
is of greatest importance in establishing the voltage must be held to within 10 to 15
ratings of such components. Since iron -core percent is normally solved by using the
components have a relatively large amount proper value of inductance for the input
of thermal inertia, the effect of an intermit- choke and proper value of bleeder at the
tent heavy current is offset to an extent by output of the power supply. The calculations
a key -up period or a period of low modula- are simple: the inductance of the power -
tion in the case of a modulator. However, supply input choke at minimum current
the current rating of a rectifier tube is drain from the supply should be equal in
established by the magnitude of the emission henrys to the load resistance on the supply
available from the filament of the tube; the (at minimum load current) divided by
maximum emission must not be exceeded 1000. This value of inductance is called the
even for a short period or the rectifier tube critical inductance and it is the minimum
will be damaged. The above considerations value of inductance which will keep the
are predicated, however, on the assumption output voltage from soaring in a choke -
that none of the iron -core components will input power supply with minimum load on
become saturated due to the high intermit- the output. The minimum load current may
tent current drain. If good quality com- be that due to the bleeder resistor alone, or
ponents of generous weight are chosen, it may be due to the bleeder plus the mini-
saturation will not be encountered. mum drain of the modulator or amplifier to
which the supply is connected.
Voltage The general subject of voltage The low- voltage low-current supply, such
Regulation regulation can really be divided as would be used for a vfo or the high -fre-
into two sub -problems, which quency oscillator in a receiver, usually is
differ greatly in degree. The first, and more regulated with the aid of glow- discharge
common, problem is the case of the normal gaseous -regulator tubes. These regulators are
power supply for a transmitter modulator, usually called VR. tubes. Their use in various
where the current drain from the supply types of power supplies is discussed in Sec-
may vary over a ratio of four or five to one. tion 30 -12. The electronically regulated
In this case we desire to keep the voltage power supply, such as is used in the 10- to
change under this varying load to a matter 100 -watt power output range, also is dis-
of 10 or 15 percent of the operating voltage cussed in this chapter.
under full load. This is a quite different
problem from the design of a power supply Ripple The ripple- voltage limitation
to deliver some voltage in the vicinity of Considerations imposed on a power supply
250 volts to an oscillator which requires is determined by the load
two or three milliamperes of plate current; which will be fed by the supply. The toler-
but in this latter case the voltage delivered able ripple voltage from a supply may vary
to the oscillator must be constant within a from perhaps 5 percent for a class -B or class -
few volts with small variations in oscillator C amplifier which is to be used for a c -w
current and with large variations in the a -c stage or amplifier of an f -m signal down to
line voltage which feeds the oscillator power a few hundredths of one percent for the
supply. An additional voltage -regulation plate -voltage supply to a low -level voltage
problem, intermediate in degree between amplifier in a speech amplifier. The usual
the other two, is the case where a load must value of ripple voltage which may be toler-
be fed with 10 to 100 watts of power at ated in the supply for the majority of stages
a voltage below 500 volts, and still the volt- of a phone transmitter is between 0.1 and
age variation with changes in load and 2.0 percent.
710 Power Supplies THE RADI O
FULL. WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF C AT FULL LOAD
In general it may be stated that, with TO
RECTIFIER
CAPACITANCE, C PERCENT RIPPLE
60 -Hz line voltage and a single -phase recti- 2 L1 13.1

fier circuit, a power supply for the usual 5


HY
-25
25000
311F
4 OF
6.5
6.2
stages in the amateur transmitter will be of 6UF 4.0

the choke -input type with a single pi- section


filter following the input choke. A c -w
o
amplifier or other stage which will tolerate TO FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
RIPPLE IN TERMS OF LOAD RESISTANCE

LOAD, OHMS PERCENT RIPPLE


up to S percent ripple may be fed from a 25000 (BLEEDER ONLY) 0.02
power supply whose filter consists merely of 25000
15000 0.04
10030 0.06
an adequate-size input choke and a single 5000 0.1
filter capacitor. 3000 0 17
2000 0.25
A power supply with input choke and a
single capacitor also will serve in most cases
to feed a class -B modulator or SSB linear TO FULL-WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF C1 AND C2 AT FULL LOAD
amplifier, provided the output capacitor in RECTIFIER
C1 C2 PERCENT RIPPLE
the supply is sufficiently large. The output 2 2 1.2
z 0.7
capacitor in this case must be capable of 25000
3
4 0.25
0.06
storing enough energy to supply the peak - 6 e

current requirement of the equipment on


modulation peaks. The output capacitor for Figure 2
such a supply normally should be between 4
fd and 20 fd. VALUES OF RIPPLE VOLTAGE FOR
Capacitances larger than 20 fd involve a STANDARD POWER -SUPPLY CIRCUITS
high initial charging current when the sup-
ply is first turned on, so that an unusually
large input choke should be used ahead of When a low- current stage requires very
the capacitor to limit the peak- current surge low ripple in addition to excellent voltage
through the rectifier tubes. A capacitance of regulation, the power -supply filter often will
less than 4 fd may reduce the power output end with one or more gaseous -type voltage -
capability of a class -B modulator when it is regular tubes. These VR tubes give a high
passing the lower audio frequencies, and in degree of filtering in addition to their volt-
addition may superimpose a low- frequency age- regulating action, as is obvious from the
"growl" on the output signal. This growl fact that the tubes tend to hold the voltage
will be apparent only when the supply is drop across their elements to a very constant
delivering a relatively high power output; value regardless of the current passing
it will not be present when modulation is at through the tube. The VR tube is quite
a low level. satisfactory for improving both the regula-
When a stage such as a low -level audio tion and ripple characteristics of a supply
amplifier requires an extremely low value of when the current drain will not exceed 25
ripple voltage, but when regulation is not of to 35 ma depending on the type of VR tube.
importance to the operation of the stage, the Other types of voltage- regulation systems,
in addition to VR tubes, exhibit the added
high degree of filtering usually is obtained
characteristic of offering a low value of rip-
through the use of a resistance -capacitance
ple across their output terminals. The elec-
filter. This filter usually is employed in ad-
tronic -type of voltage -regulated power sup-
dition to the choke -capacitor filter in the ply is capable of delivering an extremely
power supply for the higher -level stages, but small value of ripple across its output termi-
in some cases when the supply is to be used nals, even though the rectifier -filter system
only to feed low- current stages the entire ahead of the regulator delivers a relatively
filter of the power supply will be of the high value of ripple, such as in the vicinity
resistance -capacitance type. Design data for of to 10 percent. In fact, it is more or
S

resistance- capacitance filters is given in a less self -evident that the better the regula-
following paragraph. tion of such a supply, the better will be its

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Requirements 711

8 1 V 12 Mv
tion is determined by the above formula.
TOFULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER Then this percentage is multiplied by the
filter reduction factor of the following sec-
tion of filter. This reduction factor is deter-
mined through the use of the following
Figure 3 formula:
SAMPLE FILTER FOR
CALCULATION OF RIPPLE
Filter reduction factor - LC-1
1.76
(2)

where LC again is the product of the in-


ripple characteristic. It must be remembered ductance and capacitance of the filter sec-
that the ripple output of a voltage -regulated tion. The reduction factor will turn out to
power supply of any type will rise rapidly be a decimal value, which is then multiplied
when the load on the supply is so high that by the percentage ripple obtained from the
the regulator begins to lose control. This use of the preceding formula.
will occur in a supply of the electronic type As an example, take the case of the filter
when the voltage ahead of the series regu- diagramed in figure 3. The LC product of
lator tube falls below a value equal to the the first section is 16. So the ripple to be
sum of the minimum drop across the tube expected at the output of the first section
at that value of current, plus the output will be: 118/(16-1) or 118 /15, which
voltage. In the case of a shunt regulator of gives 7.87 percent. Then the second section,
the VR -tube type, the regulating effect will with an LC product of 48, will give a
fail when the current through the VR reduction factor of: 1.76/(48 -1) or 1.76/
tube falls below the usual minimum value 47 or 0.037. Then the ripple percentage at
of about f ma. the output of the total filter will be: 7.87
Calculation Although figure 2 gives the times 0.037 or slightly greater than 0.29
of Ripple value of ripple voltage for sev- percent ripple.
eral more or less standard types Resistance - In many applications where
of filter systems, it is often of value to be Capacitance current drain is relatively small,
able to calculate the value of ripple voltage Filters so that the voltage drop across
to be expected with a particular set of filter
the series resistor would not be
components. Fortunately, the approximate excessive, a filter system made up of resistors
ripple percentage for normal values of filter and capacitors only may be used to advan-
components may be calculated with the aid tage. In the normal case, where the reactance
of rather simple formulas. In the two form- of the shunting capacitor is very much
ulas to follow it is assumed that the line
smaller than the resistance of the load fed
frequency is 60 Hz and that a full -wave or
by the filter system, the ripple reduction per
a full -wave -bridge rectifier is being used.
section is equal to 1 /(27rRC). In terms of
For the case of a single- section choke -input
the 120 -Hz ripple from a full -wave rectifier
filter as illustrated in figure 2A, or for the the ripple- reduction factor becomes: 1.33/
ripple at the output of the first section of RC where R is expressed in thousands of
a two -section choke input filter the equation
ohms and C in microfarads. For 60 -Hz rip-
is as follows,
ple the expression is: 2.66/RC with R and
C in the same quantities as above.
Percent ripple - 118
LC- 1
(1)
Filter -System Many persons have noticed,
where LC is the product of the input choke Resonance particularly when using an
inductance in henrys (at the operating cur- input choke followed by a
rent to be used) and the capacitance which 2 -pfd first filter capacitor, that at some
follows this choke expressed in microfarads. value of load current the power supply will
In the case of a two -section filter, the begin to hum excessively and the rectifier
percent ripple at the output of the first sec- tubes will tend to flicker or one tube will
712 Power Suppl ies THE RADIO
seem to take all the load while the other
tube dims out. If the power supply is shut
off and then again started, it may be the
other tube which takes the load; or first one
tube and then the other will take the load
as the current drain is varied. This condi-
tion, as well as other less obvious phenomena
such as a tendency for the first filter capaci-
tor to break down regardless of its voltage
rating or for rectifier tubes to have short .71
life, results from resonance in the filter sys-
tem following the high- voltage rectifier.
The condition of resonance is seldom en-
countered in low- voltage power supplies
since the capacitors used are usually high
enough so that resonance does not occur.
But in high- voltage power supplies, where
both choke inductance and filter capacitance
are more expensive, the condition of reso-
nance happens frequently. The product of
inductance and capacitance which resonates
f'l
at 120 Hz is 1.77. Thus a 1 -pfd capacitor
and a 1.77 -henry choke will resonate at 120
Hz. In almost any normal case the LC prod-
uct of any section in the filter system will
be somewhat greater than 1.77, so that
resonance at 120 Hz will seldom take place.
But the LC product for resonance at 60 Hz
is about 7.1. This is a value frequently en-
countered in the input section of a high -
voltage power supply. It occurs with a
2 -1Afd capacitor and a choke which has 3.5s
henrys of inductance at some current value.
With a 2 -fd filter capacitor following this
Figure 4
choke, resonance will occur at the current
value which causes the inductance of the MOST COMMON RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
choke to be 3.55 henrys. When this reso- A shows a hall-wave rectifier circuit, B is the
nance does occur, one rectifier tube (assum- standard full-wave rectifier circuit used with
ing mercury -vapor types) will dim and the a dual rectifier or two rectifier tubes, and C
is the bridge rectifier circuit.
other will become much brighter.
Thus we see that we must avoid the LC
LC product must still be greater than 7.1
product of 1.77 and 7.1. With a swinging -
at maximum current drain from the power
type input choke, whose inductance varies
supply. To allow a reasonable factor of safe-
over a 5-to -1 range, we see that it is possible
ty, it will be well to keep the LC product at
for 60 -Hz resonance to occur at a low
maximum current drain above the value 10.
value of current drain, and then for 120 -Hz It is possible to place the filter choke in
resonance to occur at approximately full load the B -minus lead of the power supply which
on the power supply. Since the LC product reduces the voltage potential appearing from
must certainly be greater than 1.77 for choke winding to ground. However, the
satisfactory filtering along with peak -cur- back -emf of a good choke is quite high and
rent limitation on the rectifier tubes, we see can develop a dangerous potential from the
that with a swinging -type input choke the center tap to ground on the secondary wind-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Rectification Circuits 713

ing of the plate transformer. If the trans-


former is not designed to withstand this TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY
potential, it is possible to break down the VOLTAGE

insulation at this point.


+
30-2 Rectification RECTIFIED
0/ \ / \ / \ PLATE ppVOLT/WE
Circuits ECflnee VOLTAGE
PLATE N- 2

There are a large number of rectifier cir-


cuits that may be used in the power supplies COM*INm RECTIFIED
for station equipment. But the simpler cir- VOLTAGE
PLATES N' 1 2
cuits are more satisfactory for the power
levels up to the maximum permitted the
AFTER FIRSTSECTON
radio amateur. Figure 4 shows the three most OF FILTER
o
common circuits used in power supplies for
amateur equipment. +
DC. VOLTAGE
AVAILAULE FOR
RADIO USE
Half -Wave A half -wave rectifier, as shown o

Rectifiers in figure 4A, passes one half of


the wave of each cycle of the Figure 5
alternating current and blocks the other FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
half. The output current is of a pulsating
Showing transformer secondary voltage, the
nature, which can be smoothed into pure, di- rectified output of each tube, the combined
rect current by means of filter circuits. Half - output of the rectifier, the smoothed voltage
wave rectifiers produce a pulsating current after one section of filter, and the substantial-
ly pure d -e output of the rectifier-filter after
which has zero output during one -half of additional sections of Alter.
each a -c cycle; this makes it difficult to
filter the output properly into d.c. and also
former delivers alternating current to the
to secure good voltage regulation for vary-
ing loads.
two plates of the rectifier tube; one of these
plates is positive at any instant during which
Full -Wave Afull -wave rectifier consists of the other is negative. The center point of
Rectifiers a pair of half -wave rectifiers the high -voltage transformer winding is
working on opposite halves of usually grounded and is, therefore, at zero
the cycle, connected in such a manner that voltage, thereby constituting the negative -B
each half of the rectified a -c wave is com- connection.
bined in the output as shown in figure S. While one plate of the rectifier tube is
This pulsating unidirectional current can be conducting, the other is inoperative, and
filtered to any desired degree, depending on vice versa. The output voltages from the
the particular application for which the rectifier tubes are connected together through
power supply is designed. the common rectifier filament circuit. Thus
A full -wave rectifier may consist of two the plates alternately supply pulsating cur-
plates and a filament, either in a single glass rent to the output (load) circuit. The recti-
or metal envelope for low -voltage rectifi- fier -tube filaments or cathodes are always
cation or in the form of two separate tubes, positive in polarity with respect to the plate
rich having a single plate and filament for transformer in this type of circuit.
high- voltage rectification. The plates are The output current pulsates 120 times
connected across the high- voltage a -c power per second for a full -wave rectifier connected
transformer winding, as shown in figure 4B. to a 60 -Hz a -c line supply; hence the out-
The power transformer is for the purpose put of the rectifier must pass through a
of transforming the 110 -volt a -c line sup- filter to smooth the pulsations into direct
ply to the desired secondary a -c voltages current. Filters are designed to select or
for filament and plate supplies. The trans- reject alternating currents; those most corn-
714 Power Supplies THE RADIO

O HALF-AND FULL -VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY O TWO- VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY

4-
Eoo.
al
Ti
o1Ef-E

TWO-TRANSFORMER POWER SUPPLY pD CENTER- TAPPED METHOD FOR UNTAPPED TRANSFORMERS

EO TWO -VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY pF SPECIAL FILTER CIRCUIT FOR BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Figure 6

SPECIAL SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFICATION CIRCUITS


A description of the application and operation of each of these special circuits is given in
the accompanying text.

monly used in a -c power supplies are of the peak -inverse -voltage rating may be used for
low-pass type. a given voltage output.
Note that the center of the high -voltage
Bridge The bridge rectifier (figure winding of the bridge transformer (figure
Rectification 4C) is a type of full -wave 4C) is not a ground potential. Many trans-
circuit in which four rectifier formers having a center -tapped winding are
elements or tubes are operated from a single not designed for bridge service as the insula-
high- voltage winding on the power trans- tion between the center -tap point and
former. ground is inadequate. Lack of insulation at
While twice as much output voltage can this point does no harm in a full -wave cir-
be obtained from a bridge rectifier as from cuit, but may cause breakdown when the
a center -tapped circuit, the permissible out- transformer is used in bridge configuration.
put current is only one -half as great for a
given power transformer. In the bridge cir-
cuit, four rectifiers and three filament -heat- 30 -3 Standard Power -
ing transformer windings are needed, as Supply Circuits
against two rectifiers and one filament wind-
ing in the center -tapped full -wave circuit. Choke input is shown for all three of the
In a bridge rectifier circuit, the inverse -peak standard circuits of figure 4, since choke
voltage impressed on any one rectifier tube is input gives the best utilization of rectifier -
halved, which means that tubes of lower tube and power- transformer capability, and

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Standard Circuits 715

PRIMARY

Eo+.17Es
Is0.5nIDC.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 3F
RIPPLE PERCENT 19.3
PEAR INVERSE 2.09 EO
TUSE VOLTAGE 2.44 Es
OA 3 -PHASE STAR

1DC. +Eo
Figure 7

COMMON
POLYPHASE -
RECTIFICATION
PRIMARY Eo 1.55 Es
Is 0.409 I O.C. CIRCUITS
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 9 F
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2 These circuits are used
PEAR INVERSE 2.09 Eo when polyphase power Is
2.113 Es
TUBE VOLTAGE available for the plate
supply of a high -power
transmitter. The circuit
at B is also called a
OB 6 -PHASE STAR t hree -phase full -wave
+Eo rectification system. The
circuits are described in
the accompanying text.

PRIMARY Eo2.34Es
Is 0.1110 t D.C.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY SF
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2
KAR INVERSE 1.05 EO
TUBE VOLTAGE - 2.44 Es

6 -PHASE BRIDGE

in addition gives much better regulation. rectifier of figure 4A is commonly used with
Where greater output voltage is a require- capacitor -input and resistance- capacitance
ment, where the load is relatively constant filter as a high -voltage supply for a cathode -
so that regulation is not of great significance, ray-tube. In this case the current drain is
and where the rectifier tubes will be operated very small so that the peak-current rating
well within their peak- current ratings, the of the rectifier tube seldom will be exceeded.
capacitor -input type of filter may be used. The circuit of figure 4B is most common-
The capacitor -input filter gives a no -load ly used in medium- voltage power supplies
output voltage equal approximately to the since this circuit is the most economical of
peak voltage being applied to the rectifier filament transformers, rectifier tubes, sock-
tubes. At full -load, the d -c output voltage ets, and space. But the circuit of figure 4C,
is usually slightly above one -half the second- commonly called the bridge rectifier, gives
ary a -c voltage of the transformer, with better transformer utilization so that the
the normal values of capacitance at the in- circuit is most commonly used in higher -
put to the filter. With large values of input powered supplies. The circuit has the advan-
capacitance, the output voltage will run tage that the entire secondary of the trans-
somewhat higher than the rms secondary former is in use at all times, instead of each
voltage applied to the tubes, but the peak side being used alternately as in the case of
current flowing through the rectifier tubes the full -wave rectifier. As a point of inter-
will be many times as great as the d -c output est, the current flow through the secondary
current of the power supply. The half -wave of the plate transformer is a substantially
716 Power Suppl ies THE RADIO

pure a -c wave as a result of better trans- ma it will be permissible to pull 250 ma at


former utilization, instead of the pulsating 2500 volts with no drain from the 1250 -
d -c wave through each half of the power - volt tap, or the drain from the 1250 -volt
transformer secondary in the case of the tap may be 200 ma if the drain from the
full -wave rectifier. 2500 -volt tap is 150 ma etc.
The circuit of figure 4C will give the Figure 6B shows a system which may be
greatest value of output power for a given convenient for obtaining two voltages which
transformer weight and cost in a single - are not in a ratio of 2 to 1 from a bridge -
phase power supply as illustrated. But in at- type rectifier; a transformer with taps along
tempting to bridge- rectify the whole second- the winding is required for the circuit how-
ary of a transformer designed for a full- ever. With the circuit arrangement shown,
wave rectifier, in order to obtain doubled the voltage from the tap will be greater than
output voltage, make sure that the insula- one -half the voltage at the top. If the cir-
tion rating of the transformer to be used is cuit is changed so that the plates of the two
adequate. In the bridge rectifier circuit the rectifier tubes are connected to the outside
center of the high -voltage winding is at a of the winding instead of to the taps, and
d -c potential of one -half the total voltage the cathodes of the other pair are connected
output from the rectifier. In a normal full - to the taps instead of to the outside, the
wave rectifier the center of the high -voltage total voltage output of the rectifier will be
winding is grounded. So in the bridge recti- the same, but the voltage at the tap position
fier the entire high- voltage secondary of the will be less than half the top voltage.
transformer is subjected to twice the peak - An interesting variable -voltage circuit is
voltage stress that would exist if the same shown in figure 6C. The arrangement may
transformer were used in a full -wave recti- be used to increase or decrease the output
fier. High -quality full -wave transformers voltage of a conventional power supply, as
will withstand bridge operation quite satis- represented by transformer T1, by adding
factorily so long as the total output voltage another filament transformer to isolate the
from the supply is less than perhaps 4500 filament circuits of the two rectifier tubes
volts. But inexpensive transformers, whose and adding another plate transformer be-
insulation is just sufficient for full -wave tween the filaments of the two tubes. The
operation, will break down when bridge voltage contribution of the added trans-
rectification of the entire secondary is at- former T_ may be subtracted from or
tempted. added to the voltage produced by T, simply
by reversing the double -pole double -throw
Special Single- Figure 6 shows six cir- switch (S) A serious disadvantage of this
.
Phase Rectification cuits which may prove circuit is the fact that the entire secondary
Circuits valuable when it is de- winding of transformer T.: must be insulated
sired to obtain more than for the total output voltage of the power
one output voltage from one plate trans- supply.
former or where some special combination of An arrangement for operating a full -wave
voltages is required. Figure 6A shows a more rectifier from a plate transformer not
or less common method for obtaining full equipped with a center tap is shown in fig-
voltage and half voltage from a bridge recti- ure 6D. The two chokes (L,) must have
fication circuit. With this type of circuit, high inductance ratings at the operating cur-
separate input chokes and filter systems are
rent of the plate supply to hold down the
used on both output voltages. If a trans-
former designed for use with a full -wave alternating current load on the secondary of
rectifier is used in this circuit, the current the transformer since the total peak voltage
drain from the full -voltage tap is doubled output of the plate transformer is impressed
and added to the drain from the half -voltage across the chokes alternately. However, the
tap to determine whether the rating of the chokes need only have half the current rat-
transformer is being exceeded. Thus if the ing of the filter choke (L_) for a certain
transformer is rated at 1250 volts at 500 current drain from the power supply since

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Standard Circuits 717

only half the current passes through each transformers may be used. A tap at half -
choke. Also, the two chokes (L1) act as voltage may be taken at the junction of the
input chokes so that an additional swinging star transformers, but there will be d -c flow
choke is not required for such a power sup- in the transformer secondaries with the
ply. power -supply center tap in use. The circuit
A conventional two -voltage power supply of figure 7A has the disadvantage that there
with grounded transformer center tap is is an average d -c flow in each of the wind-
shown in figure 6E. The output voltages ings.
from this circuit are separate and not addi- Rectifiers Rectifying elements in high -volt-
tive as in the circuit of figure 6B. Figure age plate supplies are almost in-
6F is of advantage when it is desired to variably electron tubes of either the high -
operate class -B modulators from the half - vacuum or mercury -vapor type, although
voltage output of a bridge power supply and selenium or silicon rectifier stacks contain-
the final amplifier from the full -voltage ing a large number of elements are often
output. Both L, and L should be swinging used. Low -voltage high- current supplies may
chokes but the total drain from the power use argon gas rectifiers (Tungar tubes),
supply passes through L, while only the drain selenium rectifiers, or other types of dry-
of the final amplifier passes through L.. Ca- disc rectification elements. The xenon recti-
pacitors C, and C_ need be rated only half fier tubes offer some advantage over mer-
the maximum output voltage of the power cury -vapor rectifiers for high -voltage ap-
supply, plus the usual safety factor. This ar- plications where extreme temperature ranges
rangement is also of advantage in holding are likely to be encountered. However, such
down the "key -up" voltage of a c -w trans- rectifiers (3B25 for example) are consider-
mitter since both L, and L_ are in series, and ably more expensive than their mercury -
their inductances are additive, insofar as the vapor counterparts.
"critical inductance" of a choke -input filter
Peak Inverse Plate In an a -c circuit, the
is concerned. If 4 -pfd capacitors are used at
Voltage and Peak maximum peak voltage
both C, and C_ adequate filter will be ob-
Plate Current or current is 2, or 1.41
tained on both plate supplies for hum -free
radiophone operation. times that indicated by
the a -c meters in the circuit. The meters
Polyphase It is usual practice in com- read the root mean square (rms) values,
Rectification mercial equipment installa- which are the peak values divided by 1.41
Circuits tions when the power drain for a sine wave.
from a plate supply is to be If a potential of 1000 rms volts is ob-
greater than about one kilowatt to use a tained from a high -voltage secondary wind-
polyphase rectification system. Such power ing of a transformer, there will be 1.410 -
supplies offer better transformer utilization, volts peak potential from the rectifier plate
less ripple output and better power factor to ground. In a single-phase supply the
in the load placed on the a -c line. However, rectifier tube has this voltage impressed on
such systems require a source of three -phase it, either positively when the current flows
(or two -phase with Scott connection) ener- or "inverse" when the current is blocked on
gy. Several of the more common polyphase the other half -cycle. The inverse peak volt-
rectification circuits with their significant age which the tube will stand safely is used
characteristics are shown in figure 7. The as a rating for rectifier tubes. At higher
increase in ripple frequency and decrease voltages the tube is liable to arc back,
in percentage of ripple is apparent from the thereby destroying or damaging it. The
figures given in figure 7. The circuit of fig- relations between peak inverse voltage, total
ure 7C gives the best transformer utilization transformer voltage, and filter output volt-
as does the bridge circuit in the single -phase age depend on the characteristics of the fil-
connection. The circuit has the further ad- ter and rectifier circuits (whether full- or
vantage that there is no average d -c flow half wave, bridge, single-phase or polyphase,
in the transformer, so that three single -phase etc.).
718 Power Supplies THE RADIO
livers twice as much a -c voltage as would
_LINE VOLTS-HEATER VOLTS
HEATER AMPERES be the case with a half -wave rectifier or
bridge rectifier.
+ Q
LINE RECTIFIER
Mercury-Vapor The inexpensive mercury -
Rectifier Tubes vapor type of rectifier tube
+ is almost universally used in
+ C + SILICON the high -voltage plate supplies of amateur
LINE RECTIFIER and commercial transmitters. Most amateurs
T- zT o are quite familiar with the use of these tubes
but it should be pointed out that when new
0
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
or long- unused mercury-vapor tubes are
first placed in service, the filaments should
FULL-WAVE
be operated at normal temperature for ap-
proximately twenty minutes before plate
voltage is applied, in order to remove all
traces of mercury from the cathode and to
clear any mercury deposits from the top of
the envelope. After this preliminary warm -
+ VOLTAGE DOUBLER
_ HALF -WAVE up with a new tube, plate voltage may be
applied within 20 to 30 seconds after the
time the filaments are turned on, each time
the power supply is used. If plate voltage
0 should be applied before the filament is
brought to full temperature, active material
SILICON
RECTIFIER may be knocked from the oxide- coated fila-
VOLTAGE
QUADRUPLER ment and the life of the tube will be greatly
shortened.
Small r -f chokes must sometimes be con-
nected in series with the plate leads of mer-
Figure 8
cury -vapor rectifier tubes in order to pre-
vent the generation of radio- frequency hash.
TRANSFORMERLESS POWER -SUPPLY These r -f chokes must be wound with suf-
CIRCUITS ficiently heavy wire to carry the load cur-
Circuits such as shown above are also fre- rent and must have enough inductance to
quently called line -rectifier circuits. Silicon attenuate the r -f parasitic noise current to
rectifiers, vacuum diodes, or gas diodes may
be used as the rectifying elements in these
prevent it from flowing in the filter supply
circuits. leads and then being radiated into nearby
receivers. Manufactured mercury -vapor
rectifier hash chokes are available in various
Rectifier tubes are also rated in terms of
current ratings from various manufacturers.
peak plate current. The actual direct load
When mercury -vapor rectifier tubes are
current which can be drawn from a given
operated in parallel in a power supply, small
rectifier tube or tubes depends on the type
resistors or small iron -core choke coils should
of filter circuit. A full -wave rectifier with
he connected in series with the plate lead of
capacitor input passes a peak current several
times the direct load current. each tube. These resistors or inductors tend
In a filter with choke input, the peak cur- to create an equal division of plate current
rent is not much greater than the load cur- between parallel tubes and prevent one
rent if the inductance of the choke is fairly tube from carrying the major portion of
high (assuming full -wave rectification). the current. When high -vacuum rectifiers
A full -wave rectifier with two rectifier are operated in parallel, these chokes or
elements requires a transformer which de- resistors are not required.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Standard Circuits 719

fered by the silicon rectifier as compared to


OUTSIDE COLLECTOR
the vacuum -tube rectifier. Outstanding
INSIDE COLLECTOR among these are the factors that the silicon
HENOLIC WASHER
rectifier operates instantly, and that it re-
quires no heater power in order to obtain
emission. The amount of heat developed by
BASE PLATE
the silicon rectifier is very much less than
SELENIUM COAT
that produced by an equivalent vacuum -
SELENIUM RECTIFIER CELL
tube type of rectifier.
In the circuits of figure 8 A, B, and C,
90
PHASE capacitors C, and C2 should be rated at ap-
proximately 150 volts and for a normal
BO

70 j 1 PHASE
degree of filtering and capacitance, should
60 be between 15 to 60 td. In the circuit of
50 figure 8D, capacitor C, should be rated at
40
150 volts and capacitor Co should be rated
30
zo
at 300 volts. In the circuit of figure
,0 8E, capacitors C, and C_ should be rated at
n 150 volts and C3 and C, should be rated at
0 so 100 ,SO zoo 250 300
RELATIVE LOAD CURRENT, 300 volts.
PERCENT OP FULL LOAD.
The d -c output voltage of the line recti-
Figure 9 fier may be stabilized by means of a VR
THE SELENIUM RECTIFIER tube. However, due to the unusually low
A -The selenium rectifier is a semiconductor internal resistance of the silicon rectifier,
stack built up of nickel-plated aluminum transformerless power supplies using this
discs coated on ono side with selenium
alloy. type of rectifying element can normally be
B- Rectifier efficiency is high, reaching 70% expected to give very good regulation.
for single -phase service, dropping slightly
at high current densities. Voltage -Doubler Figures 8C and 8D illus-
Circuits trate two simple voltage -
Transformerless Figure 8 shows a group of doubler circuits which will
Power Supplies five different types of trans - deliver a d -c output voltage equal approxi-
formerless power supplies mately to twice the rms value of the power
which are operated directly from the a -c line voltage. The no -load d -c output volt-
line. Circuits of the general type are normal- age is equal to 2.82 times the rms line volt-
ly found in a -c /d -c receivers but may be age value. At high current levels, the output
used in low -powered exciters and in test voltage will be slightly under twice the line
instruments. When circuits such as shown voltage. The circuit of figure 8C is of ad-
in A and B are operated directly from the vantage when the lowest level of ripple is
a -c line, the rectifier element simply recti-
required from the power supply, since its
fies the line voltage and delivers the alter-
ripple frequency is equal to twice the line
nate half cycles of energy to the filter net- frequency. The circuit of figure 8D is of
work. With the normal type of rectifier advantage when it is desired to use the
tube, load currents up to approximately 75 grounded side of the a -c line in a permanent
ma may be employed. The d -c voltage out- installation as the return circuit for the
put of the filter will be slightly less than the power supply. However, with the circuit of
rms line voltage, depending on the particu- figure 8D the ripple frequency is the same
lar type of rectifier tube employed. With as the a -c line frequency.
the introduction of the miniature silicon
rectifier, the transformerless power supply Voltage The circuit of figure 8E illus-
has become a very convenient source of Quadrupler trates a voltage -quadrupler cir-
moderate voltage at currents up to perhaps cuit for miniature silicon recti-
500 ma. A number of advantages are of- fiers. In effect this circuit is equivalent to
720 Power Supplies T H E R A D I O

current with the efficiency of conversion


dependent to some extent on the ratio of
the resistance in the conducting direction to
that of the blocking direction. In normal
power applications a ratio of 100 to 1 is
satisfactory; however, special applications
50 100 150 200 250 300 such as magnetic amplifiers often require
LOAD CURRENT, PERCENT OF FULL LOAD
ratios in the order of 1000 to 1.
Figure 10
The basic selenium rectifier cell is actually
a diode capable of half -wave rectification.
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF Since many applications require full -wave
SELENIUM CELL rectification for maximum efficiency and
This graph applies to single -phase full -wave minimum ripple, a plurality of cells in series,
bridge, and center -tap circuits which utilize parallel, or series -parallel combinations are
both halves of the input wave. In single -phase
half -wave circuits the regulation will be stacked in an assembly.
poorer. Selenium rectifiers are operated over a
wide range of voltages and currents. Typical
two voltage doublers of the type shown in applications range from a few volts at milli-
figure 8D with their outputs connected in amperes of current to thousands of amperes
series. The circuit delivers a d -c output at relatively high voltages.
voltage under light load approximately equal The efficiency of high -quality selenium
to four times the rms value of the line rectifiers is high, usually in the order of
voltage. The no -load d -c output voltage 90'4 in three -phase bridge circuits and 70%
delivered by the quadrupler is equal to 5.66 in single -phase bridge circuits. Of particular
times the rms line -voltage value and the interest is the very slight decrease in efficien-
output voltage decreases rather rapidly as cy even at high current overloads (figure
the load current is increased. 9B).
In each of the circuits in figure 8 where
Threshold Voltage A minimum voltage is
silicon rectifiers have been shown, conven-
and Aging required to permit a se-
tional high- vacuum rectifiers may be sub-
stituted with their filaments connected in lenium rectifier to con-
series and an appropriate value of the line duct in the forward direction. This voltage,
resistor added in series with the filament commonly known as the threshold voltage,
string. precludes the use of selenium rectifiers at
extremely low (less than one volt) applica-

'
tions. The threshold voltage will vary with
30 -4 Selenium and
Silicon Rectifiers POSITIVE TERMINAL CONTACT NEGATIVE TERMINAL

Selenium rectifiers are characterized by


long life, dependability, and maintenance-
free operation under severe operating condi-
l$ll.Msie
auaa.aa4W, /
SILICON CELL
i ii%
SPRING
tions. The selenium rectifier consists of a
nickel -plated aluminum baseplate coated Figure 11
with selenium over which a low- temperature
alloy is sprayed. The baseplate serves as the THE SILICON CELL
negative electrode and the alloy as the posi- This common silicon rectifier is a pressure -
tive, with current flowing readily from the contact device capable of operation in am-
bient temperatures os high as 150 C. Heavy
baseplate to the alloy but encountering high end ferrules that fit standard fuse clips are
resistance in the opposite direction (figure large enough to provide "heat sink" action.
9A). This action results in effective rectifi- The positive ferrule is grooved to provide
polarity identification and prevent incorrect
cation of an alternating input voltage and mounting.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Selenium and Silicon Rectifiers 721

temperature and will increase with a de-


crease in temperature.
Under operating conditions, and to a lesser
extent when idle, the selenium rectifier will
age. During the aging period the forward
resistance will gradually increase, stabilizing
at a new, higher value after about one year.
This aging will result in approximately a
7% decrease in output voltage.
Voltage The selenium rectifier has ex-
Regulation tremely low internal impedance
which exhibits nonlinear char-
acteristics with respect to applied voltage.
This results in good voltage regulation even
at large overload currents. Figure 10 shows
that as the load is varied from zero to 300% Figure 12
of normal, the output voltage will change MINIATURE SEMICONDUCTOR
about 10 %. It should be noted that because TYPE RECTIFIER
of nonlinear characteristics, the voltage drop
Raytheon CK -777 power rectifier bolts to
increases rapidly below SO% of normal load. chassis to gain large "heat sink" area. Low
internal voltage drop and high efficiency per-
Silicon Of all recent developments in the mit small size of unit.
Rectifier field of semiconductors, silicon
rectifiers offer the most promising efficient semiconductor and the excellent
range of applications; from extreme cold to thermal range coupled with very small size
high temperature, and from a few watts of per watt of output power make silicon recti-
output power to very high voltage and fiers applicable where other rectifiers were
currents. Inherent characteristics of silicon previously considered impractical.
allow junction temperatures in the order of
200 C before the material exhibits intrinsic Silicon The current density of a
properties. This extends the operating range Current Density silicon rectifier is very high,
of silicon devices beyond that of any other and on present designs

too

U
b
75
W
I-
QF
CC z So
LLW
OK
FK , 25
WU
00
a
WO
aJ
25 SO 75 100 12S 150 1.2 2.0
PERCENT RATED PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
VOL rs, o-c

Figure 13

SILICON RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS


A- Reverse direction of silicon rectifier is characterized by extremely high resistance up to
point of avalanche voltage.
is about 0.6 volt. Once device starts conducting the current
B- Threshold voltage of silicon cell
increases exponentially with small increments of voltage, then nearly linearly on a very
steep slope.
722 Power Suppl ies THE RADIO
ranges from 600 to 900 amperes per square is carefully controlled to limit the heat
inch of effective barrier layer. The usable dissipation in the junction.
current density depends on the general con-
struction of the unit and the ability of the Diode Ratings Silicon diodes are rated in
heat sink to conduct heat from the crystal. and Terms terms similar to those used
The small size of the crystal is illustrated for vacuum -tube rectifiers.
by the fact that a rectifier rated at 15 d -c Some of the more important terms and their
amperes, and 150 amperes peak surge current definitions follow: Peak Inverse Voltage
has a total cell volume of only .00023 inch. (PIV). The maxmium reverse voltage that
Peak currents are extremely critical because may be applied to a specific diode type be-
the small mass of the cell will heat instan- fore the avalanche breakdown point is
taneously and could reach failure tempera- reached.
tures within a time lapse of microseconds. Maximum RMS Input Voltage-The max-
The assembly of a typical silicon cell is imum rms voltage that may be applied to a
shown in figure 11. specific diode type for a resistive or induc-
Operating tive load. The PIV across the diode may be
The reverse direction of a
Characteristics
greater than the applied rms voltage in the
silicon rectifier is character-
case of a capacitive load and the maximum
ized by extremely high re-
rms input voltage rating must be reduced
sistance, up to 109 ohms below a critical
voltage point. This point of avalanche volt-
age is the region of a sharp break in the
accordingly.
Mavinrum Average Forward Current
The maximum value of average current al-
-
resistance curve, followed by rapidly decreas-
lowed to flow in the forward direction for
ing resistance (figure 13A). In practice, the
a specified junction temperature. This value
peak inverse working voltage is usually set
is specified for a resistive load.
at least 20% below the avalanche point to
Peak Recurrent Forward Current -The
provide a safety factor.
maximum repetitive instantaneous forward
A limited reverse current, usually of the
current permitted to flow under stated con-
order of 0.5 ma or less flows through the
ditions. This value is usually specified for
silicon diode during the inverse -voltage
cycle. The reverse current is relatively con-
stant to the avalanche point, increasing rap-
60 Hz and a specific junction temperature.
Maximum Single -Cycle Surge Current
The maximum one -cycle surge current of a
-
idly as this reverse -voltage limit is passed.
60 -Hz sine wave at a specific junction tem-
The maximum reverse current increases as
perature. Surge currents generally occur
diode temperature rises and, at the same
when the diode- equipped power supply is
time, the avalanche point drops, leading to
first turned on, or when unusual voltage
a "runaway" reverse -current condition at
transients are introduced in the supply line.
high temperatures which can destroy the
Derated Forward Current -The value of
diode.
The forward characteristic, or resistance direct current that may be passed through a
diode for a given ambient temperature. For
to the flow of forward current, determines
higher temperatures, less current is allowed
the majority of power lost within the diode
at operating temperatures. Figure 13B shows through the diode.
Maviinum Reverse Current -The maxi-
the static forward current characteristic
relative to the forward voltage drop for a mum leakage current that flows when the
typical silicon diode. A small forward bias diode is biased to the peak -inverse voltage.
(a function of junction temperature) is re- Silicon diodes may be mounted on a con-
quired for conduction. The power loss of a ducting surface termed a heat sink that,
typical diode rated at 0.5 ampere average because of its large area and heat dissipating
forward current and operating at 100 C, ability, can readily dispose of heat generated
for example, is about 0.6 watt during the in the diode junction, thereby safeguarding
conducting portion of the cycle. The for- the diode against damage by excessive tem-
ward voltage drop of silicon power rectifiers perature.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Selenium and Silicon Rectifiers 723

30-5 Series Diode Operation 470 K 470 K 70 K 470K 470K 470 K

4
Series diode operation is commonly used
D, Da 03
when the peak- inverse voltage of the source
I I I

is greater than the maximum PIV rating of .1.ea-Iea{ .0I


,KV
a single diode. For proper series operation, it
is important that the PIV be equally divided
among the individual diodes. If it is not,
one or more of the diodes in the stack will r L

be subjected to a PIV greater than its max-


To
imum rating and, as a result, may be de- RECTIFIER
stroyed. As most failures of this type result
in a shorted junction, the PIV on the re-
maining diodes in the stack is raised, making
each diode subject to a greater value of PIV.
Failure of a single diode in a stack can lead Figure 14
to a "domino effect" which will destroy the
remaining diodes if care is not taken to PROTECTION CIRCUITS FOR
prevent this disaster. Forced voltage distri- SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES
bution in a stack is necessary when the in- A -Peak inverse voltage should be distributed
dividual diodes vary appreciably in reverse equally between series- ted diodes.
If diodes do not have matched reverse
characteristics. To equalize the steady -state characteristics, shunt resistors should be
voltage division, shunt resistors may be placed across the diodes.
placed across the diodes in a stack (figure a- Series- ted diodes are protected
against high-voltage switching transients
I4A). The maximum value of the shunt by shunt capacitors which equalize and
resistor to achieve a 10 percent voltage bal- absorb the transients uniformly along the
stack.
ance, or better is: C-Transient suppressor placed across the sec-
ondary of the high- voltage transformer
Ply
Shunt resistance - 2 X Max. Reverse ( 3)
protects diode stack from transients often
found on the a -c power line or created
by abrupt change in the magnetizing
Current current of the power transformer.
D- Suppressor network across series filter
Six -hundred volt PIV diodes, for example, choke absorbs portion of energy released
when magnetic field of choke collapses,
having a reverse current of 0.3 ma at the thus p ing the surge current from
maximum PIV require a shunt resistance of destroying the diode stack.
1 megohm, or less.
Transient Diodes must be protected from Controlled atalanche diodes having
Protection voltage transients which often matched zener characteristics at the ava-
are many times greater than lanche point usually do not require RC
the permissible peak -inverse voltage. Tran- shunt suppressors, reducing power-supply
sients can be caused by d -c switching at the cost and increasing over -all reliability of
load, by transformer switching, or by shock the rectifier circuit.
excitation of LC circuits in the power sup- In high -voltage stacks, it is prudent to
ply or load. Shunt capacitors placed across provide transient protection in the form of
the diodes will equalize and absorb the an RC suppressor placed across the second-
transients uniformly along the stack (figure ary of the power transformer (figure 14C).
14B). The shunt capacitor should have at The suppressor provides a low- impedance
least 100 times the capacitance of the diode path for high- voltage transients often found
junction, and capacitance values of 0.01 on a -c power lines, or generated by an
icfd or greater are commonly found in diode abrupt change in the magnetizing current
stacks used in equipment designed for ama- of the power transformer as a result of
teur service. switching primary voltage or the load. The
724 Power Supplies THE RADIO
approximate value of the surge capacitor
in such a network is: Capacitance (fd) - L X
10 X
12

E' (5)

Capacitance (fd) - 1SXEXI (4 where,


e2 L is the maximum choke inductance
where, (henrys),
E is the d -c supply voltage,
I is the maximum current passing through
I is the maximum output current of the the choke (amperes),
supply in amperes, E is the maximum d -c supply voltage.
e is the rms voltage of the transformer
The resistance in series with the capacitor
secondary winding. should equal the load impedance placed
High -voltage transients can also be caused across the supply.
by series filter chokes subject to abrupt load
changes. An RC suppressor network placed 30 -6 Silicon Supplies
across the winding of the choke can absorb for SSB
a portion of the energy released when the
magnetic field of the choke collapses, thus Shown in figure 15 are three semiconduc-
preventing the current surge from destroy- tor power supplies. Circuit A provides 500
ing the diode stack (figure 14D). The ap- volts (balanced to ground) at 0.5 ampere.
proximate value of the transient capacitor If the supply is isolated from ground by a
is: 1:1 transformer of 250 watts capacity point

+265V
150 MA.

265 V.
150 MA
OA DUAL- VOLTAGE DOUBLER
WITH COMMON B -MINUS

t0 W
300 i! F

D2 D
Tl' D3
111.1 450 MA.
+325V. +
117 V. 15011F
50 MA. D2
ti 230V
l0LF
2aV.V. 02

HIGH -CURRENT SUPPLY 900 -WATT HIGH -VOLTAGE SUPPLY

Figure 15

SEMICONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES


A- Voltage-quadrupler circuit. If point "A" is taken as ground instead of point "8," supply
will deliver 530 volts at ISO ma from 115 -volt a -c line. Supply is "hot" to line.
8- Voltage tripler delivers 325 volts at 450 ma. Supply is "hot" to line.
C- 900 -watt supply for sideband service may be made from two voltage quadruplers working
in series from inexpensive "distribution -type" transformer. Supply features good dynamic
voltage regulation.
PARTS LIST:
0,-Sarkes Tarzian Model ISO selenium cell or Model M -500 silicon cell.
Dt Sarkes Tarzian Model 500 selenium cell or Model M -500 silicon cell.
T, -Power distribution transformer, used backwards. 230/460 primary, 115/230
secondary, 0.75
KVA. Chicago PCB- 24750.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Silicon Supplies for SSB 725

45
speaking, the average power capability of a
40 power supply designed for intermittent voice
service (IVS) can be as low as 25 percent
35
of the PEP level. C -w requirements run
30 somewhat higher than this, the average c -w
25
power level running close to 50 percent of
the peak level for short transmissions. Rel-
20 atively small power transformers of modest
15 capability may be used for intermittent voice
and c -w service at a worthwhile saving in
10
weight and cost. The power capability of a
5 transformer may be judged by its weight,
as shown in the graph of figure 16. It must
o
.2 .4 .6 .6 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 5 2.0 be remembered that the use of alc or voice
POWER CAPACITY KW
compression in SSB service raises the duty,
Figure 16 thus reducing the advantage of the IVS
power rating. The IVS rating is difficult
INTERMITTENT VOICE SERVICE IN SSB
to apply to very small power transformers,
PERMITS LARGE PEAK POWER TO BE
since the d -c resistance of the transformer
DRAWN FROM POWER TRANSFORMER. windings tends to degrade the voltage regu-
PEAK -TO- AVERAGE RATIO OF NEARLY
lation to a point where the IVS rating is
FOUR TO ONE MAY BE ACHIEVED WITH
meaningless. Intelligent use of the IVS rating
MAXIMUM IVS RATING. POWER CA- in choosing a power transformer, stacked
PACITY OF TRANSFORMER MAY BE
silicon rectifiers, and "computer" type elec-
DETERMINED FROM WEIGHT
trolytic capacitors can permit the design
and construction of inexpensive, lightweight
A may be grounded and point B will provide high -voltage power supplies suitable for SSB
half -voltage. Circuit B is a half -wave tripler and c -w service.
that delivers 440 volts at 0.S ampere. In this The Design of IVS The low duty of SSB
circuit, one side of the power line is common Power Supplies and c -w modes can be
to the negative side of the output. Circuit C used to advantage in the
is a 900 -watt, 0.5 ampere supply composed
design of high -voltage power supplies for
of two voltage doublers supplied from a
"distribution" transformer having dual 115
230 -volt windings.
these services.
The Power Transformer - Relatively
low- voltage transformers may be used in
Power Supply Rating The duty cycle (ratio voltage -doubler service to provide a kilo-
for SSB Service of duration of maxi- watt or two of peak power at poten-
mum power output to tials ranging from one to three thousand
total "on" time) of a power supply in volts. Most suitable power transformers are
SSB and c -w service is much smaller than rated for commercial service and the IVS
that of a supply used for a -m equip- rating must be determined by experiment.
ment. While the power supply must be Figure 16 shows a relationship between var-
capable of supplying peak power equal ious services as determined by extensive
to the PEP input of the SSB equipment tests performed on typical transformers.
for a short duration, the average power de- The data illustrates the relationship between
manded by SSB voice gear over a period of transformer weight and power capability.
time usually runs about one -half or less of Transformer weight excludes weight of the
the PEP requirement. Then, too, the inter- case and mounting fixtures. Thus, a plate
vals between words in SSB operation provide transformer weighing about 17 pounds that
periods of low duty, just as the spaces in is rated for 400 watts commercial or in-
c -w transmission allow the power supply to dustrial service should have an 800 -watt
"rest" during a transmission. Generally peak capacity for c -w service and a 950-
726 Power Suppl ies THE RADIO
watt peak capacity for intermittent SSB fiers are available at a cost less than that of
service. A transformer having a so- called building a complete RC stack of diodes. The
"two- kilowatt PEP" rating for sideband may silicon rectifier, if properly used, is rarely
weigh as little as 22 pounds, according to the limiting factor in the design of steady -
this graph. state IVS power supplies, provided proper
Not shown in the graph is the effect of transient protection is incorporated in the
amplifier idling (standby) current taken supply.
from the supply, or the effect of bleeder The Filter Capacitor-Recently developed
current. Both currents impose an extra, con- "computer" -type aluminum -foil electrolytic
tinuous drain on the power transformer and capacitors combine high capacitance per
quickly degrade the IVS rating of the trans- unit of volume with moderate working volt-
former. Accordingly, the IVS curves of fig- age at a low price. Capacitors of this type
ure 16 are limited to the bleeder current can withstand short -interval voltage surges
required by the equalizing resistors for a of 15 percent over their d -c working volt-
series capacitor filter and assume that the age. In a stack, the capacitors should be
idling plate current of the amplifier is cut protected by voltage- equalizing resistors, as
to only a few milliamperes by the use of a shown in the power supplies in this section.
VOX -controlled cathode bias system. If the The capacitors are sheathed in a Mylar
idling plate current of the amplifier assumes jacket and may be mounted on the chassis
an appreciable fraction of the peak plate or adjacent to each other without addi-
current, the power capability of the supply tional insulation between the units. The
decreases to that given for c -w service. stack may be taped and mounted to a metal
Most small power transformers work re- chassis with a metal clamp, as is done in
liably with the center tap of the secondary
winding above ground potential. Some of the
larger transformers, however, are designed
Inrush Current Protection -
some of the units described here.
When the
power supply is first turned on, the filter
to have the center tap grounded and lack capacitors are discharged and present a near
sufficient insulation at this point to permit short circuit to the power transformer and
their use in either a bridge or voltage dou- rectifier stack. The charging current of a
bling configuration. The only way of de- high- capacitance stack may exceed the
termining if the center -tap insulation is maximum peak- recurrent current rating
sufficient is to use the transformer and see of the rectifiers for several cycles, thus dam-
if the insulation breaks down at this point! aging the diodes. Charging current is
It is wise to ground the frame of the trans- limited only by the series impedance of
former so that if breakdown occurs, the the power- supply circuit which consists
frame of the tranformer does not assume mainly of the d -c circuit resistance (pri-
the potential of the secondary winding and marily the resistance of the secondary wind-
thus present a shock hazard to the operator. ing of the power transformer) plus the
-A
The Silicon Rectifier bewildering vari- leakage reactance of the transformer. Trans-
ety of "TV- type" silicon rectifiers exists and formers having high secondary resistance
new types are being added daily. Generally and sufficient leakage reactance usually limit
speaking, 600 -volt PTV rectifiers, having an the inrush current so that additional in-
average rectified current rating of 1 ampere rush protection is unnecessary. This is not
at an ambient temperature of 75C with a the case with larger transformers hiving
maximum single -cycle surge- current rating low secondary resistance and low leakage
of if amperes or better are suitable for use reactance. To be on the safe side, in any
in the power supplies described in this sec- case, it is good practice to limit inrush cur-
tion. Typical rectifiers are packaged in the rent to well within the capability of the
top-hat configuration as well as the epoxy - diode stack. A current -limiting circuit is
encapsulated assembly and either type costs shown in figure 17 which can be added at
less than a dollar per unit. In addition, potted little expense to any power supply. The cur-
stacks utilizing controlled -avalanche recti- rent- limiting resistor (R) is initially in the

www.americanradiohistory.com
HAN DBOOK Silicon Supplies for SSB 727

across the load, the ripple frequency has


twice the line frequency.
A second advantage of the full -wave
doubler over the half -wave type is that the
former tends to be self -protecting against
switching transients. One diode stack is al-
ways in a conducting mode, regardless of
Figure 17
the polarity of a transient, and the transient
INRUSH CURRENT PROTECTION is therefore discharged into the filter- capaci-
FOR POWER SUPPLY tor stack.
The filter- capacitor stack is rated for the
Charging current of capacitor filter may be peak no -load voltage (plus a safety factor),
limited by series impedance of the power
supply. In voltage -doubler circuit shown here, while the diode rectifiers must be able to
primary resistor R limits inrush current to withstand twice the peak no -load voltage
within the capability of the diodes. Limiting
resistor is shorted out after sufficient time (plus a safety factor). Good engineering
has elapsed to partially charge the filter practice calls for the d -c working voltage
capacitors. Delay time of 0.S d is usually
sufficient. R -C, combination determines time
of each portion of the capacitor stack to be
delay. Secondary surge suppression (R -C.) is equal to the peak a -c voltage of the power
used, and shunt RC equalizing networks are transformer (1.41 X rms secondary volt-
employed across each diode stack. Filter ca-
pacitors (C , C,) are "computer- grade" elec- age) plus 15 percent safety factor.
trolytic capacitors in series with 10K, 10 -watt The R' Factor-The a -c secondary volt-
wirewound resistor placed across each ca-
pacitor. age, secondary resistance, circuit reactance,
and IVS capability of a transformer will
determine its excellence in voltage- doubler
circuit when the power supply is turned on, service. The end effect of these parameters
but is shorted out by relay RY after a suf- may be expressed by an empirical R' factor
ficient time has elapsed to partially charge as shown in figure 18 and employed in
the filter capacitors of the power supply. formula (7). As an example, assume a power
The relay coil is in a simple time -delay cir- transformer is at hand weighing 25 pounds,
cuit composed of R, -C,. The delay may be with a secondary winding of 840 volts
adjusted by varying the capacitance value, (rms) and a d -c secondary resistance of 8
and need only be about one -half second or ohms. The IVS rating of this transformer
so. Surplus 24 -volt d -c relays used in dyna- (from figure 16) is about 1.5 KW, PEP, or
motor starting circuits work well in this more. The appropriate d -c no -load volt-
device, as they have large low- resistance age of an IVS supply making use of this
contacts and reasonable coil resistance (250 unit in voltage- doubler service, such as the
ohms or so). circuit of figure 17, is:
Practical An IVS voltage- doubler power Exo 1.asn = 2.81 X e (6)
IVS Supplies supply may be designed with where,
the aid of figures 16 and 18. the rms secondary voltage.
e is
A typical doubler circuit, such as shown in For this transformer, then, the no -load
figure 17 is to be used. The full -wave volt- d -c supply voltage is about 2360 volts. The
age doubler is preferred over the half -wave
full load voltage will be somewhat less than
type, as the former charges the filter ca-
this value. For a maximum power capability
pacitors in parallel and discharges them in
of 1.5 KW, a full load current of about
series to obtain a higher d -c voltage than
0.75 ampere is required if the full load d -c
the peak voltage of the secondary winding
of the power transformer. This saves trans- voltage is in the vicinity of 2000. This is a
former weight and expense. realistic figure, so a "target" full -load volt-
Referring to figure 17, filter capacitors age of 2000 is hopefully chosen.
C and C,; are charged on alternate half
-,
The projected full -load voltage for a
cycles, but since the capacitors are in series doubler -type supply may be determined
728 Power Supplies THE RADIO
with the aid of the R' factor and is calcu- 111I11111111119e.9.
IIIII1111111111..
lated from: uuuuul..t1
1 111111111111...
l...I al 1111111...
111111111111111 II
m111111nu111 uuu1111111111u11n nnitaMIN////uO
E:.osn = E.01.0.\1) - R' (/ X R) (7)
111 u u11111111111111 111111111111
11111111111111I I11111111111111111II I I I1111II1
MI
II
II
I I ll ll M// u u u/I I I
ta
MBO 1
IIIIIM11111
1 11 11

1I11111111I11I11111111/11111111111111I II II
IIIIIIII1111
where,
R' is determined from figure 18,
/ is the full load current in amperes,
IIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11111111III II
111111111 II II IIIII1111I III1711111111 I I II
11111111111111111

1111111111 111111
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1111111111E1111111
IIIII11111
II II
111111111111111111
IIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIII II 11111111111 III II II 111111111111111
I

R is the secondary resistance of the trans-


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
former.
111111111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIi!IIIIIIIIIII1111IIIIII
For this example, R' is about 60 for the sec-
ondary resistance of 8 ohms, and the full -
load d -c voltage of the supply is found ::
(from formula 7) to be just about 2000. ll
.,

...
...
1==
The peak rectified voltage across the
complete filter- capacitor stack is equal to M\\./
111010191..N

the no -load d -c voltage (formula 6) and is


NIIIIIII 11111111/..
1.... u 1.11111111111111111
1111111 11m.m. s e e1 //
U
11111111
111111111111111111 11111111111I1IIIIIIIIIlll1111I11
2360 volts. Six 450 -volt "computer" -type 1011111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 11/11
IS 20 25 30 40 00
240 -4d electrolytic capacitors in series pro-
IO So 70 00 90 100
R- FACTOR
vide a 40 -pfd effective capacitor, with a
working voltage of 2700 (peak voltage rat- Figure 18
ing of 3000), a sufficient margin for safety.
R' FACTOR GRAPH FOR IVS
Each capacitor is shunted with two 100K,
POWER SUPPLIES
2 -watt resistors in parallel.
The total PIV for the diode stack is The full load d -c voltage of an IVS -rated
voltage -doubler power supply may be de-
twice the peak rectified voltage (formula termined with the aid of this graph. The sec-
6) and is 4720 volts. A 100 percent safety ondary resistance of the transformer is
measured and the R' Factor is found. For ex-
factor is recommended for the complete ample, a transformer having a secondary re-
stack, whose PIV should thus be about sistance of 20 ohms has an R' Factor of about
9440 volts. The number of individual diodes 40. The factor is used in formula 7 to cal-
culate the full load d-e voltage of the power
in a suitable stack is: supply. For use with bridge circuits, the R'
Factor derived here should be divided by 2.5
before being used in the formula.
Number of diodes - 11.2 DioderutsPIVrouage (8)
X

30-7 A 1- Kilowatt IVS


For this example, 600-volt PIV rectifiers Power Supply
are chosen and 16 are required, eight in each
half of the stack. Shown in figures 19 and 20 is a typical
The charging current of the capacitor 1- kilowatt IVS power supply designed from
stack may be safely ignored if the power the above data. This supply is based on a
supply is energized through a series primary 40 percent duty cycle and may be used
resistor (R) such as shown in figure 17. for c -w service at 1- kilowatt level, or
One -ampere diodes having a single -cycle up to 1200 watts PEP or so for SSB
surge- current rating of 15 to 30 amperes service. The regulation of the supply is
are recommended for general use. The dif- shown in the graph (figure 20), and the
fused silicon rectifiers (1N3195 and IN- unit is capable of delivering 2300 volts
4005, for example) have a single -cycle at 0.5 ampere in IVS operation. The no-
surge- current rating of 30 amperes and are load voltage rises to 2750. The power sup-
no more expensive than the older style alloy ply is suitable for running a single -
junction rectifiers (1N547 and 1N1492, 400Z at maximum rating, or it may be
for example) having a much lower single - used for a pair of 813, 4CX2S0B, or 4CX-
cycle surge current rating. 300A tubes at the kilowatt level. A trans-

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HANDBOOK 2- Kilowatt PEP Supply 729

Figure 19

COMPACT ONE- KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY FOR SSB AND C -W SERVICE


This power supply delivers 2250 volts at 500 ma for SSB operation and 2400 volts at 400
ma for c -w operation. The supply is constructed on a covered foundation unit measuring
12" X 7" X 9" high (Bud CA -1751 i. The electrolytic capacitors are held in position by a
bracket cut from aluminum sheet. Primary power receptacle, power switch, and neon pilot
light are on the front apron of the chassis, with primary fuse and Miller high -voltage con-
nector on the rear apron. High -voltage diode stack is mounted beneath the chassis on a
phenolic board.

former having less secondary resistance and one pays for an intermittent -duty design,
slightly less secondary voltage would provide and care should be exercised in the use of
improved voltage regulation. The 840 -volt this equipment
transformer having an 8-ohm secondary To reduce the standby current and power
winding discussed earlier would be ideal in consumption, it is recommended that cath-
this application. ode bias be applied to the linear amplifier
The power supply is constructed on a stage shown in various designs in this Hand-
steel amplifier foundation chassis and dust book. During transmission, the cathode re-
cover. The diode stack is mounted on a per- sistor may be shorted out by contacts of
forated phenolic board under the chassis. the VOX relay, restoring the stage to proper
The electrolytic capacitors are taped to- operation.
gether and held in position atop the chassis Using the alternative 1100 -volt trans-
by a clamp cut from an aluminum sheet. former, the supply delivers 2600 volts at a
The interior of the clamp is lined with a c -w rating of 380 ma. Peak IVS voice rating
piece of plastic material salvaged from a is 500 ma (1.25 KW, PEP) . No -load volt-
package of frozen vegetables. The voltage - age is about 3100, and eight electrolytic ca-
equalizing resistors are wired across the pacitors are required in the stack instead of
terminals of the capacitors. Normally, it six.
takes 10 seconds or so to fully discharge the
filter capacitors when no external load is
connected to the supply. It is recommended
30 -8 A 2- Kilowatt PEP
that the supply be discharged with a 1000 - Supply for SSB
ohm, 100 -watt resistor before any work is
done on the unit. Power -supply components The power supply described in this section
and all terminals should be well protected is designed for the maximum power rating
against accidental contact. The voltage de- for amateur service. It is capable of 1.2 kilo-
livered by this supply is lethal and the filter watts power for c -w (50 percent duty
capacitors hold a considerable charge for a cycle) and 2 kilowatts IVS for SSB service.
surprising length of time. This is the price The supply is ideally suited for a grounded-
730 Power Supplies T H E R A D I O

3
pfd effective capacitance at 3600 volts
==1111=1========
2

2
DOo

oo

_
iM!^M
iIIIIMIMEMEIMMEICErE3>=M11
bill_-_ RATING 000 VZ)
MAX I VS
NG
working voltage. The voltage across the
"bottom" capacitor in the stack is moni-
tored by a 0 -to -1 d -c milliammeter recali-
brated 0 to 4 KV and which is used with a
Mi llO
S)
2
l
1111=MIM1==1111110O= series multiplier to provide a 0 to 5000-volt
2 000
1===1N1=MMIOO=
11===N==1100= full -scale indication. A 0 -to -1 d -c ammeter
MIMMEN111==00=1
11111=MIO=MIMo= is placed in series with the negative lead to
==IIIM=11===1=
=111Ma=
==l1NO0=11111===o=
00IN
00=1
MINIIMI0MMIN
I=MIMNMIIIII
==l1M111=M11
the high -voltage terminal strip.
The supply is built on a steel amplifier
foundation chassis in the same style as the
OM 1KW supply described previously. All safety
.2 .3 .4 .3 .e
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES) precautions outlined earlier should be ob-
served with this supply.
Figure 20

REGULATION CURVE OF ONE


KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY
The power supply uses the circuit of figure
17. Primary surge resistor (R) is 5 ohms, 50
watts. Secondary surge -voltage resistor (R,)
is 200 ohms, 10 watts. Surge capacitor (C is )

.02 ;pfd, 3 KV ( Aerovox P89 -M). Sixteen type


1N2071 (600 -volt Ply) diodes are used in an
assembly such as shown in figures 25 and 26.
The diode shunt capacitors are .01 -1)fd, 600 -
volt ceramic discs, and the shunt resistors are
470K, 12 -watt units. Six 450 -volt (working),
240 -.,fd filter capacitors are used in series,
each capacitor shunted with two 100K, 2-
watt resistors in parallel. The time delay re-
lay (RY) has a 24 -volt d -c coil with a re-
sistance of about 280 ohms (Potter -Brumfield
PR5 -DY). Contacts are rated at 25 amperes.
Delay time is about 0.5 second and is deter-
mined primarily by the time constant of
R -C Suggested values are 800.. fd (50 work-
. Figure 21
ing volts) for C, and 600 ohms, 10 watts for
R Diode D may be a 1N2070. The power
.
COMPACT COMPONENTS FOR
transformer shown is a surplus unit having a
115 /230 -volt primary and a 960 -volt second- MODERN POWER SUPPLIES
ary. The transformer weight is 18 pounds and
Recent developments in compact components
it has an IVS rating of 1.2 KW. (A commercial
alternative is Hill Magnetics Co., 2201 Bay allow construction of ultracompact power
Road, Redwood City, Calif. "HMP- 1939A. This supplies of unusually great capability. In
compact, 825 -volt, wound -core transformer foreground are three controlled -avalanche
has improved regulation and is rated at
rectifier modules that take the place of power
KW 1
rectifiers and their accompanying filament
continuous duty 12 KW IVS rating( and pro-
vides 2000 volts at a continuous load of 500 transformer (Diodes, Inc., Chatsworth, Calif .).
At left is voltage -doubler module that pro-
ma.) vides 3000 volts d.c. at 1 ampere (Dl- 1446C).
Center: Bridge rectifier module for rms input
voltages up to 1400 at a load current of 1.5
grid amplifier using a single 3- 1000Z, 4- ampere (DI- BR- 820A). Right: Bridge -rectifier
1000A, or a pair of 3- 400Z's. Regulation module for rms input voltages up to 10,000
at a load current of 1.5 ampere (DI- BR- 8100A'.
of the supply is shown in figure 22. A Because of controlled- avalanche characteristic
voltmeter is incorporated in the supply to of these modules, no surge network is neces-
monitor the plate voltage at all times. The sary across individual diodes of module.
At the left is a 240 -ufd, 450 -volt "computer -
supply makes use of the circuit of figure 17. type" electrolytic capacitor suitable for stack-
Twenty 600 -volt PIV diodes are used in ing in high -voltage power supplies (Mallory
type CG). The power transformer 'rear) has a
the rectifier stack to provide a total PIV wound, hypersil core and provides 2000 volts
of 12 KV, which allows an ample safety d.c. at 500 ma (continuous service) in a
factor. Eight 240 -4d, 450 -volt capacitors doubler configuration using the Dl -1446C
rectifier (Hill Magnetics, Inc., Redwood City,
are used in the filter stack to provide 30- Calif.)

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK IVS Bridge- Rectifier Supplies 731

1200 N-N RATING 30 -9 IVS Bridge- Rectifier


.
AX.C-W

goon ----0i= _IIMM/M 7.2 N MIME


IlirTIIIINNNNNI RATING MAO IVO
1

Supplies
zeoo .==p003==r:--SSB
N (2 )

Ieoo iirooiiiiiGTiOiiiiN
NNNNNNNNNNIiiiii:Z.NONMI
The bridge- rectifier circuit is somewhat
z400 NiNINNINNiNINNO
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNN>
more efficient than the full -wave circuit in
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNI that the former provides more direct current
2200
NiNINNNNNNINNNO
NNNNNNNNiNNNNNNMII per unit of rms transformer current for a
NiNNNNNNNiNNINO
NNNiNNNNNNNNNNO given load than does the full -wave circuit.
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNill
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNill
Since there are two rectifiers in opposite
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNIN arms of the bridge in the conducting mode
0
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNIN
.2
.1 .3 .4 .5 .E .
when the a -c voltage is at its peak value,
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES) the remaining two rectifiers are back -biased
to the peak value of the a -c voltage. Thus
Figure 22 th: bridge- rectifier circuit requires only
half the PIV rating for the rectifiers as
REGULATION CURVE OF
compared to a center -tap full -wave recti-
2- KILOWATT IVS SUPPLY
fier. The latter circuit applies the sum of
The power supply uses the circuit of figure the peak a -c voltage plus the stored capaci-
17. Surge components are as given in figure
20, except that the surge capacitor (C ) has a tor voltage to one rectifier arm in the maxi-
rating of 5 KV. Twenty type- 1N2071 (600 -volt mum inverse- voltage condition.
PIV) diodes are used in an assembly similar
to that shown in figures 25 and 26. Eight 240 A 500 -Watt IVS Shown in figure 23
:,fd, 450- working -volt (500 -volt peak) ca-
pacitors are used to provide 30 aft/ effective Bridge Power Supply is 500 -watt bridge
a
capacitance. Two 100K, 2 -watt resistors are power supply designed
shunted across each capacitor. Time -delay
circuit components are as suggested in fig- around an inexpensive "TV- replacement"
ure 20. The transformer used has a 115/230 - type power transformer. The secondary
volt primary and an 1100 -volt secondary, with winding is 1200 volts center -tapped at a
an (CAS rating of 1.2 KW. (Berkshire Trans-
former Corp., Kent, Conn. #BTC- 4905B). current rating of 200 ma. The weight of

Figure 23

SCHEMATIC OF 500 -WATT IVS BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY


Diode package (C,- D,-R,, etc.) is composed of one each: 1N2071 diode in parallel with .01
td, 600 -voit ceramic capacitor and a 470K, 12 -watt resistor. Each bridge arm requires six
packages, made as shown in figures 25 and 26. The secondary voltage -surge network (C -R )
is a 100 -ohm, 10 -watt resistor in series with a .02 fd, 3 KV capacitor Aerovox P89 -M).
(
The
power transformer has a 1200 -volt center tapped 200-ma rating. (Stancor PC -8414 or Thordar-
son 22R36). The filter stack uses four 120 -pfd, 450 -volt electrolytic capacitors in series,
with
10K, 10 -watt resistors across each capacitor. Meter (M) is a 0-500 d -c milliammeter. A 10-
ampere fuse (F) is used. Transformer core is grounded as a safety measure.
732 Power Supplies THE RADIO
1600

U 1400
o
n 1200
I-
M- A-X. IVS R-
(480
ATING J'
J W.)
O

0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
LOAD CURRENT (AMPERES)
Figure 24
VOLTAGE -REGULATION CURVE OF
500 -WATT BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY

the transformer is 8 pounds, and the maxi-


mum IVS rating is about 500 watts or so. Figure 26
Secondary resistance is 100 ohms. Used in
bridge service, the transformer makes prac- REAR VIEW OF HIGH -VOLTAGE
tical an inexpensive power supply providing DIODE STACK
about 1250 volts at an IVS peak current The shunt capacitors and resistors are mounted
on the rear of the phenolic board. Each diode -
rating of 380 ma. The no -load voltage is resistor- capacitor package has an individual
about 1600. For c -w use, the current rating pair of mounting terminals, which are jump -
is 225 ma at 1400 volts (about 300 watts). ered together to connect the diodes in series.
This arrangement provides greatest available
Maximum PIV is nearly 1700 volts so each heat sink for the components. The assembly
arm of the bridge must withstand this is mounted an inch or so away from the chas-
sis by means of 4 -40 machine screws and
ceramic insulators placed in corners of the
board.

value. Allowing a 100 percent safety factor


requires 3400 volts PIV per arm, which may
be made up of six 600 -volt PIV diodes in
series with an appropriate RC network
across each diode. The diode assembly is
constructed on two phenolic boards, one of
which is shown in figures 25 and 26. A total
of 24 rectifiers are required. Four 120 -fd,
450 -volt electrolytic capacitors in series
provide 30 fd at a working voltage of
1800. The negative of the supply is above
ground by virtue of the 10 -ohm, 10 -watt
Figure 25 resistor which permits plate- current meter-
ing in the negative power lead while the
ASSEMBLY OF HIGH -VOLTAGE supply and amplifier remain at the same
DIODE STACK ground potential.
Inexpensive "TV- type" diodes may be con- This supply is designed for use with two
nected in series to provids a high value of 811's in grounded -grid service. The tubes
peak- inverse voltage. Shown here are twelve
type- 1N2071 diodes mounted on a Vector - are biased to plate- current cutoff in standby
bord (64AA32 cut to size). The diodes are mode by a cathode resistor which is shorted
soldered to Vector terminals (T9.6) mounted
in the prepunched holes in the phenolic out by contacts on the push -to -talk or VOX
board. A pair of long -nose pliers should be circuitry. The power supply is built in an
used as a heat sink when soldering the diode inclosed amplifier cabinet, similar to the one
leads. Grasp the diode lead between the
diode body and the joint, permitting the pliers shown in figure 19. The B -plus lead is made
to absorb the soldering heat. of a length of RG -8 ,'U coaxial cable, used

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Supply for SSB Transceiver 733

in conjunction with a high -voltage coaxial


connector.

30 -10 A Supply for SSB


Transceivers

A heavy -duty "TV- replacement" type


power transformer may be used in an in-
expensive IVS rated supply capable of run-
ning an SSB exciter or transceiver up to 300
watts PEP input (figure 27). The use of
'.-sigh storage "computer" type electrolytic
capacitors permits maximum power to be
maintained during voice peaks, while still
allowing the transformer to be operated
Figure 27
within its average power rating, even for
extended periods of time 300 -WATT IVS POWER SUPPLY
The power supply is designed to deliver FOR SSB TRANSCEIVERS
750 volts at 200 ma (average) current (400 power supply provides
This compact IVS -rated
ma peak current), and 250 volts at 200 all operating voltages necessary to operate
ma peak current. Bias and filament voltages most popular SSB transceivers. The supply
uses a "TV-replacement" power transformer
are also provided. Controlled- avalanche di- in conjunction with a bridge -rectifier circuit.
odes are used in the bridge- rectifier circuit, The unit is designed to be placed in the
speaker cabinet of the transceiver, and the
eliminating the usual RC shunt networks chassis should be shaped to custom-fit the
across individual rectifiers. Bias is derived particular speaker cabinet in use. If desired,
from a small filament transformer wired in the supply may be built on a chassis with a
dust cover and placed beneath the station
reverse across the filament source to provide console.
an adjustable d -c bias level up to -100 The power transformer is to the left, with
the 240 -1,fd, 450 -volt filter capacitors in the
volts at a current capacity of 25 ma. A foreground. The capacitors are mounted to
source of low- voltage direct current is ob- a phenolic plate which is bolted to the chas-
sis. The two filter chokes are to the rear,
tained from the filament circuit to actuate along with the low- voltage filter capacitors
auxiliary d -c control relays found in many and the "adjust- bias" potentiometer. The
transceivers. Transient voltage protection is reverse -connected filament transformer is at
the rear of the chassis. Semiconductor recti-
provided by an RC network across the sec- fiers are placed beneath the chassis.
ondary of the power transformer and by
large bypass capacitors placed on the primary
winding of the power transformer. The 30 -11 Power- Supply
supply is actuated by a remote line switch, Components
usually located in the transceiver or exciter.
The supply shown in the photograph was The usual components which make up a
built on a homemade aluminum chassis de- power supply, in addition to rectifiers which
have already been discussed, are filter ca-
signed to fit within the speaker cabinet of
pacitors, bleeder resistors, transformers, and
the transceiver. An inclosed cabinet is rec-
chokes. These components normally will be
ommended to protect the user from the purchased especially for the intended appli-
dangerously high voltages found in the sup- cation, taking into consideration the factors
ply. Complete filter capacitor discharge discussed earlier in this chapter.
takes about 10 seconds or so once the sup-
ply is turned off, and it is recommended Filter There are two types of filter ca-
that the capacitor stack be shorted with a Capacitors pacitors: (1) paper -dielectric
1000 -ohm, 100 -watt resistor before any type, (2) electrolytic type.
work is done on the supply. Paper capacitors consist of two strips of
734 Power Supplies THE RADIO

T1 p,
SA.
115 V. 1, FOO., TB
.01
.1cV 0 qF-pe
y
RO
or p-
IHII1

.01 O B+750 V.
T1eKv 02
Tt. 1cV ?
240
450--
I+ 50
sw
K

240 I+ S0 K

_9i 450 T SW 2
o ONO.
3N-300 MA. CHI CH2 IN-300MA. -1-

II
B+ 250 V.

BIAS (ADJ.)

+12V. (RELAY SUPPLY)

e
0 12.6 V. 1,
1
?LINE SW.

Figure 28

SSB TRANSCEIVER POWER SUPPLY


Various replacement power transformers may be used with this power supply. Suggested
units are: (1) 650 -volt c.f. at 225 ma.; 12.6 -volt at 5.25 amp. (Stancor P- 8339), for 800 -volt
d-c output. (2) 750-volt c.t. at 325 ma.; 12.6 volt at 6.0 amp. (Stancor P- 8365), for 750-volt
d-c output. (3) 540 -volt c.t. at 260 ma.; 6.3 -volt at 8.8 amp. (Stancor P-8356), for 700 -volt
d-e output and 6.3 volt filament supply.
Transformer T.: 6.3 volts at 1 amp. (Stancor P- 8389). CH,: 3 henrys at 300 ma (Stancor C- 2334).
CH,: 1 henry at 300 ma ( Stancor C- 2343). D,: Diode bridge, 1400 -volt rms, 1.5 amp. (2000 -volt
PIV). Diodes Inc., 2023 Nordoff St., Chatsworth, Calif. #BR -820A. D D,: 1N2070.

metal foil separated by several layers of must be correctly connected in the circuit
special paper. Some types of paper capaci- so that the anode always is at a positive po-
tors are wax -impregnated, but the better tential with respect to the electrolyte, the
ones, especially the high -voltage types, are latter actually serving as the other electrode
oil- impregnated and oil -filled. Some capaci- (plate) of the capacitor. A reversal of the
tors are rated both for flash test and normal
polarity for any length of time will ruin
operating voltages; the latter is the impor-
the capacitor.
tant rating and is the maximum voltage
which the capacitor should be required to The dry type of electrolytic capacitor uses
withstand in service. an electrolyte in the form of paste. The di-
The capacitor across the rectifier circuit electric in electrolytic capacitors is not per-
in a capacitor -input filter should have a fect; the capacitors have a much higher
working -voltage rating equal at least to 1.41 direct -current leakage than the paper type.
times the rms voltage output of the rectifier. The high capacitance of electrolytic ca-
The remaining capacitors may be rated pacitors results from the thinness of the
more nearly in accordance with the d -c film which is formed on the plates. The max-
voltage. imum voltage that can be safely impressed
The electrolytic capacitor consists of two across the average electrolytic filter capacitor
aluminum electrodes in contact with a con- is between 450 and 600 volts; the working
ducting paste or liquid which acts as an voltage is usually rated at 450. When elec-
electrolyte. A very thin film of oxide is trolytic capacitors are used in filter circuits
formed on the surface of one electrode, of high -voltage supplies, the capacitors
called the anode. This film of oxide acts should be connected in series. The positive
as the dielectric. The electrolytic capacitor terminal of one capacitor must connect to

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Components 735

the negative terminal of the other, in the Transformers Power transformers and fila-
same manner as dry batteries are connected ment transformers normally
in series. will give no trouble over a period of many
Electrolytic capacitors can be greatly re- years if purchased from a reputable manu-
duced in size by the use of etched aluminum facturer, and if given a reasonable amount
foil for the anode. This greatly increases the of care. Transformers must be kept dry;
surface area, and the dielectric film cover- even a small amount of moisture in a high -
ing it, but raises the power factor slightly. voltage unit will cause quick failure. A
For this reason, ultramidget electrolytic ca- transformer which is operated continuously,
pacitors ordinarily should not be used at full within its ratings, seldom will give trouble
rated J -c voltage when a high a -c compo- from moisture, since an economically de-
nent is present as would be the case for signed transformer operates at a moderate
the input capacitor in capacitor -input filter. temperature rise above the temperature of
the surrounding air. But an unsealed trans-
Bleeder A heavy -duty resistor should be former which is inactive for an appreciable
Resistors connected across the output of a period of time in a highly humid location
filter in order to draw some load can absorb enough moisture to cause early
current at all time. This resistor avoids failure.
soaring of the voltage at no load when
swinging -choke input is used, and also pro- Filter Choke Filter inductors consist of a
vides a means for discharging the filter ca- Coils coil of wire wound on a lami-
pacitors when no external vacuum -tube cir- nated iron core. The size of
cuit load is connected to the filter. This wire is determined by the amount of direct
bleeder resistor should normally draw ap- current which is to flow through the choke
proximately 10 percent of the full load coil. This direct current magnetizes the
current. core and reduces the inductance of the
The power dissipated in the bleeder resistor choke coil; therefore, filter choke coils of
can be calculated by dividing the square of the smoothing type are built with an air
the d -c voltage by the resistance. This power gap of a small fraction of an inch in the
is dissipated in the form of heat, and, if the iron core, for the purpose of preventing
resistor is not in a well -ventilated position, saturation when maximum current flows
the wattage rating should be higher than through the coil winding. The "air gap" is
the actual wattage being dissipated. High - usually in the form of a piece of fiber in-
voltage, high- capacitance filter capacitors serted between the ends of the laminations.
can hold a dangerous charge if not bled off, The air gap reduces the initial inductance of
and wirewound resistors occasionally open the choke coil, but keeps it at a higher value
up without warning. Hence it is wise to under maximum load conditions. The coil
place carbon resistors in series across the must have a great many more turns for the
regular wirewound bleeder. same initial inductance when an air gap is
When purchasing a bleeder resistor, be used.
sure that the resistor will stand not only The d -c resistance of any filter choke
the required wattage, but also the toitage. should be as low as practical for a specified
Some resistors have a voltage limitation value of inductance. Smaller filter chokes,
which makes it impossible to force sufficient such as those used in radio receivers, usually
current through them to result in rated have an inductance of from 6 to 15 henrys,
wattage dissipation. This type of resistor and a d -c resistance of from 200 to 400
usually is provided with slider taps, and is ohms. A high d -c resistance will reduce the
designed for voltage divider service. An un-
tapped, nonadjustable resistor is preferable as
output voltage, due to the voltage drop
across each choke coil. Large filter choke
a high -voltage bleeder, and is less expensive.
coils for radio transmitters and class -B
Several small resistors may be connected in
series, if desired, to obtain the required watt- amplifiers usually have less than 100 ohms
age and voltage rating. d -c resistance.
736 Power Supplies TH E R A D I O

30 -12 Special Power ting a suitable resistor in series with the


Supplies regulated voltage and the load, dropping the
voltage from 105 to 50 volts. However, it
A complete transmitter usually includes should be borne in mind that under these
one or more power supplies such as grid -bias conditions the device will not be regulated
packs, voltage -regulated supplies, or trans - for varying load; in other words, if the
formerless supplies having some special char- load resistance varies, the voltage across the
acteristic. load will vary, even though the regulated
voltage remains at 105 volts.
Regulated
Supplies
VR Tubes
- Where it is desired in a circuit
to stabilize the voltage supply
to a load requiring not more
To maintain constant voltage across a
varying load resistance there must be no
series resistance between the regulator tube
than perhaps 20 to 25 ma, the and the load. This means that the device
glow- discharge type of voltage -regulator must be operated exactly at one of the
tube can be used to great advantage. Exam- voltages obtainable by using two or more
ples of such circuits are the local oscillator similar or different VR tubes in series.
circuit in a receiver, the tuned oscillator in In order to provide greatest range of reg-
a vfo, the oscillator in a frequency meter, ulation, a VR tube (or two in series) should
or the bridge circuit in a vacuum -tube volt- be used with a series resistor (to effect a
meter. A number of tubes are available for poorly regulated voltage source) of such
this application including the 0A3/VR75, a value that it will permit the VR tube to
OB3/VR90, 0C3/VR105, OD3 /VR150, draw from 8 to 20 ma under normal or
and the 0A2 and OB2 miniature types. average conditions of supply voltage and
These tubes stabilize the voltage across their load impedance. For maximum control
terminals to 75, 90, 105, or 150 volts. The range, the series resistance should be not
miniature types 0A2 stabilize to 150 volts less than approximately 20,000 ohms, which
and OB2 to 108 volts. The types 0A2, will necessitate a source of voltage consider-
OB2, and OB3 /VR90 have a maximum ably in excess of 150 volts. However, where
current rating of 30 ma and the other three the supply voltage is limited, good control
types have a maximum current rating of 40 over a limited range can be obtained with
ma. The minimum current required by all as little as 3000 ohms series resistance. If it
six types to sustain a constant discharge is takes less than 3000 ohms series resistance
5 ma. to make the VR tube draw 15 to 20 ma
A VR tube (common term applied to all when the VR tube is connected to the load,
glow -discharge voltage -regulator tubes) may then the supply voltage is not high enough
be used to stabilize the voltage across a for proper operation.
variable load or the voltage across a constant Should the current through a VR150,
load fed from a varying voltage. Two or VR105, or VR75 be allowed to exceed 40
more VR tubes may be connected in series ma, the life of the tube will be shortened.
to provide exactly 180, 210, 255 volts, or If the current falls below 5 ma, operation
other combinations of the voltage ratings of will become unstable. Therefore, the tube
the tubes. It is not recommended, however, must operate within this range, and within
that VR tubes be connected in parallel since the two extremes will maintain the voltage
both the striking and the regulated voltage within 1.5 percent. It takes a voltage excess
of the paralleled tubes normally will be suffi- of at least 10 to 15 percent to "start" a
ciently different so that only one of the VR -type regulator; and to ensure positive
tubes will light. The remarks following ap- starting each time, the voltage supply should
ply generally to all the VR types although preferably exceed the regulated output volt-
some examples apply specifically to the age rating about 20 percent or more. This
OD3 /VR150 type. usually is automatically taken care of by
A device requiring say, only 50 volts can the fact that if sufficient series resistance
be stabilized against supply- voltage varia- for good regulation is employed, the voltage
tions by means of a VR105 simply by put- impressed across the VR tube before the VR

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Special Power Supplies 737

RS, SERIES RESISTOR ceivers and a -f amplifiers. A 6SH7 controls


the operating bias on the 6AS7G, and there-
RL
Es
SUPPLY
fore controls the internal resistance of the
LOAD
OLT AGE 6AS7G. This, in turn, controls the output
voltage of the supply, which controls the
plate current of the 6SH7, thus completing
Figure 29 the cycle of regulation. It is apparent that
STANDARD VR -TUBE REGULATOR under these conditions any change in the
CIRCUIT output voltage will tend to "resist itself,"
The VR -tube regulator will maintain the volt-
age across its terminals constant within a
much as the avc system of a receiver resists
few volts for moderate variations in R or E. any change in signal strength delivered to
See text for discussion of the use of VR tubes the detector.
in various circuit applications.
Because it is necessary that there always
be a moderate voltage drop through the
tube ionizes and starts passing current is
6AS7G in order for it to have proper con-
quite a bit higher than the starting voltage
trol, the rest of the power supply is de-
of the tube.
signed to deliver as much output voltage as
When a VR tube is to be used to regulate
possible. This calls for a low- resistance full -
the voltage applied to a circuit drawing less
wave rectifier, a high- capacitance output
than /5 ma normal or average current, the
capacitor in the filter system and a low -
simplest method of adjusting the series resist-
resistance choke.
ance is to remove the load and vary the
Reference voltage in the power supply is
series resistor until the VR tube draws about
obtained from a VR150 gaseous regulator.
30 ma. Then connect the load, and that is
Note that the 6.3 -volt heater winding for
all there is to it. This method is particularly
the 6SH7 and the 6AS7G tubes is operated
recommended when the load is a heater -type
at a potential of plus 150 volts by connect-
vacuum tube, which may not draw current ing the winding to the plate of the VR150.
for several seconds after the power supply
This procedure causes the heater -cathode
is turned on. Under these conditions, the
voltage of the 6SH7 to be zero, and permits
current through the VR tube will never ex- an output voltage of up to 450 since the
ceed 40 ma even when it is running unloaded
300 -volt heater -to-cathode rating of the
(while the heater tube is warming up and
6AS7G is not exceeded with an output volt-
the power -supply rectifier has already reached
age of 450 from the power supply.
operating temperature) . If the power supply is to be used with an
Figure 29 illustrates the standard glow -
output voltage of 400 to 450 volts, the full
discharge regulator tube circuit. The tube
615 volts each side of center should be ap-
will maintain the voltage across RT, constant
plied to the 816's. However, the maximum
to within 1 or 2 volts for moderate varia-
plate dissipation rating of the 6AS7G will
tions in RT, or Es.
be exceeded, due to the voltage drop across
Voltage -Regulated When it is desired to sta- the tube, if the full current rating of 250
Power Supplies bilize the potential across ma is used with an output voltage below
a circuit drawing more 400 volts. If the power supply is to be used
than a few milliamperes it is advisable to with full output current at voltages below
use a voltage -regulated power supply of the 400 volts the 520 -volt taps on the plate
type illustrated in figure 30 rather than transformer should be connected to the
glow discharge tubes. 816's. Some variation in the output range of
A 6AS7G is employed as the series control the power supply may be obtained by vary-
element, and type -816 mercury-vapor recti- ing the values of the resistors and the po-
fiers are used in the power supply section. tentiometer across the output. However, be
The 6AS7G acts as a variable series resist- sure that the total plate dissipation rating
ance which is controlled by a separate reg- of 26 watts of the 6AS7G series regulator
ulator tube much in the manner of avc is not exceeded at maximum current out-
circuits or inverse feedback as used in re- put from the supply. The total dissipation
738 Power Supplies THE RADIO
6AS7G A Shunt- Regulated Many of the popular
361M1=1 391.2W
Bias Supply
(20 to 80 V)
class -B modulator and
grounded -grid linear am-
100
2 s
w0 6SH7 = o n, W.w.
plifier tubes require a
few volts of well -regulated negative bias.
Shown in figure 31 is an electronic bias
6 ME
supply which will provide a regulated bias
CH 1000 V
voltage variable over the range of 20 to 80
volts. Regulation is 0.001 volt /ma, which
is remarkable for a supply as simple as this.
Between 30 and 80 volts, the supply will
regulate grid current up to 200 ma. Be-
tween 20 and 30 volts, maximum grid cur-
63v. HEATER
rent is restricted to 100 ma.
Basically, the regulated supply consists of
a small power supply which delivers plate
voltage to a low -to 6AS7G triode. The volt-
0
JUMPER IN age drop across the triode is used as the

I 115
W_
V. PUTE 115 V FILS. 325
O
TO
450 V.
0
GN0.1
J
regulated bias voltage. Associated with the
triode is a d -c amplifier and a voltage -
L
regulator tube which serves to vary the grid
Figure 30 voltage of the triode regulator tube so that
a constant voltage is maintained across it.
SCHEMATIC OF VOLTAGE - The SK variable potentiometer is adjusted
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY to produce about 20 ma current through
3,-615 or 520 volts each side of c.t., 300 ma. the first regulator tube.
Stancor P -8041
T.-5 volts at 3 amp., 6.3 volts at 6 amp. A Shunt -Regulated Series - regulated power
Stancor P -5009
CH -4 -henry at 250 ma. St C -1412
Bias Supply supplies are usually not
(100 to 600 V) suited for bias units since
the direction of load -cur-
in the 6AS7G is equal to the current through rent flow is opposite from that of a regular
it (output current plus the current passing supply. In the supply shown in figure 32,
through the two bleeder strings) multiplied the regulator tube (6CK4) acts as a vari-
by the drop through the tube (voltage able bleeder resistor which automatically
across the filter capacitor minus the out- adjusts its resistance to a value such that
put voltage of the supply). the grid current flowing through it will de-

j1.14
!0 MA.
5Y3-GT VR-150 65J7
Irtn
O

E.3V.TO
X

T, 350-0-330 v. ALL RESISTORS 7 -MATT UNLESS OTNEAWISE SPECIFIED.


AT 50 MA.
3V.AT2A.
63V. AT SA.
Figure 31
SCHEMATIC, LOW- VOLTAGE REGULATED BIAS SUPPLY

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Design 739

runs from about 100 ma in the vicinity of


100 volts to about 25 ma in the 600 -volt
region.
ADJ. sus
100K 30 -13 Power-Supply
Design
6C K4 on
TK100t-COMNtCT[D Power supplies may either be of the choke -
6L6-GC +c input type illustrated in figure 33, or the
T1
capacitor-input type, illustrated in figure 34.
115V.N Capacitor -input filter systems are character-
T14S0V.C.T. AT 40 MA. ALL RESISTORS 7 -MATT. ized by a d -c supply output voltage that
V., 2A. 6.3V.,2A. runs from 0.9 to about 1.3 times the rms
Figure 32
voltage of one-half of the high- voltage sec-
ondary winding of the transformer. Capaci-
SCHEMATIC, HIGH -VOLTAGE tor -input filter systems are not recommended
REGULATED BIAS SUPPLY for use with mercury-vapor rectifier tubes,
as the peak rectifier current may run as high
velop a constant voltage across the supply as five or six times the d -c load current of
terminals. The tap switch of this supply the power supply. It is possible, however, to
permits rough bias adjustment over the range employ type 872A mercury-vapor rectifier
of about 100 to 600 volts, while the poten- tubes in capacitor-input circuits wherein the
tiometer permits a fine adjustment to be load current is less than 600 milliamperes or
made. Maximum permissible grid current so, and where a low- resistance bleeder is

VI

AMMOXIMAT2
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGt
MAX. 6.3V.
NO FULL CUMtCNTI1LAMtMT
TiI VI CHI CH C1 Ca R1 LOAD LOAD

10 M. 10 M.
10UF, 450 V. 2010,50 V.
330-0-350 3r3-GT
CORNELL- CORNELL-
33K,101
S7AMCOAIC4101 STANCOR STANCOR DOL/LIER OUI/LIER 310 240 SOMA. 3A.
C-10o1 C-1007 LR-1045 LR-2013

3-13h 1031F,430V. 20 UF, 450V.


7M.
375-0-375
L
STANCOR/CI11 573-6T STANCOR
C-IT71
STANCOR
[-1It7
CORNELL-
D1/I/L/ER "D/L,"
CORNELL- 33 K,10W 330 230 140MA. 4.3A.
IR-1043 LR-204$
1011F 430 V. 430 V.
1011F,
400-0-400 5U-6 CORNELL- CORNELL-
STANCORPG-II13
STANCOR
C-1102
STANCOR
C-ll/t DUD/LIER DUIILIER 33A." 310 270 ASOMA. SA.
LR-1043 IR-104$
323-0-325 3-25 M. 20 M.
1031F,/pOV. 10.111% 600 V.

UrC S-40 3U4-66 UTC S-32 UTC 5-31


MALLORY MALLORY 3511,101 460 37S 240MA. 4A.
TC-/t TC-12

600-0-600 554-GT
3-23 M. 20 M. 131/ 600 V. I UF.600 V.
UTC S-I/ UTC S-3t UTE S-3 / SPRAWL SPRAGUE 33 K,25 W 540 410 200MA. A.
CR-II CR-11
100-0-500 5-25 M. 411F.KV I 6 UF,/ K V.
UTC S-I! 35-Cr UTC 5-32
20 M.
UM S-al SPRAGUE
CR-41
SPRAGUE
CR-I1
50K,25W 130 650 175MA. -

Figure 33

DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES


740 Power Supplies THE RADIO

VI

1 1 S V.
e0-6O '1,

O
V.
0

COMPONENTS APPROXIMATE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE MAX. 6.3V.
Ti Vi CN 1 C 1 C 2 R
NO PULL CURRENT FILAMENT
1
LOAD LOAD
10 M. 201", 430 V. 201F, 450 V.
260-0-260 5V3-GT STANCOR CORNELL- CORNELL-
STANCORPC-4404 C-1007 OUSILIER OUE/LIER 351,10W 340 240 60MA. 3A.
ER-1045 ER-2043

375-0-375 7 K. 10 ME 600 V. t0L01600 V.


STANCORPC-IIII 503{T STANCOR MALLORY MALLORY 351,10W 450 350 123M. 4.3A.
'C-1421 TC-EE TC-51

433-0-433 4M. 6LF,600V. 6UF, GOO V.


51.14G JTANCOR SPRAiUE SPRAGUE 351S25w 600 400 223 M. 6A.
C-1412 CR-40 CR-66

600-0-600 4 M. 4LF, 111V 6 UF, I KV.


STANCOR
STANCORPC6I/I 5R4-GV C-7412
SPRAGUE
4R-41
SPRAGUE 50K.25W 600 6O0 200MA. 6A.
CR-1

500-0-600
Inv S-45 5R4-GY
20M.
UTC S-31
AUF, 1.5KV.
SPRAGUE
CR-475
61/F, 1.511V.
SPRAGUE 751 25W
CR-610
1200 610 170 MA. -
Figure 34
DESIGN CHART FOR CAPACITOR -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES

used to hold the minimum current drain of or modulator requires two different supply
the supply to a value greater than 50 milli- voltages, differing by a ratio of about 2:1.
amperes or so. Under these conditions the A simple bridge supply such as shown in
peak plate current of the 872A mercury- figure 36 will provide both of these voltages
vapor tubes will not be exceeded if the input from a simple broadcast "replacement- type"
filter capacitor is 4 fd or less. power transformer. The first supply of fig-
Choke -input filter systems are character- ure 36 is ample to power a transmitter of
ized by lower peak -load currents (1.1 to the 6CL6 -807 type to an input of 60 watts.
1.3 times the average load current) than the The second supply will run a transmitter
capacitor -input filter, and by better voltage running up to 120 watts, such as one em-
regulation. Design charts for capacitor and ploying a pair of 6146 tetrodes in the pow-
choke input filter supplies for various volt- er- amplifier stage. It is to be noted that
ages and load currents are shown in figures separate filament transformers are used for
33, 34, and 35. rectifier tubes V, and V., and that one leg
The construction of power supplies for of each filament is connected to the cathode
transmitters, receivers, and accessory equip- of the respective tube, which is at a high
ment is a relatively simple matter electrically potential with respect to ground. The choke
since lead lengths and placement of parts are CH, in the negative lead of the supply serves
of minor importance and since the circuits as a common filter choke for both output
themselves are quite simple. voltages. Each portion of the supply may be
considered as having a choke -input filter
Bridge Supplies Some practical variations of system. Filaments of V, and V, are energized
the common bridge- rectifier before the primary voltage is applied to T,.
circuit of figure6 are illustrated in figures Bridge supplies may also be used to ad-
36 and 37. In many instances a transmitter vantage to obtain relatively high plate volt-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Power -Supply Design 741

T2
MAX.
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VO~TAGE CURRENT

CI C2 OCAS)
Ti T2 VI-V2 CHI CH2 R1 LOAD LOAD

1150-0-1150 2_SV,IOA. 6M. ION. L61.56V. 6LF,1.5XV


666-A CN/. THAN CN/. THAN. 54,511165110 SANGAMO 406.75W 7150 1000 350 MA.
CN/CAGO TRANS. CHI THAN. 666-A
P-I07 P-270 R-67 R-IO! 7173-1 711l-I

1710-0-1710 2.5V.,10 A. 6M. ION. 4LF, 2XV. 6LF,2KV.


666_A CHI. THAN CHI TRAN SANGANO SANGANO 506,75W 1700 1500 425 mA.
CHIC AGOTRANS. CN/ .THAN. 666_A
P-1312 P-210N R-65 R-105 7120-4 7120-6
2900-0-2900 5V., 10A. 6X. 6/1. 411F, 36V. 41f,36V.
672 A CN/ THAN. CN/. THAN SANGAPO SANGANO w 2750 2500 700 MA.
CN/CAGO TRANS. CN/. THAN. 2CC
P-2726 P-570M 672-A R-67 R-67 7130- 7130-4

5 V., 10A. 10 N. 10 M. 411F, 4 XV. LF 4IlV.


100R
3500-0-3500 672-A CORNELL- CORELL- 3400 3000 1000 MA
672-A OU1/L/ER OU1/L/ER 200W
UTC CG-309 Lr12 Ci15 CiT15 740040-A T40040-A
4600-0-4600 5V.,20A. 10X. IOM. 411F, 56v. 411F, 56V 100
UTC CG-3/0 UTC UTC AEROVOX AEROVOX 4400 4000 600 IAA.
UTC 5 75-A 300 W
CM/CAGO TRANS. LS-1) CG-IS CG-IS JP-01 JP-01
P-47!)

Figure 35

DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT HIGH -VOLTAGE SUPPLIES

ages for high -powered transmitting equip- will be present. However, with bridge cir-
ment. Type 866A and 872A rectifier tubes cuits, the same tubes may deliver up to as
can only serve in a supply delivering under much as 7000 volts d.c. without exceeding
3500 volts in a full -wave circuit. Above the peak- inverse-voltage rating.
this voltage, the peak- inverse -voltage rating The bridge circuit also permits the use
of the rectifier tube will be exceeded, and of the so- called "pole transformer" in high -
danger of flashback within the rectifier tube voltage power supplies. Two KVA trans-

CH2
T1 t M V.111 z
Figure 36

DUAL -VOLTAGE
+ X.V.61
INTERMITTENT -SERVICE
BRIDGE POWER SUPPLIES

o
63V.
O

FULL LOAD VOLT. MAX. CURRENT


V1 COMPONENTS
T1 VI-V2 V3 CI-C2 C3-C CHI CH2 RI-R2 R3 XVO1 NVW2 fl *2
360-0-360 1617F. 1611F. 10N. 6X. 206,10W. 1"R 600 240 ROMA. 40MA.
V2 6X5{7 5V4-G
450 450 V. 120 MA. SOMA. 1W
STANCO6 PC-4470 V.

T3 100 R
00-0-400 MX56T 5U4-G6 161F. 7610. 10 X. N.
20R 106t 1W
625 260 130 MA. 50 MA.
T2,T3 6.3 V., A. 1
STA NCORPC-6472 450 V. 450V. 22SMA. 75MA.
57-ANCOR P-6134

1lV.
50-601.
742 Power Supplies THE RADIO

Ti VI

Figure 37

HIGH -VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY

T2

COMPONENTS rULL LOAD FULL "'AD


1tOLTAGE CUBBINI
Ti T2 V1-Va CH1 C1 R1 (ICAS)

`POLE TwANYM1ICR'
t 71 9-A 2!7 2500 v. 200 w
1900 500 MA.
ur0

3500-0-3500 (ITC 972M 500 mA 9L5 200N


uTC [c-308 LJ-12/-Y 9000 500 MA.
urCOPpI 9500 V. 500W.

formers of this type having a 110 /220 -volt versed, and either 110 or 220 volts applied
secondary winding and a split 2200 -volt to the "primary" winding, approximately
primary winding may often be picked up in 2200 volts rms will be developed across the
salvage yards for a dollar or two. If re- new "secondary" winding. If used in a
bridge circuit as shown in figure 37, a d -c
872A,s
supply voltage of about 1900 volts at a
RYI current of 500 milliamperes may be drawn
from such a transformer. Do not attempt
to use a smaller transformer than the 2KVA
rating, as the voltage regulation of the unit
will be too poor for practical purposes.
For higher voltages, a pole transformer
with a 4400 -volt primary and a 110/220 -
volt secondary may be reversed to provide a
d -c plate supply of about 3800 volts.
Commercial plate transformers intended
TO EXCITER
CONTROL CIRCUIT
for full wave rectifier service may also be
used in bridge service provided that the
Figure 38 insulation at the center -tap point of the
HIGH- VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY high- voltage winding is sufficient to with-
T,--2900-0-2900 volts at 600 ma., Stanco, stand one -half of the rms voltage of the
P -8035 secondary winding. Many high -voltage trans-
T,-.5 volts, 20 amp.
CH,6 henrys, 700 ma. formers are specifically designed for opera-
C; 0.15 id, 5000 -volt tion with the center tap of the secondary
C_ -Three 4 -td 3000-volt
R,- 100,000 ohms, 200 -watt winding at ground potential; consequently
R:-Eleven 0.5- megohm 2 -watt resistors in the insulation of the winding at this point
series is not designed to withstand high voltage.
RT DPST relay, 110 v. coil, 20 amp contacts,
Potter & Brumfield PRIA It is best to check with the manufacturer
RFC,, -Nash filter, J. W. Miller Co. No. 7868 of the transformer and find out if the in-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Kilowatt CCS Supply 743

sulation will withstand the increased voltage work, the supply may be used to power a
before a full -wave type transformer is util- 2000 watt PEP linear amplifier.
ized in bridge -rectifier service. Because the total weight of the compo-
nents is over 150 pounds, the supply should
be built directly on the bottom of a relay
30 -14 A Kilowatt CCS rack instead of on a steel chassis.
Power Supply The r -f hash- suppression chokes (RFC,
and RFC_) are fastened directly to the
high -voltage terminals of the plate trans-
Shown in figure 38 is the schematic of a
former. The two 872A rectifier tubes are
power supply capable of delivering 2500
so located that the leads from the r -f chokes
volts at a continuous current drain of 500 to the plate caps are only about three inches
milliamperes, or 1000 milliamperes with an long.
intermittent load. The supply is designed A 0.15 -pfd 5000 -volt paper capacitor is
to power a kilowatt amplifier operating at used to resonate the filter choke to approxi-
2500 volts and 400 ma, in conjunction with mately 120 Hz at a bleeder current of 25
a 500 -watt modulator operating at 2500 milliamperes. When full load current is
volts at a varying current drain of 50 -300 drawn, the inductance of the filter choke
ma. Specifically, the supply is employed drops, detuning the parallel- resonant circuit.
with a transmitter having a pair of 4 -250A Improved voltage regulation is gained by
tetrode tubes in the class -C stage, and a this action; the no-load voltage increases
pair of 810 modulator tubes. For sideband only 200 volts over the full -load voltage.
CHAPTER THIRTY -ON E

Electronic
Test Equipment

All amateur stations are required by law or f -m transmission, and are a necessity if
to have certain items of test equipment single-sideband operation is contemplated.
available within the station. A c -w station A calibrated signal generator is almost a
is required to have a frequency meter or necessity if much receiver work is con-
other means, in addition to the transmitter templated, although a frequency meter of
frequency control, for ensuring that the LM or BC -221 type, particularly if it in-
transmitted signal is on a frequency within cludes internal modulation, will serve in
one of the frequency bands assigned for place of the signal generator. Extensive an-
such use. A radiophone station is required tenna work invariably requires the use of
in addition to have a means of determining some type of field- strength meter, and a
that the transmitter is not being modulated standing -wave meter of some type is very
in excess of its modulation capability, and helpful. Lastly, if much vhf work is to be
in any event not more than 100 percent. done, a simple grid -dip meter will be found
Further, any station operating with a power to be one of the most used items of test
input greater than 900 watts is required to equipment in the station.
have a means of determining the exact input
to the final stage of the transmitter, so as
to ensure that the power input to the plate 31 -1 Voltage and
circuit of the output stage does not exceed Current
1000 watts.
The additional test and measurement The measurement of voltage and current
equipment required by a station will be de- in radio circuits is very important in proper
termined by the type of operation contem- maintenance of equipment. Vacuum tubes
plated. It is desirable that all stations have and transistors of the types used in commu-
an accurately calibrated voltohmmeter for nications work must be operated within
routine transmitter and receiver checking rather narrow limits in regard to filament
and as an assistance in getting new pieces of or collector voltage, and they must be
equipment into operation. An oscilloscope operated within certain maximum limits in
and an audio oscillator make a very desir- regard to the voltage and current on other
able adjunct to a phone station using a -m electrodes.

www.americanradiohistory.com
Voltage and Current 745

+10 100 +250 +1000 ment. The calculation of shunts for extend-
0 0 0
ing the range of d -c milliammeters and am-
1011 100 K* 25011 tM[G meters is discussed in Chapter Two.
A direct current voltmeter is merely a d -c
milliammeter with a multiplier resistor in
+10 +100 +250
series with it. If it is desired to use a low -
+1000
0 0 0 o range milliammeter as a voltmeter the value
of the multiplier resistor for any voltage
range may be determined from the following
1011 9011 150 K 75011 formula:
1000 F,
R
I
1000
10
where,
0-1 o.c 100 250 R equals multiplier resistor in ohms,
10K 150 K 75011
9011
E equals desired full -scale voltage,
I equals full -scale current of meter in ma.

The sensitivity of a voltmeter is com-


Figure 1
monly expressed in ohms per volt. The higher
MULTIVOLTMETER CIRCUITS the ohms per volt of a voltmeter the greater
its sensitivity. When the full -scale current
A shows a circuit whereby individual multi-
plier resistors are used for each range. I is drain of a voltmeter is known, its sensitivity
the more economical "series -multiplier" cir- rating in ohms per volt may be determined
cuit. The same number of resistors is re- by:
quired, but those for the higher ranges have
less resistance, and hence are less expensive
when precision wirewound resistors are to be
used. C shows a circuit essentially the same
Ohms per holt - 1000
I
as at A, except that a range switch is used.
With a 0-500 d-c microammeter substituted where,
for the 0 -1 milliammeter shown above, all re-
sistor values would be multiplied by two and 1 is the full -scale current drain of the in-
the voltmeter would have a "2000- ohms -per
volt" sensitivity. Similarly, if a 0 -50 d-c micro - dicating instrument in milliamperes.
ammeter were to be used, all resistance values
would be multiplied by twenty, and the volt-
meter would have a sensitivity of 20,000
ohms per volt.

Both direct current and voltage are most


commonly measured with the aid of an
instrument consisting of a coil that is free
to rotate in a constant magnetic field
(d'Arsonval type instrument). If the instru- PIN JACKS

ment is to be used for the measurement of Figure 2


current it is called an ammeter or milliam-
meter. The current flowing through the cir- VOLTOHMMETER CIRCUIT
cuit is caused to flow through the moving With the switch in position 1, the 0 -1 milliam-
coil of this type of instrument. If the cur- meter would be connected directly to the
terminals. In position 2 the meter would read
rent to be measured is greater than 10 mil- from 0- 100,000 ohms, approximately, with a
liamperes or so, it is the usual practice to resistance value of 4500 ohms at half scale.
(Note: The half-scale resistance value of an
cause the majority of the current to flow ohmmeter using this circuit is equal to the
through a bypass resistor called a shunt, resistance in series with the battery inside
the instrument.) The other four taps are volt-
only a specified portion of the current flow- age ranges with 10, 50, 250, and S00 volts
ing through the moving coil of the instru- full scale.
746 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
Multironge It is common practice to con - Obviously, the accuracy of the instru-
Meters nect a group of multiplier re- ment either as a voltmeter or as an ammeter
sistors in the circuit with a can be no better than the accuracy of the
single indicating instrument to obtain a milliammeter and the resistors.
multirange voltmeter. There are several Because voltohmmeters are so widely used
ways of wiring such a meter, the most com- and because the circuit is standardized to a
mon ones of which are indicated in figure considerable extent, it is possible to purchase
1. With all these methods of connection, a factory -built voltohmmeter for no more
the sensitivity of the meter in ohms per volt than the component parts would cost if
is the same on all scales. With a 0 -1 milliam- purchased individually. For this reason no
meter, as shown, the sensitivity is 1000 ohms construction details are given. However,
per volt. anyone already possessing a suitable mil!iam-
meter and is desirous of incorporating it in
Voltohmmeters An extremely useful piece of a simple voltohmmeter should be able to
test equipment which should build one from the schematic diagram and
be found in every laboratory or radio sta- design data given here. Special precision
tion is the voltohmmeter. It consists of a (accurately calibrated) multiplier resistors
multirange voltmeter with an additional are available if a high degree of accuracy is
fixed resistor, a variable resistor, and a bat- desired. As alternates, good quality carbon
tery. A typical example of such an instru- resistors whose actual resistance has been
ment is diagramed in figure 2. Tap 1 is used checked may be used as multipliers where
to permit use of the instrument as a 0 -1 less accuracy is required.
d -c milliammeter. Tap 2 permits accurate
reading of resistors up to 100,000 ohms; Medium- and Most ohmmeters, including
taps 3, 4, 5, and 6 are for making voltage Low -Ronge the one just described, are not
measurements, the full -scale voltages being
10, 50, 250, and 500 volts respectively.
The 1000 -ohm potentiometer is used to
Ohmmeter
ment of low- resistances -
adapted for accurate measure-

the neighborhood of 100 ohms, for instance.


in

bring the needle to zero ohms when the ter- The ohmmeter diagramed in figure 3 was
minals are shorted; this adjustment should especially designed for the reasonably accu-
always be made before a resistance measure- rate reading of resistances down to 1 ohm.
ment is taken. Higher voltages than 500 can Two scales are provided, one going in one
be read if a higher value of multiplier re- direction and the other scale going in the
sistor is added to an additional tap on the other direction because of the different man-
switch. The proper value for a given full - ner in which the milliammeter is used in
scale reading can be determined from each case. The low scale covers from 1 to
Ohm's Law. 100 ohms and the high scale from 100 to
Resistances higher than 100.000 ohms 10,000 ohms. The high scale is in reality a
cannot be measured accurately with the cir- medium -range scale. For accurate reading
cuit constants shown; however, by increas- of resistances over 10,000 ohms, an ohm-
ing the ohmmeter battery to 45 volts and meter of the type previously described
multiplying the 4000 -ohm resistor and 1000 - should be used.
ohm potentiometer by 10, the ohms scale also The 1- to 100 -ohm scale is useful for
checking transformers, chokes, r -f coils, etc.,
will be multiplied by 10. This would per-
which often have a resistance of only a few
mit accurate measurements up to 1 meg- ohms.
ohm. The calibration scale will depend on the
0 -1 d -c milliammeters are available with internal resistance of the particular make of
special voltohmmeter scales which make in- 1.5 -ma meter used. The instrument can be
dividual calibration unnecessary. Or, special calibrated by means of a Wheatstone bridge
scales can be purchased separately and sub- or a few resistors of known accuracy. The
stituted for the original scale on the milliam- latter can be series- connected and parallel -
meter. connected to give sufficient calibration

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Voltage and Current 747

ovar 1G4-G
SWITCH

Figure 4
Figure 3
SLIDE -BACK V -T VOLTMETER
SCHEMATIC OF A LOW -RANGE By connecting a variable source of voltage in
OHMMETER series with the input to a conventional v -t
voltmeter, or in series with the simple triode
A description of the operation of this circuit voltmeter shown above, a slide -back a-c volt-
is given in the text. With the switch in the meter for peak voltage measurement can be
left position the half-scale reading of the constructed. Resistor R should be about 1000
meter will occur with an external resistance ohms per volt used at battery B. This type of
of 1000 ohms. With the switch in the right v -t voltmeter has the advantage that it can
position, half -scale deflection will be obtained give a reading of the actual peak voltage of
with an external resistance equal to the d-c the wave being measured, without any cur-
resistance of the milliammeter (20 to SO ohms rent drain from the source of voltage.
depending on the make of instrument).

points. A hand -drawn hand -calibrated scale the iron -tane instrument is commonly used.
can be cemented over the regular meter For audio frequency alternating current
scale to give a direct reading in ohms. (50- 20,000 Hz) a d'Arsonval instrument
Before calibrating the instrument or us- having an integral copper- oxide, selenium, or
ing it, the test prods should always be silicon rectifier is usually used. Radio -fre-
touched together and the zero adjuster set quency voltage measurements are usually
accurately. made with some type of vacuum -tube volt-
meter, while r -f current measurements are
Measurement of The measurement of al- almost invariably made with an instrument
Alternating Current ternating current and containing a thermocouple to convert the
and Voltage voltage is complicated radio- frequency current into direct current
by two factors; first, for the meter movement.
the frequency range covered in ordinary Since an alternating- current wave can
communication channels is so great that have an almost infinite variety of shapes,
calibration of an instrument becomes ex- it can easily be seen that the ratios between
tremely difficult; second, there is no single the three fundamental quantities of the
type of instrument which is suitable for all wave (peak, rms,effective, and average after
a -c measurements -as the d'Arsonval type rectification) can also vary widely. So it
of movement is suitable for d -c. The becomes necessary to know beforehand just
d'Arsonval movement will not operate on which quality of the wave under measure-
alternating current since it indicates the ment our instrument is going to indicate.
average value of current flow, and the For the purpose of simplicity we can list
average value of an a -c wave is zero. the usual types of alternating- current meters
As a result of the inability of the reliable along with the characteristic of an alternat-
d'Arsonval type of movement to record an ing- current wave which they will indicate:
alternating current, either this current must
be rectified and then fed to the movement. iron -vane, thermocouple -rms.
or a special type of movement which will Rectifier type (copper- oxide, selenium,
operate from the effective value of the cur- etc.)- average after rectification.
rent can be used. V.t.v.m. -rms, average, or peak, depend-
For the usual measurements of power - ing on design and calibration of the
frequency alternating current (25 -60 Hz), meter.
748 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

31 -2 The Vacuum -Tube type of arrangement (figure 4) leads are


Voltmeter connected to the voltage to be measured and
the slider resistor R across the bucking volt-
age is backed down until an indication on
A vacuum -tube voltmeter is essentially a
the meter (called a false zero) equal to that
detector in which a change in the signal
value given with the prods shorted and the
placed on the input will produce a change
in the indicating instrument (usually a
bucking voltage reduced to zero, is obtained.
Then the value of the bucking voltage (read
d'Arsonval meter) placed in the output
on V) is equal to the peak value of the
circuit. A vacuum -tube voltmeter may use
voltage under measurement. The slide -back
a diode, a triode, or a multielement tube
voltmeter has the disadvantage that it is
(or it may be transistorized) and it may be
used either for the measurement of alter-
not instantaneous in its indication- adjust-
ments must be made for every voltage
nating or direct current.
measurement. For this reason the slide -back
When a v.t.v.m. is used in d -c measure-
ment it is used for this purpose primarily v.t.v.m. is not commonly used, being sup-
planted by the diode- rectifier type of peak
because of the very great input resistance
v.t.v.m. for most applications.
of the device. This means that a v.t.v.m.
may be used for the measurement of avc, High- Voltage A diode vacuum -tube volt -
afc, and discriminator output voltages Diode Peak meter suitable for the measure-
where no loading of the circuit can be Voltmeter ment of high values of a -c
tolerated. voltage is diagramed in figure
A -C V -T
S. With the constants shown, the voltmeter
There are many different types has two ranges -S00 and 1500 volts peak
Voltmeters of a -c vacuum -tube voltmeters, full scale.
all of which operate as some
Capacitors C, and C_ should be able to
type of rectifier to give an indication on a withstand a voltage in excess of the highest
d -c instrument. There are two general types:
peak voltage to be measured. Likewise, R,
those which give an indication of the rms
value of the wave (or approximately this
2X2/879
value of a complex wave) , and those which
give an indication of the peak or crest
AC
value of the wave. VOLTAGE
PROM
Since the adjustment and calibration of a SOURCE
WITH
wide -range vacuum -tube voltmeter is rather D -C
RETURN
PATH
tedious, in most cases it will be best to pur- 1
chase a commercially manufactured unit.
Several excellent commercial units are on
Figure 5
the market at the present time; also kits for
home construction of a quite satisfactory SCHEMATIC OF A HIGH -VOLTAGE PEAK
v.t.v.m. are available from several manu- VOLTMETER
facturers. These feature a wide range of a -c This peak voltmeter is convenient for the
and d -c voltage scales at high sensitivity, measurement of peak voltages at fairly high
and, in addition, several feature a built -in power levels from a source of moderately low
impedance.
vacuum -tube ohmmeter which will give C,-.001-Add high -voltage mica
indications up to 500 or 1000 megohms. C -1.0 -td high-voltage paper
R,-500,000 ohms (two 0.25 -megohm 1/2-watt in
Peak A-C V -T series)
There are two common types R -1.0 megohm (four 0.25- megohm 1/2-watt
Voltmeters of peak -indicating vacuum - in series)
T -2.5 v., 1.75 amp filament transformer
tube voltmeters. The first is
M -0 -1 d-c milliammeter
the so- called slide -back type in which a sim- Sin I, -Spdt toggle switch
,

ple v.t.v.m. is used along with a conven- S -Spst toggle switch


(Note: C, is a bypass around C., the induc-
tional d -c voltmeter and a source of buck- tive reactance of which may be appreciable
ing bias in series with the input. With this at high frequencies.)

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 749

and R, should be able to withstand the same spection of the trace on the cathode -ray
amount of voltage. The easiest and least tube screen. The peak positive excursion of
expensive way of obtaining such resistors the wave will be slightly flattened by the
is to use several low- voltage resistors in action of the v.t.v.m. Usually this flatten-
series, as shown in figure S. Other voltage ing will be so small as to be negligible.
ranges can be obtained by changing the An alternative arrangement, shown in
value of these resistors, but for voltages less figure 6, is quite convenient for the meas-
than several hundred volts a more linear urement of high a -c voltages such as are en-
calibration can be obtained by using a re- countered in the adjustment and testing of
ceiver -type diode. A calibration curve high -power audio amplifiers and modula-
should be run to eliminate the appreciable tors. The arrangement consists simply of a
error due to the high internal resistance of 2X2 rectifier tube and a filter capacitor of
the diode, preventing the capacitor from perhaps 0.25 -fd capacitance, but with a
charging to the full peak value of the volt- voltage rating high enough that it is not
age being measured. likely to be punctured as a result of any
A direct -reading diode peak voltmeter of tests made. Cathode -ray oscilloscope capaci-
the type shown in figure S will load the tors, and those for electrostatic- deflection
source of voltage by approximately one - TV tubes often have ratings as high as 0.25
half the value of the load resistance in the fd at 7500 to 10,000 volts. The indicating
circuit (R1, or R, plus R_, in this case) . instrument is a conventional multiscale d -c
Also, the peak voltage reading on the meter voltmeter of the high- sensitivity type, pref-
will be slightly less than the actual peak erably with a sensitivity of 20,000 or
voltage being measured. The amount of 50,000 ohms per volt. The higher the sen-
lowering of the reading is determined by the sitivity of the d -c voltmeter used with the
ratio of the reactance of the storage capac- rectifier, the smaller will be the amount of
itance to the load resistance. If a cathode - flattening of the a -c wave as a result of the
ray oscilloscope is placed across the terminals rectifier action.
of the v.t.v.m. when a voltage is being Basic D -C Vacuum- A simple v.t.v.m. is
measured, the actual amount of the lower- Tube Voltmeter shown in figure 7 . The
ing in voltage may be determined by in- plate load may be a me-
chanical device, such as a relay or a meter,
2x2/979 or the output voltage may be developed
across a resistor and used for various control
A-c
l IISV.A.0
purposes. The tube is biased by E, and a
VOLTAGE
FROM
fixed value of plate current flows, causing a
SOURCE
WITH
fixed voltage drop across plate -load resistor
O -c
RETURN
CONVENTIONAL
HIGH- SENSITIVITY
R1,. When a positive d -c voltage is applied to
RATH VOLTMETER
the input terminals it cancels part of the
negative grid bias, making the grid more
Figure 6 positive with respect to the cathode. This
grid- voltage change permits a greater
PEAK -VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
CIRCUIT
Through use of the arrangement shown above
it is possible to make accurate measurements
of peak a -c voltages, such as across the sec-
ondary of a modulation transformer, with a
c tional d-c multivoltmeter. Capacitor C
and transformer T should, of course, be in-
sulated for the highest peak voltage likely to
be encountered. A capacitance of 0.25 -ufd at
C has been found to be adequate. The higher Figure 7
the sensitivity of the indicating d-c voltmeter,
the smaller will be the error between the SIMPLE VACUUM-TUBE
indication on the meter and the actual peak
voltage being measured. VOLTMETER
750 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
amount of plate current to flow, and de-
velops a greater voltage drop across the
plate -load resistor. A negative input voltage
would decrease the plate current and de-
crease the voltage drop across Rp. The vary-
ing voltage drop across R, may be employed
as a control voltage for relays or other de-
vices. When it is desired to measure various
voltages, a voltage range switch (figure 8)
may precede the v.t.v.m. The voltage to be
measured is applied to voltage divider (R1, Figure 9
R2, R3) by means of the voltage range BRIDGE -TYPE VACUUM -TUBE
switch. Resistor R4 is used to protect the VOLTMETER
meter from excessive input voltage to the
v.t.v.m. In the plate circuit of the tube
a battery and a variable resistor (zero ad- rent flows through the meter. If one voltage
justment) are used to balance out the changes, the bridge becomes unbalanced and
meter reading of the normal plate cur- indication of this will be noted by a reading
rent of the tube. The zero -adjustment po- of the meter.
tentiometer can be so adjusted that the A Modern V.T.V.M. For the purpose of an-
meter (M) reads zero current with no input alysis, the operation of a
voltage to the v.t.v.m. When a d -c input modern v.t.v.m. will be described. The
voltage is applied to the circuit, current Heathkit 1M -13 is a fit instrument for such
flows through the meter, and the meter read- a description, since it is able to measure posi-
ing is proportional to the applied d -c volt- tive or negative d -c potentials, a -c rms
age. values, peak -to -peak values, and resistance.
The Bridge -type Another important use of a The circuit of this unit is shown in figure
V.T.V.M. d -c amplifier is to show the 10. A sensitive 0 to 200 d -c microammeter
exact point of balance be- is placed in the cathode circuit of a 12AU7
tween two d -c voltages. This is done by twin triode. The zero- adjust control sets up
means of a bridge circuit with two d -c am- a balance between the two sections of the
plifiers serving as two legs of the bridge triode such that with zero input voltage ap-
(figure 9). With no input signal, and with plied to the first grid, the voltage drop
matched triodes, no current will be read on across each portion of the zero -adjust con-
meter M, since the IR drops across R, and trol is the same. Under this condition of bal-
RZ are identical. When a signal is applied to ance the meter will read zero. When a volt-
one tube, the IR drops in the plate circuits age is applied to the first grid, the balance in
become unbalanced, and meter M indicates the cathode circuits is upset and the meter
the unbalance. In the same way, two d -c indicates the degree of unbalance. The re-
voltages may be compared if they are applied lationship between the applied voltage on
to the two input circuits. When the voltages the first grid and the meter current is linear
are equal, the bridge is balanced and no cur- and therefore the meter can be calibrated
with a linear scale. Since the tube is limited
in the amount of current it can draw, the
meter movement is electronically protected.
The maximum test voltage applied to the
12AU7 tube is about 3 volts. Higher applied
ZERO -ADJUST
voltages are reduced by a voltage divider
which has a total resistance of about 10
megohms. An additional resistance of 1-
megohm is located in the d -c test probe,
thereby permitting measurements to be made
Figure 8 in high -impedance circuits with minimum
D -C VACUUM -TUBE VOLTMETER disturbance.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vacuum -Tube Voltmeter 751

Figure 10

HEATHKIT PEAK -TO -PEAK V.T.V.M.


MODEL IM -13
752 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
.02 6AL5
A-C INPUT e---1 SHIELDED PROBE CASE
MY AMO TO VTVM
D -C INPUT
MAX JACK COAXIAL LINE
TO PROBE TIP
VTVM

Figure 11
Figure 12
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
FOR V.T.V.M. R -F PROBE SUITABLE FOR USE
IN 1 kHz -100 MHz RANGE

The rectifier portion of the v.t.v.m. is


shown in figure 11. When a -c measurements radio frequencies with high accuracy. Shown
are desired, a 6ALS double diode is used as in figure 12 is a radio -frequency probe which
a full -wave rectifier to provide a d -c voltage provides linear response to over 100 MHz. A
proportional to the applied a -c voltage. This crystal diode is used as a rectifier, and d -c
d -c voltage is applied through the voltage isolation is provided by a .005 -ofd capacitor.
divider string to the 12AU7 tube causing The components of the detector are mounted
the meter to indicate in the manner pre- within a shield at the end of a length of
viously described. The a -c voltage scales of coaxial line, which terminates in the d -c in-
the meter are calibrated in both rms and put jack of the v.t.v.m. The readings ob-
peak -to -peak values. In the 1.5, 5, 15, 50, tained are rms, and should be multiplied by
and 150 volt positions of the range switch, 1.414 to convert to peak readings.
the full a -c voltage being measured is ap-
plied to the input of the 6ALS full -wave 31 -3 Measurement of
rectifier. On the 500 and 1500 volt positions Power
of the range switch, a divider network re-
duces the applied voltage in order to limit Audio -frequency or radio- frequency pow-
the voltage input to the 6ALS to a safe er in a resistive circuit is most commonly
recommended level. and most easily determined by the indirect
The a -c calibrate control (figure 10) is method, i.e., through the use of one of the
used to obtain the proper meter deflection following formulas:
for the applied a -c voltage. Vacuum tubes
develop a contact potential between tube P =EE, P = E2/R, P =IR
elements. Such contact potential developed These three formulas mean that if any two
in the diode would cause a slight voltage to of the three factors determining power are
be present at all times. This voltage is can- known (resistance, current, voltage) the
celled out by proper application of a buck-
power being dissipated may be determined.
ing voltage. The amount of bucking voltage
In an ordinary 120 -volt a -c line circuit the
is controlled by the a -c balance control. This
above formulas are not strictly true since
eliminates zero shift of the meter when
the power factor of the load must be mul-
switching from a -c to d -c readings.
For resistance measurements, a 1.5 -volt tiplied into the result -or
a direct method of

battery is connected through a string of determining power such as a wattmeter may


multipliers and the external resistance to be be used. But in a resistive a -f circuit and in
a resonant r -f circuit the power factor of
measured, thus forming a voltage divider
across the battery, and a resultant portion of the load is taken as being unity.
the battery voltage is applied to the 12AU7 For accurate measurement of a -f and r -f
twin triode. The meter scale is calibrated in power, a tberinogali anonreter or thermocou-
resistance (ohms) for this function. ple ammeter in series with a noninductive
resistor of known resistance can be used.
Test ProbesAuxiliary test probes may be The meter should have good accuracy, and
used with the v.t.v.m. to ex- the exact value of resistance should be
tend the operating range, or to measure known with accuracy. Suitable dummy-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Measurement of Power 753

load resistors are available in various resist- 120 -volt a -c line. A rheostat in series with
ances in both 100- and 250-watt ratings. the lead from the a -c line to the lamp is
These are virtually noninductive, and may used to vary its light intensity to the same
be considered as a pure resistance up to 30 value (as indicated by the exposure meter)
MHz. The resistance of these units is sub- as it was putting out as a dummy load. The
stantially constant for all values of current a -c voltmeter in parallel with the lamp and
up to the maximum dissipation rating, but ammeter in series with it is then used to
where extreme accuracy is required, a cor- determine lamp power input by: P = EI.
rection chart of the dissipation coefficient This method of power determination is sat-
of resistance (supplied by the manufac- isfactory for audio and low- frequency r.f.
turer) may be employed. This chart shows but is not satisfactory for vhf work because
the exact resistance for different values of of variations in lamp efficiency due to un-
current through the resistor. even heating of the filament.
Sine -wave power measurements (r-f or Dummy Loads Lamp bulbs make poor dum-
single-frequency audio) may also be made my loads for r -f work, in
through the use of a v.t.v.m. and a resistor general, as they have considerable reactance
of known value. In fact a v.t.v.m of the above 2 MHz, and the resistance of the lamp
type shown in figure 10 is particularly varies with the amount of current passing
suited to this work. The formula, P = E' /R through it.
is used in this case. However, it must be
A suitable r-f load for powers up to a
remembered that a v.t.v.m. of the type few watts may be made by paralleling 2-
shown in figure 10 indicates the peak value
of the a -c wave. This reading must be con-
verted to the rms or heating value of the
wave by multiplying it by 0.707 before sub-
stituting the voltage value in the formula.
The same result can be obtained by using
the formula P = Es /2R. (Note: Some
v.t.v.m.'s are peak reading but are calibrated
rms on the meter scale).
Thus all three methods of determining
power-ammeter -resistor, voltmeter -resistor,
and voltmeter- ammeter-give an excellent
crosscheck on the accuracy of the deter-
mination and upon the accuracy of the
standards.
Power may also be measured through the
use of a calorimeter, by actually measuring
the amount of heat being dissipated.
Through the use of a water-cooled dummy - Figure 13
load resistor this method of power output
2- KILOWATT DUMMY LOAD
determination is being used by some of the FOR 3 -30 MHz
most modern broadcast stations. But the
method is too cumbersome for ordinary Load is built in case measuring 22" deep, 71"
wide and 5" high. Meter is calibrated in watts
power determinations. against microampere scale as follows: (1),
Power may also be determined photometri- 22.3 pa. (5) 50 ba. (101, 70.5 a. (15), 86.5
ua. (20), 100 ria. Scale may be marked off as
cally through the use of a voltmeter, shown in photograph. Calibration technique is
ammeter, incandescent lamp used as a load discussed in text. Alternatively, a standing -
resistor, and a photographic exposure wave bridge (calibrated in watts) such as
"Micromatch" may be used to determine
meter. With this method the exposure meter power input to bridge.
is used to determine the relative visual out- Vents in top of case, and inch holes in
chassis permit circulation of air about re-
put of the lamp running as a dummy -load sistors. Unit should be fan- cooled for con-
resistor and of the lamp running from the tinuous dissipation.
754 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
watt composition resistors of suitable value VENTILATED SHIELD COVER

to make a 50 -ohm resistor of adequate dis-


sipation.
A 2 KW dummy load having an SWR of
less than 1.05 to 1 at 30 MHz is shown in
figures 13, 14, and 15. The load consists of
twelve 600 -ohm, 120 -watt Globar type CX
noninductive resistors connected in parallel. 5-7 CHASSIS
ERIE 0557
A frequency- compensation circuit is used NOTE: FIRED RESISTORS ARE ONM /rE L /rrLE DEV /L
to balance out the slight capacitive react- COMPOSITION UNITS.

ance of the resistors. The compensation cir- Figure 14


cuit is mounted in an aluminum tube 1"
SCHEMATIC, KILOWATT DUMMY
in diameter and 25/8" long. The tube is
LOAD
plugged at the ends by metal discs, and is
mounted to the front panel of the box.
The resistors are mounted on aluminum and repeat until meter reads 100 watts at
T -bar stock and are grounded to the case at each frequency when 17.6 -volt level is
the rear of the assembly. Connection to the maintained.
coaxial receptacle is made via copper strap.
The power meter is calibrated using a 31 -4 Measurement
v.t.v.m. and r -f probe. Power is applied to of Circuit Constants
the load at 3.5 MHz and the level is adjusted
to provide 17.6 volts at "Calibration point." The measurement of the resistance, ca-
With the Watts Switch in the 200 -watt posi- pacitance, inductance, and Q (figure of
tion, the potentiometer is adjusted to pro- merit) of the components used in com-
vide a reading of 100 watts on the meter. munications work can be divided into three
in the 2000 -watt position, the other poten- general methods: the impedance method, the
tiometer is adjusted for a meter reading of substitution or resonance method, and the
200 watts. The excitation frequency is bridge method.
now changed to 29.7 MHz and the 17.6 - The Impedance The impedance method of
volt level re- established. Adjust the fre- Method measuring inductance and
quency- compensating capacitor until meter capacitance can be likened
again reads 100 watts. Recheck at 3.5 MHz to the ohmmeter method for measuring re-

Figure 15

DUMMY -LOAD
ASSEMBLY
Twelve Globar resistors
(surplus) are mounted
to aluminum "Tee"
stock, six to a side, in
fuse clips. Right end is
supported by ceramic
pillars from front panel.
Probe, meter, and po-
tentiometers are at
right.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Measurement of Circuit Components 755

sistance. An a -c voltmeter, or milliammeter


in series with a resistor, is connected in
series with the inductance or capacitance to
be measured and the a -c line. The reading of
the meter will be inversely proportional to
the impedance of the component being
measured. After the meter has been cali- 52 Sa
brated it will be possible to obtain the ap-
proximate value of the impedance directly
R" RB
R5 Rn= - Rs

from the scale of the meter. If the compon-


ent is a capacitor, the value of impedance
may be taken as its reactance at the meas- Figure 16
urement frequency and the capacitance
determined accordingly. But the d -c re- TWO WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS
sistance of an inductor must also be taken These circuits are used for the m ment
into consideration in determining its in- of d -c resistance. In A the "ratio arms" R
and R are fixed and balancing of the bridge
ductance. After the d -c resistance and the is accomplished by variation of the standard
impedance have been determined, the re- R. The standard in this case usually consists
actance may be determined from the for- of a decade box giving resistance in 1 -ohm
steps from 0 to 1110 or to 11,110 ohms. In
mula: X,, = Z2- R2. Then the induct- B a fixed standard Is used for each range and
the ratio arm is varied to obtain balance, A
ance may be determined from: L equals calibrated slide wire or potentiometer cali-
X,, /27r. brated by resistance in terms of degrees is
usually employed as R, and R,,. It will be
noticed that the formula for determining the
The Substitution The substitution method is unknown resistance from the known is the
Method a satisfactory system for same in either case.
obtaining the inductance or
capacitance of high- frequency components.
pacitance for either of the two frequencies
A large variable capacitor with a good dial
of measurement:
having an accurate calibration curve is a
necessity for making determinations by this
method. If an unknown inductor is to be L= 471-1,2
1

(C, + C)
measured, it is connected in parallel with
the standard capacitor and the combination The determination of an unknown capaci-
tuned accurately to some known frequency. tance is somewhat less complicated than the
This tuning may be accomplished either by above. A tuned circuit including a coil, the
using the tuned circuit as a wavemeter and unknown capacitor and the standard ca-
coupling it to the tuned circuit of a refer- pacitor, all in parallel, is resonated to some
ence oscillator, or by using the tuned circuit convenient frequency. The capacitance of
in the controlling position of a two termi- the standard capacitor is noted. Then the
nal oscillator such as a dynatron or transi- unknown capacitor is removed and the cir-
tron. The capacitance required to tune this cuit re- resonated by means of the standard
first frequency is then noted as C,. The cir- capacitor. The difference between the two
cuit or the oscillator is then tuned to the readings of the standard capacitor is then
second harmonic of this first frequency and equal to the capacitance of the unknown
the amount of capacitance again noted, this capacitor.
time as C. Then the distributed capaci-
tance across the coil (including all stray 31 -5 Measurements
capacitances) is equal to: C,, = (C, - with a Bridge
4C2) /3.
This value of distributed capacitance is Experience has shown that one of the
then substituted in the following formula most satisfactory methods for measuring
along with the value of the standard ca- circuit constants (resistance, capacitance,
756 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
and inductance) at audio frequencies is by
means of the a -c bridge. The Wheatstone
(d -c) bridge is also one of the most ac-
curate methods for the measurement of d -c
resistance. With a simple bridge of the type
shown at figure 16A it is entirely practical
to obtain d -c resistance determinations ac-
curate to four significant figures. With an
a -c bridge operating within its normal rat-
ing as to frequency and range of measure- zx= Zs xx= fixs
xs Rx= Rs
ment it is possible to obtain results ac-
ZA= IMPEDANCE BEING MEASURED, RS = RESISTANCE Cri.PDNEM OF ZS
curate to three significant figures. Z5= IMPEDANCE OF STANDARD, XA =REACTANCE COMPONENT OF ZA
Both the a -c and the d -c bridges consist RA= RESISTANCE COMPONENT OF ZA, XS =REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Z5
of a source of energy, a standard or refer-
ence of measurement, a means of balancing
this standard against the unknown, and a
means of indicating when this balance has
been reached. The source of energy in the
d -c bridge is a battery; the indicator is a
sensitive galvanometer. In the a -c bridge
the source of energy is an audio oscillator
(usually in the vicinity of 1000 Hz), and
the indicator is usually a pair of headphones.
The standard for the d -c bridge is a resist-
ance, usually in the form of a decade box.
Standards for the a -c bridge can be re-
sistance, capacitance, and inductance in TWO A -C BRIDGE CIRCUITS
varying forms. The operation of these bridges is essentially
Figure 16 shows two general types of the the same as those of figure 16 except that
a.c. is fed into the bridge instead of d.c. and
Wheatstone or d -c bridge. In A the so- called a pair of phones is used as the indicator in-
"ratio arms" (RA and RB) are fixed (usual- stead of the galvanometer. The bridge shown
ly in a ratio of 1-to-1, 1- to -10, 1 -to -100, or at A can be used for the measurement of re-
sistance, but it is usually used for the meas-
1 -to-1000) and the standard resistor (Rs) is urement of the impedance and reactance of
varied until the bridge is in balance. In coils and capacitors at frequencies from 200
to 1000 Hz. The bridge shown at B is used
commercially manufactured bridges there for the measurement of small values of ca-
are usually two or more buttons on the gal- pacitance by the substitution method. Full
vanometer for progressively increasing its description of the operation of both bridges
is given in the accompanying text.
sensitivity as balance is approached. Figure
16B is the slide -wire type of bridge in which
fixed standards are used and the ratio arm is used for the measurement of resistance. It
continuously variable. The slide wire may is necessary with this type of bridge to use
actually consist of a moving contact along a standard which presents the same type of
a length of wire of uniform cross section in impedance as the unknown being measured:
which case the ratio of RA to R may be resistance standard for a resistance measure-
read off directly in centimeters or inches, or ment, capacitance standard for capacitance,
in degrees of rotation if the slide wire is and inductance standard for inductance
bent around a circular former. Alternative- determination.
ly, the slide wire may consist of a linear - For measurement of capacitances from a
wound potentiometer with its dial calibrated few picofarads to about 0.001 lid, a Wag-
in degrees or in resistance from each end. ner-grounded substitution capacitance bridge
Figure 17A shows a simple type of a -c of the type shown in figure 17B will be
bridge for the measurement of capacitance found satisfactory. The ratio arms RA and
and inductance. It can also, if desired, be R11 should be of the same value within 1

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Transistorized Capacitance Meter 757

percent; any value between 2500 and


10,000 ohms for both will be satisfactory.
The two resistors Rc and RD should be
1000 -ohm wirewound potentiometers. Cs
should be a straight -line capacitance ca-
pacitor with an accurate vernier dial; 500
to 1000 pf will be satisfactory. Cc can be
a two- or three -gang broadcast capacitor
from 700 to 1000 pf maximum capacitance.
The procedure for making a measurement
is as follows: The unknown capacitor Cx is
placed in parallel with the standard capaci-
tor Cs. The Wagner ground (RD,) is varied
back and forth a small amount from the
center of its range until no signal is heard
in the phones with the switch (S) in the
Figure 18
center position. Then the switch (S) is
placed in either of the two outside posi- TRANSISTORIZED CAPACITANCE METER
tions, Cc is adjusted to a capacitance some- This small, inexpensive test instrument meas-
what greater than the assumed value of the ures capacitance directly up to 0.1 fd. Using
a small self- contained battery, the tester em-
unknown Cx, and the bridge is brought into ploys a single unijunction transistor in a
balance by variation of the standard capac- simple oscillator counter circuit. The "un-
known" terminals are at the right of the
itor (C;,). It may be necessary to cut some panel, with the range switch and the push -
resistance in at R and to switch to the to -test button to the left. Two jack plugs are
made up with "standard" capacitors. The top
other outside position of S before an exact plug has two alligator clips soldered to jack
balance can be obtained. The setting of Cs tips which may be inserted in the tester.
is then noted, Cx is removed from the cir- Calibration potentiometers are adjusted
through the small holes in the side of the
cuit (but the leads which went to it are case.
not changed in any way which would alter
their mutual capacitance) , and Cs is read- the frequency and amplitude of the charg-
justed until balance is again obtained. The ing pulses are held constant.
difference in the two settings of Cs is equal The frequency of the RC oscillator is
to the capacitance of the unknown capaci- switched to provide four capacitance ranges:
tor C.
2214

31 -6 A Transistorized 2w
Capacitance Meter CORRECTOR
h Puss ro
p TEST

Described in this section is a simple and


B2
inexpensive transistorized capacitance meter 2N1671
using a single unijunction transistor (figure B, X
18) . The instrument measures capacitance
1N34A
values ranging in size from a few pf up to
0.1 pfd in four ranges.
The capacitance meter uses a simple RC
relaxation oscillator to generate square audio - ALL RESISTORS 7/2 WATT
frequency pulses (figure 19). The unknown Figure 19
capacitor is pulse- charged through a diode
(D,) and is discharged through the indi- SCHEMATIC OF CAPACITANCE METER
cating meter and its series resistance. The S A, B, C- Three -pole, 4- position. Centralab
PA -1007
discharge current is directly proportional to M -0 -50 d -c microamperes. Simpson model 49
the value of capacitance under test provided (41 7 ")

www.americanradiohistory.com
758 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

Ten percent tolerance paper or mica capaci-


tors that have been checked on a capacitance
bridge of good accuracy may be used, or a
set of one percent tolerance capacitors may
be used as "standards." A 100 -pf standard
capacitor is placed between the "unknown"
terminals of the capacitance meter (marked
X on the schematic) and the meter switch
is set to the 100 -pf range. The press to test
button is depressed and the corrector poten-
tiometer is adjusted for full -scale meter
deflection. The 1000 -pf capacitor is now
used on the next range to achieve full -scale
deflection when the 100K range- calibration
potentiometer is properly adjusted. The two
higher ranges are adjusted in a like manner
Figure 20 with standard capacitors of .01 fd and .1
INTERIOR VIEW OF tad. The corrector potentiometer should be
CAPACITANCE METER adjusted only on the 100 -pf range and
The smaller components are mounted to should not be retouched until recalibration
phenolic terminal strips held in place by angle is necessary as a result of low battery volt-
brackets fastened to the meter bolts. The
battery is bolted to the rear of the box and age. Normal battery drain is about 5 milli-
connections to the instrument are made via amperes.
the battery clip in the foreground.

100 pf, 1000 pf, .01 fd, and .1 fd. A 31 -7 Frequency


0 to 50 d -c microammeter serves as a read- Measurements
out device so the reading of the meter must
be multiplied by two to obtain the value of All frequency measurement within the
measured capacitance. The base resistance United States is based on the transmissions
of the unijunction transistor is switched of Station WWV of the National Bureau of
in order to achieve full -scale meter deflection Standards. This station operates continuous-
on the 100 -pf range. ly on frequencies of 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and
25 MHz and on certain low frequencies.
Capacitance Meter The instrument is built
Construction
The carriers of those frequencies below 25
in an aluminum box meas-
MHz are modulated alternately by a 440 -
uring 3" X 5" X 7"
Hz tone or a 600 -Hz tone for periods of
(figures 18 and 20). Small components are
four minutes each. This tone is interrupted
mounted on two phenolic boards which are
at the beginning of the 58th minute of each
supported on either side of the meter by
hour and each five minutes thereafter for
small metal angle brackets. The three 100K
a period of precisely two minutes. Greenwich
calibration potentiometers and the 10K
Civil Time is given in code during these
corrector potentiometer are mounted on
one -minute intervals, followed by a voice
these boards so that the slotted shafts may
announcement. The accuracy of all radio
be adjusted through small holes drilled in
and audio frequencies is better than one part
the sides of the case. The unijunction tran-
in 100,000,000. A 5000 microsecond pulse
sistor is mounted in place by its leads. The
(5 cycles of a 1000 -Hz wave) may be heard
battery is clamped to the rear half of the as a tick for every second except the 59th
case with a small aluminum bracket.
second of each minute.
Meter When the wiring has been corn - These standard- frequency transmisions of
Calibration pieced and checked, the capaci- station WWV may be used for accurately
tance meter may be calibrated determining the limits of the various ama-
with the aid of capacitors of known value. teur bands with the aid of the station corn-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Frequency Measurement 759

Figure 21

SCHEMATIC OF A 100 -kHz FREQUENCY SPOTTER

munications receiver and a SO kHz, 100 - noting whether or not the harmonics of the
kHz, or 200 -kHz band -edge spotter. The oscillator in the amateur bands fall on the
low- frequency oscillator may be self -excited approximate calibration marks of the re-
if desired, but low- frequency- standard crys- ceiver.
tals have become so relatively inexpensive A simple frequency spotter is diagramed
that a reference crystal may be purchased in figure 21.
for very little more than the cost of the
components for a self- excited oscillator. 31 -8 Antenna and
The crystal has the additional advantage Transmission -
that it may be once set so that its har-
monics are at zero beat with WWV and
Line Measurements
then left with only an occasional check to
see that the frequency has not drifted more The degree of adjustment of any amateur
than a few Hz. The self- excited oscillator, antenna can be judged by the study of the
on the other hand, must be monitored very standing -wave ratio on the transmission line
frequently to ensure that it is on frequency. feeding the antenna. Various types of instru-
ments have been designed to measure the
Using a To use a frequency spotter it is SWR present on the transmission line, or to
Frequency only necessary to couple the out- measure the actual radiation resistance of
Spotter put of the oscillator unit to the the antenna in question. The most important
antenna terminal of the receiver of these instruments are the slotted line, the
through a very small capacitance such as bridge -type SWR meter, and the antenna-
might be made by twisting two pieces of scope.
insulated hookup wire together. Station
WWV is then tuned in on one of its har- The Slotted Line It is obviously impractical
monics, 15 MHz will usually be best in to measure the standing -
the daytime and S or 10 MHz at night, wave ratio in a length of coaxial line since
and the trimmer adjustment on the oscil- the voltages and currents inside the line are
lator is varied until zero beat is obtained be- completely shielded by the outer conductor
tween the harmonic of the oscillator and of the cable. Hence it is necessary to insert
WWV. With a crystal reference oscillator some type of instrument into a section of
no difficulty will be had with using the the line in order to be able to ascertain the
wrong harmonic of the oscillator to obtain conditions which are taking place inside the
the beat, but with a self- excited oscillator shielded line. Where measurements of a
it will be wise to ensure that the reference high degree of accuracy are required, the
oscillator is operating exactly on 50, 100, slotted line is the instrument most frequent-
or 200 kHz (whichever frequency has been ly used. Such an instrument, diagramed in
chosen) by making sure that zero beat is figure 22, is an item of test equipment which
obtained simultaneously on all the frequen- could be constructed in a home workshop
cies of WWV that can be heard, and by which includes a lathe and other metal-
760 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO
COAX
flrrlNG TAPER PROBE INNER DOCTOR TAPER COAX
FITTING 420 MHz and above where a full wave-
length is 28 inches or less. But for the lower
frequencies such an instrument is mechani-
CARRIER SLOT IN
FOR PROBE SLIDER
CARRYING
CONDUCTOR cally impractical.
PROBE
Bridge -Type The bridge type of stand -
Standing -Wave ing -wave indicator is used
Indicators quite generally for making
measurements on commer-
Figure 22 cial coaxial transmission lines. A simplified
version is available from M. C. Jones Elec-
DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION
tronics Co., Bristol, Conn. ( "Micro- Match ") .
OF A SLOTTED LINE
One type of bridge standing -wave indi-
The conductor ratios in the slotted line, in- cator is diagramed in figure 23. This type
cluding the tapered end sections should be
such that the characteristic impedance of the of instrument compares the electrical im-
equipment is the same as that of the trans- pedance of the transmission line with that of
mission line with which the equipment is to
be used. The indicating instrument may be the resistor R. which is included within the
operated by the d-c output of the rectifier unit. Experience with such units has shown
coupled to the probe, or it may be operated that the resistor R;, should be a good grade
by the a -c components of the rectified signal
if the signal g for or transmitter is am- of noninductive carbon type. The Ohmifc
plitude- modulated at a constant percentage. "Little Devil" type resistor in the 2 -watt
rating has given good performance. The
working tools. Commercially built slotted resistance at R. should be equal to the
lines are very expensive since they are con- characteristic impedance of the antenna
structed with a high degree of accuracy for transmission line. In other words, this resis-
precise laboratory work. The slotted line tor should have a value of 52 ohms for lines
consists essentially of a section of air- dielec- having this characteristic impedance such
tric line having the same characteristic im-
pedance as the transmission line into which
it is inserted. Tapered fittings for the trans- OUTPUT
TO
ANTENNA
mission line connectors at each end of the FEED LINE

slotted line usually are required due to dif-


ferences in the diameters of the slotted line
and the line into which it is inserted. A nar- I N34
row slot from 1/4-inch to 1/4-inch in width R4
is cut into the outer conductor of the line.
A probe then is inserted into the slot so that
it is coupled to the field inside the line. 0-100
Some sort of accurately machined track or
lead screw must be provided to ensure that
the probe maintains a constant spacing from Figure 23
the inner conductor as it is moved from
one end of the slotted line to the other. RESISTOR- BRIDGE
The probe usually includes some type of rec- STANDING -WAVE INDICATOR
tifying element whose output is fed to an This type of test equipment is suitable
indicating instrument alongside the slotted for use with coaxial feed lines.
C,- 0.001 -xfd midget ceramic capacitor
line. C. C -.001 -ad disc ceramic
The unfortunate part of the slotted -line R , R -22 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors
system of measurement is that the line must R.- Resistor equal in resistance to the charac-
teristic impedance of the coaxial transmis-
be somewhat over one -half wavelength long sion line to be used (I watt)
at the test frequency, and for best results R -5000 -ohm wirewound potentiometer
R -10,000 -ohm 1 -watt resistor
should be a full wavelength long. This re- RFC -R -f choke suitable for operation at the
quirement is easily met at frequencies of measurement freq y

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Frequency Measurements 761

lu
the same as before. If the test resistor is
15
13 matched to R:1, and stray capacitances have
!o
ie been held to low values, the indication on
15 the milliammeter will be very small. The
12
test plug with its resistor is removed and
10 the plug for the antenna transmission line
9
e
is inserted. The meter indication now will
7 read the reflection coefficient which exists on
e
the antenna transmission line at the point
s
where the indicator has been inserted. From
4
this reading of reflection coefficient the
3S
3
actual standing -wave ratio on the transmis-
sion line may be determined by reference to

-
23

2 A _
ZR - ZO the chart of figure 24.
ZR + ZO
Measurements of this type are quite help-
+ IAI
- ful in determining whether or not the anten-
1

1 IAI
tS
na is presenting a good impedance match to
0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 0.6 09 10 the transmission line being used to feed it.
READING ON 0-1 INSTRUMENT, OR FACTOR TIMES FULL SCALE
However, a test instrument of the type
(MAGNITUDE OF REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, A) shown in figure 23 must be inserted into
the line for a measurement, and then re-
Figure 24

RELATION BETWEEN STANDING - REFLECTOMETER


WAVE RATIO AND REFLECTION OUTER SHELL

COEFFICIENT
IMP INNER CONDUCTOR ou1
This chart may be used to convert reflection- JI J2
coefficient Indications such as are obtained D1
with a bridge -type standing-wave indicator or 270 270 ,i
an indicating twin lamp into values of stand- ` 141

ing -wave ratio.

R2 IOM
as RG-8 /U and RG -58 /U. For use with
lines having a nominal characteristic im-
pedance of 70 ohms, a selected "68 -ohm"
resistor having an actual resistance of 70
ohms may be used. SI

FDRWARD REFLECTED!
Balance within the equipment is checked POWER POWER

by mounting a resistor, equal in value to the INDICATOR


nominal characteristic impedance of the line COMPONENT PARTS
to be used, on a coaxial plug of the type /e" DIAMETER x 1/4 (2 FEQ
END DISC = 2 3 )
used on the end of the antenna feed line. OUTER SHELL= 2 3 /B" 6- (/ REQ.)
I.D. x
Then this plug is inserted into the input ALIGNMENT ROD = 1/ DIAMETER X 5 1/2" (2 REO )

receptacle of the instrument and a power INNER CONDUCTOR= 1/2 " DIAMETER x 5 /B0, TAPER ENDS
1

TO SOLDER TO RECEPTACLES (2 4E0


of 2 to 4 watts applied to the output re-
1

RECEPTACLES' SO-239 (2 RED.) (J I, J2


ceptacle on the desired frequency of opera- BINDING POSTS= (3 REQ)
tion. Note that the signal is passed through
the bridge in the direction opposite to nor- Figure 25
mal for this test. The resistor R, is adjusted
for full -scale deflection on the 0 -100 micro - SCHEMATIC, REFLECTOMETER
ammeter. Then the plugs are reversed so that D,, D -Crystal diode, 1N31A or IN82
the test signal passes through the instrument R, -270 ohm, -watt composition resistor
1

IRC type BTA, matched pair


in the direction indicated by the arrow on M -0 -1 d-e milliammeter
figure 23, and the power level is maintained J,, J,- Coaxial receptacle, 50-239
762 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

ci.r
sm wow

Figure 26

INTERIOR VIEW OF COAXIAL REFLECTOMETER


The reflectometer is a short section of transmission line containing two r -f voltmeters. Center
conductor of line is a section of brass rod soldered to center pins of input and output re-
ceptacles. At either end of unit are the crystal diodes, bypass capacitors and terminals.
Diode load resistors are at center of instrument, grounded to brass alignment rod.

moved from the line when the equipment the degree of match or mismatch and all
is to be operated. Also, the power input to antenna and transmission -line adjustments
the line feeding the input terminal of the should be conducted so as to make this
standing -wave indicator must not exceed 4 reading as low as possible, regardless of its
watts. The power level which the unit can absolute value.
accept is determined by the dissipation lim- The actual meter readings obtained from
itation of resistors R, plus R_. the device are a function of the operating
It is also important, for satisfactory op- frequency, the sensitivity of the instrument
eration of the test unit, that resistors R, being a function of transmitter power, in-
and R_ be exactly equal in value. The actual creasing rapidly as the frequency of opera-
resistance of these two is not critically im- tion is increased. However, the reflectometer
portant, and deviations up to 10 percent is invaluable in that it may be left perma-
from the value given in figure 23 will be nently in the transmission line, regardless
satisfactory. But the two resistors must have of the power -output level of the transmitter.
the same value, whether they are both 21 It will indicate the degree of reflected power
ohms or 24 ohms, or some value in between. in the antenna system, and at the same time
provide a visual indication of the power
31 -9 A Simple Coaxial output of the transmitter.
Reflectometer
The reflectometer is a short section of co- Reflectometer The circuit and assembly in-
axial transmission line containing two r -f Circuit formation for the reflectome-
voltmeters. One voltmeter reads the incident ter are given in figure 25.
component of voltage in the line, and the Two diode voltmeters are coupled back -to-
other reads the reflected component. The back to a short length of transmission line.
magnitude of standing -wave ratio on the The combined inductive and capacitive pick-
transmission line is the ratio of the incident up between each voltmeter and the line is
component to the reflected component, as such that the incident component of the
shown in figure 24. In actual use, calibration line voltage is balanced out in one case and
of the reflectometer is not required since the the inductive component is balanced out in
relative reading of reflected power indicates the other case. Each voltmeter, therefore,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Coaxial Reflectometer 763

reads only one wave -component. Careful serve that the resistor leads are of equal
attention to physical symmetry of the length and that each half of the assembly is
assembly ensures accurate and complete a mirror -image of the other half. The body
separation of the voltage components by the of the resistor is spaced about '/8-inch away
two voltmeters. The outputs of the two from the center conductor.
voltmeters may be selected and read on an
Testing the The instrument can be ad-
external meter connected to the terminal
Reflectometer justed on the 28 MHz band.
posts of the reflectometer.
Each r -f voltmeter is composed of a load An r -f source of a few watts
resistor and a pickup loop. The pickup loop and nonreactive load are required. The con-
is positioned parallel to a section of trans- struction of the reflectometer is such that
mission line permitting both inductive and it will work well with either 52- or 72 -ohm
capacitive coupling to exist between the coaxial transmission lines. A suitable dummy
center conductor of the line and the loop. load for the 52 -ohm line can be made of
The dimensions of the center conductor and four 220 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistors
the outer shield of the reflectometer are (Ohmite "Little Devil ") connected in par-
chosen so that the instrument impedance allel. Clip the leads of the resistors short and
closely matches that of the transmission mount them on a coaxial plug. This assembly
line. provides an eight watt, 55-ohm load, suit-
able for use at 30 MHz. If an accurate ohm-
Reflectometer A view of the interior of the meter is at hand, the resistors may be hand
Construction reflectometer is shown in fig- picked to obtain four 208 -ohm units, thus
ure 26. The coaxial input and making the dummy -load resistors exactly
output connectors of the instrument are 52 ohms. For all practical purposes, the SS-
mounted on machined brass discs that are ohm load is satisfactory. A 75 -ohm, eight -
held in place by brass alignment rods, tap- watt load resistor may be made of four
ped at each end. The center conductor is 300 -ohm, 2 -watt composition resistors con-
machined from a short section of brass rod, nected in parallel.
tapered and drilled at each end to fit over R -f power is coupled to the reflectometer
the center pin of each coaxial receptacle. and the dummy load is placed in the "out-
The end discs, the rods, and the center con- put" receptacle. The indicator meter is
ductor should be silver plated before as- switched to the "reflected- power" position.
sembly. When the center conductor is placed The meter reading should be almost zero.
in position, it is soldered at each end to the It may be brought to zero by removing the
center pin of the coaxial receptacles. case of the instrument and adjusting the
One of the alignment rods is drilled position of the load resistor. The actual
and tapped for a 6 -32 bolt at the midpoint, length of wire in the resistor lead and its
and the end discs are drilled to hold "A-inch positioning determine the meter null. Re-
ceramic insulators and binding posts, as place the case before power is applied to the
shown in the photograph. The load resistors, reflectometer. The reflectometer is now re-
crystal diodes, and bypass capacitors are fi- versed and power is applied to the "output"
nally mounted in the assembly as the last receptacle, with a dummy load attached to
step. the "input" receptacle. The second volt-
The two load resistors should be measured meter (forward power) is adjusted for a
on an ohmmeter to ensure that the resistance null reading of the meter in the same
values are equal. The exact value of resist- manner.
ance is unimportant as long as the two re- If a reflected reading of zero is not ob-
sistors are equal. The diodes should also be tainable, the harmonic content of the r -f
checked on an ohmmeter to make sure that source might be causing a slight residual
the front resistances and back resistances meter reading. Coupling the reflectometer
are balanced between the units. Care should to the r -f source through a tuned circuit
be taken during soldering to ensure the ( "antenna tuner ") will remove the offend-
diodes and resistors are not overheated. Ob- ing harmonic and permit an accurate null
764 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

indication. Be sure to hold the r -f input


power to a low value to prevent overheating tIc IL IL t lc
the dummy -load resistors.
Using the The bridge may be used up
Figure 28
Reflectometer to 150 MHz. It is placed in
the transmission line at a con- OPERATION OF THE TWIN -LAMP
venient point, preferably before any tuner, INDICATOR
balun, or TVI filter. The indicator should Showing cu flow resulting from inductive
be set to read forward power, with a maxi- and capacitive fields in a "twin lamp" attached
mum of resistance in the circuit. Power is to a line with a low standing-wave ratio.
applied and the indicator resistor is adjusted
for a full -scale reading. The switch is then outer surface of the line as this unwanted
thrown to read reflected power (indicated component will introduce errors in measure-
as A, figure 24). Assume that the forward ments made on the line. In like fashion, the
power meter reading is 1.0 and the reflected currents in a balanced transmission line must
power reading is 0.5. Substituting these be 180 degrees out of phase and balanced
values in the SWR formula of figure 24 with respect to ground in order to obtain
shows the SWR to be 3. If forward power a realistic relationship between incident and
is always set to 1.0 on the meter, the re- reflected power. This situation is not always
flected power (A) can be read directly easy to obtain in practice because of the
from the curve of figure 24 with little error. proximity effects of metallic objects or the
If the meter is adjusted so as to provide earth to the transmission line. All transmis-
a half -scale reading of the forward power,
sion -line measurements, therefore, should be
the reflectometer may be used as a trans- conducted with realization of the physical
mitter power- output meter. Tuning adjust- limitations of the equipment and the meas-
ments may then be undertaken to provide uring technique that is being used.
greatest meter reading.
Measurements on One of the most satis-
31 -10 Measurements Molded Parallel- factory and least expen-
on Balanced Wire Lines sive devices for obtaining
a rough idea of the stand-
Transmission Line
ing -wave ratio on a transmission line of the
Measurements made on balanced trans- molded parallel -wire type is the twin-lamp.
mission lines may be conducted in the same This ingenious instrument may be con-
manner as those made on coaxial lines. In structed of new components for a total cost
the case of the coaxial lines, care must be of about 25 cents; this fact alone places the
taken to prevent flow of r -f current on the twin -lamp in a class by itself as far as test
instruments are concerned.
Figure 27 shows a sketch of a twin -lamp
indicator. The indicating portion of the
system consists merely of a length of 300 -
ohm twin -lead about 10 inches long with
a dial lamp at each end. In the unit illus-
trated the dial lamps are standard 6.3 -volt
TWIN LEAD TRANSMISSION
150 -ma bayonet -base lamps. The lamps are
LINE TO ANTENNA
soldered to the two leads at each end of the
Figure 27 short section of twin -lead.
SKETCH OF THE TWIN -LAMP
To make a measurement the short section
TYPE OF SWR INDICATOR of line with the lamps at each end is merely
taped to the section of twin -lead (or other
The short section of line with lamps at each
end usually is taped to the main transmission similar transmission line) running from the
line with plastic electrical tape. transmitter or from the antenna changeover

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Antennascope 765

relay to the antenna system. When there true value of standing -wave ratio on the
are no standing waves on the antenna trans- line. If these conditions are not met, the
mission line the lamp toward the transmitter reading is relative, giving an indication of
will light while the one toward the antenna the degree of mismatch on the line. This
will not light. With 300 -ohm twin -lead handicap is not important since the relative,
running from the antenna changeover relay not the absolute, degree of mismatch is suffi-
to the antenna, and with about 200 watts cient for transmission -line adjustments to
input on the 28 -MHz band, the dial lamp be made.
toward the transmitter will light nearly to The bridge may be calibrated with a
full brilliance. With a standing -wave ratio grid -dip oscillator, and with various values
of about 1.5 to 1 on the transmission line of carbon resistors used as a load.
to the antenna the lamp toward the anten-
na will just begin to light. With a high 31 -11 The Antennascope
standing -wave ratio on the antenna feed line
both lamps will light nearly to full brilli- The Antennascope is a modified SWR
ance. Hence the instrument gives an indi- bridge in which one leg of the bridge is
cation of relatively low standing waves, but composed of a noninductive variable resistor.
when the standing -wave ratio is high the This resistor is calibrated in ohms, and when
its setting is equal to the radiation resistance
twin -lamp merely indicates that they are
high without giving any idea of the actual of the antenna under test, the bridge is in a
magnitude. balanced state. If a sensitive voltmeter is
connected across the bridge, it will indicate
A Balanced Two standing-wave indicators a voltage null at bridge balance. The radia-
SWR Bridge may be placed back -to -back to tion resistance of the antenna may then be
form an SWR bridge capable read directly from the calibrated resistor of
of being used on two -wire balanced trans- the instrument.
mission lines (figure 29). When the dual When the antenna under test is in a non -
bridge is balanced the meter reading is zero. resonant or reactive state, the null indica-
This state is reached only when the line tion on the meter of the Antennascope will
currents are equal and 180 degrees out of be incomplete. The frequency of the exciting
phase and the SWR is unity. When the line signal must then be moved to the resonant
currents are balanced and 180 degrees out frequency of the antenna to obtain accurate
of phase, the balanced bridge will read the readings of radiation resistance from the
dial of the instrument.
Ri
250

250 6uT
Ri
Figure 29
Figure 30
SCHEMATIC OF BRIDGE FOR
BALANCED LINES SCHEMATIC, ANTENNASCOPE
M-0 -200 d-c microammeter R,-1000 -ohm composition potentiometer Ohm-
R, -Hots: Six 250 -ohm resistors are composi- ite type AB or Allen Bradley type J, linear
tion, noninductive units. 1RC type ST, or taper
Ohmite "Little Devil" 1 -watt resistors may R. -SO -ohm, 1 -watt composition resistor, !RC
be used. (see text) type IT, or Ohmite "Little Devil" (see text)
S Dpdt rotary switch. Centralab type 1464 M -0 -200 d-c microammeter
766 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

by varying the position of the potentiometer.


Bridge balance may be obtained with non -
reactive loads in the range of 5 ohms to
1000 ohms with this simple circuit. When
measurements are conducted at the resonant
frequency of the antenna system the radia-
tion resistance of the installation may be
read directly from the calibrated dial of the
Antennascope. Conversely, a null reading of
the instrument will occur at the resonant
frequency, which may easily be found with
the aid of a calibrated receiver or frequency
meter.

Constructing the The Antennascope is built


Antennoscope within a sheet -metal case
measuring 3" X 6" X 2 ".
The indicating meter is placed at the top of
the case, and the r -f bridge occupies the
lower portion of the box. The input and
output coaxial fittings are mounted on each
side of the box and the noninductive 50-
ohm resistor is soldered between the center
terminals of the receptacles.
The calibrating potentiometer (R1) is
mounted on a phenolic plate placed over a
3/4 -inch hole drilled in the front of the box.
This reduces the capacity to ground of the
potentiometer to a minimum. Placement of
the small components within the box may 1

be seen in figure 32. Care should be taken


Figure 31
1

to mount the crystal diode at right angles to


THE ANTENNASCOPE the 50 ohm resistor to reduce capacity cou-
The radiation resistance of r4 loads c cted pling between the components.
across the output receptacle may be quickly The upper frequency limit of accuracy of
determined by a direct dial reading. The An-
tennascope may be driven with a grid -dip the Antennascope is determined by the as-
oscillator, it covers r -t impedance range of 5 sembly technique. The unit shown will work
to 1000 ohms. with good accuracy to approximately 100
MHz. Above this frequency, the self -in-
A typical Antennascope is shown in fig- ductance of the leads prevents a perfect null
ures 31 and 32, and the schematic is shown from being obtained. For operation in the
in figure 30. A 1000 -ohm noninductive vhf region, it would be wise to rearrange
carbon potentiometer serves as the variable the components to reduce lead length to an
leg of the bridge. The other legs are com- absolute minimum, and to use 1/4-inch cop-
posed of the 50 -ohm composition resistor per strap for the r -f leads instead of wire.
and the radiation resistance of the antenna.
If the radiation resistance of the external Testing the When the instrument is com-
load or antenna is 50 ohms, and the poten- Antennascope pieced, a grid -dip meter may
tiometer is set at midscale, the bridge is in be coupled to the input recep-
balance, and the diode voltmeter will read tacle of the Antennascope by means of a
zero. If the radiation resistance of the an- two -turn link. The frequency of excitation
tenna is any value other than SO ohms, the should be in the 10- to 20 -MHz region.
bridge may be balanced to this new value Coupling should be adjusted to obtain a half-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Antennascope 767

Figure 33

SIMPLE SILICON CRYSTAL NOISE


GENERATOR

turn link. Enough coupling should be used


to obtain at least a 1/4-scale reading on the
meter of the Antennascope with no load
connected to the measuring terminals. The
Antennascope may be considered to be a
Figure 32 low range r -f ohmmeter and may be em-
ployed to determine the electrical length of
PLACEMENT OF PARTS WITHIN
quarter -wave lines, surge impedance of
THE ANTENNASCOPE
transmission lines, and antenna resonance
With the length of leads shown this model and radiation resistance.
is useful up to about 100 MHz. Crystal diode
should be placed at right angles to 50 -ohm In general, the measuring terminals of the
composition resistor. Antennascope are connected in series with
the load at a point of maximum current.
scale reading of the meter. Various values of This means the center of a dipole, or the
1 -watt composition resistors up to 1000 base of a vertical 1/4 -wave ground -plane an-
ohms are then plugged into the `output" tenna. Excitation is supplied to the Anten-
coaxial receptacle and the potentiometer is nascope, and the frequency of excitation
adjusted for a null on the meter. The set- and the resistance control of the Antenna -
tings of the potentiometer may now be cali- scope are both varied until a complete null
is obtained on the indicating meter of the
brated in terms of the load resistor, the null
position indicating the value of the test re- Antennascope. The frequency of the source
sistor. A calibrated scale for the potentiom- of excitation is now the resonant frequency
eter should be made, as shown in figure 31. of the load, and the radiation resistance of
the load may be read on the dial of the
Using the The Antennascope may be Antennascope.
Antennascope driven by a grid -dip oscilla- On measurements on 80 and 40 meters,
tor coupled to it by a two it might be found that it is impossible to
768 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

obtain a complete null on the Antennascope. NOISE RECEIVER


GENERATOR
This is usually caused by pickup of a nearby o
broadcast station, the rectified signal of the SVRR
O
broadcast station obscuring the null indica-
tion on the Antennascope. This action is LTERYINATINO
RESISTOR
only noticed when antennas of large size
are being checked. Figure 35

TEST SETUP FOR NOISE GENERATOR


31 -12 A Silicon Crystal
Noise Generator a small but constant r -f noise (or hiss) is
generated. The voltage necessary to generate
The limiting factor in signal reception this noise may be obtained from a few flash-
above 25 MHz is usually the thermal noise light cells. The noise generator is a broad-
generated in the receiver. At any frequency, band device and requires no tuning. If built
however, the tuned circuits of the receiver with short leads, it may be employed for
must be accurately aligned for best signal - receiver measurements well above 150 MHz.
to -noise ratio. Circuit changes (and even The noise generator should be used for com-
alignment changes) in the r -f stages of a parative measurements only, since calibra-
receiver may do much to either enhance or tion against a high -quality commercial noise
degrade the noise figure of the receiver. It generator is necessary for absolute measure-
is exceedingly hard to determine whether ments.
changes of either alignment or circuitry are A Practical Shown in figure 33 is a
really providing a boost in signal -to -noise Noise Generator simple silicon crystal noise
ratio of the receiver, or are merely increas- generator. The schematic
ing the gain (and noise) of the unit. of this unit is illustrated in figure 34. The
A simple means of determining the degree 1N21 crystal and .001 -pfd ceramic capaci-
of actual sensitivity of a receiver is to inject tor are connected in series directly across
a minute signal in the input circuit and
the output terminals of the instrument.
then measure the amount of this signal that Three small flashlight batteries are wired in
is needed to overcome the inherent receiver
series and mounted inside the case, along
noise. The less injected signal needed to with the 0 -2 d -c milliammeter and the
override the receiver noise by a certain, noise -level potentiometer.
fixed amount, the more sensitive the receiver To prevent heat damage to the 1N21
is.
crystal during the soldering process, the
A simple source of minute signal may be crystal should be held with a damp rag, and
obtained from a silicon crystal diode. If a the connections soldered to it quickly with
small d -c current is passed through a silicon a very hot iron. Across the terminals (and
crystal in the direction of higher resistance, in parallel with the equipment to be at-
tached to the generator) is a 1 -watt carbon
resistor whose resistance is equal to the im-
pedance level at which measurements are to
be made. This will usually be either 50 or
300 ohms. If the noise generator is to be
I{ VOLTS used at one impedance level only, this resis-
.001
CERAMIC
tor may be mounted permanently inside of
LOAD
the case.
RESISTOR
SO-300A
NIELOED INC O VRE
Using the The test setup for use of
Noise Generator the noise generator is
Figure 34 shown in figure 35. The
noise generator is connected to the antenna
A SILICON CRYSTAL NOISE GENERATOR terminals of the receiver under test. The

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Monitor Scope 769

receiver is turned on, the avc turned off, and


1_0
the r -f gain control placed full on. The IKV IM 1

+30V
audio volume control is adjusted until the IIH
CENTERING
output meter advances to one -quarter scale. CONTROLS

This reading is the basic receiver noise. The 220K 2API 001 R-F

noise generator is turned on, and the noise- ,11V 15 INPUT


2200
level potentiometer adjusted until the noise
output voltage of the receiver is doubled.
The more resistance in the diode circuit, the 3300 ,v
01
RFC
2.SMN
better is the signal -to -noise ratio of the re- 11

ceiver under test. The r -f circuit of the SO R

receiver may be aligned for maximum signal - 12011 NOTE:


ALL RESISTORS 1 -WATT
to -noise ratio with the noise generator by TI .150 V AT 25 MA.
aligning for a 2/1 noise ratio at minimum 1011 6.3 v. AT 0.5 A.
STA NCOA P -818?
diode current. SO N

31 -13 A Monitor Scope .001


for AM and SSB 11011.'1

This miniature monitor scope is designed


to be used with transmitters having a plate Figure 37
supply of 500 to 3000 volts. The scope
SCHEMATIC, MONITOR OSCILLOSCOPE
draws its plate power from the transmitter,
thus eliminating the costly and bulky power
supply usually required for an instrument voltages obtained from a voltage divider
of this type. which is placed across the transmitter power
The circuit of the scope is shown in figure supply. A 60 -Hz sweep circuit is used with
37. A 2AP1 tube is used, with electrode return -trace blanking derived from a sim-
ple phase -shift circuit. This sweeep is not
ideal, but is satisfactory for the intended
purpose of the scope. A more sophisticated
sweep circuit would require more circuitry
and a low -voltage supply, both of which
would increase the size, complexity, and cost
of the unit.
The cathode circuit is at ground potential
and the centering controls are above ground.
These two potentiometers are mounted on a
phenolic board on the side of the unit, and
are adjusted with an insulated screwdriver.
After adjustment they are covered with a
second phenolic board to prevent the user
from touching them.
If the scope is to be used with a supply
voltage lower than 2000, one of the 1 -meg-
ohm resistors at the "top" of the divider
should be removed. Five hundred to 1000
Figure 36 volts should be measured across the 1 -fd
This miniature oscilloscope is designed to be filter capacitor. A v.t.v.m. should be used
used with a-m and SSB transmitters and for this measurement.
draws its anode power from the transmitter The monitor scope is built into a steel
plate supply. A small steel chassis and bottom
plate are used to make the 'scope cabinet. chassis measuring 21/4" X 5" X 91/4", and
770 Electronic Test Equipment THE RADIO

Figure 38

UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
OSCILLOSCOPE
Filament transformer is
mounted directly behind
scope tube so os to not
distort electron beam.
Centering controls are
mounted on phenolic
board on chassis edge.
Controls are covered af-
ter adjustment to elimi-
nate shock hazard.

is designed to sit atop the receiver. R -f con- computed as shown in figure 40. This data
nection to the transmitter may be made by may be compared with the information
inserting a coaxial "Tee" in the transmission listed in the transistor data sheet to deter-
line and running a short length of similar mine the condition of the transistor under
line from the "Tee" to the scope. Operation test.
of the scope and its uses are covered in
chapter 8, "The Oscilloscope."

31 -14 An Inexpensive
Transistor Checker
This inexpensive and compact transistor
checker will measure the d -c parameters of
most common transistors. Either NPN or
PNP transistors may be checked. A six -
position test switch permits the following
parameters to be measured: (1) I 'o -D -c
collector current when collector junction
is reverse -biased and emitter is open cir-
cuited; (2) I,.0_2,,-collector current when
base current is 20 microamperes; (3) I, -o -Inn
-collector current when base current is Figure 39
100 microamperes; (4) I,.EO- collector cur- TRANSISTOR CHECKER
rent when collector junction is reverse - An expanded-scale meter provides accurate
biased and base is open circuited; (5) Lis measurement of transistor parameters in this
-collector current when collector junction easily built instrument. Six d -c parameters
may be measured and with the data derived
is reverse -biased and base is shorted to emit- from these tests, the a -c forward -current trans-
ter; (6) IEO -emitter current when emitter fer ratios may be computed. Two transistor
sockets are mounted at the left of the tester,
junction is reverse- biased and collector is with the three selector switches to the right.
open circuited. Six -position test switch is mounted to bot-
Using the data derived from these tests, tom side of box. Tip jacks are placed in par-
allel with transistor socket terminals to per-
the static and a -c forward-current transfer mit test of transistors having unorthodox
ratios (hFE and hlr, respectively) may be bases.

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HANDBOOK Transistor Checker 771

PUSH TO READ
1.2K J=L

METER ADJUST

TO ADJUST RESULT
TEST WHEN St
ICO VCB =6 V. I READ METER DIRECT
I C 1ST 2OLA 2 Figure 41
Ic IB =tooLA 3 "
ICED VCE =6 V. 4 ' INTERIOR VIEW OF
ICES VCE =B V. 9
Ieo VEO =eV. e '
CALCULATE.
TRANSISTOR CHECKER
hFE 1B= 2O LA 2 hFE = Components of meter diode circuit are
IIC LEADING
13
mounted to phenolic board attached to meter
CALCULATE
hFE 1B =100 LA -
terminals. Other small resistors may be wired
3
hFE_ IC METER READING
directly to switch lugs. The four II 2-volt bat-
le 100 LA
CALCULATE: WHERE: teries are held in o small clamp at the rear
ht. I Br 20SIA 2 _ ICI-IC2 ICI. METER of the case. Chassis is cut out for lever -action
hh .17-3-74r READING switches and opening is covered with three -
CALCULATE IC2 =METER position switch plate.
ICI -Ica READING WITH

-
ht. le'IDDLA 3 hN -20 :Oar S4 CLOSED
WITH 13011 RESISTOR CON - equal to about 6K, the meter scale is com-
eV NECTED TO C -E OF TEST
4 SOCKET, FULL-SCALE METER
BATTERY
DEFLECTION WILL RESULT pressed only one microampere at 20 micro-
WHEN Ss IS PRESSED
amperes. Meter adjust potentiometer R_ is
set to give 10 milliamperes full -scale meter
Figure 40 deflection. The scale may then be calibrated
by comparison with a conventional meter.
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTOR CHECKER If the NPN -PNP switch (S_) is in the
S,A, B, C- Three -pole, 6- position. Centralab wrong position, the collector and emitter
1021
S, S , S -Centralab type 1400 nonshorting junctions will be forward biased during the
lever switch 'co and IF:o tests (switch positions 1 and 6).
M -0 -200 d -c microammeter. General Electric
or Simpson (41/2")
The high resulting current may be used as
a check for open or intermittent connections
within the transistor.
The transistor parameters are read on a The transistor checker also measures hrE
0 -100 d -c microammeter placed in a diode with 20 microamperes and 100 microam-
network which provides a nearly linear scale peres base current. Depressing the fife switch
to 20 microamperes, a highly compressed (S,) decreases the base drive about 20 per-
scale from 20 microamperes to one milliam- cent, permitting h1,. to be estimated from
pere, and a nearly linear scale to full scale the corresponding change in collector cur-
at 10 milliamperes. Transistor parameters rent (formulas 1 and 2). All tests are con-
may be read to within 10 percent on all ducted with a 330 -ohm resistor limiting the
transistor types from mesas to power alloys collector current to about 12 milliamperes
without switching meter ranges and with- and the maximum transistor dissipation to
out damage to the meter movement or about 20 milliwatts. The checker therefore
transistor. cannot harm a transistor regardless of how
By making the sum of the internal resist- it is plugged in or how the test switches are
ance of the meter plus series resistor R, set.
772 Electronic Test Equipment

The battery test provides full -scale meter top of the box. Three insulated tip jacks
deflection of 10 milliamperes when the bat- are wired to the leads of one transistor test
tery potential is 6 volts. This is achieved by socket so that transistors having unorthodox
connecting a 150-ohm resistor from collector bases or leads may be clipped to the tester
to emitter of a test socket. by means of short test leads. Four 1 1/2-volt
flashlight cells are mounted to the rear of
Test Set The transistor checker is built the case by an aluminum clamp. Potenti-
Construction in an aluminum box measur- ometer R_, the meter diode, and associated
ing 3" X f" X 7 ", as shown components are fastened to a phenolic
in the photographs. Test switch S, is board attached to the meter terminals.
mounted on the end of the box; and the Switch S, has an indicator scale made of
transistor sockets, microammeter, and the heavy white cardboard, lettered with India
various other switches are placed on the ink and a lettering pen.

www.americanradiohistory.com
CHAPTER THIRTY -TWO

With a few possible exceptions, such as 32-1 Tools


fixed air capacitors, neutralizing capacitors
and transmitting coils, it hardly pays one to Beautiful work can be done with metal
attempt to build the components required for chassis and panels with the help of only a
the construction of an amateur transmitter. few inexpensive tools. The time required for
This is especially true when the parts are of construction, however, will be greatly reduced
the type used in construction and replacement if a fairly complete assortment of metal -work-
work on broadcast receivers, as mass produc- ing tools is available. Thus, while an array of
tion has made these parts very inexpensive. tools will speed up the work, excellent results
may be accomplished with few tools, if one
Transmitters Those who have and wish to has the time and patience.
spend the necessary time can The investment one is justified in making
effect considerable monetary saving in their in tools is dependent upon several factors. If
transmitters by building them from the com- you like to tinker, there are many tools use-
ponent parts. The necessary data is given ful in radio construction that you would prob-
in the construction chapters of this handbook. ably buy anyway, or perhaps already have,
To many builders, the construction is as such as screwdrivers, hammer, saws, square,
fascinating as the operation of the finished vise, files, etc. This means that the money
transmitter; in fact, many amateurs get so taken for tools from your radio budget can be
much satisfaction out of building a well -per- used to buy the more specialized tools, such
forming piece of equipment that they spend as socket punches or hole saws, taps and dies,
more time constructing and rebuilding equip- etc.
ment than they do operating the equipment The amount of construction work one does
on the air. determines whether buying a large assortment
774 Workshop Practice THE RADIO
of tools is an economical move. It also deter- HIGHLY DESIRABLE HAND TOOLS
mines if one should buy the less expensive AND MATERIALS
type offered at surprisingly low prices by the 1 Bench vise (jaws at least 3 inch)
familiar mail order houses, "five and ten" 1 Spool plain wire solder
stores and chain auto- supply stores, or whether 1 Carpenter's brace, ratchet type
one should spend more money and get first - 1 Square -shank countersink bit
grade tools. The latter cost considerably more 1 Square -shank taper reamer, small
and work but little better when new, but will 1 Square-shank taper reamer, large (the two
outlast several sets of the cheaper tools. reamers should overlap; 1/2 inch and /8
Therefore they are a wise investment for the inch size will usually be suitable)
experimenter who does lots of construction 1 /8 inch tube -socket punch (for electrolytic
work (if he can afford the initial cash outlay) . capacitors)
The amateur who constructs only an occasional 1 1-3/16 inch tube- socket punch
piece of apparatus need not be so concerned 1 %8 -inch tube -socket punch
with tool life, as even the cheaper grade tools 1 Adjustable circle cutter for holes to 3 inch
will last him several years, if they are given 1 Set small, inexpensive, open -end wrenches
proper care. 1 Pair tin shears, 10 or 12 inch
The hand tools and materials in the accom- 1 Wood chisel (1/2 inch tip)
panying lists will be found very useful around 1 Pair wing dividers
the home workshop. Materials not listed but 1 Coarse mill file, flat 12 inch
ordinarily used, such as paint, can best be 1 Coarse bastard file, round, 1/2 or 3/4 inch
purchased as required for each individual job. 1 Set allen and spline -head wrenches
6 or 8 Assorted small files; round, half -round
ESSENTIAL HAND TOOLS AND
MATERIALS
or triangular, flat, square, rat -tail
4 Small "C" clamps
1 Good electric soldering iron, about 100 Steel wool, coarse and fine
watts, Sandpaper and emery cloth, coarse, medium,
1 Spool rosin -core wire solder and fine
1 Each large, medium, small, and midget Duco cement
screwdrivers File brush
1 Good hand drill (eggbeater type) , prefer- USEFUL BUT NOT ESSENTIAL TOOLS
ably two-speed AND MATERIALS
1 Pair regular pliers, 6 inch
1 Jig or scroll saw (small) with metal -cut-
1 Pair long nose pliers, 6 inch ting blades
1 Pair cutting pliers (diagonals) , 5 inch or 1 Small wood saw (crosscut teeth)
6 inch 1 Each square -shank drills: /8, 7/16, and 1/2
I 1V8-inch tube -socket punch inch
1 "Boy Scout" knife 1 Tap and die outfit for 6 -32, 8-32, 10 -32
I Combination square and steel rule, 1 foot and 10 -24 machine screw threads
4 Medium size "C" clamps
1 Yardstick or steel pushrule Lard oil (in squirt can)
1 Scratch awl or ice pick scribe Kerosene
I Center punch Empire cloth
1 Dozen or more assorted round shank drills Clear lacquer ( "industrial" grade)
(as many as you can afford between no. Lacquer thinner
50 and %4 or 3/g inch, depending upon Dusting brush
size of hand drill chuck) Paint brushes
Sheet celluloid, Lucite, or polystyrene
1 Combination oil stone
1 Carpenter's plane
Light machine oil (in squirt can)
1 Each "Spintite" wrenches, 1V4, 5/16, 11/32
Friction tape
to fit the standard 6 -32 and 8 -32 nuts
1 Hacksaw and blades used in radio work
1 Medium file and handle 1 Screwdriver for recessed head type screws
1 Cold chisel (1/2 inch tip)
The foregoing assortment assumes that the
1 Wrench for socket punch constructor does not want to invest in the
1 Hammer more expensive power tools, such as drill press,

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Tools and Materials 775

Figure 1

SOFT ALUMINUM
SHEET MAY BE CUT
WITH HEAVY
KITCHEN SHEARS

grinding head, etc. If power equipment is pur- tube sockets mount in a 5/8 -inch hole, while
chased, obviously some of the hand tools and 9 -piu sockets mount in a 3/4-inch hole. Green-
accessories listed will be superfluous. A drill lee socket punches can be obtained in these
press greatly facilitates construction work, sizes, or a smaller hole may be reamed to the
and it is unfortunate that a good one costs as proper size. Needless to say, the punch is
much as a small transmitter. much the more satisfactory solution. Mounting
Not listed in the table are several special - screws for miniature sockets are usually of
purpose radio tools which are somewhat of a the 4 -40 size.
luxury, but are nevertheless quite handy, such
as various around - the -corner screwdrivers and Metal Chassis Though quite a few more tools
wrenches, special soldering iron tips, etc. and considerably more time
These can be found in the larger radio parts will be required for metal chassis construction,
stores and are usually listed in their mail or- much neater and more satisfactory equipment
der catalogs. can be built by mounting the parts on sheet
If it is contemplated to use the newer and metal chassis instead of breadboards. This type
very popular miniature series of tubes (6AK5, of construction is necessary when shielding of
6C4, 6B6, etc.) in the construction of equip- the appartus is required. A front panel and a
ment certain additional tools will be required back shield minimize the danger of shock and
to mount the smaller components. Miniature complete the shielding of the enclosure.

Figure 2
CONVENTIONAL
WOOD EXPANSION
BIT IS EFFECTIVE IN
DRILLING SOCKET
HOLES IN REYNOLDS
DO -IT- YOURSELF
ALUMINUM
776 Workshop Practice THE RADIO

Figure 3
SOFT ALUMINUM
TUBING MAY BE
BENT AROUND
WOODEN FORM
BLOCKS. TO PREVENT
THE TUBE FROM
COLLAPSING ON
SHARP BENDS, IT IS
PACKED WITH
WET SAND.

32 -2 The Material Dijh type construction is practically the


same as metal chassis construction, the main
Electronic equipment may be built upon difference lying in the manner in which the
foundation of wood, steel or aluminum. The chassis is fastened to the panel.
choice of foundation material is governed by the
requirements of the electrical circuit, the weight Speciol For high -powered r -f stages,
of the components of the assembly, and the fin- Frameworks many amateur constructors pre-
ancial cost of the project when balanced against fer to discard the more conven-
the pocketbook contents of the constructor. tional types of construction and employ in-
stead special metal frameworks and brackets
Breadboard The simplest method of con- which they design specially for the parts which
structing equipment is to lay it they intend to use. These are usually arranged
out in breadboard fashion, which consists of to give the shortest possible r -f leads and to
fastening the various components to a board fasten directly behind a relay rack panel by
of suitable size with wood screws or machine means of a few bolts, with the control shafts
bolts, arranging the parts so that important
leads will be as short as possible.
Breadboard construction is suitable for test-
ing an experimental layout, or sometimes for
assembling an experimental unit of test equip-
ment. But no permanent item of station equip-
ment should be left in the breadboard form.
Breadboard construction is dangerous, since
components carrying dangerous voltages are
left exposed. Also, breadboard construction is
never suitable for any r -f portion of a trans-
mitter, since it would be substantially impos-
sible to shield such an item of equipment for
the elimination of TVl resulting from har-
monic radiation.

Figure 4
A WOODWORKING
PLANE MAY BE USED
TO SMOOTH OR
TRIM THE EDGES OF
REYNOLDS
DO -IT- YOURSELF
ALUMINUM STOCK.

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HANDBOOK Enclosures 777

COMPONENT PARTS
1. Legs and slnngers-
aluminum angle %"N %"
DESK 2. Top -flush door
3. Shelves- W plywood
6'O-

OI%"

Figure 6
TVI ENCLOSURE MADE FROM

i-
SINGLE SHEET OF
I-1'r PERFORATED ALUMINUM
76 Reynolds Metal Co. "Do -it- yourself" aluminum
sheet may be cut and folded to form TVI -
proof enclosure. One-half inch lip on edges Is
bolted to center section with 6 -32 machine
screws.

J 1'6'

f-
O6-

2'D* 32-3 TVI -Proof


Figure 5 Enclosures
INEXPENSIVE OPERATING DESK MADE
FROM ALUMINUM ANGLE STOCK, PLY- Armed with a right -angle square, a tin -snips
WOOD AND A FLUSH -TYPE DOOR and a straight edge, the home constructor will
find the assembly of aluminum enclosures an
projecting through corresponding holes in the easy task. This section will show simple con-
panel. struction methods, and short cuts in producing
enclosures.
Working with necessity of employing
The The simplest type of aluminum enclosure
Aluminum "electrically tight enclosures" is that formed from a single sheet of per-
for the containment of TVI - forated material as shown in figure 6. The
producing harmonics has led to the general top, sides, and back of the enclosure are of
use of aluminum for chassis, panel, and en- one piece, complete with folds that permit
closure construction. If the proper type of the formed enclosure to be bolted together
aluminum material is used, it may be cut and along the edges. The top area of the enclosure
worked with the usual woodworking tools should match the area of the chassis to en-
found in the home shop. Hard, brittle alumi- sure a close fit. The front edge of the en-
num alloys such as 24ST and 61ST should be closure is attached to aluminum angle strips
avoided, and the softer materials such as 2S that are bolted to the front panel of the
or 1/2H should be employed. unit; the sides and back can either be bolted
A convenient product is Reynold's Do -it- to matching angle strips affixed to the chassis,
yourself aluminum, which is being distributed or may simply be attached to the edge of the
on a nationwide basis through hardware stores, chassis with self- tapping sheet metal screws.
lumber yards and building material outlets. Enclosures of this type are used on the all -
This material is an alloy which is temper se- band transmitter described in chapter 31.
lected for easy working with ordinary tools. A more sophisticated enclosure is shown
Aluminum sheet, bar and angle stock may be in figure 7. In this assembly aluminum angle
obtained, as well as perforated sheets for ven- stock is cut to length to form a framework
tilated enclosures. upon which the individual sides, back, and
Figures 1 through 4 illustrate how this soft top of the enclosure are bolted. For greatest
material may be cut and worked with ordinary strength, small aluminum gusset plates should
shop tools, and fig. 5 shows a simple operating be affixed in each corner of the enclosure.
desk that may be made from aluminum angle The complete assembly may be held together
stock, plywood and a flush -type six foot door. by no. 6 sheet metal screws.
778 Workshop Practice THE RADIO

Regardless of the type of enclosure to be


made, care should be taken to ensure that all
joints are square. Do not assume that all pre-
fabricated chassis and panel are absolutely true
and square. Check them before you start to
form your shield as any dimensional errors in
the foundation will cause endless patching and
cutting alter your enclosure is bolted together.
Finally, be sure that paint is removed from
the panel and chassis at the point the en-
closure attaches to the foundation. A clean,
metallic contact along the seam is required
for maximum harmonic suppression.

32 -4 Enclosure
Openings
Openings into shielded enclosures may be
made simply by covering them by a piece of
shielding held in place by sheet metal screws.
Openings through vertical panels, however,
usually require a bit more attention to pre-
vent leakage of harmonic energy through the
crack of the door which is supposed to seal
the opening. A simple way to provide a panel
opening is to employ the Bud ventilated door
rack panel model PS -814 or 815. The grille
opening in this panel has holes small enough
in area to prevent serious harmonic leakage.
The actual door opening, however, does not Figure 7
seal tightly enough to be called TVI- proof. TVI -PROOF ENCLOSURE BUILT OF
PERFORATED ALUMINUM SHEET
In areas of high TV signal strength where AND ANGLE STOCK
a minimum of operation on 28 Mc. is con-
templated, the door is satisfactory as is. To
accomplish more complete harmonic suppres-
sion, the edges of the opening should be lined 32-5 Summation
with preformed contact finger stock manufac- of the Problem
tured by Eitel- McCullough, Inc., of San Bruno,
Calif. Eimac finger stock is an excellent means The creation of r -f energy is accompanied
of providing good contact continuity when by harmonic generation and leakage of funda-
using components with adjustable or moving mental and harmonic energy from the generator
contact surfaces, or in acting as electrical source. For practical purposes, radio frequen-
"weatherstrip" around access doors in enclo- cy power may be considered as a form of both
sures. Harmonic leakage through such a sealed electrical and r -f energy. As electrical energy,
opening is reduced to a negligible level. The it will travel along any convenient conductor.
mating surface to the finger stock should be As r -f energy, it will radiate directly from the
free of paint, and should provide a good elec- source or from any conductor connected to the
trical connection to the stock. source. In view of this "dual personality" of
A second method of re- establishing elec- r -f emanations, there is no panacea for all
trical continuity across an access port is to forms of r -f energy leakage. The cure involves
employ Metex shielding around the mating both filtering and shielding: one to block the
edges of the opening. Metex is a flexible knit- paths of conducted energy, the other to pre-
ted wire mesh which may be obtained in vent the leakage of radiated energy. The proper
various sizes and shapes. This r -f gasket ma- combination of filtering and shielding can re-
terial is produced by Metal Textile Corp., duce the radiation of harmonic energy from a
Roselle, N.J. Metex is both flexible and resili- signal source some 80 decibels. In most cases,
ent and conforms to irregularities in mating this is sufficient to eliminate interference caused
surfaces with a minimum of closing pressure. by the generation of undesirable harmonics.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Construction Prcctice 779

32 -6 Construction
Practice
Chassis The chassis first should be covered
Layout with a layer of wrapping paper,
which is drawn tightly down on FILL
DRILL HOLES SLIGHTLY BREAK OUT
all sides and fastened with scotch tape. This INSIDE DASHED OUTLINE
OF DESIRED HOLE.
PIECE INSIDE
DRILL HOLES.
SMOOTH

allows any number of measurement lines and


hole centers to be spotted in the correct po- MAKING RECTANGULAR CUTOUT
sitions without making any marks on the
chassis itself. Place on it the parts to be Figure 8
mounted and play a game of chess with them,
trying different arrangements until all the grid off part of the die. This is easily avoided by
and plate leads are made as short as possible,
always making sure that the piece is parallel
tubes are clear of coil fields, r -f chokes are in to the faces of the punch, the die, and the
safe positions, etc. Remember, especially if base. The latter should be an anvil or other
you are going to use a panel, that a good me-
solid base of heavy material.
chanical layout often can accompany sound A punch by Greenlee forces socket holes
electrical design, but that the electrical de- through the chassis by means of a screw turned
sign should be given first consideration. with a wrench. It is noiseless, and works much
All too often parts are grouped to give a
more easily and accurately than most others.
symmetrical panel, irrespective of the arrange- The male part of the punch should be placed
ment behind. When a satisfactory arrangement in the vise, cutting edge up and the female
has been reached, the mounting holes may be
portion forced against the metal with a wrench.
marked. The same procedure now must be These punches can be obtained in sizes to
followed for the underside, always being care-
accommodate all tube sockets and even large
ful to see that there are no clashes between
enough to be used for meter holes. In the
the two (that no top mounting screws come
octal socket sizes they require the use of a %g
down into the middle of a paper capacitor on inch center hole to accommodate the bolt.
the underside, that the variable capacitor rotors
do not hit anything when turned, etc.) . Transformer Cutouts for transformers and
When all the holes have been spotted, they Cutouts chokes are not so simply han-
should be center -punched through the paper dled. After marking off the part
into the chassis. Don't forget to spot holes for to be cut, drill about a 1/4-inch hole on each
leads which must also come through the of the inside corners and tangential to the
chassis. edges. After burring the holes, clamp the piece
For transformers which have lugs on the and a block of cast iron or steel in the vise.
bottoms, the clearance holes may be spotted Then, take your burring chisel and insert it in
by pressing the transformer on a piece of pa- one of the corner holes. Cut out the metal by
per to obtain impressions, which may then hitting the chisel with a hammer. The blows
be transferred to the chassis. should be light and numerous. The chisel acts
Punching
against the block in the same way that the two
In cutting socket holes, one can
blades of a pair of scissors work against each
use either a fly- cutter or socket
other. This same process is repeated for the
punches. These punches are easy to operate
other sides. A file is used to trim up the com-
and only a few precautions are necessary. The pleted cutout.
guide pin should fit snugly in the guide hole. Another method is to drill the four corner
This increases the accuracy of location of the holes large enough to take a hack saw blade,
socket. If this is not of great importance, one then saw instead of chisel. The four holes per-
may well use a drill of 1/32 inch larger di-
mit nice looking corners.
ameter than the guide pin. Some of the punches Still another method is shown in figure 8.
will operate without guide holes, but the latter
When heavy panel steel is used and a drill
always make the punching operations simpler
press or electric drill is available, this is the
and easier. The only other precaution is to be most satisfactory method.
sure the work is properly lined up before ap-
plying the hammer. If this is not done, the Removing In both drilling and punching, a
punch may slide sideways when you strike and Burrs burr is usually left on the work.
thus not only shear the chassis but also take There are three simple ways of
780 Workshop Practice THE RADIO

removing these. Perhaps the best is to take a pieces of apparatus to chassis or breadboards.
chisel (be sure it is one for use on metal) and The first, using nuts and machine screws, is
set it so that its bottom face is parallel to the slow, and the commercial manufacturing prac-
piece. Then gently tap it with a hammer. This tice of using self- tapping screws is gaining
usually will make a clean job with a little favor. For the mounting of small parts such
practice. If one has access to a counterbore, as resistors and capacitors, "tie points" are
this will also do a nice job. A countersink will very useful to gain rigidity. They also con-
work, although it bevels the edges. A drill of tribute materially to the appearance of finished
several sizes larger is a much used arrange- apparatus.
ment. The third method is by filing off the Rubber grommets of the proper size, placed
burr, which does a good job but scratches the in all chassis holes through which wires are
adjacent metal surfaces badly. to be passed, will give a neater appearing job
and also will reduce the possibility of short
Mounting There are two methods in gen- circuits.
Components eral use for the fastening of
transformers, chokes, and similar Soldering Making a strong, low- resistance
solder joint does not mean just
dropping a blob of solder on the two parts to
NUMBERED DRILL SIZES be joined and then hoping that they'll stick.
Correct for There are several definite rules that must be

--
DI- rapping
DRILL meter Clears Steel or observed.
NUMBER (In.) Screw
-
Brout

-
All parts to be soldered must be absolutely

--
1 .226 clean. To clean a wire, lug, or whatever it may
2 .221 12 -24
3
4
S
.213
.209
.205
12 -20 -
14 -24

-
be, take your pocket knife and scrape it thor-
oughly, until fresh metal is laid bare. It is not
6 .204 enough to make a few streaks; scrape until the
7 .201
.199 part to be soldered is bright.

--
6
Make a good mechanical joint before apply-

--
9 .196
10 .193 10 -32
11 .191 10-24 ing any solder. Solder is intended primarily
12' to make a good electrical connection; mechani-

--
.169

--
13 .165
14 .162 cal rigidity should be obtained by bending the
15 .160 wire into a small hook at the end and nipping
16 .177 12 -24
17 .173 it firmly around the other part, so that it will

--
111. .169 6-32 hold well even before the solder is applied.
19 .166 12 -20
20 .161 Keep your iron properly tinned. It is im-
21. .159 10-32 possible to get the work hot enough to take

--
22 .157
23
24
25.
.154
.152
.149
-- 10 -24
the solder properly if the iron is dirty. To tin
your iron, file it, while hot, on one side until
a full surface of clean metal is exposed. Im-

--
26 .147
27 .. .144
211 .140 6-32 mediately apply rosin core solder until a thin
29 8-32 layer flows completely over the exposed sur-
30 in
.136

--
31 .120 face. Repeat for the other faces. Then take a
32 .116 clean rag and wipe off all excess solder and
33 .113 4 -36 4 -40
rosin. The iron should also be wiped frequently

--
34 .111
35. .110 6-32 while the actual construction is going on; it
36 .106
37 .104 helps prevent pitting the tip.
Apply the solder to the work, not to the

- -
38 .102
39. .100 3.48
40 .096 iron. The iron should be held against the parts
41 .096 to be joined until they are thoroughly heated.
42 .093 4 -36 4-40
43 .089 2 -56 The solder should then be applied against the
44 .066 parts, and the iron should be held in place
45 .062 3-46
until the solder flows smoothly and envelopes
tUw neat size larger drill for tapping
Bakelite and similar composition materials the work. If it acts like water on a greasy
(plastics, etc.). plate, and forms a ball, the work is not suf-
*Sizes most commonly used In radio con- ficiently clean.
The completed joint must be held perfectly
still until the solder has had time to solidify.
Figure 9 If the work is moved before the solder has be-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Construction Practice 781

PIPE OR ROO USED AS


TEMPORARY FORM

HOLD TIGHTLY

FORM OF BAKELITE OR FINISHED


OTHER GOOD INSULATING COIL WIND TURNS CLOSE TOGETHER
MATERIAL. ANO SPACE LATER.

WINDING COIL ON INSULATING FORM

WINDING `AIR -SUPPORTED' COIL

Figure 10 Figure 11

come completely solid, a "cold" joint will re- There are also several brands of dull gloss
sult. This can be identified immediately, be- black enamels on the market which adhere
cause the solder will have a dull "white" ap- well to metals and make a nice appearance.
pearance rather than one of shiny "silver." Airdrying wrinkle finishes are sometimes suc-
Such joints tend to be of high resistance and cessful, but a bake job is usually far better.
will very likely have a bad effect upon a cir- Wrinkle finishes, properly applied, are very
cuit. The cure is simple, merely reheat the durable and are pleasing to the eye. If you
joint and do the job correctly. live in a large community, there is probably
Wipe away all surplus flux when the joint an enameling concern which can wrinkle your
has cooled if you are using a paste type flux. work for you at a reasonable cost. A very at-
Be sure it is non- corrosive, and use it with tractive finish, for panels especially, is to
plain (not rosin core) solder. spray a wrinkle finish with aluminum paint.
In any painting operation (or plating, either,
Finishes If the apparatus is constructed on for that matter) , the work should be very
a painted chassis (commonly avail- thoroughly cleaned of all greases and oils.
able in black wrinkle and gray wrinkle), there To protect brass from tarnish, thoroughly
is no need for application of a protective coat- cleanse and remove the last trace of grease by
ing when the equipment is finished, assuming the use of potash and water. The brass must
that you are careful not to scratch or mar the be carefully rinsed with water and dried; but
finish while drilling holes and mounting parts. in doing it, care must be taken not to handle
However, many amateurs prefer to use un- any portion with the bare hands or anything
painted (zinc or cadmium plated) chassis, be- else that is greasy. Then lacquer.
cause it is much simpler to make a chassis
ground connection with this type of chassis. Winding Coils Coils are of two general types,
A thin coat of clear "linoleum" lacquer may those using a form and "air -
be applied to the whole chassis after the wir- wound" types. Neither type offers any particu-
ing is completed to retard rusting. In localities lar constructional difficulties. Figure 10 il-
near the sea coast it is a good idea to lacquer lustrates the procedure used in form winding
the various chassis cutouts even on a painted a coil. If the winding is to be spaced, the
chassis, as rust will get a good start at these spacing can be done either by eye or a string
points unless the metal is protected where the or another piece of wire may be wound simul-
drill or saw has exposed it. If too thick a coat taneously with the coil wire and removed after
is applied, the lacquer will tend to peel. It the winding is in place. The usual procedure
may be thinned with lacquer thinner to permit is to clamp one end of the wire in a vise, at-
application of a light coat. A thin coat will taching the other end to the coil form and with
adhere to any clean metal surface that is not the coil form in hand, walk slowly towards the
too shiny. vise winding the wire but at the same time
An attractive dull gloss finish, almost vel- keeping a strong tension on the wire as the
vety can be put on aluminum by sand -blasting form is rotated. After the coil is wound, if
it with a very weak blast and fine particles there is any possibility of the turns slipping,
and then lacquering it. Soaking the aluminum the completed coil is either entirely coated
in a solution of lye produces somewhat the with a coil or Duco cement or cemented in
same effect as a fine grain sand blast. those spots where slippage might occur.
782 Workshop Practice THE RADIO

Figure 12
GOOD SHOP
LAYOUT AIDS
CAREFUL
WORKMANSHIP
Built in a corner of a
garage, this shop has all
features necessary for
electronic work. Test in-
struments are arranged
on shelves above bench.
Numerous outlets reduce
"haywire" produced by
tangled line cords. Not
shown in picture are drill
press and sander at end
of left bench

V -h-f and u -h -f coils are commonly wound framework made of 2 "x4" lumber. The top
of heavy enameled wire on a form and then of the workbench is covered with hard -sur-
removed from the form as in figure 11. If face Masonite. The edge of the surface is pro-
the coil is long or has a tendency to buckle, tected with aluminum "counter edging" strip,
strips of polystyrene or a similar material may obtainable at large hardware stores. Two wood-
be cemented longitudinally inside the coil. Due en shelves 12" wide are placed above the
allowance must be made for the coil springing bench to hold the various items of test equip-
out when removed from the form, when select- ment. The shelves are bolted to the wall studs
ing the diameter of the form. with large angle brackets and have wooden
On air wound coils of this type, spacing be- end pieces. Along the edge of the lower shelf
tween turns is accomplished after removal a metal "outlet strip" is placed that has an
from the form, by running a pencil, the shank 115 -volt outlet every six inches along its
of a screwdriver or other round object spirally length. A similar strip is run along the back
between the turns from one end of the coil to of the lower shelf. The front strip is used
the other, again making due allowance for for equipment that is being bench -tested, and
spring. the rear strip powers the various items of test
Air -wound coils, approaching the appearance equipment placed on the shelves.
of commercially manufactured ones, can be At the left of the bench is a storage bin
constructed by using a round wooden form for small components. A file cabinet can be
which has been sawed diagonally from end seen at the right of the photograph. This nec-
to end. Strips of insulating material are tem- essary item holds schematics, transformer data
porarily attached to this mandrel, the wire sheets, and other papers that normally are
then being wound over these strips with the lost in the usual clutter and confusion.
desired separation between turns and cemented The area below the workbench has two
to the strips. When dry, the split mandrel may
storage shelves which are concealed by sliding
be removed by unwedging it. doors made of V4 -inch Masonite. Heavier tools,
and large components are stored in this area.
32 -7 Shop Layout On the floor and not shown in the photo-
The size of your workshop is relatively un- graph is a very necessary item of shop equip-
important since the shop layout will deter- ment: a large trash receptacle.
mine its efficiency and the ease with which A compact and efficient shop built in one-
you may complete your work. half of a wardrobe closet is shown in figure
Shown in figure 12 is a workshop built 13. The workbench length is four feet. The
into a 10'x10' area in the corner of a garage. top is made of 4 "x6" lumber sheathed with
The workbench is 32" wide, made up of four hard surface Masonite and trimmed with
strips of 2 "x8" lumber supported on a solid "counter edging" strip. The supporting struc-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Shop Layout 783

Figure 13
COMPLETE WORKSHOP IN A CLOSET!
Careful layout permits complete electronic
workshop to be placed in one-half of a ward-
robe closet. Work bench is built atop an un-
painted three -shelf bookcase.

tare is made from an unpainted three -shelf 'outlet strip."


a single shelf contains a 115 -volt
bookcase. A 2 "x2" leg is placed under the The instruments at the top of the photo are
front corners of the bench to provide maxi- placed on the wardrobe shelf.
mum stability. When not in use, the doors of the ward-
Atop the bench, a small wooden framework robe are closed, concealing the workshop com-
supports needed items of test equipment and pletely from view.
CHAPTER THIRTY -THREE

Radio Mathematics
and Calculations

Radiomen often have occasion to cal- four tens, plus three units, which could be
culate sizes and values of required parts. This written as follows:
requires some knowledge of mathematics. The
following pages contain a review of those parts 8 thousands (10 x 10 x 10)
of mathematics necessary to understand and 1 hundreds (10 x 10 )

apply the information contained in this book. 4 tens


It is assumed that the reader has had some 3 units
mathematical training; this chapter is not in-
8143
tended to teach those who have never learned
anything of the subject. The number in the units position is some-
Fortunately only a knowledge of fundamen- times referred to as a first order number, that
tals is necessary, although this knowledge must in the tens position is of the second orde,, that
include several branches of the subject. Fortu- in the hundreds position the third order, etc.
nately, too, the majority of practical applica- The idea of letting the position of the sym-
tions in radio work reduce to the solution of bol denote its value is an outcome of the aba-
equations or formulas or the interpretation of cus. The abacus had only a limited num-
graphs. ber of wires with beads, but it soon became
Arithmetic apparent that the quantity of symbols might
be continued indefinitely towards the left,
Notation of In writing numbers in the Ara - each further space multiplying the digit's
Numbers bic system we employ ten dif- value by ten. Thus any quantity, however
ferent symbols, digits, or fig- large, may readily be indicated.
ures: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and place It has become customary for ease of reading
them in a definite sequence. If there is more to divide large numbers into groups of three
than one figure in the number the position of digits, separating them by commas.
each figure or digit is as important in deter-
mining its value as is the digit itself. When we 6,000,000 rather than 6000000
deal with whole numbers the righthandmost
digit represents units, the next to the left rep- Our system of notation then is characterized
resents tens, the next hundreds, the next thou- by two things: the use of positions to indicate
sands, from which we derive the rule that ev- the value of each symbol, and the use of ten
ery time a digit is placed one space further to symbols, from which we derive the name dec-
the left its value is multiplied by ten. imal J yitem.
Retaining the same use of positions, we
might have used a different number of sym-
8
thous.nds hundrads
4 3
tsns units
bols, and displacing a symbol one place to the
left might multiply its value by any other fac-
tor such as 2, 6 or 12. Such other systems have
It will be seen that any number is actually a will not be discussed
been in use in history, but
sum. In the example given above it is the sum here. There are also systems in which displac-
of eight thousands, plus one hundred, plus ing a symbol to the left multiplies its value by

784

www.americanradiohistory.com
Decimal Fractions 785
o o.s I 2 1 4
1 I t I I I L I I I

s-0.7-- b

Figure 1.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF LINEAR FRACTIONS.

varying factors in accordance with complicat- being the clearer. Every time a digit is placed
ed rules, The English system of measurements one space further to the right it represents a
is such an inconsistent and inferior system. ten times smaller part. This is illustrated in
Figure 1, where each large division represents
Decimal Fractions Since we can extend a a unit; each unit may be divided into ten parts
number indefinitely to although in the drawing we have only so di-
the left to make it bigger, it is a logical step to vided the first part. The length ab is equal to
extend it towards the right to make it smaller. seven of these tenth parts and is written as 0.7.
Numbers smaller than unity are fractions and The next smaller divisions, which should be
if a displacement one position to the right di- written in the second column to the right of
vides its value by ten, then the number is re- the decimal point, are each one -tenth of the
ferred to as a decimal fraction. Thus a digit small division, or one one- hundredth each.
to the right of the units column indicates the They are so small that we can only show them
number of tenths, the second digit to the right by imagining a magnifying glass to look at
represents the number of hundredths, the third, them, as in Figure 1. Six of these divisions is
the number of thousandths, etc. Some distin- to be written as 0.06 (six hundredths). We
guishing mark must be used to divide unit from need a microscope to see the next smaller divi-
tenths so that one may properly evaluate each sion, that is those in the third place, which will
symbol. This mark is the decimal point. be a tenth of one one -hundredth, or a thou-
A decimal fraction like four- tenths may be sandth; four such divisions would be written
written .4 or 0.4 as desired, the latter probably as 0.004 (four thousandths).

A e

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

G F

o
0 o

K J 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1


c
a a a
0

D N E C
Figure 2.
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION FRACTIONAL PORTIONS ARE REPRESENTED IN THE
FORM OF RECTANGLES RATHER THAN LINEARLY.
ABCD = 1.0; GEED = 0.1; KJEH = 0.01; each small section within KJEH equals 0.001
786 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
It should not be thought that such numbers The result of the operation is called the
are merely of academic interest for very small product.
quantities arc common in radio work. From the examples to follow it will be obvi-
Possibly the conception of fractions may be ous that there are as many partial products
clearer to some students by representing it in as there are digits in the multiplier. In the fol-
the form of rectangles rather than linearly lowing examples note that the righthandmost
(see Figure 2). digit of each partial product is placed one
space farther to the left than the previous one.
Addition When two or more numbers are
to be added we sometimes write 834 834
them horizontally with the plus sign between X 26 X 206
them. + is the sign or operator indicating ad-
dition. Thus if 7 and 12 are to be added to- 5004 5004
gether we may write 7+12=19. 1668 000
1668
But if lager or more numbers are to be added 21684
together they are almost invariably written one 171804
under another in such a position that the deci-
mal points fall in a vertical line. If a number In the second example above it will be seen
has no decimal point, it is still considered as that the inclusion of the second partial prod-
being just to the right of the units figure; such uct was unnecessary; whenever the multiplier
a number is a whole number or integer. Ex- contains a cipher (zero) the next partial prod-
amples: uct should be moved an additional space to
the left.
654 0.654 654
32 3.2 32 Numbers containing decimal fractions may
53041 53.041 5304.1 first be multiplied exactly as if the decimal
point did not occur in the numbers at all; the
53727 56.895 5990.1 position of the decimal point in the product is
determined after all operations have been com-
The result obtained by adding numbers is pleted. It must be so positioned in the product
called the rum. that the number of digits to its right is equal
to the number of decimal places in the multi-
Subtraction Subtraction is the reverse of
addition. Its operator is (the
minus sign) . The number to be subtracted is
- plicand plus the number of decimal places in
the multiplier.
This rule should be well understood since
called the subtrahend, the number from which many radio calculations contain quantities
it is subtracted is the minuend, and the result which involve very small decimal fractions. In
is called the remainder.
the examples which follow the explanatory
minuend notations "2 places," etc., are not actually
written down since it is comparatively easy to
-subtrahend determine the decimal point's proper location
mentally.
remainder
Examples: 5.43 2 places
X 0.72 2 places
65.4 65.4
-32 -32.21 1086
3 801
33.4 33.19
3.9096 2 +2 =4 places
Multiplication When numbers are to be mul-
tiplied together we use the x 0.04 2 places
which isknown as the multiplication or the X 0.003 3 places
times sign. The number to be multiplied is
known as the multiplicand and that by which 0.00012 2+ 3=5 places
it is to be multiplied is the multiplier, which Division Division is the reverse of multi-
may be written in words as follows: plication. Its operator is the =,
which is called the division sign. It is also com-
multiplicand mon to indicate division by the use of the frac-
X multiplier tion bar (/) or by writing one number over
partial product the other. The number which is to be divided
partial product is called the dividend and is written before
the division sign or fraction bar or over the
product horizontal line indicating a fraction. The num-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Division 787

ber by which the dividend is to be divided is Another example: Divide 0.000325 by 0.017.
called the divisor and follows the division Here we must move the decimal point three
sign or fraction bar or comes under the hori- places to the right in both dividend and di-
zontal line of the fraction. The answer or visor.
result is called the quotient. 0.019
17 0.325
quotient 17
divisor dividend
155
or 153
dividend -divisor= quotient
2
or
dividend
= quotient In a case where the dividend has fewer deci-
divisor mals than the divisor the same rules still may
be applied by adding ciphers. For example to
Examples: divide 0.49 by 0.006 we must move the
126 49 decimal point three places to the right. The
105084 49 TiUg 0.49 now becomes 490 and we write:
834
834 196
81
2168 476 6ri9l0
1668 441 48

5004 35 remainder 10
5004 6

4
Note that one number often fails to divide
into another evenly. Hence there is often a
quantity left over called the remainder. When the division shows a remainder it is
The rules for placing the decimal point sometimes necessary to continue the work so
are the reverse of those for multiplication. as to obtain more figures. In that case ciphers
The number of decimal places in the quotient may be annexed to the dividend, brought down
is equal to the difference between the number to the remainder, and the division continued
of decimal places in the dividend and that in as long as may be necessary; be sure to place
the divisor. It is often simpler and clearer a decimal point in the dividend before the
to remove the decimal point entirely from the ciphers are annexed if the dividend does not
divisor by multiplying both dividend and di- already contain a decimal point. For ex-
visor by the necessary factor; that is we move ample:
the decimal point in the divisor as many places 8033
to the right as is necessary to make it a whole 6 482.00
number and then we move the decimal point 48
in the dividend exactly the same number of
places to the right regardless of whether this 20
18
makes the dividend a whole number or not.
When this has been done the decimal point 20
in the quotient will automatically come di- 18
rectly above that in the dividend as shown in
the following example. 2
Example: Divide 10.5084 by 8.34. Move the
decimal point of both dividend and divisor This operation is not very often required
two places to the right. in radio work since the accuracy of the mea-
surements from which our problems start
1.26 seldom justifies the use of more than three
834 753 0.84 significant figures. This point will be cov-
834 ered further later in this chapter.
2168 Fractions Quantities of less than one
1668 (unity) are called fractions. They
5004 may be expressed by decimal notation as we
5004 have seen, or they may be expressed as vulgar
fractions. Examples of vulgar fractions:
788 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
numerator 3 6 1 the numerator is added. That is in the above
denominator 4 7 5 example we multiply 2 by 7 and then add 3
to obtain 17 for the numerator. The denomi-
The upper position of a vulgar fraction is nator is the same as is the denominator of
called the numerator and the lower position the original fraction. In the following ex-
the denominator. When the numerator is the ample we have added two mixed numbers.
smaller of the two, the fraction is called a
proper fraction; the examples of vulgar frac- 3 3 17 1s r17x4 15x7]
tions given above are proper vulgar fractions. 2 7+ 3 4= 7+ 4 -L 7x4 + 4x7
When the numerator is the larger, the ex-
pression is an improper fraction, which can
be reduced to an integer or whole number
- 68
21 +
105
21 =
173
2$ =
S
6 2S

with a proper fraction, the whole being called Multiplying All vulgar fractions are multi -
a mixed number. In the following examples Fractions plied by multiplying the nu-
improper fractions have been reduced to merators together and the de-
their corresponding mixed numbers. nominators together, as shown in the follow-
ing example:
= 3-
1 1

Adding or Subtracting
4

Except when the


1 3 3
4 x 2
S - 3x2
4x 5 J - 20
6
=10
3

Fractions fractions are very As above, the step indicated in brackets is


simple it will usual- usually not written down since it may easily

3-
ly be found much easier to add and subtract be performed mentally. As with addition and
fractions in the form of decimals. This rule subtraction any mixed numbers should be
likewise applies for practically all other oper- first reduced to improper fractions as shown
ations with fractions. However, it is occa- in the following example:
sionally necessary to perform various opera-
tions with vulgar fractions and the rules
should be understood.
3
23 x 4 3
1

- 3
23 x 13
3
39
69 -23
13

When adding or subtracting such fractions Division of Fractions may be most easily
the denominators must be made equal. This Fractions divided by inverting the di-
may be done by multiplying both numerator visor and then multiplying.
and denominator of the first fraction by the Example:
denominator of the other fraction, after
which we multiply the numerator and de-
nominator of the second fraction by the de-
2
S
3
4 - 2
5 x 3-
4
1S

nominator of the first fraction. This sounds In the above example it will be seen that to
more complicated than it usually proves in divide by 3/4 is exactly the same thing as to
practice, as the following examples will show. multiply by 4/3. Actual division of fractions
is a rather rare operation and if necessary is
1x2 usually postponed until the final answer is se-
2+3_
1 1 1 x 3
22Y3+3x2]-
3
6+ 6-
2 S
6 cured when it is often desired to reduce the
resulting vulgar fraction to a decimal frac-
3x3 2x4 t
3
4 - 2
S = 4 x 5 -5x4]= 20 15
- 20 =
7
20
tion by division. It is more common and
usually results in least overall work to re-
Except in problems involving large numbers duce vulgar fractions to decimals at the be-
the step shown in brackets above is usually ginning of a problem. Examples:
done in the head and is not written down.
Although in the examples shown above we = 0.375 32
= 0.15625
have used proper fractions, it is obvious that
the same procedure applies with improper 0.15625
fractions. In the case of problems involving 32 5.00000
mixed numbers it is necessary first to convert 32
them into improper fractions. Example: 1 80
1 60

7 = 2x7y +3-_
3 17 200
2 192
80
The numerator of the improper fraction is 64
equal to the whole number multiplied by the 160
denominator of the original fraction, to which 160

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Division of Fractions 789

It will be obvious that many vulgar fractions In general terms, when a number is to be
cannot be reduced to exact decimal equiva- multipled by itself we speak of raising to a
lents. This fact need not worry us, however, power or involution; the number of times
since the degree of equivalence can always be which the number is to be multiplied by it-
as much as the data warrants. For instance, self is called the order of the power. The
if we know that one -third of an ampere is standard notation requires that the order of
flowing in a given circuit, this can be written the power be indicated by a small number
as 0.333 amperes. This is not the exact written after the number and above the line,
equivalent of 1/3 but is close enough since it called the exponent. Examples:
shows the value to the nearest thousandth of
an ampere and it is probable that the meter 2' = 2 X 2, or 2 squared, or the second
rom which we secured our original data was power of 2
not accurate to the nearest thousandth of an 2' = 2 X 2 X 2, or 2 cubed, or the third
ampere. power of 2
Thus in converting vulgar fractions to a 2' = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2, or the fourth pow-
decimal we unhesitatingly stop when we have er of 2
reached the number of significant figures war-
ranted by our original data, which is very Sometimes it is necessary to perform the
seldom more than three places (see section reverse of this operation, that is, it may be
Significant Figures later in this chapter). necessary, for instance, to find that number
When the denominator of a vulgar fraction which multiplied by itself will give a product
contains only the factors 2 or 5, division can of nine. The answer is of course 3. This
be brought to a finish and there will be no process is known as e.tvracting the root or
remainder, as shown in the examples above. evolution. The particular example which is
When the denominator has other factors
such as 3, 7, 11, etc., the division will seldom
come out even no matter how long it is con-
tinued but, as previously stated, this is of
no consequence in practical work since it may
cited would be written:

= 3

The sign for extracting the root is f


be carried to whatever degree of accuracy is which is known as the radical sign; the order
necessary. The digits in the quotient will
usually repeat either singly or in groups, al-
though there may first occur one or more
above the radical as in ';
of the root is indicated by a small number
which would mean
the fourth root; this number is called the
digits which do not repeat. Such fractions index. When the radical bears no index, the
are known as repeating fractions. They are square or second root is intended.
sometimes indicated by an oblique line (frac- Restricting our attention for the moment
tion bar) through the digit which repeats, or to square root, we know that 2 is the square
through the first and last digits of a repeating root of 4, and 3 is the square root of 9. If
group. Example: we want the square root of a number between
3 and 9, such as the square root of 5, it is

3
- .... =073
= 0.3333 obvious that it must lie between 2 and 3. In
general the square root of such a number can-
= 0.142857142857 .... = 0.14285/ not be exactly expressed either by a vulgar
fraction or a decimal fraction. However, the
The foregoing examples contained only re- square root can be carried out decimally as
peating digits. In the following example a far as may be necessary for sufficient accur-
non -repeating digit precedes the repeating acy. In general such a decimal fraction will
digit: contain a never -ending series of digits with-
out repeating groups. Such a number is an
30 = 0.2333.... =0.21 irrational number, such as
While repeating decimal fractions can be = 2.2361 . . . .
converted into their vulgar fraction equiva-
lents, this is seldom necessary in practical The extraction of roots is usually done by
work and the rules will be omitted here. tables or logarithms the use of which will
be described later. There are longhand meth-
Powers and When a number is to be mul- ods of extracting various roots, but we shall
Roots tiplied by itself we say that give only that for extracting the square root
it is to be squared or to be since the others become so tedious as to make
raised to the second power. When it is to be other methods almost invariably preferable.
multipled by itself once again, we say that Even the longhand method for extracting the
it is cubed or wired to the third power. square root will usually be used only if loga-
790 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
rithm tables, slide rule, or table of roots are found and annex the cipher (2 x 75 or 150
not handy. plus the cipher, which will give 1500). 1500
will go into 5391 3 times. Replace the last
Extracting the First divide the number the cipher with a three and multiply 1503 by 3 to
Square Root root of which is to be ex- give 4509. Place 3 above the third group.
tracted into groups of two Subtract to find the remainder of 882. The
digits starting at the decimal point and going quotient 75.3 which has been found so far is
in both directions. If the lefthandmost group not the exact square root which was desired;
proves to have only one digit instead of two, in most cases it will be sufficiently accurate.
no harm will be done. The righthandmost However, if greater accuracy is desired groups
group may be made to have two digits by of two ciphers can be brought down and the
annexing a zero if necessary. For example, process carried on as long as necessary.
let it be required to find the square root of
5678.91. This is to be divided off as follows: 7 5. 3
J56' 78.91
J56' 78.91 49

The mark used to divide the groups may 140 7 78


be anything convenient, although the prime-
145 x 5 = 7 25

sign (') is most commonly used for the 1500 53 91


purpose. 1503 X 3 = 45 09
Next find the largest square which is con-
tained in the first group, in this case 56. The 8 82
largest square is obviously 49, the square of 7.
Place the 7 above the first group of the num- Each digit of the root should be placed di-
ber whose root is to be extracted, which is rectly above the group of the dividend from
sometimes called the dividend from analogy which it was derived; if this is done the
to ordinary division. Place the square of this decimal point of the root will come directly
figure, that is 49, under the first group, 56, above the decimal point of the dividend.
and subtract leaving a remainder of 7. Sometimes the remainder after a square
has been subtracted (such as the 1 in the fol-
7 lowing example) will not be sufficiently large
f56' 78.91 to contain twice the root already found even
49 after the next group of figures has been
brought down. In this case we write a cipher
7 above the group just brought down and bring
down another group.
Bring down the next group and annex it to
the remainder so that we have 778. Now to 7. 0 8 2
the left of this quantity write down twice the J50.16'00'00
root so far found (2 X 7 or 14 in this ex- 49
ample), annex a cipher as a trial divisor, and
see how many times the result is contained 1400 1 16 00
in 778. In our example 140 will go into 778 1408 X 8 = 1 12 64
S times. Replace the cipher with a 5, and
14160 3 36 00
multiply the resulting 145 by S to give 725. 14162 X 2 = 2 83 24
Place the 5 directly above the second group
in the dividend and then subtract the 725 52 76
from 778.
7
In the above example the amount 116 was not
5
sufficient to contain twice the root already
J56'78.91 found with a cipher annexed to it; that is,
49
it was not sufficient to contain 140. There-
140 7 78 fore we write a zero above 16 and bring down
145X5= 7 25 the next group, which in this example is a
pair of ciphers.
53
Order of One frequently encounters prob-
The next step is an exact repetition of the Operations lems in which several of the fun-
previous step. Bring down the third group damental operations of arithme-
and annex it to the remainder of 53, giving tic which have been described are to be per-
5391. Write down twice the root already formed. The order in which these operations

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Order of Operations 791

must be performed is important. First al: pow-


ers and roots should be calculated; multipli-
cation and division come next; adding and
subtraction come last. In the example

2+ 3 X 4'
In the foregoing example it is obvious that the
we must first square the 4 to get 16; then we 3 in the numerator goes into the 6 in the de-
multiply 16 by 3, making 48, and to the nominator twice. We may thus cross out
product we add 2, giving a result of 50. the three and replace the 6 by a 2. The 2
if a different order of operations were fol- which we have just placed in the denominator
lowed, a different result would be obtained. cancels the 2 in the numerator. Next the 5
For instance, if we add 2 to 3 we would ob- in the denominator will go into the 25 in the
tain 5, and then multiplying this by the square numerator leaving a result of 5. Now we
of 4 or 16, we would obtain a result of 80, have left only a 5 in the numerator and a 7
which is incorrect. in the denominator, so our final result is 5/7.
In more complicated forms such as frac- If we had multiplied 2 X 3 x 25 to obtain
tions whose numerators and denominators may 150 and then had divided this by 6 X 5 X 7
both be in complicated forms, the numerator or 210, we would have obtained the same re-
and denominator are first found separately sult but, with considerably more work.
before the division is made, such as in the
following example: Algebra
Algebra is not a separate branch of mathe-
3X4+sX2 12+10 22 matics but is merely a form of generalized
2 X 3+ 2+ 3- 6+ 2+ 3- 11 arithmetic in which letters of the alphabet and
occasional other symbols are substituted for
Problems of this type are very common in numbers, from which it is often referred to as
dealing with circuits containing several in literal notation. It is simply a shorthand meth-
ductances, capacities, or resistances. od of writing operations which could be spelled
The order of operations specified above does out.
not always meet all possible conditions; if a The laws of most common electrical phe-
series of operations should be performed in a nomena and circuits (including of course ra-
different order, this is always indicated by dio phenomena and circuits) lend themselves
parenthrri or bracket c. for example: particularly well to representation by literal no-
tation and solution by algebraic equations or
2+3 X4'=2+3 X 16-2+48=50 formulas.
(2 + 3) X 4'=5 X 4'=5 X 16 = 80
While we may write a particular problem in
Ohm's Law as an ordinary division or multi-
2+(3 X 4)2= 2 + 12'=2+ 144= 146 plication, the general statement of all such
problems calls for the replacement of the num-
In connection with the radical sign, brackets bers by symbols. We might be explicit and
may he used or the "hat" of the radical may write out the names of the units and use these
be extended over the entire quantity whose names as symbols:
root is to he extracted. Example:
volts = amperes X ohms
V4+5= + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7
Such a procedure becomes too clumsy when
V14+5) = V4+5- = 3
the expression is more involved and would be
unusually cumbersome if any operations like
It is recommended that the radical always be multiplication were required. Therefore as a
short way of writing these generalized rela-
extended over the quantity whose root is to be
extracted to avoid any ambiguity. tions the numbers are represented by letters.
Ohm's Law then becomes
Cancellation a fraction in which the
In
numerator and denominator
E - I X R

consist of several factors to be multiplied, con- In the statement of any particular problem
siderable labor can often be saved if it is the significance of the letters is usually indi-
found that the same factor occurs in both cated directly below the equation or formula
numerator and denominator. These factors using them unless there can be no ambiguity.
cancel each other and can he removed. Ex- Thus the above form of Ohm's Law would be
ample: more completely written as:
792 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
E = I X R Similarly, we have:
where E
I
= e.m.f. in volts
= current in amperes a (- b) = o - b
R = resistance in ohms When a minus sign is in front of an expres-
sion in brackets, this minus sign has the effect
Letters therefore represent numbers, and for of reversing the signs of every term within the
any letter we can read "any number." When brackets:
the same letter occurs again in the same ex-
pression we would mentally read "the same
- (2a
-+3b - (a b) =
-5c) = -2a -3b +5e
- a + b
number," and for another letter "another num-
ber of any value."
These letters are connected by the usual op- Multiplication. When both the multiplicand
erational symbols of arithmetic, +, x, -, and the multiplier are negative, the product is
positive. When only one (either one) is nega-
and so forth. In algebra, the sign for division
is seldom used, a division being usually written tive the product is negative. The four possible
as a fraction. The multiplication sign, x, is cases are illustrated below:
usually omitted or one may write a period
only. Examples: +X +=+ + X - _ -
- X + _ - - X - _ +
2XaXb =lob
2.3.4.50= 2X3X4X5Xa Division. Since division is but the reverse of
multiplication, similar rules apply for the sign
In practical applications of algebra, an ex- of the quotient. When both the dividend and
pression usually states some physical law and the divisor have the same sign (both negative
each letter represents a variable quantity which or both positive) the quotient is positive. If
is therefore called a variable. A fixed number they have unlike signs (one positive and one
in front of such a quantity (by which it is to negative) the quotient is negative.
be multiplied) is known as the coefficient.
Sometimes the coefficient may be unknown, yet
to be determined; it is then also written as a
letter; k is most commonly used for this pur-
pose.
-_ +
The Negative In ordinary arithmetic we
Sign seldom work with negative Powers. Even powers of negative numbers
numbers, although we may are positive and odd powers are negative. Pow-
be "short" in a subtraction. In algebra, how- ers of positive numbers are always positive.
ever, a number may be either negative or pos- Examples:
itive. Such a thing may seem academic but a
negative quantity can have a real existence.
We need only refer to a debt being considered - 2X-
-2'=- = -2X -2 = +4
2'
2X -2
a negative possession. In electrical work, how-
ever, a result of a problem might be a negative -2 = -8 = +4X
number of amperes or volts, indicating that the Roots. Since the square of a negative num-
direction of the current is opposite to the di- ber is positive and the square of a positive
rection chosen as positive. We shall have il- number is also positive, it follows that a posi-
lustrations of this shortly. tive number has two square roots. The square
Having established the existence of negative root of 4 can be either +2 or -2 for ( +2)
quantities, we must now learn how to work x ( +2) = +4 and ( -2) X ( -2) = +4.
with these negative quantities in addition, sub-
traction, multiplication and so forth. Addition and Polynomials are quantities
In addition, a negative number added to
positive number is the same as subtracting
a
a
Subtraction like 3ab2 + 4ab' 7a2b' -
which have several terms of
positive number from it. different names. When adding polynomials,
only terms of the same name can be taken to-

-
7 7
-3 gether.
(odd) is the same as 3
(subtract) 703+8ob' +3o'b +3
4 4
or we might write it o' - S ab' - b'
7 + (- 3) = 7 - 3 =4 8o' +3 ob' +3o'b -b' 3

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Division 793

Collecting terms. When an expression con- a' + 4 o - 7b'


tains more than one term of the same name, 2a-3b1 2a +5ab- 26 ab +21b'
these can be added together and the expression 2a - 3o'b
made simpler:
+ 8o'b -- 260b'
5 x' + 2 xy + 3 xy' - 3 x' + 7 xy = + 8o'b 12ab'

5 x' - 3 x' + 2 xy + 7 xy + 3 xy' =


-- 14ab-
14ab-
+ 21b'
+ 21 b'
2x'+ 9 xy + 3 xy'
Another example: Divide x' - y' by x - y
Multiplication Multiplication of single terms
is indicated simply by writing x - y x +0+0-y + xy +
- x
5
(

them together. x xy

a X b is written os ab + x y
x y -xy
a X b' is written os ob' + xy
xy
--
Bracketed quantities are multiplied by a
single term by multiplying each term:
Factoring Very often it is necessary to sim-
alb +c +d) =ob +oc + ad plify expressions by finding a fac-
tor. This is done by collecting two or more
When two bracketed quantities are multi- terms having the same factor and bringing the
plied, each term of the first bracketed quantity factor outside the brackets:
is to be multiplied by each term of the second
bracketed quantity, thereby making every pos- 6ob + 3ac = 3a12b + cl

sible combination.
In a four term expression one can take to-
gether two terms at a time; the intention is to
la+b) Ic+dl = oc + ad + bc+ bd
try getting the terms within the brackets the
same after the factor has been removed:
In this work particular care must be taken
to get the signs correct. Examples:
30oc - 18bc + 10od - 6bd =
(a+b) - =o'+ab-ab-b'= 6c 15o - 313) + 2d 50 - 310 =
(a
-
b)
a' b'
15o - 3b1 16c + 2d)

la+b) (a + b)
a'+2ab+
=a'+ab +ob+b-
b
- Of course, this is not always possible and
the expression may not have any factors. A
similar process can of course be followed when
lo-b) (a - b) -o - ob -ob+b'- the expression has six or eight or any even
number of terms.
o'-2ab+b: A special case is a three -term polynomial,
which can sometimes be factored by writing
Division It is possible to do longhand divi- the middle term as the sum of twn terms:
sion in algebra, although it is
somewhat more complicated than in arithme- - 7xy + 12y' moy be rewritten os
tic. However, the division will seldom come x'- 3xy-4xy+ 12y'=
out even, and is not often done in this form. x Ix-3yi - 4y Ix - 3y1 =
The method is as follows: Write the terms of
the dividend in the order of descending powers
1z - 4y) (x - 3y)
of one variable and do likewise with the di-
visor. Example:
The middle term should be split into two
in such a way that the sum of the two new

Divide 50b + 21b'


- + 20' - 26ab' by
terms equals the original middle term and that
their product equals the product of the two
2a 3b outer terms. In the above example these condi-
tions are fulfilled for 3xy -- .1 xy - 7xy - -
Write the dividend in the order of descending and (-
3xy) ( -- -1xy) 12 x'y'. It is not al-
powers of a and divide in the same way as in ways possible to do this and there are then no
arithmetic. simple factors.
794 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
Working with When two powers of the Roots may be written as fractional powers.
Powers
and Roots
same number are to be mul-
tiplied, the exponents are
Thus V
may be written as a'' because
added. V X -o
o'Xa'=oaX ciao - - a' or
and, o" X = ea'" - a' = a

a' a' l'.' = a' Any toot may be written in this form
b'Xb - b' -6 'b =b1/4 b' -b3/
es eT
= en The same notation is also extended in the
negative direction:
Similarly, dividing of powers is done by
subtracting the exponents.
a' = aoa =o
b-, - by.
1 1 C
_ 1/2
- - c 1.s 1

a' oo
or a'
a=
= o "-" = o' =a
Following the previous rules that exponents
b'
b'
bbbbb
bbb b' or b'
b'
=b "" - b' add when powers are multiplied,

Now we are logically led into some impor- ",


X "/;-3_: a'
tant new ways of notation. We have seen that
when dividing, the exponents are subtracted.
but also o" X a''s o -
therefore a% = N',c7
This can be continued into negative exponents.
In the following series, we successively divide Powers of powers. When a power is again
by a and since this can now be done in two raised to a power, the exponents are multi-
ways, the two ways of notation must have the plied;
same meaning and be identical.
(o')' = a' (b-'), b_s
a' a' (O') = au (b-')-'- b'
o' a' =e This same rule also applies to roots of roots
and also powers of roots and roots of powers
a' a = because a root can always be written as a frac-


1
tional power.
These examples illustrate two rules: (1) any
number raised to "zero' power equals one or
unity; (2) any quantity raised to a negative
='for (`)'ti = ou
power is the inverse or reciprocal of the same Removing radicals. A root or radical in the
quantity raised to the same positive power. denominator of a fraction makes the expres-
sion difficult to handle. If there must be a rad-
n = 1 o'- ical it should be located in the numerator
rather than in the denominator. The removal
Roots. The product of the square root of of the radical from the denominator is done
two quantities equals the square root of their by multiplying both numerator and denomina-
product. tor by a quantity which will remove the radi-
cal from the denominator, thus rationalizing it:
fo X VT)= ab

4 - v
-
Also, the quotient of two roots is equal to the 1
-
va- foX
1

root of the quotient. a

Suppose we have to rationalize

3a
Note, however, that in addition or subtrac- In this case we must multiply
Va + Vb
tion the square root of the sum or difference is
not the same as the sum or difference of the
square roots.
numerator and denominator by V
same terms but with the second having the
the - v
/
opposite sign, so that their product will not
Thus, - V 4 = 3- 2= contain a root.
- =
1

but
Likewise
V9
+ fis
4 = 2.2361
not the same os Va + b f+f3a Da( Vei
(+xb)(fa-f?
-VW) aa( \fa
a
- V.*
HANDBOOK Powers, Roots, Imaginories 795

Imaginary square of a negative


Since the be accounted for separately, has found a sym-
Numbers number is positive and the bolic application in vector notation. These are
square of a positive number is covered later in this chapter.
also positive, the square root of a negative
number can be neither positive nor negative. Equations of the Algebraic expressions usu-
Such a number is said to be imaginary; the First Degree ally come in the form of
most common such number ( t) is often - equations, that is, one set
represented by the letter i in mathematical of terms equals another set of terms. The sim-
work or j in electrical work. plest example of this is Ohm's Law:

=iorjandi'orj`= -1 E = IR

Imaginary numbers do not exactly corre- One of the three quantities may be unknown
spond to anything in our experience and it is but if the other two are known, the third can
best not to try to visualize them. Despite this be found readily by substituting the known
fact, their interest is much more than academ- values in the equation. This is very easy if it
ic, for they are extremely useful in many cal - is E in the above example that is to be found;
culations involving alternating currents. but suppose we wish to find / while E and R
The square root of any other negative num- are given. We must then rearrange the equa-
ber may be reduced to a product of two roots, tion so that / comes to stand alone to the left
one positive and one negative. For instance: of the equality sign. This is known as solving
the equation for 1.
57= \r-1 \ro=i\r5-1 Solution of the equation in this case is done
simply by transposing. If two things are equal

f-a=io
or, in general then they must still be equal if both are multi -
plied or divided by the same number. Dividing
both sides of the equation by R:

Since i = 57-1, the powers of


following values:
i have the R - IR
=I or I
=
If it were required to solve the equation for
_ -1 R, we should divide both sides of the equation
i - - 1 X i = -i by I.
E
=RorR=
= + 1

i= +1 X i=i A little more complicated example is the


equation for the reactance of a condenser:
Imaginary numbers are different from either 1
positive or negative numbers; so in addition or X 2nfC
subtraction they must always be accounted for
separately. Numbers which consist of both real To solve this equation for C, we may multi-
and imaginary parts are called comp /ex num- ply both sides of the equation by C and divide
bers. Examples of complex numbers: both sides by X

3 + 4i = 3 + 41,FL71 Xxx_ iwi.c x X,or


o+bi-o+b\r---i C = 2afX
Since an imaginary number can never be This equation is one of those which requires
equal to a real number, it follows that in an a good knowledge of the placing of the deci-
equality like mal point when solving. Therefore we give a
o +bi =c +di few examples: What is the reactance of a 2S
a must equal c and bi must equal di fd. capacitor at 1000 kc.? In filling in the
given values in the equation we must remem-
Complex numbers are handled in algebra ber that the units uses are farads, cycles, and
just like any other expression, considering r ohms. Hence, we must write 25 fd. as 25
as a known quantity. Whenever powers of i millionths of a millionth of a farad or 25 x
occur, they can be replaced by the equivalents 10 -12 farad; similarly, 1000 kc. must be con-
given above. This idea of having In one equa- verted to 1,000,000 cycles. Substituting these
tion two separate sets of quantities which must values in the original equation, we have
796 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
X - 2 x 3.14 x 1,000,000 x 25 x
1

10-"
It is, however, simpler in this case to use
the elimination method. Multiply both sides of
- .28x 10'x25x 10-0
1

- la
6.28 x 25
the first equation by two and add it to the
second equation:
=
6360 ohms
+ l0y =
A bias resistor of 1000 ohms should be by-
passed, so that at the lowest frequency the re-
6x
4x - IOy =
14
3
odd
actance of the condenser is 1 /10th of that of 10x = 17 x = 1.7
the resistor. Assume the lowest frequency to be
50 cycles, then the required capacity should
Substituting this value of x in the first equa-
have a reactancc of 100 ohms, at 50 cycles: tion, we have

C- 1
farads
5.1 + Sy = 7 .. 5y = 7 - 5.1 = 1.9 .'.
4 x 3.14 x 50 x,100 y = 0.38
lb' microforods
C 6.28 x s000

C = 32 fd.

In the third possible case, it may be that the


frequency is the unknown. This happens for
instance in some tone control problems. Sup-
pose it is required to find the frequency which
makes the reactance of a 0.03 fd. condenser
equal to 100,000 ohms.
First we must solve the equation for f. This
is done by transposition. c
Figure 3.
X = 2 n
1

f C
f _ 2nCX
1 In this simple network the current divides
through the 2000-ohm and 3000 -ohm resistors.
The current through each may be found by
Substituting known values using two simuli linear equations. Note
that the arrows indicate the direction of elec-
f - 2 x 3.14 x 0.03 x 10-4 x 100,000
1
cycles tron flow as explained on pogo 18.

f = 0.01884
cycles = 53 cycles An application of two simultaneous linear
equations will now be given. In Figure 3 a
These equations are known as first degree simple network is shown consisting of three re-
equations with one unknown. First degree, be- sistances; let it be required to find the currents
cause the unknown occurs only as a first power. I, and I, in the two branches.
Such an equation always has one possible so- The general way in which all such prob-
lution or root if all the other values are known. lems can be solved is to assign directions to
If there are two unknowns, a single equa- the currents through the various resistances.
tion will not suffice, for there are then an infi- When these are chosen wrong it will do no
nite number of possible solutions. In the case harm for the result of the equations will then
of two unknowns we need two independent be negative, showing up the error. In this sim-
simultaneous equations. An example of this is: ple illustration there is, of course, no such dif-
ficulty.
3x +Sy =7 4x -10y =3 Next we write the equations for the meshes,
in accordance with Kirchhoff's second law. All
Required, to find x and y. voltage drops in the direction of the curved
This type of work is done either by the sub-
stitution method or by the elimination method. arrow are considered positive, the reverse ones
In the substitution method we might write for
negative. Since there are two unknowns we
write two equations.
the first equation:

3x= 7- 5y.'.x- 7 -sy 1000 (I + I,) + 2000 I, =6


3
-2000 I, + 3000 I, = 0
(The symbol .'. means. therefore or hence).
This value of x can then be substituted for x Expand the first equation
in the second equation making it a single equa-
tion with but one unknown, y. 3000 I, + 1000 I, = 6

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Quadratic Equations 797

Multiply the second equation by 2 and add


it to the third equation

(b)
6000 1, + 9000 1, - 10 = 0

Now we have but two equations with two


unknowns.
Multiplying equation (a) by 6 and adding
to equation (b) we have
Figure 4.
A MORE COMPLICATED PROB- -27000 - = I, 10 0
LEM REQUIRING THE SOLUTION
OF CURRENTS IN A NETWORK.
I, = - 10/27000 = -0.00037 amp.
This problem Is similar to that in Figure 3 but
requires the use of three simultaneous linear Note that now the solution is negative
equations. which means that we have drawn the arrow
for I:, in Figure 4 in the wrong direction. The
current is 0.37 ma. in the other direction.
Multiply this equation by 3
Second Degree or somewhat similar A
9000 I. + 3000 1, = 18 Quadratic Equations problem in radio would
be, if power in watts
Subtracting the second equation from the first and resistance in ohms of a circuit are given,
to find the voltage and the current. Example:
11000 I, = 18 When lighted to normal brilliancy, a 100 watt
I, = 18/11000 = 0.00164 amp. lamp has a resistance of 49 ohms; for what
line voltage was the lamp designed and what
Filling in this value in the second equation current would it take.
Here we have to use the simultaneous equa-
3000 I, = 3.28 I, = 0.00109 amp. tions:
P = EI and E = IR
A similar problem but requiring three equa-
tions is shown in Figure 4. This consists of an Filling in the known values:
unbalanced bridge and the problem is to find
the current in the bridge- branch, I,. We again P = El = 100 and E = IR = IX 49
assign directions to the different currents,
guessing at the one marked I,. The voltages Substitute the second equation into the first
around closed loops ABC (eq. (1) ] and BDC equation
[eq. (2) ] equal zero and are assumed to be
positive in a counterclockwise direction; that P = EI = (I1 X I X 49 = 49 I' = 100
from D to A equals 10 volts (eq. (3)). _
(1) .'. = too
-49 _ to = 1.43 omp.
-1000 I, + 2000 11 1000 1, = 0 - Substituting the found value of 1.43 amp. for
(2) / in the first equation, we obtain the value of
the line voltage, 70 volts.
-1000 IL-1,1+1000 I,+3000 II,+I,) =0 Note that this is a second degree equation
(3) for we finally had the second power of /. Also,
1000 I, + 1000 (I, - - I,) 10 = 0 since the current in this problem could only be
positive, the negative square root of 100/49
Expand equations (2) and (3) or -10/7 was not used. Strictly speaking,
however, there are two more values that sat-
(2) isfy both equations, these are -1.43 and -70.
-1000 I, + 3000 1, + 5000 I, = 0 In general, a second degree equation in one
unknown has two roots, a third degree equa-
(3) tion three roots, etc.
2000 I, - 1000 L - 10 = 0
The Quadratic Quadratic or second degree
Subtract equation (2) from equation (1) Equation equations with but one un-
known can be reduced to the
(a) general forni
-1000 I, - 6000 I, = 0 ox' + bx+c=0
798 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
where x is the unknown and a, b, and c are Also: (XL - Xo)' =Z' -R'
-Xc)= Z' -
constants.
This type of equation can sometimes be and (XL R'
solved by the method of factoring a three-
term expression as follows: But here we do not know the sign of the so-
lution unless there are other facts which indi-
cate it. To find either X,. or Xc alone it would
+7x +6 =0
2x'
have to be known whether the one or the other
2x' +4x +3x+6 =0 is the larger.
factoring:
2x(x +2) +3 (x +2) =0 Logarithms
Definition A logarithm is the power (or ex-
(2x + 3) (x + 2) = ond Use ponent) to which we must raise
one number to obtain another.
There are two possibilities when a product Although the large numbers used in logarith-
is zero. Either the one or the other factor mic work may make them seem difficult or
equals zero. Therefore there are two solutions. complicated, in reality the principal use of
logarithms is to simplify calculations which
2x,+3=0 x,+2=0 would otherwise be extremely laborious.
x, = -2
We have seen so far that every operation
2x, = -3
in arithmetic can be reversed. If we have the
x, = -11/2 addition:
a +b =e
Since factoring is not always easy, the fol-
lowing general solution can usually be em- we can reverse this operation in two ways. It
ployed; in this equation a, b, and c are the co- may be that b is the unknown, and then we
efficients referred to above. reverse the equation so that it becomes

X_ -bfVb'-4ae
2a
e - o = b

It is also possible that we wish to know a, and


Applying this method of solution to the pre- that b and c are given. The equation then be-
vious example: comes

X _- 7'"49 - X 6_ -7th -- -71 e - b =a


4 4 4
We call both of these reversed operations sub-
X1= -74 = 1 -11/2 traction, and we make no distinction between
the two possible reverses.
X, = -7, 1 = -2 Multiplication can also be reversed in two
manners. In the multiplication
A practical example involving quadratics is
the law of impedance in a.c. circuits. However, ob = c
this is a simple kind of quadratic equation
which can be solved readily without the use we may wish to know a, when b and c are
of the special formula given above. given, or we may wish to know b when a and
c are given. In both cases we speak of division,

Z = 1/R' + (XL - Xo)' and we make again no distinction between the


two.
This equation can always be solved for R. In the case of powers we can also reverse
by squaring both sides of the equation. It the operation in two manners, but now they
should now be understood that squaring both are not equivalent. Suppose we have the equa-
sides of an equation as well as multiplying tion
both sides with a term containing the unknown ab =e
may add a new root. Since we know here that
Z and R are positive, when we square the ex- Ifa is the unknown, and b and c are given,
pression there is no ambiguity. we may reverse the operation by writing

Z'=R'+ (XL -Xc)' tre = a


and R' = Z'- - Xo1' (XL This operation we call taking the root. But
there is a third possibility: that a and c are
orR= VZ' - (XL-Xo)' given, and that we wish to know b. In other

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Logarithms 799

words, the question is "to which power must log 10 = log 10' = 1

we raise a so as to obtain c ? ". This operation


is known as taking the logarithm, and b is the log 100 = log 10' = 2
logarithm of c to the base a. We write this
operation as follows: log 1,000 = log 10' = 3

log. e = b log 10,000 = log 10' = 4

Consider a numerical example. We know 2' =8. log 100,000 = log 10 = 5


We can reverse this operation by asking "to
which power must we raise 2 so as to obtain log 1,000,000 = log 10 = 6
8?" Therefore, the logarithm of 8 to the base
This table can be extended for numbers less
2 is 3, or
than 10 when we remember the rules of pow-
log: 8 = 3
ers discussed under the subject of algebra.
Taking any single bade, such as 2, we might Numbers less than unity, too, can be written
write a series of all the powers of the base next as powers of ten.
to the series of their logarithms:
log 1 = log 10" = 0
Number: 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
Logarithm: 2 4 6 7 10
log 0.1 = kg 10 -' = -1
1 3 5 8 9

We can expand this table by finding terms


log 0.01 = log 10' = -2
between the terms listed above. For instance,
if we let the logarithms increase with 1/2 each
log 0.001 = log 10 ' = -3
time, successive terms in the upper series log 0.0001 = log 10 ' = -4
would have to be multiplied by the square root
of 2. Similarly, if we wish to increase the log- From these examples follow several rules:
arithm by 1 /10 at each term, the ratio between The logarithm of any number between zero
two consecutive terms in the upper series and + 1 is negative; the logarithm of zero is
would be the tenth root of 2. Now this short minus infinity; the logarithm of a number
list of numbers constitutes a small logarithm greater than + 1 is positive. Negative num-
table. It should be clear that one could find bers have no logarithm. These rules are true
the logarithm of any number to the base 2. of common logarithms and of logarithms to
This logarithm will usually be a number with any base.
many decimals. The logarithm of a number between the
powers of ten is an irrational number, that is,
Logarithmic The fact that we chose 2 as it has a never ending series of decimals. For in-
Boses a base for the illustration is stance, the logarithm of 20 must be between
purely arbitrary. Any base 1 and 2 because 20 is between 10 and 100; the

could be used, and therefore there are many value of the logarithm of 20 is 1.30103... .
possible systems of logarithms. In practice we The part of the logarithm to the left of the
use only two bases: The most frequently used decimal point is called the characteristic, while
base is 10, and the system using this, base is the decimals are called the mantissa. In the
known as the system of common logarithms, case of 1.30103 . ., the logarithm of 20, the
or Briggs' logarithms. The second system em- characteristic is 1 and the mantissa is .30103 ..
ploys as a base an odd number, designated by
the letter e; e = 2.71828.... This is known Properties of If the base of our system is
as the natural logarithmic system, also as the Logarithms ten, then, by definition of a
Napierian system, and the hyperbolic system. logarithm:
Although different writers may vary on the
subject, the usual notation is simply log a for 10'' =a
the common logarithm of a. and log. a (or
sometimes In a) for the natural logarithm of or, if the base is raised to the power having an
a. We shall use the common logarithmic sys- exponent equal to the logarithm of a number,
tem in most cases, and therefore we shall ex- the result is that number.
amine this system more closely. The logarithm of a product is equal to the
sum of the logarithms of the two factors.
Common In the system wherein 10 is the
Logarithms base, the logarithm of 10 equals log ab = log a + log b
i; the logarithm of 100 equals 2,
etc., as shown in the following table: This is easily proved to be truc because, it
800 Radio Mathematics and Calculations T H E R A D I O

"
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www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Logarithm Tables 801

was shown before that when multiplying to logarithm tables, it has become the rule that
powers, the exponents are added; therefore, the mantissa should always be positive. Such
notations above as -
1.918555 really mean
a X b = 10101 X 10108b = 10 (log.. "g b' (+0.918555 -1);and -2.981555 means
( + 0.918555 -
2). There are also some other
Similarly, the logarithm of a quotient is the notations in use such as
difference between the logarithm of the divi-
dend and the logarithm of the divisor. 1.918555 and 7.918555

log -b - log o - log b also 9.918555


7.918555
- 10
-
8.918555
10, etc.
- 10

This is so because by the same rules of ex-


ponents: When, after some addition and subtraction
of logarithms a mantissa should come out neg-
b - 101uR
101..16
G
= icy log - loi b)
ative, one cannot look up its equivalent num-
ber or anti -logarithm in the table. The man-
We have thus established an easier way of tissa must first be made positive by adding and
multiplication and division rince these opera- subtracting an appropriate integral number.
tions Gare been reduced to adding and sub- Example: Suppose we find that the logarithm
tracting.
The logarithm of a power of a number is
of a number is -
0.34569, then we can trans-
form it into the proper form by adding and
equal to the logarithm of that number, multi- subtracting 1

plied by the exponent of the power.


1 -1
log a' = 2 logo and log o' = 3 log o -0.34569
or, in general: 0.65431 -1 or -1.65431
log a" = n log a
Using Logarithm Tables
Also, the logarithm of a root of a number Logarithms are used for calculations involv-
1s equal to the logarithm of that number di- ing multiplication, division, powers, and roots.
vided by the index of the root: Especially when the numbers are large and for
higher, or fractional powers and roots, this be-
log _ n log a
1
comes the most convenient way.
Logarithm tables are available giving the
It follows from the rules of multiplication, logarithms to three places, some to four places,
that numbers having the same digits but dif- others to five and six places. The table to use
ferent locations for the decimal point, have defends on the accuracy required in the result
logarithms with the same mantissa: of our calculations. The four place table,
printed in this chapter, permits the finding of
log = 2.918555
829 answers to problems to four significant figures
which is good enough for most constructional
log 82.9 = 1.918555 purposes. If greater accuracy is required a five
place table should be consulted. The five place
log 8.29 = 0.918555
table is perhaps the most popular of all.
log 0.829 = -1.918555
Referring now to the four place table, to
find a common logarithm of a number, pro-
log 0.0829 = -2.918555 ceed as follows. Suppose the number is 5576.
First, determine the characteristic. An inspec-
log 829 = log (8.29 X 100) = log 8.29 + tion will show that the characteristic should
log 100 = 0.918555 + 2 be 3. This figure is placed to the left of the
decimal point. The mantissa is now found by
Logarithm tables give the mantissas of log- reference to the logarithm table. The first two
arithms only. The characteristic has to be de- numbers are 55; glance down the N column
termined by inspection. The characteristic is until coming to these figures. Advance to the
equal to the number of digits to the left of the right until coming in line with the column
decimal point minus one. In the case of loga- headed 7; the mantissa will be 7459. (Note that
rithms of numbers less than unity, the charac- the column headed 7 corresponds to the third
teristic is negative and is equal to the number figure in the number 55'6.) Place the mantissa
of ciphers to the right of the decimal point 7459 to the right of the decimal point, making
plus one. the logarithm of 5576 now read 3.7459. Impor-
For reasons of convenience in making up tant: do not consider the last figure 6 in the
802 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
N L. 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 P.P. the logarithm is -2.39811 but this is the loga-
250 39 794 811 829 846 863 881 898 915 933 950
rithm of 0.025010 and we want the logarithm
251 967 985 002 019 *037.'054'071 81 106 123 18
of 0.025013. Here we can interpolate by ob-
252 40 140 157 175 192 209 226 243 261 278 295 1 1.8
398 415 432 449 466 2 3.6 serving that the difference between the log of
346 364
-
253 312 329 381
254 483 500 518 535 552 569 586 603 620 637 3 5.4 0.02501 and 0.02502 is 829 811 or 18, in
4 7.2
722 739 756 773 790 807 etc.
the last two significant figures. Looking in the
255 654 671 688 705
P.P. table marked 18 we find after 3 the num-
Figure 6. ber 5.4 which is to be added to the logarithm.
A SMALL SECTION OF A FIVE PLACE
LOGARITHM TABLE. -2.39811
Logarithms may be found with greater accu- 5.4
racy with such tables, but they are only of
use when the y of the original data -2.39816, the logarithm of 0.025013
warrants greater precision in the figure work.
Slightly greater y may be obtained for
intermediate points by interpolation, os ex- Since our table is only good to five places,
plained in the text. we must eliminate the last figure given in the
P.P. table if it is less than 5, otherwise we
must add one to the next to the last figure,
rounding off to a whole number in the P.P.
number 5576 when looking for the mantissa table.
in the accompanying four place tables; in Finding the anti -logarithm is done the same
fact, one may usually disregard all digits be- way but with the procedure reversed. Suppose
yond the first three when determining the man- it is required to find the anti -logarithm of
tissa. (Inierpolation. sometimes used to find a
0.40100. Find the first two digits in the column
logarithm more accurately, is unnecessary un- headed by L. Then one must look for the next
less warranted by unusual accuracy in the
three digits or the ones nearest to it, in the
available data.) However, be doubly sure to columns after 40 and on the lines from 40 to
include all figures when ascertaining the mag- 41. Now here we find that numbers in the
nitude of the characteristic. neighborhood of 100 occur only with an aster-
To find the anti -logarithm, the table is used
isk on the line just before 40 and still after 39.
in reverse. As an example, let us find the anti-
The asterisk means that instead of the 39 as
logarithm of 1.272 or, in other words, find the first two digits, these mantissas should
the number of which 1.272 is the logarithm.
have 40 as the first two digits. The logarithm
Look in the table for the mantissa closest to
0.40100 is between the logs 0.40088 and
272. This is found in the first half of the table
0.40106; the anti -logarithm is between 2517
and the nearest value is 2718. Write down the
and 2518. The difference between the two
first two significant figures of the anti -loga-
logarithms in the table is again 18 in the
rithm by taking the figures at the beginning of last two figures and our logarithm 0.40100
the line on which 2718 was found. This is 18;
differs with the lower one 12 in the last
add to this, the digit above the column in
figures. Look in the P.P. table of 18 which
which 2718 was found; this is 7. The antilog-
number comes closest to 12. This is found
arithm is 187 but we have not yet placed the
to be 12.6 for 7 x 1.8 = 12.6. Therefore
decimal point. The characteristic is 1, which
we may add the digit 7 to the anti -logarithm
means that there should be two digits to the
already found; so we have 25177. Next,
left of the decimal point. Hence, 18.7 is the
place the decimal point according to the rules:
anti -logarithm of 1.272.
There are as many digits to the left of the
For the sake of completeness we shall also
decimal point as indicated in the characteris-
describe the same operation with a five -place
tic plus one. The anti -logarithm of 0.40100 is
table where interpolation is done by means of
2.5177.
tables of proportional parts (P.P. tables).
Therefore we are reproducing here a small In the following examples of the use of log-
part of one page of a five -place table. arithms we shall use only three places from the
Finding the logarithm of 0.025013 is done as tables printed in this chapter since a greater
follows: We can begin with the characteristic, degree of precision in our calculations would
which is -2. Next find the first three digits in not be warranted by the accuracy of the data
the column, headed by N and immediately given.
after this we see 39, the first two digits of the In a 375 ohm bias resistor flows a current
mantissa. Then look among the headings of of 41.5 milliamperes; how many watts are dis-
the other columns for the next digit of the sipated by the resistor?
number, in this case 1. In the column, headed We write the equation for power in watts:
by I and on the line headed 250, we find the
next three digits of the logarithm, 811. So far, P = I'R

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK The Decibel 803

and filling in the quantities in question, we


have: Power
db Ratio
P = 0.0415' X 375
0 1.00
1 1.26
Taking logarithms, 2 1.58
3 2.00
log P = 2 log 0.0415 + log 375 4 2.51
3.16
log 0.0415 = -2.618 6
7
3.98
5.01
8 6.31
So 2 X log 0.0415 = -3.236 9 7.94
10 10.00
log 375 = 2.574 20 100
30 1,000
log P = -1.810 40 10,000
50 100,000
ontilog = 0.646. Answer = 0.646 watts 60 1,000,000
70 10,000,000
Caution: Do not forget that the negative 80 100,000,000
sign before the characteristic belongs to the
characteristic only and that mantissas are al- Figure 7.
uayt positive. Therefore we recommend the A TABLE OF DECIBEL GAINS VERSUS
other notation, for it is less likely to lead to POWER RATIOS.
errors. The work is then written:
The Decibel
log 0.0415 = 8.618- 10
2 X log 0.0415 = 17.236 -20 = 7.236 -10 The decibel is a unit for the comparison of
log 375 = 2.574 power or voltage levels in sound and electrical
work. The sensation of pur ears due to sound
log P = 9.810 - 10 waves in the surrounding air is roughly pro-
portional to the logarithm of the energy of the
Another example follows which demon- sound -wave and not proportional to the energy
strates the ease in handling powers and roots. itself. For this reason a logarithmic unit is used
Assume an all -wave receiver is to be built, so as to approach the reaction of the ear.
covering from 550 kc. to 60 mc. Can this be The decibel represents a ratio of two power
done in five ranges and what will be the re- levels, usually connected with gains or loss due
quired tuning ratio for each range if no over- to an amplifier or other network. The decibel
lapping is required? Call the tuning ratio of is defined
one band, x. Then the total tuning ratio for
five such bands is x . But the total tuning ratio
Nan = 10 log*
for all bands is 60/0.55. Therefore: where Po stands for the output power, P, for
the input power and N,,, for the number of
x.= 60 or
0.55
: x= ' 60
0.55
decibels. When the answer is positive, there is
a gain; when the answer is negative, there is
Taking logarithms: a loss.
The gain of amplifiers is usually given in
lag x
log 60 - log 0.55 decibels. For this purpose both the input power
s
and output power should be measured. Ex-
log 60 1.778 ample: Suppose that an intermediate amplifier
log 0.55 -1.740 is being driven by an input power of 0.2 watt
subtract and after amplification, the output is found to
2.038 be 6 watts.
Remember again that the mantissas are posi- P= =
6
= 30
tive and the characteristic alone can be nega-
tive. Subtracting -1 is the same as adding +1. log 30 = 1.48

log x = 2.038
- 0.408 Therefore the gain is 10 x 1.48 = 14.8
decibels. The decibel is a logarithmic unit;
x = ontilog 0.408 = 2.56 when the power was multiplied by 30, the
power level in decibels was increased- by 14.8
The tuning ratio should be 2.56. decibels, or 14.8 decibels added.
804 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
TuDE STE, -Up
Example: In the circuit of Figure 8, the gain
GAIN. A RATIO = 3.5 I in the stage is equal to the amplification in the
tube and the step -up ratio of the transformer.
If the amplification in the tube is 10 and the
step -up in the transformer is 3.5, the voltage
gain is 15 and the gain in decibels is:
20 x log 35 = 20 x 1.54 = 30.8 dh

e Decibels os The original use of the decibel


Power Level was only as a ratio of power
Figure 8.
levels -not as an absolute
STAGE GAIN.
measure of power. However, one may use the
The voltage gain in decibels in this stage is
equal to the amplification in the tube plus the decibel as such an absolute unit by fixing an
step -up ratio of the transformer, both ex- arbitrary "zero" level, and to indicate any
p d in decibels. power level by its number of decibels above or
below this arbitrary zero level. This is all very
good so long as we agree on the zero level.
When one amplifier is to be followed by Any power level may then be converted to
another amplifier, power gains are multiplied decibels by the equation:
but the decibel gains are added. If a main am-
plifier having a gain of 1,000,000 (power ratio NAD = 10 log
is 1,000,000) is preceded by a pre -amplifier
with a gain of 1000, the total gain is 1,000,- where Nib is the desired power level in deci-
000,000. But in decibels, the first amplifier has bels, P. the output of the amplifier, P,.r the
a gain of 60 decibels, the second a gain of 30
arbitrary reference level.
decibels and the two of them will have a gain The zero level most frequently used (but not
of 90 decibels when connected in cascade. always) is 6 milliwatts or 0.006 watts. For this
(This is true only if the two amplifiers are zero level, the equation reduces to
properly matched at the junction as otherwise P.
there wil; be a reflection loss at this point N,ID = 10 log 0.006
which must be subtracted from the total.)
Example: An amplifier using a 6F6 tube
Conversion of power ratios to decibels or
vice versa is easy with the small table shown should be able to deliver an undistorted output
on these pages. In any case, an ordinary loga-
of 3 watts. How much is this in decibels?
P-
rithm table will do. Find the logarithm of the
power ratio and multiply by ten to find deci- P..,. - 3
.006
= 500
bels. 10 X log 500 = 10 X 2.70 = 27.0
Sometimes it is more convenient to figure
decibels from voltage or current ratios or gains Therefore the power level at the output of
rather than from power ratios. This applies the 6F6 is 27.0 decibels. When the power level
especially to voltage amplifiers. The equation to be converted is less than 6 milliwatts, the
for this is level is noted as negative. Here we must re-
member all that has been said regarding loga-
Nd. = 20 loge or 20 log -II
rithms of numbers less than unity and the fact
that the characteristic is negative but not the
where the subscript, , denotes the output volt- mantissa.
age or current and the input voltage or cur-
I
A preamplifier for a microphone is feeding
rent. Remember, this equation is true only if 1.5 milliwatts into the line going to the regu-
the voltage or current gain in question repre- lar speech amplifier. What is this power level
sents a power gain which is the square of it expressed in decibels?
and not if the power gain which results from
this is some other quantity due to impedance
changes. This should be quite clear when we
decibels = 10 log 0.006
P - o.o0.0ot s
consider that a matching transformer to con- 10 log 06
10 log 0.25
nect a speaker to a line or output tube does
not represent a gain or loss; there is a voltage Log 0.25 = -1398 (from table). There-
change and a current change yet the power re- fore, 10 x -1398 = (10 x -1 = -10)
mains the same for the impedance has changed. + (10 x .398 = 3.98) ; adding the products
On the other hand, when dealing with volt- algebraically, gives -6.02 db.
age amplifiers, we can figure the gain in a The conversion chart reproduced in this
stage by finding the voltage ratio from the grid chapter will be of use in converting decibels to
of the first tube to the grid .of the next tube. watts and vice versa.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK

80

50

40

30

20

10
i--
a
tta
M_
MN

ra
"-_
mtttmmui1AlS

_1IttA
taiJ6/
I.i'r*-
imozZiNAM

it_!
1:JjII
T:1'
1111=.w
r4eTeTr[.><uAu.OMMI-
MINIIMINNIMI+tta

` ==MMel11isYfiT:1:/J
i1110i!-
.._.;.'I.i
-

. .
=

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mil wow.
/S1iCJ
Decibel -Power Conversion

-
-tfa
m
It; 30
M
m
=I
... 20
t
NI

m
IO

.1
NE
=I
no
50

40

-10
805

60

Ilt
ENI

OM
z
-20
MO
20 -J
-J-30
>
iP!i!iT
MINIM
MIIII---1111111111
tNIMM=11111l111 1 J
ef.7!tll
r 30 w
J
W IMMIIIMM11110
-1-40 -40
It-1111-1111
--111-21111Mw

ttIl
INIIIIIM11111111..R
-50 11111111= -50

-60

-70
1R
m_7 11iitY/!/
-'2".=NeonlI
MENIIMINI111
.. en11:llleJiL
-60

-70

_
ItItiM1lt>11ONI_NlaLf\i0
. feiel7.d7i NM

-80 ta -80
. S
fsi'1 '

-90 !!!!!=sselill -90


7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6
POWER
Surd ow 0e6 wIL w/ rrv l.rl.

Figure 9.
CONVERSION CHART: POWER TO DECIBELS
Power levels between 6 mlcromicrowatts and 6000 watts may be referred to corresponding decibel
levels between -90 and 60 db, and vice versa, by means of the above chart. Fifteen ranges are
provided. Each curve begins at the same point where the preceding one ends, enabling uninterrupted
coverage of the wide db and power ranges with condensed chart. For example: the lowermost curve
ends at -80 db or 60 micromicrowatts and the next range starts at the same level. Zero db lev& is
taken as 6 milliwatts (.006 watt).
806 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
Converting Decibels It is often convenient Solution:
to Power to he able to convert a
decibel value to a pow-
-- 17.3
2.7 + 2.7
er equivalent. The formula used for this oper-
ation is -20 + 2.7
P = 0.006 X antilogg Nd, -20+2.7
l 10 = = -2.27
10
where P is the desired level in watts and d, Antilog -2.27 = 0.0186
the decibels to be converted.
To determine the power level P from a dec- 0.006 X 0.0186 = 0.000 16 watt or
1 1
ibel equivalent, simply divide the decibel value
by 10; then take the number comprising the
0.1116 milliwatt
antilog and multiply it by 0.006; the product Input voltages: To determine the required
gives the level in watts. input voltage, take the peak voltage necessary
Note: In problems dealing with the conver- to drive the last class A amplifier tube to max-
sion of minas decibels to power, it often hap- imum output, and divide this figure by the to-
pens that the decibel value -Nd,, is not tal overall voltage gain of the preceding stages.
divisible by 10. When this is the case, Computing Specifications: From the preced-
N,.,
the numerator in the factor - 10
must be ing explanations the following data can be
computed with any degree of accuracy war-
made evenly divisible by 10, the negative signs ranted by the circumstances:
must be observed, and the quotient labeled ac- (1) Voltage amplification
cordingly. (2) Overall gain in db
To make the numerator evenly divisible by (3) Output signal level in db
10 proceed as follows: Assume, for example, (4) Input signal level in db
that -N,,, is sonie such value as -38; to (5) Input signal level in watts
make this figure evenly divisible by 10, we (6) Input signal voltage
must add -2 to it, and, since we have added
a negative 2 to it, we must also add a positive
When a power level is available which must
be brought up to a new power level, the gain
2 so as to keep the net result the same.
required in the intervening amplifier is equal
Our decibel value now stands, -40 + 2.
to the difference between the two levels in dec-
Dividing both of these figures by 10, as in the
ibels. If the required input of an amplifier for
equation above, we have -
4 and +0.2. Put-
full output is -
30 decibels and the output
ting the two together we have the logarithm
-4.2 with the negative characteristic and the from a device to be used is but -45 decibels,
the pre -amplifier required should have a gain
positive mantissa as required.
The following examples will show the tech-
of the difference, or 15 decibels. Again this is
nique to be followed in practical problems.
true only if the two amplifiers are properly
matched and no losses are introduced due to
(a) The output of a certain device is rated
mismatching.
at -74 db. What is the power equivalent?
Solution:
Push -Pull To double the output of any cas -
No,
= -10 (not evenly divisible by 10) Amplifiers cade amplifier, it is only neces-
sary to connect in push -pull the
Routine: last amplifying stage, and replace the inter -
-- 74
6 +6
stage and output transformers with push -pull
types.
To determine the voltage gain (voltage ra-
-80 +6 tio) of a push -pull amplifier, take the ratio of
one half of the secondary winding of the push -
Net. -80 +6_
=--1-0-- -86
10
pull transformer and multiply it by the of
one of the output tubes in the push -pull stage;
antilog -8.6 = 0.000 000 04 the product, when doubled, will be the voltage
.006 X 0.000 000 04 = amplification, or step -up.
0.000 000 000 24 watt or
240 micro- microwott Other Units and When working with deci-
Zero Levels bels one should not im-
(b) This example differs somewhat from mediately take for granted
that of the foregoing one in that the mantissas that the zero level is 6 milliwatts for there are
are added differently. A low -powered amplifier other zero levels in use.
has an input signal level of -
17.3 db. How In broadcast stations an entirely new system
many milliwatts does this value represent? is now employed. Measurements made in

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Trigonometry 807

acoustics are now made with the standard zero


level of 10.6 watts per square cm.
Microphones are often rated with reference SECOND FAST
to the following zero level: one volt at open QUADRANT QUADRANT

circuit when the sound pressure is one millibar.


In any case, the rating of the microphone must
include the loudness of the sound. It is obvious
that this zero level does not lend itself readily
THtRD FOURTH
for the calculation of required gain in an am- QUADRANT QUADRANT
plifier.
The VU: So far, the decibel has always re-
ferred to a type of signal which can readily be
measured, that is, a steady signal of a single Figure 10.
frequency. But what would be the power level THE CIRCLE IS DIVIDED INTO
of a signal which is constantly varying in vol- FOUR QUADRANTS BY TWO PER-
ume and frequency? The measurement of volt- PENDICULAR LINES AT RIGHT
age would depend on the type of instrument ANGLES TO EACH OTHER.
employed, whether it is measured with a The "northeast" quadrant thus formed is
known as the first quadrant; the others are
thermal square law meter or one that shows numbered consecutively in a counterclockwise
average values; also, the inertia of the move- direction.
ment will change its indications at the peaks
and valleys.
After considerable consultation, the broad- Trigonometry
cast chains and the Bell System have agreed Definition Trigonometry is the science of
on the VU. The level in VU is the level in and Use mensuration of triangles. At first
decibels above I milliwatt zero level and meas- glance triangles may seem to
ured with a carefully defined type of instru- have little to do with electrical phenomena;
ment across a 600 ohm line. So long as we however, in a.c. work most currents and volt-
deal with an unvarying sound, the level in VU ages follow laws equivalent to those of the
is equal to decibels above milliwatt; but
1 various trigonometric relations which we are
when the sound level varies, the unit is the about to examine briefly. Examples of their
VU and the special meter must be used. There application to a.c. work will he given in the
is then no equivalent in decibels. section on Vectors.
The Neper: We might have used the natural Angles are measured in degrees or in radi-
logarithm instead of the common logarithm ans. The circle has been divided into 360
when defining our logarithmic unit of sound. degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each
This was done in Europe and the unit obtained minute into 60 seconds. A decimal division of
is known as the neper or napier. It is still the degree is also in use because it makes cal-
found in some American literature on filters. culation easier. Degrees, minutes and seconds
are indicated by the following signs: , ' and "
neper = 8.686 decibels
Example: 6 5' 23" means six degrees, five
1

decibel = 0.1151 neper


minutes, twenty -three seconds. In the decimal
1

notation we simply write 8.47 , eight and


AC Meters With Many test instruments
forty-seven hundredths of a degree.
Decibel Scales are now equipped with
When a circle is divided into four quadrants
scales calibrated in deci-
by two perpendicular lines passing through
bels which is very handy when making meas-
the center (Figure 10) the angle made by the
urements of frequency characteristics and gain. two lines is 90 degrees, known as a right angle.
These meters are generally calibrated for con- Two right angles, or 180 equals a straight
nection across a 500 ohm line and for a zero angle.
level of 6 milliwatts. When they are connected
The radian: If we take the radius of a circle
across another impedance, the reading on the
and bend it so it can cover a part of the cir-
meter is no longer correct for the zero level of
cumference, the arc it covers subtends an angle
6 milliwatts. A correction factor should be called a radian (Figure 11). Since the diam-
applied consisting in the addition or subtrac-
tion of a steady figure to all readings on the eter, of a circle equals 2 times the radius,
there are tar radians in 360. So we have the
meter. This figure is given by the equation:
following relations:
db to be added = 10 log
szo 1 radian =57 17'45 " = 57.2958 ar= 3.14159
1 degree = 0.01745 radians
where Z is the impedance of the circuit under ir radians = 180 . 1r /2 radians =90
measurement. ar /3 radians =60
808 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
In the angle A, Figure 13A, a line is drawn
from P, perpendicular to b. Regardless of the
point selected for P, the ratio a/c will always
be the same for any given angle, A. So will all
the other proportions between a, b, and c re-
main constant regardless of the position of
point P on c. The six possible ratios each are
named and defined as follows:
a b
sine A =
c
cosine A = c

Figure 11. a
tangent A = cotangent A =
THE RADIAN. b a
A radian is an angle whose arc is exactly equal
to the length of either side. Note that the c
angle is constant regardless of the length of
secant A = cosecant A =
a
the side and the arc so long as they are equal.
A radian equals 57.2958 . Let us take a special angle as an example.
For instance, let the angle A be 60 degrees as
In trigonometry we consider an angle gen- in Figure 13B. Then the relations between the
erated by two lines, one stationary and the sides are as in the figure and the six functions
other rotating as if it were hinged at 0, Figure become:
12. Angles can be greater than 180 degrees and
even greater than 360 degrees as illustrated in a 1/2 v-3-
this figure. sin. 60 _ -
C
= = 1/2

Two angles are complements of each other 1/2


when their sum is 90 , or a right angle. A is cos 60 =-6 = = 1/2
the complement of B and B is the complement c 1

of A when
a 1/z Nr3
A= (90 -B) tan 60 =
b 1/2
and when
B=(90 -A)
cot 60 =
1/2

1/2V ,
- _ = y3)/3
1

1
Two angles are supplements of each other sec 60 = b = = 2
when their sum is equal to'a straight angle, or 1/z
180 . A is the supplement of B and B is the c 1

supplement of A when csc60 = = 2/3 V,


a
A= (180 -B) Another example: Let the angle be 45 , then
and the relations between the lengths of a, b, and
c are as shown in Figure 13C, and the six
B= (180 -A) functions are:

X
AC
Figure 12.
AN ANGLE IS GENERATED BY TWO LINES, ONE STATIONARY AND THE OTHER
ROTATING.
The line OX is stationary; the line with the small arrow at the for end rotates in a counterclockwise
direction. At the position illustrated in the lefthandmost section of the drawing it makes an angle,
A, which is less than 90 and is therefore in the first quadrant. In the position shown in the second
portion of the drawing the angle A has increased to such a value that it now lies in the third
quadrant; note that an angle can be greater than 180 In the third illustration the angle A is in
.

the fourth quadrant. In the fourth position the rotating vector has made more than one completo
revolution and is hence in the fifth quadrant; since the fifth quadrant is an exact repetition of the
first quadrant. its values will be the some os in the lef thandmost portion of the illustration.

www.americanradiohistory.com
H A N D B O O K Trigonometric Relations 809

C=e

90'

b= I

Figure 13.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.
In the right triangle shown in (A) the side opposite the ongle A is a, while the adjoining sides are
b and c; the trigonometric functions of the ongle A are completely defined by the ratios of the
sides a, b and c. In (B) are shown the lengths of the sides a and b when angle A is 60' and side c
is I. In (C) angle A is 45 ; a and b equal 1, while c equals VI
In (D) note that c equals a for a
right angle while b equals O.

1 Relations Between It follows from the defi-


sin 45 _ = /2Nri 1 Functions nitions that
1
cos45 = = 1/2Nri sin A =
cosec A
1

cos A - sec A 1

-
1
tan 45 = 1 = cot 45 = = 1 and tan A
=cot A

sec 45 = =

cosec 45 =
- =
From the definitions also follows the relation

cos A =sin (complement of A) =sin (90 -A)


because in the right triangle of Figure 15,
There are some special difficulties when the cos A= b/c =sinB and B=90 -A or the
angle is zero or 90 degrees. In Figure 13D an complement of A. For the same reason:
angle of 90 degrees is shown; drawing a line
perpendicular to b from point P makes it fall cot = tan (90 -A)
on top of c. Therefore in this case a = c and
b = 0. The six ratios are now: cscA = sec (90 -A)
sin 90 = c = 1 cos 90 =
b
-0 = Relations in
Right Triangles
In the right triangle of
Figure 15, sin A= a/c and
tan 90 = - m cot 90 = = 0 by transposition
b 0 a
a = c sin A
cosec 90 =
= b= = a =
sec 90 m 1
U
For the same reason we have the following
When the angle is zero, a =0 and b =c. The identities:
values are then: tan A = a/b a = b tan A
a cot A - b/a b = a cot A
sin 0 -11= cos 0 = = 1
c c
In the same triangle we can do the same for
tan 0 =
a
b -00
cot 0 =
b
a
b
= 0 functions of the angle B

seco =- =1 cosec 0 =
a
C C

0
m
Angle
0
Sin
0
Cos.
1
Tan
0_
Cot
co
Sec. Cosec.
11

In general, for every angle, there will be defi- 30 Y2 1/2 V3 1/3 v , V , 2/3 v - 2

nite values of the six functions. Conversely, 45 1/2 V 1/2 Nri 1


/ ,, VI VI-
when any of the six functions is known, the 600 1/21/3 1/2 1,/T 1/3 V 2 2/3 V3
angle is defined. Tables have been calculated 90 1 0 m 0 m 1
giving the value of the functions for angles.
From the foregoing we can make up a small Figure 14.
table of our own (Figure 14), giving values of Values of trigonometric functions for common
the functions for some common angles. angles in the first quadrant.
810 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
POSITIVE FUNCTIONS

SECOND QUADRANT FIRST QUADRANT

sino, cosec all functions

Figure 15.
ln this figure the sides a, b, and c are used
to define the trigonometric functions of angle
B as well as angle A.

sin B = b/c b=csin B Nn. cot count. secant


cos B = a/c a=ccos B
tan B = b/a b = a tan B
cot B = a/b a = b cot B

Functions of Angles In angles greater than


THIRD QUADRANT FOURTH QUADRANT
Greater than 90 degrees, the values
90 Degrees of a and b become neg- Figure 17.
ative on occasion in ac- SIGNS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC
cordance with the rules of Cartesian coordi- FUNCTIONS.
nates. When b is measured from 0 towards The functions listed in this diagram are posi-
the left it is considered negative and similarly, tive; all other functions are negative.
when a is measured from 0 downwards, it is
negative. Referring to Figure 16, an angle in
the second quadrant (between 90 and 180 ) sec A = = neg. cosec A = -= c
neg.

- -
-a
has some of its functions negative:

a b And in the fourth quadrant (270 to 360 ):


sin A = = pos. A =

-
cos = neg.
c c

sin A =
-a = neg. cos A =
b
=
tan A = = neg. cot A = = neg. pos.

-
b
c

-=
a

sec A =
C
= neg. cosec A = -=
a
pos. tan A =
-a
b
= neg. cot A -
-a neg.

For an angle in the third quadrant (180 to


270 ), the functions are
sec A = = pos. cosec A =-
-a = neg.

sin A = -- c
a
= neg. cos A
-b
=- = neg.
Summarizing, the sign of the functions in
each quadrant can be seen at a glance from
Figure 17, where in each quadrant are written
== =
tan A = =bb = pos. cot A
-b the names of functions which are positive;
pos.
those not mentioned are negative.

SECOND
QUADRANT

THIRD FOURTH
QUADRANT QUADRANT

Figure 16.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH QUADRANTS.
The trigonometric functions in these quadrants are similar to first quadrant values, but the
signs of the functions vary as listed in the text and in Figure 17.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Trigonometric Curves 811

Figure 18.
SINE AND COSINE CURVES.
In (A) we have a sine curve
drown in Cartesian coordinates.
This is the usual representation
IA)

1l
0

i-
o
90

_-
180 270

a-
360

_
2'r
AllikikT
450

5
540'

1411P:=
.7r
630

C==n=
720'

>r

of on alternating current wave


without substantial harmonics. In
(8) we have a cosine wove;
note that it is exactly similar
to a sine wave displaced by
90" or n 2 radians.
1 90

n-
I I
1

J7r
h-'
.rl_
270"

_.
360"

Z 7r
450"

I
540

jr
630"

'Al
PriI

v 7r
720'

} 7r
2

Graphs of Trigono- The nine a ate. When 3. Cos x = -cos (180 -x) or
metric Functions have the relation
we -cos (r -x)
y= sin x. where x is an -1. Cos x = cos (360 -x) or cos (27r -x)
angle measured in radians or degrees, we can The graph of the tangent is illustrated in
draw a curve of y versus x for all values of Figure 19. This is a discontinuous curve and
:he independent variable, and thus get a good illustrates well how the tangent increases from
:onception how the sine varies with the mag- zero to infinity when the angle increases from
nitude of the angle. This has been done in zero to 90 degrees. Then when the angle is
Figure 18A. We can learn from this curve the further increased, the tangent starts from
following facts. minus infinity going to zero in the second quad-
1. The sine varies between +1 and -1 rant, and to infinity again in the third quadrant.
2. It is a periodic curve, repeating itself after 1. The tangent can have any value between
every multiple of 27 or 360 + m and -
3. Sin x = sin (180 -x)
or sin (v -x) 2. The curve repeats and the period is it

4. Sin x = -sin (180 + x), or


radians or 180 , not 2.77- radians
3. Tan x = tan (180 +x) or tan (ir +x)
-sin (r + x) 4. Tan x = -tan (180 or -x)
The cosine wave. Making a curve for the -tan (r -x)
function y = cos x, we obtain a curve similar The graph of the cotangent is the inverse of
to that for y = sin x except that it is displaced that of the tangent, see Figure 20. It leads us
by 90 or 7/2 radians with respect to the to the following conclusions:
Y -axis. This curve (Figure 18B) is also peri- 1. The cotangent can have any value be-
xdic but it does not start with zero. We read
from the curve:
tween + m and -
2. It periodic curve, the period being
is a
1. The value of the cosine never goes be- r radians or 180
yond +1 or -1 3. Cot x cot (180 +x) or cot +x) (r
2. The curve repeats, after every multiple 4. Cot x = cot (180 -
x) or -
of 27 radians or 360 -cot (r -x)

0
i> ar .; en-

0' 180 360 540 720' 90 270' 450' 630'


90' 450' 180 360 540 720'
270 630

Figure 19. Figure 20.


TANGENT CURVES. COTANGENT CURVES.
The tangent curve increases from 0 to with
on angular increase of 90'. In the next ISO'
it increases from -co to + T .
Cotangent curves are the inverse of the tan-
gent . They vary from +
each pair of quadrants.
to in ' -m
812 Rodio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO

Figure 22.
Vectors may be added as shown in these
sketches. In each case the long vector repre-
sents the vector sum of the smaller vectors.
For many engineering applications sufficient
accuracy can be obtained by this method
COSINE which avoids long and laborious calculations.
Figure 21.
ANOTHER REPRESENTATION OF velocity of 50 miles per hour, we speak of a
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. vector quantity.
If the radius of a circle is considered as the Vectors, representing forces, speeds, dis-
unit of measurement, then the lengths of the
various lines shown in this diagram are numer- placements, etc., are represented by arrows.
ically equal to the functions marked adjacent They can be added graphically by well known
to them. methods illustrated in Figure 22. We can make
the parallelogram of forces or we can simply
The graphs of the secant and cosecant are draw a triangle. The addition of many vectors
of lesser importance and will not be shown can be accomplished graphically as in the same
here. They are the inverse, respectively, of the figure.
cosine and the sine, and therefore they vary In order that we may define vectors algebra-
-
from +1 to infinity and from -1 to infinity. ically and add, subtract, multiply, or divide
them, we must have a logical notation system
Perhaps another useful way of visualizing
the values of the functions is by considering that lends itself to these operations. For this
Figure 21. If the radius of the circle is the unit purpose vectors can be defined by coordinate
of measurement then the lengths of the lines systems. Both the Cartesian and the polar co-
are equal to the functions marked on them. ordinates are in use.

Trigonometric Tables There are two kinds of Vectors Defined Since we have seen how the
trigonometric tables. by Cartesian sum of two vectors is ob-
The first type gives the functions of the angles, Coordinates tained, it follows from Fig-
the second the logarithms' of the functions. ure 23, that the vector Z
The first kind is also known as the table of equals the sum of the two vectors x and y. In
natural trigonometric functions. fact, any vector can be resolved into vectors
These tables give the functions of all angles along the X- and Y -axis. For convenience in
between 0 and 45 . This is all that is necessary working with these quantities we need to dis-
for the function of an angle between 45 and
90 can always be written as the co- function
of an angle below 45 . Example: If we had to
find the sine of 48 , we might write
sin 48 = cos (90 -48 ) = cos 42
Tables of the logarithms of trigonometric
functions give the common logarithms (log,)
of these functions. Since many of these logar-
ithms have negative characteristics, one should
y.4 I

add -10 to all logarithms in the table which .=3 3;A


o sit
have a characteristic of 6 or higher. For in- 3
stance, the log sin 24 = 9.60931 -10. Log
tan 1 = 8.24192 -10 but log cot 1 =
1.75808. When the characteristic shown is less
than 6, it is supposed to be positive and one
should not add -10.
Figure 23.
Vectors RESOLUTION OF VECTORS.
A scalar quantity has magnitude only; a
vector quantity has both magnitude and direc-
Any vector such as i
may be resolved Into
two vectors, x and y, along the X- and Y-
tion. When we speak of a speed of 50 miles axes. If vectors are to be added, their respec-
tive z and y components may be added to
per hour, we are using a scalar quantity, but find the x and y components of the resultant
when we say the wind is Northeast and has a vector.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Vectors 813

Addition of Vectors An examination of Fig-


ure 24 will show that
the two vectors

R = x, + j y,

Z = x, + j y,

x. can be added, if we add the X- components


Figure 24.
and the Y- components separately.
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION OF
+ =
VECTORS.
R Z X, + x, + j (y2 + y,)
Vectors may be added or subtracted by
adding or subtracting their x or y com- For the same reason we can carry out sub-
ponents separately. traction by subtracting the horizontal compc-
nents and subtracting the vertical components

tinguish between the X- and Y- component, R -Z = x, - x, + j (y, - y,)


and so it has been agreed that the Y- compo-
nent alone shall be marked with the letter j. Let us consider the operator j. If we have a
Example (Figure 23) :
vector a along the X -axis and add a j in front
of it (multiplying by j) the result is that the
Z =3 +4j direction of the vector is rotated forward 90
degrees. If we do this twice (multiplying by
Note again that the sign of components j') the vector is rotated forward by 180 degrees
along the X -axis is positive when measured and now has the value -a. Therefore multi-
from 0 to the right and negative when meas- plying by f is equivalent to multiplying by -1.
ured from 0 towards the left. Also, the compo- Then
nent along the Y -axis is positive when meas-
ured from 0 upwards, and negative when = -1 and i = N,/1
measured from 0 downwards. So the vector,
R, is described as This is the imaginary number discussed be-
fore under algebra. In electrical engineering
= 5 - 3j the letter j is used rather than i, because i is
already known as the symbol for current.
Vector quantities are usually indicated by
some special typography, especially by using a Multiplying Vectors When two vectors are
point over the letter indicating the vector, as to be multiplied we can
R. perform the operation just as in algebra, re-
membering that j' = -1.
Absolute Value The absolute or scalar
of a Vector value of vectors such as Z RZ = (x, + jy,) (x, + iy,)
or R in Figure 23 is easily =
found by the theorem of Pythagoras, which
x, Xs 1- jx, y, + i X2 yi + i' y, ys
states that in any right -angled triangle the
square of the side opposite the right angle is
= x, x, - y, y= + j (x, y2 + x, y,)

equal to the sum of the squares of the sides Division has to be carried out so as to re-
adjoining the right angle. In Figure 23, OAB move the j -term from the denominator. This
is a right -angled triangle; therefore, the square can be done by multiplying both denominator
of OB (or Z) is equal to the square of OA and numerator by a quantity which will elimi-
(or x) plus the square of AB (or y). Thus the nate j from the denominator. Example:
absolute values of Z and R may be determined
as follows: jy, (x, +jy,) (x, - jy,)
Z == v(30
Z x, + jy, (x, + jy,) (x, - jy,)
- x,y,)
I I y'

Zi= 3' +4' =5 y,y + j (x,y,


x,' + y,s
IRI= f5' +3'= 34 =5.83
Polar Coordinates A vector can also be de-
The vertical lines indicate that the absolute fined in polar coordi-
or scalar value is meant without regard to sign nates by its magnitude and its vectorial angle
or direction. with an arbitrary reference axis. In Figure 25
814 Rodio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO

Figure 26.
Vectors can be trans formed from Cartesian
into polar notation as shown in this figure.
X
which flows due to the alternating voltage is
Figure 25.
not necessarily in step with it. The rotating
IN THIS FIGURE A VECTOR HAS
BEEN REPRESENTED IN POLAR
current vector may be ahead or behind the
INSTEAD OF CARTESIAN CO- voltage vector, having a phase difference with
ORDI NATES. it. For convenience we draw these vectors as
In polar coordinates a vector is defined by if they were standing still, so that we can indi-
a magnitude and an angle, called the vec- cate the difference in phase or the phase angle.
torial angle, instead of by two magnitudes In Figure 28 the current lags behind the volt-
as In Cartesian coordinates.
age by the angle e, or we might say that the
voltage leads the current by the angle e.
the vector Z has a magnitude 50 and a vector- Vector diagrams show the phase relations
ial angle of 60 degrees. This will then be between two or more vectors (voltages and
written currents) in a circuit. They may be added and
= 5O 6O subtracted as described; one may add a voltage
vector to another voltage vector or a current
A vector a + jb can be transformed into vector to a current vector but not a current
polar notatimi very simply (see Figure 26) vector to a voltage vector (for the same reason
that one cannot add a force to a speed). Figure
= o +jb = '1o' +b2 ton 'b 28 illustrates the relations in the simple series
In this connection tan' means the angle of
circuit of a coil and resistor. We know that the
which the tangent is. Sometimes the notation current passing through coil and resistor must
he the same and in the same phase, so we draw
arc tan b/a is used. Both have the same mean-
ing. this current I along the X -axis. We know also
A polar notation of a vector can be trans- that the voltage drop IR across the resistor is
formed into a Cartesian coordinate notation in in phase with the current, so the vector IR rep-
resenting the voltage drop is also along the
the following manner (Figure 27)
X -axis.
The voltage across the coil is 90 degrees
Z = pLA = p cos A + jp sin A
ahead of the current through it; /X must
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or cur- therefore be drawn along the Y -axis. E the
rent is symbolically represented by a rotating applied voltage must be equal to the vectorial
vector, having a magnitude equal to the peak sum of the two voltage drops, IR and /X. and
voltage or current and rotating with an angular we have so constructed it in the drawing. Now
velocity of 2.7f radians per second or as many expressing the same in algebraic notation, we
revolutions per second as there are cycles per have
second.
The instantaneous voltage, e, is always equal
= IR + jIX
to the sine of the vectorial angle of this rotat- I=IR+IX
ing vector, multiplied by its magnitude.
Dividing by I
e = E sin 2^ft Z = R + jX
The alternating voltage therefore varies with Due to the fact that a reactance rotates the
time as the sine varies with the angle. If we voltage vector ahead or behind the current
plot time horizontally and instantaneous volt- rector by 90 degrees, we must mark it with a
age vertically we will get a curve like those i in vector notation. Inductive reactance will
in Figure 18. have a plus sign because it shifts the voltage
In alternating current circuits, the current vector forwards; a capacitive reactance is neg-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Graphical Representation 815

),
A

p COS A
Figure 27. Figure 28.
Vectors can be transformed from polar into VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF A
Cartesian notation as shown in this ligure. SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUIT.
The rlghthand portion of the illustration shows
the vectors representing the voltage drops In
ative because the voltage will lag behind the the coil and resistance illustrated at the left.
current. Therefore: Note that the voltage drop across the coil XL,
leads that across the resistance by 90 .

X. = + j 2 -fL
Graphical Representation
x,- = - j 1
2nfC Formulas and physical laws are often pre-
sented in graphical form; this gives us a
In Figure 28 the angle e is known as the
phase angle between E and I. When calculat-
"bird's eye view" of various possible conditions
due to the variations of the quantities involved.
ing power, only the real components count.
In some cases graphs permit us to solve equa-
The power in the circuit is then
tions with greater ease than ordinary algebra.
P = I (IR)
Coordinate Systems All of us have used co-
but IR = E cos 9 ordinate systems with-
out realizing it. For instance, in modern cities
P =El cos e we have numbered streets and numbered ave-
nues. By this means we can define the location
This cos e is known as the power factor of of any spot in the city if the nearest street
the circuit. In many circuits we strive to keep crossings are named. This is nothing but an
the angle e as small as possible, making cos e application of Cartesian coordinates.
as near to unity as possible. In tuned circuits, In the Cartesian coordinate system (named
we use reactances which should have as low a after Descartes), we define the location of any
power factor as possible. The merit of a coil point in a plane by giving its distance from
or condenser, its Q. is defined by the tangent of each of two perpendicular lines or axes. Figure
this phase angle: 30 illustrates this idea. The vertical axis is
called the Y -axis, the horizontal axis is the
Q = ton e = X/R X -axis. The intersection of these two axes is
called the origin, O. The location of a point,
For an efficient coil or condenser, Q should P, (Figure 30) is defined by measuring the
be as large as possible; the phase -angle should respective distances, x and y along the X -axis
then be as close to 90 degrees as possible, mak- and the Y -axis. In this example the distance
ing the power factor nearly zero. Q is almost along the X -axis is 2 units and along the Y-
but not quite the inverse of cos e. Note that in axis is 3 units. Thus we define the point as
Figure 29

Q =X /R and cos e = R/Z Q-TAN 9


R
When Q is more than 5, the power factor is POWER FACTOR =COS e-
less than 20%; we can then safely say Q =
1 /cos e with a maximum error of about 21/2
percent, for in the worst case, when cos e =
Figure 29.
0.2, Q will equal tan e = 4.89. For higher
The figure of merit of a coil and its resistance
values of Q, the error becomes less. is represented by the ratio of the inductive
Note that from Figure 29 can be seen the reactance to the resistance, which as shown
simple relation: X,
In this diagram is equal to which equals
=R+jX,, tan O. For large values of 9 (the phase angle
this is approximately equal to the reciproml
1zI= Nrti'+Xt' of the cos O.
816 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
Y
2000

1600

SECOND FIRST 1600


QUADRANT QUADRANT
1400
....... 4 . 1200

NO 1000

NMI-2o
2

=MI= fc
$00
\
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600 r

' 0 100 200 300 400 800


X X
'8-7- 6- 5- 4 -3 -1 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ME Figure 31.
R
3 REPRESENTATION OF A SIMPLE
4 FUNCTION IN CARTESIAN CO-
5 ORDINATES.
300,000
TH RD FOURTH In this chart of the function fkr =
QUADRANT- X meter

tit p
6 QUADRANT
distances along the X axis represent wave-
length in meters, while those along the Y
axis represent frequency in kilocycles. A curve
Y
such as this helps to find values between
Figure 30. those calculated with sufficient accuracy for
CARTESIAN COORDINATES. most purposes.
The location of any point can be defined by
its distance from the X and Y axes.
f is said to be a function of X. For every value
of f there is a definite value of X. A variable is
P 2, 3 or we might say x = 2 and y = 3. The said to be a function of another variable when
measurement x is called the abscissa of the for every possible value of the latter, or inde-
point and the distance y is called its ordinate. pendent variable, there is a definite value of
It is arbitrarily agreed that distances measured the first or dependent variable. For instance,
from 0 to the right along the X -axis shall be if y = 5x2, y is a function of x and x is called
reckoned positive and to the left negative. Dis- the independent variable. When a = 3b3 + 56'
tances measured along the Y -axis are positive -25b + 6 then a is a function of b.
when measured upwards from 0 and negative A function can be illustrated in our coordi-
when measured downwards from O. This is nate system as follows. Let us take the equa-
illustrated in Figure 30. The two axes divide tion for frequency versus wavelength as an
the plane area into four parts called quadrants. example. Given different values to the inde-
These four quadrants are numbered as shown pendent variable find the corresponding values
in the figure. of the dependent variable. Then plot the points
It follows from the foregoing statements, represented by the different sets of two values.
that points lying within the first quadrant have
both x and y positive, as is the case with the ftc.
point P. A point in the second quadrant has a 600 500
negative abscissa, x, and a positive ordinate, y. 800 375
This is illustrated by the point Q, which has 1000 300
till coordinates x = -4 and y = +1. Points 1200 250
in the third quadrant have both x and y nega- 1400 214
tive. x = -5 and y = -2 illustrates such a 1600 187
point, R. The point S, in the fourth quadrant 1800 167
has a negative ordinate, y and a positive ab- 2000 150
scissa or x.
In practical applications we might draw Plotting these points in Figure 31 and draw-
only as much of this plane as needed to illus- ing a smooth curve through them gives us the
trate our equation and therefore, the scales curve or graph of the equation. This curve
along the X -axis and Y -axis might not start will help us find values of f for other values
with zero and may show only that part of the of X (those in between the points calculated)
scale which interests us. and so a curve of an often -used equation may
serve better than a table which always has
Representation of In the equation: gaps.
Functions When using the coordinate system described
300,000 so far and when measuring linearly along both
f = axes, there are some definite rules regarding

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Representation of Functions 817

Figure 32.
Only two points are needed to define func-
tions which result in a straight line as shown
in this diagram representing Ohm's Law. Figure 33.
A TYPICAL GRID - VOLTAGE
PLATE -CURRENT CHARACTER-
ISTIC CURVE.
the kind of curve we get for any type of The equation represented by such o curve Is
equation. In fact, an expert can draw the curve so complicated that we do not use it. Data
for such a curve is obtained experimentally,
with but a very few plotted points since the and intermediate values can be found with
equation has told him what kind of curve to sufficient accuracy from the curve.
expect.
First, when the equation can be reduced to
the form y = mx + b, where x and y are the If the resistance were 4 ohms, we should get
variables, it is known as a linear or first degree the equation E = 4I and this also represents
function and the curve becomes a straight line. a line which we can plot in the same figure.
(Mathematicians still speak of a "curve" when As we see, this line also passes through the
it has become a straight line.) origin but has a different slope. In this illus-
When the equation is of the second degree, tration the slope defines the resistance and we
that is, when it contains terms like x' or y' could make a protractor which would convert
or ., y. the graph belongs to a group of curves, the angle into ohms. This fact may seem incon-
called conic sections. These include the circle, sequential now, but use of this is made in the
the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola. In drawing of loadlines on tube curves.
the example given above, our equation is of Figure 33 shows a typical, grid -voltage,
the form plate -current static characteristic of a triode.
xy = e, c being equal to 300,000 The equation represented by this curve is
rather complicated so that we prefer to deal
which is a second degree equation and in this with the curve. Note that this curve extends
case, the graph is a hyperbola. through the first and second quadrant.
This type of curve does not lend itself read- Families of curves. It has been explained
ily for the purpose of calculation except near that curves in a plane can be made to illustrate
the middle, because at the ends a very large the relation between tuo variables when one
change in a represents a small change in f and of them varies independently. However, what
vice versa. Before discussing what can be done are we going to do when there are three vari-
about this let us look at some other types of ables and two of them vary independently. It
curves. is possible to use three dimensions and three
Suppose we have a resistance of 2 ohms axes but this is not conveniently done. Instead
and we plot the function represented by Ohm's of this we may use a family of curves. We
Law: E = 21. Measuring E along the X -axis have already illustrated this partly with Ohm's
and amperes along the Y -axis, we plot the Law. If we wish to make a chart which will
necessary points. Since this is a first degree show the current through any resistance with
equation, of the form y = mx + b (for E _ any voltage applied across it, we must take the
y, m = 2 and I = x and b = 0) it will be a equation E = IR, having three variables.
straight line so we need only two points to We can now draw one line representing a
plot it. resistance of 1 ohm, another line representing
2 ohms, another representing 3 ohms, etc., or
I E
as many as we wish and the size of our paper
(line passes through origin) 0 0 will allow. The whole set of lines is then
5 10 applicable to any case of Ohm's Law falling
within the range of the chart. If any two of
The line is shown in Figure 32. It is seen to the three quantities are given, the third can be
be a straight line passing through the origin. found.

www.americanradiohistory.com
II
n
818 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO

I //44
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Figure 34. Figure 35.


A FAMILY OF CURVES. "PLATE" CURVES FOR A
An equation such as Ohm's Low has three TYPICAL VACUUM TUBE.
variables, but can be represented in Cartesian In such curves we have three variables, plate
coordinates by a family of curves such as voltage, plate current, and grid bias. Each
shown here. If any two quantities are given, point on a grid bias line corresponds to the
the third can be found. Any point in the plate voltage and plate current represented
chart represents a definite value each of E, by its position with respect to the X and Y
I, and R, which will satisfy the equation of axes. Those for other values of grid bias may
Ohm's Law. Values of R not situated on on R be found by interpolation. The loadline shown
line can be found by Interpolation. in the lower left portion of the chart is ex-
plained in the text.

Figure 34 shows such a family of curves to


solve Ohm's Law. Any point in the chart rep- set of curves is illustrated in Figure 35. Each
resents a definite value each of E, I, and R point in the plane is defined by three values,
which will satisfy the equation. The value of which belong together, plate voltage, plate
R represented by a point that is not situated current, and grid voltage.
on an R line can be found by interpolation. Now consider the diagram of a resistance -
It is even possible to draw on the same chart coupled amplifier in Figure 36. Starting with
a second family of curves, representing a the B- supply voltage, we know that whatever
fourth variable. But this is not always possible, plate current flows must pass through the
for among the four variables there should be resistor and will conform to Ohm's Law. The
no more than two independent variables. In voltage drop across the resistor is subtracted
our example such a set of lines could represent from the plate supply voltage and the remain-
power in watts; we have drawn only two of der is the actual voltage at the plate, the kind
these but there could of course he as many as that is plotted along the X -axis in Figure 35.
desired. A single point in the plane now indi- We can now plot on the plate family of the
cates the four values of E, 1, R. and P which
belong together and the knowledge of any
two of them will give us the other two by
reference to the chart.
Another example of a family of curves is
the dynamic transfer characteristic or plate
family of a tube. Such a chart consists of sev-
eral curves showing the relation between plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias of a tube.
Since we have again three variables, we must
Figure 36.
show several curves, each curve for a fixed
value of one of the variables. It is customary PARTIAL DIAGRAM OF A RESIS-
to plot plate voltage along the X -axis, plate TANCE COUPLED AMPLIFIER.
The portion of the supply voltage wasted
current along the Y-axis, and to make different across the 50,000 -ohm resistor is represented
curves for various values of arid bias. Such a in Figure 35 as the loadline.

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK
tube the loadline, that is the line showing
which part of the plate supply voltage is across
the resistor and which part across the tube for
any value of plate current. In our example, let
us suppose the plate resistor is 50,000 ohms.
Then, if the plate current were zero, the volt-
age drop across the resistor would be zero and
the full plate supply voltage is across the tube.
Our first point of the loadline is E = 250,
/ = 0. Next, suppose, the plate current were
1 ma., then the voltage drop across the resistor

would be 50 volts, which would leave for the


tube 200 volts. The second point of the load -
line is then E = 200, / = L We can continue
like this but it is unnecessary for we shall find
that it is a straight line and two points are
sufficient to determine it.
This loadline shows at a glance what hap-
pens when the grid -bias is changed. Although
there are many possible combinations of plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias, we are
now restricted to points along this line as long
as the 50,000 ohm plate resistor is in use. This
line therefore shows the voltage drop across
the tube as well as the voltage drop across the
load for every value of grid bias. Therefore, if
we know how much the grid bias varies, we
can calculate the amount of variation in the
plate voltage and plate current, the amplifi-
cation, the power output, and the distortion.

Logarithmic Scales Sometimes it is conven-


ient to measure along
the axes the logarithms of our variable quan-
tities. Instead of actually calculating the logar-
ithm, special paper is available with logarith-
mic scales, that is, the distances measured
along the axes are proportional to the logar-
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000
900
100
700

600

300

200
omm
1111.mm

8
-.4
.
Logarithmic Scales

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Figure 37.
A LOGARITHMIC CURVE.
$

Many functions become greatly simplified and


some become straight lines when plotted to
logarithmic scales such as shown in this
diagram. Here the frequency versus wavelength
curve of Figure 31 has been replotted to con-
form with logarithmic axes. Note that it is
only necessary to calculate two points in
order to determine the "curve" since this type
of function results in a straight line.
819

mimNIIIIIIII

8$

ithms of the numbers marked on them rather


than to the numbers themselves.
There is semi -logarithmic paper, having trast to the graph made with linear coordi-
nates.
logarithmic scales along one axis only, the This last fact is a great advantage of logar-
other scale being linear. We also have full ithmic scales in general. It should be clear that
logarithmic paper where both axes carry log- if we have a linear scale with 100 small divi-
arithmic scales. Many curves are greatly sim- sions numbered from 1 to 100, and if we are
plified and some become straight lines when
able to read to one tenth of a division, the
plotted on this paper.
possible error we can make near 100, way up
As an example let us take the wavelength - the scale, is only 1 /10th of a percent. But near
frequency relation, charted before on straight the beginning of the scale, near 1, one tenth of
cross- section paper. a division amounts to 10 percent of 1 and we
300,000 are making a 10 percent error.
X In any logarithmic scale, our possible error
in measurement or reading might be, say 1/32
Taking logarithms: of an inch which represents a fixed amount of
log f = log 300,000 - log X the log depending on the scale used. The net
result of adding to the logarithm a fixed quan-
If we plot log f along the Y-axis and log X tity, as 0.01, is that the anti -logarithm is mul-
along the X -axis, the curve becomes a straight tiplied by 1.025, or the error is 21/2%. No mat-
line. Figure 37 illustrates this graph on full ter at what part of the scale the 0.01 is added,
logarithmic paper. The graph may be read the error is always 21/2%.
with the same accuracy at any point in con- An example of the advantage due to the use
820 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
10,000

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

1000
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
100

0.1

0
15 10 5 0 S 10 15

KC. OFF RESONANCE

Figure 38.
A RECEIVER RESONANCE CURVE.
This curve represents the output of a re-
ceiver versus frequency when plotted to linear r
coordinates.

of semi -logarithmic paper is shown in Figures 4


38 and 39. A resonance curve, when plotted on 3
linear coordinate paper will look like the curve
in Figure 38. Here we have plotted the output 2

of a receiver against frequency while the ap-


plied voltage is kept constant. It is the kind of 1

curve a "wobbulator" will show. The curve -20 -10 0 -F10 +20
does not give enough information in this form
KC. OFF RESONANCE
for one might think that a signal 10 kc. off
resonance would not cause any current at all Figure 39.
and is tuned out. However, we frequently have A RECEIVER SELECTIVITY CURVE.
off resonance signals which are 1000 times as This curve represents the selectivity of a re-
strong as the desired signal and one cannot ceiver plotted to logarithmic coordinates for
the output, but linear coordinates for fre-
read on the graph of Figure 38 how much any quency. The reason that this curve appears
signal is attenuated if it is reduced more than inverted from that of Figure 38 is explained
about 20 times. in the text.
In comparison look at the curve of Figure
39. Here the response (the current) is plotted
in logarithmic proportion, which allows us to be used because now our unit is logarithmic.
plot clearly how far off resonance a signal has An example of full logarithmic paper being
to be to be reduced 100, 1,000, or even 10,000 used for families of curves is shown in the re-
times. actance charts of Figures 40 and 41.
Note that this curve is now "upside down ";
it is therefore called a selectivity curve. The Nomograms or An alignment chart con -
reason that it appears upside down is that the Alignment Charts sists of three or more sets
method of measurement is different. In a se- of scales which have been
lectivity curve we plot the increase in signal so laid out that to solve the formula for which
voltage necessary to cause a standard output the chart was made, we have but to lay a
off resonance. It is also possible to plot this in- straight edge along the two given values on
crease along the Y -axis in decibels; the curve any two of the scales, to find the third and
then looks the same although linear paper can unknown value on the third scale. In its sim-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK Polar Coordinates 823

RADIUS /
b VECTOR /
/ PNGtf;
JCOpP

e X
AXIS

Figure 43.
G o
THE LOCATION OF A POINT BY
Figure 42. POLAR COORDINATES.
In the polar coordinate system any point is
THE SIMPLEST FORM OF NOMOGRAM. determined by its distance from the origin
and the angle formed by a line drawn from
it to the origin and the O -X axis.
plest form, it is somewhat like the lines in Fig-
ure 42. If the lines a, b, and c are parallel and
equidistant, we know from ordinary geometry, by the angle A the vectorial angle. We give
that b = 1/2 (a + c). Therefore, if we draw a these data in the following form
scale of the same units on all three lines, start-
ing with zero at the bottom, we know that by P =3Lo
laying a straight -edge across the chart at any
place, it will connect values of a, b, and c. Polar coordinates are used in radio chiefly
which satisfy the above equation. When any for the plotting of directional properties of mi-
two quantities are known, the third can be crophones and antennas. A typical example of
found. such a directional characteristic is shown in
If, in the same configuration we used loga- Figure 44. The radiation of the antenna rep-
rithmic scales instead of linear scales, the rela- resented here is proportional to the distance of
tion of the quantities would become the characteristic from the origin for every
possible direction.
log b = 1/2 (log a + log c) or b =
By using different kinds of scales, different
units, and different spacings between the scales,
charts can be made to solve many kinds of
equations.
If there are more than three variables it is
generally necessary to make a double chart,
that is, to make the result from the first chart
serve as the given quantity of the second one.
Such an example is the chart for the design of
coils illustrated in Figure 45. This nomogram
is used to convert the inductance in microhen-
ries to physical dimensions of the coil and vice
versa. A pin and a straight edge are required.
The method is shown under "R. F. Tank Cir-
cuit Calculations.' later in this chapter.

Polar Coordinates Instead of the Cartesian


coordinate system there Figure 44.
is also another system for defining algebraical- THE RADIATION CURVE OF AN
ly the location of a point or line in a plane. In ANTENNA.
this, the polar coordinate system, a point is de- Polar coordinates are used principally in radio
termined by its distance from the origin, O, work for plotting the directional characteris-
and by the angle it makes with the axis 0 -X. tics of an antenna where the radiation is
represented by the distance of the curve from
In Figure 43 the point P is defined by the the origin for every possible direction.
length of OP. known as the radius vector and
824 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
Reactance Calculations it intersects the 100 -hy. line, the resonant fre-
In audio frequency calculations, an accuracy
quency being determined by projecting the in-
to better than a few per cent is seldom re-
tersection horizontally back on to the chart.
quired, and when dealing with calculations in- To determine the reactance, the logarithmic
volving inductance, capacitance, resonant fre- ohms scale must be extended.
quency, etc., it is much simpler to make use of
reactance-frequency charts such as those in R. F. Tank When winding coils for use in
figures 40 and 41 rather than to wrestle with a Circuit radio receivers and transmit -
combination of unwieldy formulas. From these Calculations ters, it is desirable to be able to
charts it is possible to determine the reactance of determine in advance the full
a condenser or coil if the capacitance or induc- coil specifications for a given frequency. Like-
tance is known, and vice versa. It follows from wise, it often is desired to determine how much
this that resonance calculations can be made capacity is required to resonate a given coil so
directly from the chart, because resonance that a suitable condenser can be used.
simply means that the inductive and capacitive Fortunately, extreme accuracy is not re-
reactances are equal. The capacity required to quired, except where fixed capacitors are used
resonate with a given inductance, or the induc- across the tank coil with no provision for trim-
tance required to resonate with a given capac- ming the tank to resonance. Thus, even though
ity, can be taken directly from the chart. it may be necessary to estimate the stray cir-
While the chart may look somewhat formid- cuit capacity present in shunt with the tank
able to one not familiar with charts of this capacity, and to take for granted the likelihood
type, its application is really quite simple, and of a small error when using a chart instead of
can be learned in a short while. The following the formula upon which the chart was based.
example should clarify its interpretation. the results will be sufficiently accurate in most
For instance, following the lines to their in- cases, and in any case give a reasonably close
tersection, we see that 0.1 hy. and 0.1 fd. in- point from which to start "pruning."
tersect at approximately 1,500 cycles and 1,000 The inductance required to resonate with a
ohms. Thus, the reactance of either the coil or certain capacitance is given in the chart in
condenser taken alone is about 1000 ohms, and figure 41. By means of the r.f. chart , the
the resonant frequency about 1,500 cycles. inductance of the coil can be determined,
To find the reactance of 0.1 hy. at, say, or the capacitance determined if the induc-
10,000 cycles, simply follow the inductance tance is known. When making calculations, be
line diagonally up towards the upper left till it sure to allow for stray circuit capacity, such as
intersects the horizontal 10,000 kc. line. Fol- tube interelectrode capacity, wiring, sockets,
lowing vertically downward from the point of etc. This will normally run from 5 to 25 micro -
intersection, we see that the reactance at this microfarads, depending upon the components
frequency is about 6000 ohms. and circuit.
To facilitate use of the chart and to avoid To convert the inductance in microhenries
errors, simply keep the following in mind: The to physical dimensions of the coil, or vice
vertical lines indicate reactance in ohms, the versa, the nomograph chart in figure 45 is
horizontal lines always indicate the frequency, used. A pin and a straightedge are required.
the diagonal lines sloping to the lower right The inductance of a coil is found as follows:
represent inductance, and the diagonal lines The straightedge is placed from the correct
sloping toward the lower left indicate capaci- point on the turns column to the correct point
tance. Also remember that the scale is loga- on the diameter-to- length ratio column, the
rithmic. For instance, the next horizontal line latter simply being the diameter divided by the
above 1000 cycles is 2000 cycles. Note that length. Place the pin at the point on the plot
there are 9, not 10, divisions between the heavy axis column where the straightedge crosses it.
lines. This also should be kept in mind when From this point lay the straightedge to the cor-
interpolating between lines when best possible rect point on the diameter column. The point
accuracy is desired; halfway between the line where the straightedge intersects the induc-
representing 200 cycles and the line represent- tance column will give the inductance of the
ing 300 cycles is not 250 cycles, but approxi- coil.
mately 230 cycles. The 250 cycle point is ap- From the chart, we see that a 30 turn coil
proximately 0.7 of the way between the 200 having a diameter -to- length ratio of 0.7 and a
cycle line and the 300 cycle line, rather than diameter of 1 inch has an inductance of ap-
halfway between. proximately 12 microhenries. Likewise any one
Use of the chart need not be limited by the of the four factors may be determined if the
physical boundaries of the chart. For instance, other three are known. For instance, to deter-
the 10 -fd. line can be extended to find where mine the number of turns when the desired in-

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK

Figure 45. COIL CALCULATOR NOMOGRAPH


For single layer solenoid coils, ony wire size. See text for instructions.

N OF PLOT INDUCTANCE IN DIAMETER


RATIO LENGTH
DIAMETER
TURNS AXIS MICROHENRIES INCHES
8 --i _5
- 400 6

- 20000 5

- 300
4 -4
--
-10000
8000
6000
3

- 200 .-
- 4000
3000
-3
-150
- 2000 2

-- 1000

- 800
600
-100
- -- 400

-
90
300

-
80
70
- 200
._ 2

- 80 -- 100

- 50
80
-60 .6

- 40
- 40
_--- 1.5

--
30
20- .6
- 30-
-t
-- 8
6
.5

- 20 -4
- 3

-15 - 2
.4

-
-8
1

-.8 .3 -.75
-- 10
--.4
-.3
-.2
-.1
.2
5
-- 0
-4
-3
826 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
ductance, the D/L ratio, and the diameter are given than the accuracy of the measurement
known, simply work backwards from the ex- permits. Thus, if the measurement is good to
ample given. In all cases, remember that the two places, we would write, for instance, 6.9
straightedge reads either turns and D/L ratio, which would mean that the true value is
or it reads inductance and diameter. It can somewhere between 6.85 and 6.95. If the meas-
read no other combination. urement is known to three significant figures,
The actual wire size has negligible effect we might write 6.90 which means that the true
upon the calculations for commonly used wire value is somewhere between 6.895 and 6.905.
sizes (no. 10 to no. 30). The number of turns In dealing with approximate quantities, the
of insulated wire that can be wound per inch added cipher at the right of the decimal point
(solid) will be found in a copper wire table. has a meaning.
There is unfortunately no standardized sys-
tem of writing approximate figures with many
Significant Figures ciphers to the left of the decimal point. 69000
does not necessarily mean that the quantity is
In most radio calculations, numbers repre- known to 5 significant figures. Some indicate
sent quantities which were obtained by meas- the accuracy by writing 69 x 10' or 690 x 10!
urement. Since no measurement gives absolute etc., but this system is not universally em-
accuracy, such quantities are only approximate ployed. The reader can use his own system, but
and their value is given only to a few signifi- whatever notation is used, the number of sig-
cant figures. In calculations, these limitations nificant figures should be kept in mind.
must be kept in mind and one should not fin- Working with approximate figures, one may
ish for instance with a result expressed in more obtain an idea of the influence of the doubtful
significant figures than the given quantities at figures by marking all of them, and products
the beginning. This would imply a greater ac- or sums derived from them. In the following
curacy than actually was obtained and is there- example, the doubtful figures have been under-
fore misleading, if not ridiculous. lined.
An example may make this clear. Many am- 603
meters and voltmeters do not give results to 34.6
closer than 1/4 ampere or 1/4 volt. Thus if we 0.120
have 21/4 amperes flowing in a d.c. circuit at
63/4 volts, we can obtain a theoretical answer 637.720 answer: 638
by multiplying 2.25 by 6.75 to get 15.1875
watts. But it is misleading to express the an- Multiplication:
swer down to a ten -thousandth of a watt when
the original measurements were only good to 654 654_
1/4 ampere or volt. The answer should be ex- 0.342 0.342_
pressed as 15 watts, not even 15.0 watts. If
1308 19612
we assume a possible error of 1/8 volt or am-
2616 26!16
pere (that is, that our original data are only
correct to the nearest 1/4 volt or ampere) the 1962 11308
true power lies between 14.078 (product of 223.668 answer: 224 224
21/8 and 65/8) and 16.328 (product of 23/8 and
67/8). Therefore, any third significant figure It is recommended that the system at the
would be misleading as implying an accuracy right be used and that the figures to the right
which we do not have. of the vertical line be omitted or guessed so as
Conversely, there is also no point to calcu- to save labor. Here the partial products are
lating the value of a part down to 5 or 6 sig- written in the reverse order, the most impor-
nificant figures when the actual part to be used tant ones first.
cannot be measured to better than 1 part in In division, labor can be saved when after
one hundred. For instance, if we are going to each digit of the quotient is obtained, one fig-
use 1 resistors in some circuit, such as an ure of the divisor be dropped. Example:
ohmmeter, there is no need to calculate the
value of such a resistor to 5 places, such as 1.28
1262.5 ohm. Obviously, 1% of this quantity
is over 12 ohms and the value should simply
527 673
527
be written as 1260 ohms. $3 146
There is a definite technique in handling 106
these approximate figures. When giving values 5 713
obtained by measurement, no more figures are 40

www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 827

Appendix
STANDARD COLOR CODE- RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
AXIAL LEAD RESISTOR

-
INSULATED FIRST RING SECONDRING THIRD RING DISC CERAMIC RMA CODE
UNINSULATED BODY COLOR END COLOR DOT COLOR
BROWN- INSULATED COLOR FIRST FIGURE SECOND FIGURE MULTIPLIER 5 -DOT 3 -DOT
BLACK -NON-INSULATED BLACK
BROWN
0
1
0
I
NONE
0
- CAPACITY
RED 2 2 00 MULTIPLIER
ORANGE 3 3 ,000 TOLERANCE
YELLOW 4 4 0.000
TOLERANCE
GREEN 5 S 00.000 TEMPERATURE
-MULTIPLIER BLUE B B 000.000 COEFFICIENT
tST 2ND SIGNIFICANT FIGS VIOLET 7 7 0,000,000
GRAY B B 00,000,000
WIRE-WOUND RESISTORS NAVE IST
DIGIT BAND DOUBLE WIDTH. WHITE 9 9 000,000,000

RADIAL LEAD DOT RESISTOR S- ROTRADIAL LEAD CERAMICCAPACITOR EXTENDED RANGE TC CERAMIC HICAP

rMULTIPLIER CAPACITY

TOLERANCE
ggqt(((0777t
Ir,ITI E'77'TT''CCAPACITY

lI 0
FIGURE CT 011144X1 COEFF LIIE1111Ib1
- 1ST FIGURE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER
TC MULTIPLIER

RADIAL LEAD (BAND) RESISTOR BY -PASS COUPUNG CERAMIC CAPACITOR AXIAL LEAD CERAMIC CAPACITOR

MULTIPLIER CAPACITY TEMP. COEFF. CAPACITY

AM
TOLERANCE IST FIGURE
FIGURE
I

DII[.IlInG
I

TOLERANCE
V(OPT
E
Ill
MULTIPLIE
i I

TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER

MOLDED MICA TYPE CAPACITORS


CURRENT STANDARD CODE RMA 3 -DOT (OBSOLETE) BUTTON SILVER MICA CAPACITOR

WHITE (RMA)
2N0} SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
JAN B
2019 TOL.
RATED 300 V.O.C.
CLASS -
TOLERANCE 1STDIGIT
-
BLACK(JAN) MULTIPLIER 1940 RNA MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER III DIGIT
CODE
CLASS TOLERANCE SIGNIFICANT FIG. 3RD DIGIT
123T

RMA 5 -DOT CODE (OBSOLETE RMA 6 -DOT (OBSOLETE) RMA 4 -DOT (OBSOLETE)
Ilje. IST
IPLI ER Ir 3RDJ SIG. FIGURE
- LULTIPLIER 3R0 WORK. VOLTAGE
_[ -2 ROUT
I
4
T ZND SIG. FIG.
WORK. VOLT. MULTIPLIER

Mi
MULTIPLIER
MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE 2ND
REAR TOLERANCE SIG. FIGURE
TOLERANCE
WORN.
VOLT. BLANK
WORKING VOLTAGE 1ST }
MOLDED PAPER TYPE CAPACITORS
TUBULAR CAPACITOR MOLDED FLAT CAPACITOR JAN CODE CAPACITOR
NORMALLY STAMPED COMMERCIAL CODE
FOR VALUE IST}
2ND
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
WORKING VOLTS
SILVER 1ST
2ND
if SIGNIFICANT FIG.
MULTIPLIER BLACK

TOLERANCE
Flail
I %I?IIIII,
IsI
2NTD} SIG. VOLTAGE FIG.
BODY
-MULTIPLIER / MULTIPLIER
/
1S 2NOl SIGNIFICANT TOLERANCE
A 2 -DIGIT VOLTAGE RATING INDICATES MORE THAN --IST J FIGURE CHARACTERISTIC
900 V. ADD 2 ZEROS TO END OF 2 DIGIT NUMBER.

STANDARD COLOR CODE FOR RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS


The standard code provides the necessary information required to properly identify color
coded resistors and capacitors. Refer to the color code for numerical values and the number
of zeros (or multiplier) assigned to the colors used. A fourth color band on resistors deter-
mines the tolerance rating as follows: Gold = 5 %, silver = 10%. Absence of the fourth band
indicates a 20% tolerance rating.
Tolerance rating of capacitors is determined by the color code. For example: Red = 2%,
green = 5 %, etc. The voltage rating of capacitors is obtained by multiplying the color value
by 100. For example: Orange = 3 X 700, or 300 volts.
828 THE RADIO

J}r
(,.) : EL
: T , ____ ----- L__ 1
LO+.ss T SEC 1io 1.04-73 n 5(07 02 3.4..-55 T 3E01,674 . ,. r.ss 17 sEC ou

FREQUENCY SCALE VALUES


LOW -PASS MIGM -PASS L C LOAD AESiSTANCE
1000 .0000
1.00 9000

1200
5 .5 -- 4-- 8000
.300 --

e
6

9
--.-
6

.1
e

'9
,
1400
1500
_
100 Y- _ 6000
70.00

i
-
10 1.0
leoo
- W .900 U
+
<
+
,71 2000 =.1=-' 5000

r
U
5 5 N
22.
V
20 2.0 2 2500 000

'
<
V -1-
>
30 3.0
a
2
3000 -+
Cr
t 3000
0 .0 W

W
50 5.0 V 000 ---r-
60 6.0
'
70 7.0 W
90 6.0 5000 2000
'
90 9.0

_'
00 10.0
3

}}
W 6000

1500
150 -6-75.0 1000
O
-22
1
200 20.0
8000

9000
J
300 30.0
10000 1000
L C

FILTER DESIGN CHART


For both Pi -type and T -type Sections
To find 1, connect cutoff frequency on left -hand scale (using left -side scale for low -pass and
right -side scale for high -pass) with load on left -hand side of right -hand scale by means of a
straight -edge. Then read the value of L from the point where the edge intersects the left
side of the center scale. Readings are in henries for frequencies in hertz.
To find C, connect cutoff frequency on left -hand scale (using left -side scale for low -pass and
right -side scale for high -pass) with the load on the right -hand side of the right -hand scale.
Then read the value of C from the point where the straightedge cuts the right side of the
center scale. Readings are in microfarads for frequencies in hertz.
For frequencies in kHz, C is expressed in thousands of aicofarads, L is expressed in milli -
henrys. For frequencies in megacycles, L isexpressed in microhenrys and C is expresssed in
picofarads.
For each tenfold increase in the value of load resistance multiply L by 10 and divide C by 10.
For each tenfold decrease in frequency multiply L by 10 and multiply C by 10.

www.americanradiohistory.com
829
HANDBOOK
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www.americanradiohistory.com
HANDBOOK 831

CONVERSION TABLE - UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

MICRO = (A) ONE- MILLIONTH KILO = (K) ONE THOUSAND

MILLI = (m) ONE- THOUSANDTH MEGA = (M) ONE MILLION

TO CHANGE
TO OPERATOR
FROM

UNITS MICRO-UNITS X 1,000,000 or X 106


MILLI -UNITS X 1,000 or X 103
KILO -UNITS 1,000 or X 10 -3
MEGA -UNITS 1,000,000 or X 10 -6

MICRO -UNITS MILLI -UNITS - 1,000 or X 10 -3


UNITS 1,000,000 or X 10 -6

MILLI -UNITS MICRO-UNITS X 1,000 or X 103


UNITS = 1,000 or X 10 -3

KILO -UNITS MEGA -UNITS - 1,000 or X 10 -3


UNITS X 1,000 or X 103

MEGA -UNITS KILO -UNITS X 1,000 or X 103


UNITS X 1,000,000 or X 108

COMPONENT COLOR CODING


POWER TRANSFORMERS
PRIMARY LEADS SLACK
IF TAPPED!
COMMON BLACK
TAP BLACK /YELLOW
END SLACK /RED

HIGH VOLTAGE WINDING RED


CENTER -TAP REO / YELLOW

RECTIFIER FILAMENT WINDING- YELLOW


CENTER -TAP YELLOW /BLUE

FILAMENT WINDING N / CREEN


CENTER -TAP GREEN /YELLOW

FILAMENT WINDING N 2 BROWN


CENTER -TAP BROWN /YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N 3 SLATE
CENTER -TAP SLATE /YELLOW

I -F TRANSFORMERS
PLATE LEAD BLUE
E l- LEAD RED
GRID (OR DIODE ) LEAD GREEN
A -VC (OR GROUND) LEAD BLACK

AUDIO TRANSFORMERS
PLATE LEAD (PR /. ) BLUE OR BROWN
B t LEAD (PR/.) RED
GRID LEAD (SEC.) GREEN OR YELLOW
GRID RETURN (SEC.) BLACK
Index

A A -m and f -m waves, 309 for six meters, kilowatt linear,


A -m and speech equipment, 698 -706 66$ -671
A -c adjustment, 673 -671
Amateur bands, 13 -11 a -m linear operation,
bridge circuits, 716 harmonics, 377
671
circuits, 46 circuit, 668 -669
Amateur licenses, 12, 13
line taps, 318 construction, 670 -671
Amateur Radio, 11
loading of second detector, 214 metering and suppression circuits, 670
Ampere, definition, 21
transient circuits, 69 plate- circuit assembly, 671 -673
Ampere turns, 73
voltage dividers, 61 -62 pentode
Amplification factor, 81 -84 power, operating characteristics of,
v.t.v.m., 748 symbol for, 120
Accelerating anode, 91, 97 131 -137
Amplification formula, current, 106 RC- coupled, equivalent circuits,
Accelerating potential, oscilloscope, 173 Amplifier 126
Acceptors, 101 RC- coupled, gain equations for, 126
audio, two -stage transistor, 112, 211 -216
Accessories, 226 -228 r -f, 201
cascaded voltage, 127
product detector, 227 -228 single -ended, 131 -137
cascode, 202
Q- multiplier, 226 -227 linear, utility 2- kilowatt, 682 -692
cathode -driven, 123, 662 -667 circuit, 682 -681
A-c circuits, 37-38 choice of tubes, 666
A -c /d-c receivers, 387 construction; 681 -688
construction, 664 -661 external anode tetrodes, 688.690
Admittance, 61
distortion products, 663 -664 feedthrough power, 662 -663
A -f amplifier, clan -B
feedthrough power, 662 -663 neutralization, 666 -667
load line, 141
neutralization, 666 -667 tube combinations, 690 -691
A -frame mast, 461
tuning, 661 -666 tuning, 661 -666
AFSK, 321 cathode -follower, use of, 144 -141
oscillator, tuning and adjustments, 691 -692
329 circuit grid- driven, 122
Air -filled coaxial lines, impedance, 432 audio, class -B, 113 grounded- cathode, 119
Air gap, tuning capacitor, 218 video, 127
Alc, 310 -313 grounded grid, 123, 210, 662 -667
class-A, 122
amplifier, 311 bias supplies for, 166
class -AB,, 122
Algebra, 791 -798 choice of tubes, 666
class AB, linear, operating parameters,
Alignment construction, 664 -661
163 -161
front -end, 226 distortion products, 663 -664
class-AN, 122 linear, 161 -168
i -f, 221
class-B, 122, 242 -243 i -f, superheterodyne receiver, 198
superheterodyne, 221 class -B linear, operating parameters,
trf receiver, 221 linear, class -B, 116-117
117 -118
Alignment, receiver i -f phase, gain, and phase shift in, 141 -146
class-C, 122, 240 -243
with oscilloscope, 179 -182 plate efficiency, calculating, 111 -116
operating characteristics, 112 plate- return, 122 -123
Alpha cutoff frequency, 107 clipper, speech, 142
Alpha formula, 106 power
complementary -symmetry, 112 cathode -follower, 143 -141
Alternating current, 46 coupling, i -f, 207
effective value, 10 class -AB, r -f, 163 -161
d -c, 132 -133
generation, 47 class -B audio -frequency, 138 -143
design, power, 652-614 class -B radio-frequency, 116 -119
instantaneous value, 49 -10
circuits, 613 -614 high -frequency, 612 -697
measurement, 747 tubes, 612 -613
rectified, 10 -11 push -pull class -A triode, 138
distortion in, 123 -121 radio-frequency, 110 -168
Alternative limiter circuit, 219 -220 feedback, relationship, 141 -146 push -pull audio, 137 -138
Alternators, 47, 48 100 -watt, 671 -682
Lerce Neville, 136 push -pull tetrode, 636 -619
circuit, 676 -677 push -pull triode, 614 -616
A-m construction, 677 -680 circuit layout, 611
side frequencies, 309
design, 676 construction, 611 -616
signal, conventional, 332 tuning and operation, 680 -682 excitation requirements, 611

832
filament supply, 614 all -band center -loaded, 139 directive, 476
grid bias, 614 auxiliary trimmer, 137 -138 Franklin, 481
grid circuit, 654 -605 10- meter, 538 -139 Franklin collinear, 439
plate fad, 654 multiband, 447-455 parasitic, feed systems for, 516 -523
radio -frequency vacuum -tube, 147 -168 center -fed, 449 -450 delta match and T-match, 520 -521
RC, general characteristics, 127 end -fed Hertz, 448 driven element with center feed, 521
r -f folded fiat -top, 450 -451 folded -element match calculations,
grid -circuit considerations, 158 -159 low- frequency discone, 452 519 -520
grounded -grid, 119 -161 molter, 451 gamma match, 521 -522
plate- circuit considerations, 149 -110 single -wire -fed, 452 -453 matching stub, 522-523
plate -circuit coupling, 149 -150 3/4 -wave folded doublet, 447 -448 rotary -link coupling, 521
power, cathode -follower, 161 -162 two -band Marconi, 448 -449 stacked -dipole, 481 -483
power, class -C, 150 -156 vertical, 453 -455 collinear, 482 -483
power, plate- return, 161 -162 multielement vhf beam, 105 -111 double extended Zepp, 483
screen- circuit considerations, 119 eight -element tiltable array, 106-508 in -phase spacing, 481
tuned cathode circuit, 166 -168 long yagi, 111 out-of-phase spacing, 481 -482
resistance, 103 screen beam for 2 meters, 509 -111 spaced half -wave, 483
resistance- capacitance coupled, 124 -127 three-element beam, 505 -506 stacked yagi, 517
response, RC, 127 physical length, 412 -413 three-element, rotary -beam, 514-516
sweep, oscilloscope, 173 polarization, 412 element spacing, fly
tank circuit, Q of, 155 vhf and uhf, 495 -496 length of parasitic element, 515 -516
tetrode, linearity curve of, 164 radiation from, 410 -411 materials for elements, $18
tetrode pi- network, 659 -662 requirements, vhf and uhf, 493 -496 more than three elements, 516
grounded -screen, 661 -662 changeover, 494 stacking of yagi arrays, 516
inductively tuned tank circuit, 662 insulation, 495 tuning, 528.530
transistor i -f, 114 polarization, 495 -496 matching to the antenna
Tribander linear, 692 -697 radiation angle, 494 -495 transmission line, 528 -529
circuit, 692 -696 radiator cross section, 49f raising and lowering, 530
transmitter adjustment and transmission lines, 494 unidirectional driven, 523 -525
tuning, 697 resonance, 414 -415 feed methods, 523 -525
transmitter control circuits and space -conserving, 444 -446 stacked broadside arrays, 523 -525
power supply, 696 -697 broad -band dipole system, 446 unidirectional parasitic end -fire, 512 -514
- riode power, operation twin -lead Marconi, 446 Assymetrical speech, 699 -700
characteristics of, 133 -135 supports, 461 -464 Atom, 23, 24
triode, single -ended, 133 -131 A -frame mast, 461 Atomic structure of germanium and
types of, 122 -123 guy wires, 462 silicon, 100 -101
vacuum -tube, 120 -146 insulation, 463 -464 Audio
vertical, oscilloscope, 170 -171 painting, 463 circuitry, transistor, III -114
video-frequency, 127 -128 trees as supports, 463 detector, and control circuits, 213 -216
voltage, PNP transistor, 111 TV masts, 461 -462 a-c loading of second detector, 254

Amplitude wire, 463 audio amplifiers, 215 -216


average, 278 system automatic volume control, 214
distortion, 124 -125 center -fed tuner for, 471 -473 avc in bfo -equipped receivers, 214
modulation, 277 -307 coupling to, 464 -467 detectors, 213 -214
systems, 280 -289 loading problem, 464 signal- strength indicators, 214 -215
Angle of radiation output coupling adjustment, 461 -466 noise limiter, 218
optimum, 419 pi-network, 446 peak limiting, 18s -187
typical antenna, 419 -420 variable link, 466 phase -shift network, Donar, 344, 340
vhf and uhf antennas, 494 trimmer, auxiliary, 137-538 -shift network, passive, 345
phase
Angle, phase, 12, 53 tuner, single -wire, 469 -471 power transistor circuit, class -A, 113
Anode, 75, 77 bridge calibration, 470 RTTY con , 328
Anode, accel Ong, 95 tuner adjustments, 471 Audio amplifier, 215 -216
Antennas, 436 -473 tuner construction, 470 circuit, class -B, 113
and transmission line measurements, V, 477 -479 push -pull, 137 -138
759 -768 vhf and uhf, 493 -S11 two -stage transistor, 112
center-fed half -wave horizontal, 437 -441 helical beam, 500-102 Audio and SSB spectrums,
center -fed Zepp, 437 horizontally polarized, 496 -497 relationship, 333
couplers, 467 -469 horizontal rhombic, 503 -105 Audio frequency
delta -matched and standard doublets, vertical- polarized, 497 -498 amplifiers, resistance- capacitance
440 double -skeleton cone, 498 coupled, 125 -127
diamond, 479 -481 nondirectional, 498 converter, 327 -328
directivity, 418 -421 whip, 539 phasing, 344 -345
discone, vhf and uhf, 498 -500 Zepp, 437 power amplifiers, class -B, 138 -143
doublet with qu -wave transformer, Antennascope, 529, 761 -768 Audio frequency -shift keying, 325, 330
439 Antioverload modification of two -meter Audio -stage rectification, 388
center -fed, 440 -441 converter, 571 -572 Aurora -type DX, 424
multiwire, 439 -440 Application of tube characteristics, 84 -88 Autodyne converter circuit, Ill
tuned, 437 -439 Aquadag, 96, 99 Autodyne detector, 195
efficiency, 417 Arithmetic, 784 -791 Automatic bias, 263
80- meter, 442 Arrays Automatic load control (alc), 350 -353
end -fed half-wave horizontal, 436 -437 bidirectional rotatable, 123 Automatic volume control, 214
end -fed Hertz, 436 -437 broadside, 483 -488 circuit, Ill
Frrbs, 436 -437 bi- square, 486 -487 Autotransformer, 73, 74
general characteristics, 411 -415 bobtail bidirectional, 487 -488 variable- ratio, 397 -398
grounding, 443 cubical quad, 487 Auxiliary antenna trimmer, 537-538
ground- plane, 441-442 double -Bruce, 483 -486 Avalanche voltage, 102
half -wave vertical, 441 six -shooter, 487 Avc circuit, 115
high- frequency directive, 474 -492 stacked- dipole, 483 -484 Ave in bfo -equipped receivers, 214
horn -type and corner -reflector, 502 -103 X- array, 484
lazy -H, 484 collinear, 482 -483 s
Marconi, 416 -418, 442 -444 combination end -fire and broadside,
mobile, 537 -139 491 -492 Balanced capacitive coupling, 260

833
Balanced -line bridge, 765 Bridge- rectifier supplies, IVS, 731 -733 keying, 403 -404
Balanced modulator, 336 -347 Bridge -T oscillator, 192 modulation, 293-294
circuits, 343, 347 Bridge -type standing -wave indicators, installation, 291
diode, 336 760 -762 tetrodes, 294
for mechanical filter, 343 Bridge -type v.t.v.m., 710 types, 78
Balun, broadband 30 -ohm, 431 Broadband dipole system, 446 Cathode- coupled phase inverter, 131.132
Bandpass characteristic of low -frequency Broadband 10 -ohm balun, 431 Cathode- driven amplifier, 121, 662 -667
SSB filter, 339 Broadcast interference, 374 -391 choice of tubes, 666
Bandspread circuits, 201 Broadside and end -fire arrays, construction, 664 -661
Bandwidth, 423 combination, 491 -492 distortion products, 663 -664
modulation, 278 Broadside arrays, 483 -488 feedthrough power, 662 -663
SSB, 333 bi- square, 486 -487 neutralization, 666-667
Base -collector waveform, 113 bobtail bidirectional, 487 -488 tuning, 661 -666
Base electrode, 101 cubical quad, 487 Cathode -driven high - triodes, 166
Basic filters, 75 double- Bruce, 481 -486 Cathode follower, 122 -123
Bas -attenuation chart, 304 six -shooter, 487 amplifiers, use of, 144 -141
Bass suppression, 304 stacked, 323 -521 circuits, 269
Battery bias, 262-263 stacked dipoles, 483 -484 in r -f stages, 141
BCI, 374-391 X- array, 484 modulator, 285.287
Beam antennas, vhf multielement, 501 -311 "Building -out" modulation transformers, power amplifiers, 143 -141
eight -element tiltable array, 106 -108 302, 303 r -f power amplifier, 161 -162
long Yagi, 111 Butterfly circuit, uhf, 222 -223 Cathode -modulated stage, excitation, 294
screen beam for 2 meters, 109 -111 Button -mica capacitors, 361 Cathode -ray oscilloscope, 169 -184
three-element beam, 101.106 Bypass capacitors, 360 -361 Cathode -ray tube, 94 -97
Beam -deflection tube, 317 operation, 94 -97
Beam -power tube, 87 -90 Cavities, resonant, uhf, 221 -222
Beam tetrodes C Center -fed antenna systems, tuner for,
neutralizing, 248 471 -473
parasitic', 370-372 Capacitance Center -fed feed -point impedance, 416 -417
plate modulation, 293 calculations, 36, 37 Center -fed half -wave horizontal
Beams, rotary, 112 -132 grid -cathode symbol for, 120 antennas, 417 -441
Beat -frequency oscillators, 212 -213 grid plate, symbol for, 120 delta- matched and standard doublets, 440
Beat oscillator and product detector, 228 input, 271 doublets with quarter -wave
Beta, d -c, 107 input, formula, 121 transformers, 439
Beta cutoff frequency, 107 input, symbol for, 120 multiwire doublets, 439 -440
Beta formula, 106 interelectrode, 86, 121 off -center -fed doublet, 440 -441
BFO adjustment, 226 neutralization of, 121 -122 tuned doublet, 437 -439
B -H curve, 41 output, symbol for, 120 Center -fed multiband antenna, 449 -410
Bias plate- cathode, symbol for, 120 Center -fed Zepp antenna, 437
automatic, 263 static interelectrode, 121 Center -loaded, all -band, mobile antenna,
battery, 262 -263 stray, 206 539
cathode, 123, 263 stray circuit, 206 Center -tap keying, 402
cutoff, 81, 120 tank- circuit, 253 Ceramic- dielectric capacitor, 161
fixed, 123 unit of, 34, 31 Changeover, antenna, vhf and uhf, 494
forward, 102 Capacitance charts for tank Q, 255, 256 Characteristic curve
grid, 123 Capacitance meter, transistorized, 737 -758 emitter, 109
grid -leak, 123 Capacitance variation, unction, 102 In vs. Ep, 88
grid -leak for high -ji triodes, 127 Capacitive boost coupling, 386 triode, 83 -84
reverse, 102 Capacitive coupling, 265 -266 Characteristic impedance, two -wire lines,
safety, 262 -263 Capacitive reactance, 12 430
self, 262 Capacitors, 33 -39, 360 -362 Charge transport, 106
Bias configuration for transistor, 111 button -mica, 361 Chassis material, 367
Bias feed, parallel and series, 267 bypass, 360-361 Checking for parasitic oscillations, 372-373
Biasing methods, 123 ceramic -dielectric, 361 Chokes, r -f, 267 -268, 364
Bias -shift Heising modulator, 301 -307 coaxial, 361 Circuit
Bias -shift modulator, operating doorknob, 361 a -c, 46
characteristics, 101 electrolytic, 38, 39 a -c bridge, 716
Bias supply filter, 733 -735 autodyne converter, 115
for grounded -grid amplifiers, 166 in -c and d -c circuits, 37, 38
a automatic- volume-control, 111
separate, 261 in series, a -c, 38 balanced -modulator, 347
shunt -regulated, 718 in series, voltage rating, 38 handspread, 203
Bias systems, types of, 122 mica -dielectric, 360 -361 butterfly, uhf, 222 -223
Bidirectional rotatable arrays, 121 series inductance, 360 cathode -follower, 269
Bishop noise limiter, 217 -218 series resistance, 360 clamping, 188
Bi- square broadside array, 486 -487 shunt resistance, 360 counting, 190.191
Bistable multi vibrator, Fccles- Jordan, 118 stored energy, 35 differential keying, 406 -408
Blanketing, 384 variable air, 361 -362 equivalent, transistor, 109
Blanking circuit, oscilloscope, 171 -172 variable vacuum, 362 i -f tuned, 206 -211

Bleeder resistors, 731 Carrier elimination, 332 beat -frequency oscillators, 212 -213
Bleeders, safety, 401 -402 circuits, 336 -338 crystal filters, 209, 211
Blocked -grid keying system, 404 Carrier, reinserted, 335 mechanical filter, 211 -212
Blocking, 376 Carrier tube, 294 Miller effect, 208
Blocking oscillator, 190 Carrier -wave distortion, 309 practical filters, 209
transistor, 118 Carrier -wave pattern, 180 rejection notch, 210 -211
Body static, 143 Cascaded voltage -amplifier, 127 shape factor, 207 -208
Bombardment cathode, 79, 81 Cascode amplifier, 202 transformers, 206 -207
Breakdown ratings of plate spacings, 257 Cathode, 75, 77 variable-selectivity filters, 209 -210
Bridge bias, 123, 263 limiting, 183 -188
balanced -line, 765 bombardment, 79, 81 audio peak, 183 -187
measurements, 751 -757 coupling, 129 -130 diode limiters, 185
SWR, 472 current, 88, 90 grid limiters, 187 -188
Bridge rectifier, 714 heater, 78, 80 -81 Loftin- White, 133

834
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low -frequency equivalent transistor, 109 Clipper circuits, 301 -302 stages. 162
magnetic, 40 Cli pper-filter, 298 Controlled -warmup tube, 99 -102
multivoltmeter, 741 action, 299 Controlling transmitter pcwer output, 395-
one -way RTTY, 326 Clipper, gate, series -diode, 187 )97
parallel- resonant, 61 Clipper speech amplifier, 142 Controls, trans- receiver, 143.547
parallel RLC, 60 -62 Clipping, speech, effects of, 140 Conductance, conversion, 70, 92
peak -voltage measurement, 749 Clipping, speech, low -level, 700 Conductors, 24
phase- modulation, 317 Closed -loop feedback system, 193 Conversion conductance, 92
push- button transmitter control, 399 Classifications, transistor, 107 -108 Converter
push -pull, 137 Coaxial capacitors, 361 "antioverload," for 50 MHz, 363 -567
regenerative detector, 193 Coaxial circuits, coupling into, 221 adjustment, 566 -547
resonant, 62 -68 Coaxial line, 432 -413 circuit description, 164
r -f feedback, 270 -276 Code, International Morse, 15 -22 construction, 564 -366
series -resonant, 62 Code practice set, 20, 22 audio -frequency, 327 -328
series RLC, 56 -60 Code, teleprinter, 325 -326 audio RTTY, 321
SSA generation by phasing, 343 Coefficients of tetrodes and pentodes, circuit, autodyne, Ill
tank, 61 -6g 89, 91 412 -MHz low -noise, 394 -604
transistor oscillator, 117 Coercive force, 41 i -f amplifier

tuned, signal- frequency, 203.206 Coil adjustment, 603


bandspread tuning, 201 focus, 96 circuit, 602 -603
frequency range selection, 205 deflection, 96 construction, 603
impedance, and Q, 204 neutralization, 246 -247 mixer
input resistance, 204 placement, 361 adjusting, 599
stray circuit capacitance, 206 Coil and crystal tables for vhf exciters, circuit, 398
superheterodyne tracking, 204 -203 622 construction, 591 -599
vacuum -tube, special, 183 -193 Coil calculator nomograph, 825 oscillator /multiplier
varactor doubling and tripling, 103 Coil material, m niductor, 160 adjustment, 601 -602
voltohmmeter, 741 Coils, filter choke, 735 circuit, 599 -601
vox, 408 -409 Collector, 91 construction, 601
wavetrap, 383 Collector current formula, 113 r -f amplifier
Wheatstone Bridge, 735 Collector electrode, 105 adjusting, 397
Circuit constants, measurement, 754 -715 Collector -to-collector impedance of circuit, 594.196
Circuit Q, 64 -66 output transformer, 113 construction, 596 -597
parallel resonant, 65 -61 Collinear array, Franklin, 419 i -f RTTY, 327
Circuitry Collinear arrays, 482 -483 mobile, transistorized, 533 -131
r -f, 114 Collin, mechanical filters, 211 nuvistor, 560 -563
transistor, 110 -118 Collins transmission -line matching adjustments, 362 -563
trans -receiver, 143 system, 460 -465 circuit description, 360 -561
Circuits for screen -grid modulation, Color codes and markings, diodes, 101 construction, 361 -162
285, 286 Colpiti, oscillator, 211 nuvistor two- meter, 567 -572
Clamping circuits, positive and Combination end -fire and broadside adjustments, 570 -571
negative, 587 -188 arrays, 491 -492 antioverload modification, 171 -572
Clamp tube screen supply, 264 Commercial SSB applications, 331 -332 circuit description, 567 -568
Clapp oscillator, 232 Comparison of point -contact transistor construction, 368.369
Class -A and vacuum -tube pentagrid, 90
amplifier, 122 characteristics, 108 Converter tube, 89
audio power transistor circut, II) Compensated video amplifier circuit, 127 pentode, 92
Class -AB, Complementary- symmetry amplifiers, 112 Controlled -warmup tubes, 102
amplifier. 122 Components for pi- coupled final Conversion conductance, 90, 92
linear amplifier, operating parameters, amplifiers, 259 Conversion transconduc:ance, symbol for,
163 -161 Components, power -supply, 733 -736 120
radio-frequency power amplifiers, 163 -161 bleeder resistors, 735 Corner-reflector and hurts -type antennas,
Class -AB, amplifier, 122 filter capacitors, 733 -733 502 -503
Class -B filter choke coils, 731 Coulomb, definition, 25
a-f amplifier load line, 141 Composition resistors, 318 Counterpoise, 443
amplifier, 122, 242 -241 Conductance, 61 Coupled tuned circuits, 349
audio- amplifier circuit, 113 conversion, 90 -92 Couplers, antenna, 467.469
audio -frequency power amplifiers, 138 -143 mutual, 82 -83 Coupling
linear amplifier, 156 -117, 242 -241, Conduction, electrolytic, 75 balanced capacitive, 265
281 -282 electronic, 75 capacitive, 265 -266
adjustment, 282 mechanism of, 101 -102 cathode, 129 -130
operating parameters, 157 -l53 Conductors and insulators, 24 -26 direct, 130
modulator, general- purpose triode, Constant -current curves for 250 -TH, 113 i -f amplifier, 207
702 -704 Constant, dielectric, 36 impedance, 128
modulators, practical aspects of, 142 Constant -k sections, 75, 76 impedance -transformer, 128
plate modulation, 290 -293 Constant-voltage plateau, 104 inductive, 266
radio -frequency power amplifiers, Constants, vacuum -tube, 121 interstage, 261 -267
136 -139 Construction material, 776 -777 link, 266 -267
Class -B linear efficiency, 243 Construction practices, 779 -782 push -pull interstage transformer, 128
Class -C Contactors, 394 resistance -transformer, 128
efficiency, 213 Control circuits, mobile equipment, 140- transformer, 128
grid modulation, 282 -284 541 unity, 266
plate -voltage swing, 214 Control, depletion, 119 Coupling into lines and coaxial circuits,
r -f power amplifiers, 150 -156 Control, detector, and audio circuits, 21)- uhf, 221
Class -C amplifier, 122, 243-244 216 Coupling to antenna system, 464 -467
grid -excitation, 243, 244 a-c loading of second detector, 214 loading problem, 464
grid -modulated, 243, 244 audio amplifiers, 211 -216 output coupling adjustment, 463 -466
operating characteristics, 112 automatic volume control, 214 pi- network, 446
operation, 254 avc in 6(o-equipped receivers, 214 variable link, 466
plate -modulated, 243 detectors, 213 -214 Counting circuits, 190 -191
Click filter, 402 signal- strength indicators, 214-215 Cross modulation, 386
Clipper -amplifier, IS -watt, 704 -706 Control -grid dissipation in grounded -grid CRT

835
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construction, 97 let, 440 control -grid, in grounded-grid stages,
electromagnetic, 96 -97 Depletion control, 119 162
operation, 97 Design and installation of mobile equip- grid, symbol for, 121
phosphors, 99 ment, 533 -117 Distortion
screen material, 97 -99 Detection or demodulation, 194 -195 amplitude, 124 -125
trace, 97, 99 autodyne detector, 191 frequency, 123
Crystal radiotelegraphy reception, 195 in amplifiers, 123 -125
current, 237 radiotelephony demodulation, 194 intermodulation, 168
cuts, orientation, 235 Detector, audio, and control circuits, 213- modulated- amplifier, 304
doped, 101 216 phase, 123 -124
galena, 100 a -c loading of second detector, 214 products, SSB, 349
heating and fracture, 237 audio amplifiers, 215 -216 products due to nonlinearity, 310
holders, 236 automatic volume control, 214 Dissymmetry, speech waveform, 280
lattice filter, 341 avc in bfo- equipped receivers, 214 Divider, frequency, 190 -191
ovens, 236 detectors, 213 -214 D layer, 426
overtone -cut, 237 signal -strength indicators, 214-215 Duct formation, 424
piezoelectric, 209 Detectors, 195, 213 -214 Doherty
rectifiers, 224 autodyne, 195 linear amplifier, 289, 296
switching, 240 circuits, regenerative, 195 operating efficiency, 294 -297
Crystal and coil tables for vhf exciten, envelope, schematic, 183 modulated amplifier, 294 -297
622 Frrmodyne, 197 Dome audio phase -shift network, 344, 345
Crystal -diode wavemeter, 379 product, 227 -228, 316 -357 Donor impurities, 101
Crystal filters, 341 double -triode, 228 Doorknob capacitors, 361
i -f, 22f -226 triple -triode, 228 Doped crystal, 101
circuits, 209, 211 ratio, 321 -322 Dot multivibrator, 648
Crystal oscillator, 234 -242 second, loading of, 214 Double -Bruce array, 481 -486
1763, 240 Deviation Double conversion, 202-203
keying, 240 f -m, 310 Double -diode paired modulator, 338
tuned -plate, 238 measurement, 318-319 Double extended Zepp, 483
tuning, 239, 240 of single -sideband signals, 332 Double- resonance curve, 181
Crystal oscillator circuit, 237 -242 Devices Double- resonance effect, push -pull tank
all -band, 240 SCR (silicon controlled rectifier), 104 circuit, 367
harmonic, 238 -239 semiconductor, 100 -119 Double -sideband supp d- carrier signal,
pentode, 238 -240 Diamond antenna, 479 -481 338
Cubical quad antenna, 487 Dielectric Double skeleton cone antenna, 498
Current breakdown, 36 Driven arrays, unidirectional, 123 -525
alternating, 46 constant, 36 feed methods, 123 -52f
amplification formula, transistor, 106 materials, 31-36 stacked broadside arrays, 123 -121
crystal, 237 Differential keying circuits, 406 -408 Driven element with center feed, parasitic
feed, 418 -419 Differentiator, RC, 69 -71 arrays, 121
flow, 25 Diode, 80 -83 Driver -stage calculations, 142
in a triode, 82, 84 balanced modulator, 336 Double- triode product detector, 228
in tetrodes and pentodes, 88 -91 characteristics, 80, 82 -83 Doublers, frequency, 211
formula, collector, 113 color codes and markings, 101 Doubling and tripling circuits, varactor,
forward, 102 keyer for frequency shift, 329 103
gate, SCR, 104 limiters, 181 Doublet
ground. 364 -365 mixers, 90 -92 delta- matched and standard, 440
leakage, 102 superheterodyne receiver, 200 off- center -fed, 440 -441
Curtain arrays, 483 operation, series, 723 -724 3/4 -wave folded, 447 -448
Cutoff bias, 81 PN junction, 102 -101 tuned. 437 -439
symbol for, 120 ring modulator, 337 -338 multiwire, 439 -440, 416 -417
Cutoff frequencies, 107 steering, 118 with quarter -wave transformers, 419
alpha, 107 tunnel, 102 -103 Drift space, 91
beta, 107 zener, 104 Drift velocity of hole, formula, 101
transconductance, 107 Dipole system, broadband, 446 Dropping- resistor screen supply, 264
Dipole, twin -lead folded, 439 Dual -band, folded gat-top, antenna, 410-
Direct-coupled cathode multivibrator, 188 431
D Direct coupling, 130 Dummy load, 713 -714
Direct-current circuits, 23 -41 assembly, 754
Dash flip -flop, 610 Direct current, pulsating, fl 2- kilowatt, 753
D -c Direct f-m circuits, 312-316 DX
amplifiers, 132 -133 Directive arrays, 476 aurora -type, 424
beta, 107 Directive high- frequency antennas, 474- operation, 14
circuit, capacitance in, 37, 38 492
grid -supply voltage, symbol for, 120 Directivity
plate -supply voltage, symbol for, 120 antenna, 418 -421 E
Decibel, 803 -807 end -fire, 488 -491
De-emphasis, 323 flat -top beam, 489 -490 Eccles-Jordan bistable multivibrator, I18,
circuit, 323 triplex beam, 491 189 -190
Deflection horizontal, 412, 418 -419 Effective Q, 213
coil, 96, 99
electromagnetic, 99
electrostatic, 98
of radiation, 411
vertical, 412, 419
Discone antenna
Ex -
Effective value of a.c., 10
1p curve, 163
Eight -element tiltable array, 506 -108
polarity switch, oscilloscope, 170 low- frequency, 412 E layer, 426
Demodulation or detection, 194 -195 vhf uhf, 498 -500
and Electric filters, 74 -76
autodyne detector, 195 Discontinuities, line, 434 -43f design, 76
radiotelegraphy reception, 195 Discriminator Electrical
radiotelephony demodulation, 194 Foster -Seeley, 320-321 quarter -wave line, 296
Delta match and T- match, parasitic arrays, Tnris, 320 relationships, fundamental, 24 -33
120 -521 vector diagram, 321 symbols for transistors, 106
Delta- matched antenna system, 416 voltage-frequency curve, 320 units, fundamental, 24 -27
Delta- matched doublet and standard doub- Dissipation Electrical equivalent, r -f choke, 363

836
www.americanradiohistory.com
Electrode, focusing, 91 F swing, 310
Electrolytic capacitors, 38, 39 terms, 310
Electrolytic conduction, 71 Fading, 427 -428 transmission, narrow -band, 311 -312
Electromagnetic CRT, 96 -97 Feedback, 192 -193 tuning and operation, 680 -682
Electromagnetic deflection, 97 -99 amplifier, 145 -146 Focus coil, 96, 99
Electromagnetism, 39 -43 gain and phase shift in, 145 -146 Focusing electrode, 91, 97 -98
Electron, 23 -24, 71 neutralization, 274 -276 Foster-Seeley discriminator, 320 -321
emission. 75 parasitic oscillations, 274 Folded dipole, twin -lead. 439
energy dissipation, 81 relationships, 145 Folded doublet, 3/4 -wave, 447 -448
flow, 25 circuit, shunt, 146 Folded-element match calculations, para-
gun. 91, 97 -98 closed -loop, 193 sitic arrays, 119 -120
Electron- coupled multivibrator, 188 types of, 146 Folded flat -top dual -band antenna, 450 -431
Electron- coupled oscillator, 231 -232 voltage, vector relationship, 274 Forward bias, 102
Electronic conduction, 71 Feed methods, unidirectional driven ar- Forward current, 102
Electronic keyer for RTTY, 328 rays, 523 -125 Four -tone SSE envelope, 335
Electronic test equipment, 744 -772 Feed -point resistance, 411 Franklin antenna array, 481
Electron -ray tube, 99, 101 -102 Feed systems Franklin collinear array, 439
Electron tube at vhf, 90 -91 for parasitic arrays, 516 -523 Franklin oscillator, 233, 234
Electron -tube types, 76 delta match and T-match, 520 -521 Fremodysse detector, 197
Electrostatic cathode -ray tube, 91 driven element with center feed, 521 Frequency
Electrostatic deflection, 91 -96, 98 folded -element match calculation, 519- alpha cutoff, 107
Electrostatics, 33, 34 520 beta cutoff, 107
Element, metallic and nonmetallic, 100 gamma match, 521 -522 conversion problems, 349 -310
Emission matching stub, 122-523 conversion systems, SSB, 346 -350
cathode, 77 rotary -link coupling, 521 critical, 426
electron, 71 Q- section, 419 -460 cutoff, 107
equation, 79, 81 Feedthrough power, 210 detector, 319 -320
photoelectric, 75 -77 Field -effect transistor (FET), 118 -119 distortion, 123
secondary, 81, 82 If -watt clipper -amplifier, 704 -706 divider, 190-191
.pace- charge- limited, 82, 83 Filament doubler, 231
:hermionic, 71 oxide -coated, 80 doubler, push -push, 252
Emitter characteristic curve, 109 reactivation, 77 effects, resistor, 359
Emitter electrode, 105 temperatures, 78, 79 measurements. 758 -719
End -fed tungsten, 78, 79 modulation. 308 -324
half -wave horizontal antennas, 436 -437 Filament -type tubes, 76 multiplier, 250 -213
Hertz antenna, 436 -437, 448 Filament types, 76 multiplier, 6)60, 624
End -fire Filter spectrum, 46, 47
arrays, unidirectional parasitic, 112 -114 assembly, 72 -74 spotter, 100 -kHz, 719
directivity, 488 -491 basic, 72 transconductance cutoff, 107
flat -top beam, 489 -490 capacitors, 733 -731 tripler, push -pull, 252 -213
triplex beam, 491 choke coils, 731 Frequency bands, amateur, 13 -11
End -fire and broadside arrays, combina- click, 402 Frequency -impedance characteristic, r -f
tion, 491 -492 crystal, 209, 211 choke, 363
Egvelope crystal, i -f, 221 -226 Frequency -shift
detector, schematic, 183 crystal lattice, 341 keyer, diode, 329
modulation, 277 half -wave, 382 -383 keying, 323, 328 -329
Epitaxial planar transistors, 111 high -pass, 74 -76, 37f, 376 Front -end alignment, 226
Equations, gain high -pass transmission line, 375 FSK, 325, 328 -329
for pentode r -f amplifiers, 15I low -pass, 74 -76, 379 -384 F, layer, 421
for RC- coupled amplifier, 126 mechanical, 211 -212, 341 Fachs antenna, 436 -437
Equipment, mobile, design and installation method for SSB generation, 338 Full -wave
of, 533 -117 operation, 75 limiter, 220
post -modulator, 303 rectifier, 713 -714
Equipment, speech and a -m, 698 -706
Equivalent circuit
power line, 216 rectifier, v.t.v.m., 752
practical, i -f circuits, 209 Fundamentals, radio receiver, 194 -228
pentode RC-coupled amplifier, 126
resistance -capacitance, 711 Fusion process, 105
quartz crystal, 231
variable -selectivity, 209 -210
resistor, 319
Filter sections, 75, 76
series circuit, 60 -61
G
constant -k, 71, 76
transistor, 109
m- derived, 75, 76
Error cancellation, 193 Gain
Filter -system resonance, 711 -713
Error signal, 193 100 -watt amplifier,
671 -682 equations for pentode r -f amplifiers, Ill
Excitation of cathode -modulated stage, 294 circuit,676 -677 equations for pentode RC- coupled ampli-
Exciter construction, 677 -680 fier, 126
6 and 2 , 620 -624 design, 676 measurement, parasitic. 373
adjustment, 623 -624 Fixed bias, 123 power, transistor, 108
circuit, 621 Flat -top beam, 489 -490 resistance, transistor, 108
construction, 622 -623 Flip -flop, dash, 610 voltage, transistor, 108
frequency multiplier, 624 Flip -flop multivibrator, oscilloscope, 171 Gain and phase shift in feedback ampli-
SSB 175 -watt, 624 -631 Floating paraphase phase inverter, 131 fiers, 145 -146
circuit, 624 -626 Flux density, 40 Gain -bandwidth product, 107
dial assembly, 627 -629 Flywheel effect, 67 Galena crystal, 100
layout, 626 -627 F-nl, 308 -324 Gamma match, 417
main bandswitch assembly, 627 deviation, 310 parasitic arrays, 121 -522
wiring and testing, 629 limiters, 322 Gases, inert, 100
SSB filter, 353 -355 modulation index, 310 Gas tubes, 97 -100
"Ten -A," 353, 354 modulation index, effect, 312 Gate clipper, series -diode, 187
transistor, 117 percentage modulation, 310 Gate current, SCR, 104
transistor SSB, 313, 315 reception, 197 Gr, 92
Exciters and transmitters, low -power, 620- receiver design, 322 -324 General -purpose triode class -B modulator,
6x1 side frequencies, 310 702 -704
Extrinsic, 101 signal, slope detection, 319 Generation
alternating current, 47, 48 H Hot- cathode phase inverter, 131
radio -frequency energy, 229 -268 Hysteresis, coercive force, 41
SSB signals, 338 -346 Half -wave
Generator, sweep oscilloscope, 172 -173 antenna, physical length, 412-413
Generator "whine," 542 -543 center -fed horizontal antenna, 437 -441
Germanium delta- matched and standard doublets,
N (negative) -type, 101 440 Idler loop, 103
P(positive) -type, 101 doublets with quarter -wave trans- I -f
Germanium and silicon atomic structure, formers, 4)9 alignment, 221
100 -101 multiwire doublets, 439 -440 alignment, receiver, with oscilloscope,
gm, 91 off- center -fed doublet, 440 -441 179 -182
Graphical representation, 811-123 tuned doublet, 437 -439 amplifier coupling, 207
Grid end -fed horizontal antennas, 436.437 amplifier, superheterodyne receiver, 198
excitation, 243 -244 filter, single -section, 382, 383 passband, 208
excitation voltage, peak, symbol for, rectifiers, 713 response curve, 1111

120 vertical antenna, 441 terminal unit, 327


limiters, 187 -181 Harmonic transformers, 206.207
neutralizadon, 245 crystal oscillator circuits, 238, 239
transistor amplifiers, 114
potential, instantaneous, symbol for, 120 interference, 377 -379 tuned circuits, 206 -213
structure, remote- cutoff, 90 output v. circuit Q, 254 heat -frequency oscillators, 212 -213
supply voltage, d -c, symbol for, 120 radiation, 377 -379 crystal filters, 209 -211
voltage, maximum instantaneous, symbol radiation vs. Q, 256 mechanical filter, 211 -212
for, 120 resonance, 414 Miller effect, 208
voltage, maximum positive instantaneous, Harmonics, 374 practical filters, 209
symbol for, 120 amateur bands, 377 rejection notch, 210 -211
voltage, static, symbol for, 120 Hartley oscillator, 189, 231 shape factor, 207 -208
Grid action, triode, 81, 81 HBR receiver, deluxe, 604 -639 transformers, 206 -207
Grid -bias modulated stage, tuning, 283 -284 alignment, 616 -619 variable -selectivity filters, 209 -210
Grid -bias modulator, 285 circuit, 606 -608 with crystal filter, 225 -226
Grid bias of a vacuum tube, 121 construction, 609 -612 Ignition noise, 541 -142
Grid -cathode capacitance, symbol for, 120 r -f circuits, 611 -616 Image interference, 389, 390
Grid -circuit considerations, r -f amplifiers, wiring, 612 -613 Images and noises, mixer, 200 -201
158 -159 HBT -200 SSB transmitter-exciter, deluxe, Impedance
Grid -circuit keying, 404 -401 6)5 -648 air -filled coaxial lines, 432
Grid current circuit, 638 collector -to- collector, of output trans-
effect, 89, 91 construction, 641 -642 former, 113
flow, one -half angle of, symbol for, 121 transmitter coupling, 128
static, symbol for, 120 alignment, 644 -648 curves, wirewound resistor, 360
symbol for, 120 wiring, 643 -644 L-network, 258
Grid -dip meter, 529 r -fcircuits, 613 -616 load, symbol for, 121
Grid dissipation, symbol for, 121 Heat cycle, resistors, 319 matching, plate circuit, 143
Grid- driven amplifiers, 122 Heat sink, 102 pi- network, 2)9 -260
Grid -driven power, symbol for, 120 Heater cathode, 78, 80 -81 screen -grid, 284 -28)
Grid -leak bias, 12) Heater- cathode type tubes, 76 series- resonant circuits, 65
for high -ic triodes, 127 Heating and fracture of crystals, 237 transformation, 73
Grid -modulated amplifier efficiency, 296 Hrising modulator, bias -shift, 30) -307 transformer coupling, 128
Grid -modulated class -C amplifier, 24), 244 Hrising plate modulation, 290 -291 transmission line, 430
Grid -modulated, class -C, 282.284 Helical beam antennas, vhf and uhf, 100-
triangle, 14
Grid -plate 502
Impurities, donor, 101
capacitance, symbol for, 120 Henry, 42 Inclosures, TVI- proof, 777-778
transconductance, 89, 91 Hertz, 47 Induced currents, 47
Grid -screen a factor, II, 90 Hertz antenna, end -fed, 416 -4)7, 448 Inductance, 41 -43
symbol, 120 Hi -fi interference, 391 mutual, 42
Ground currents, 364 -36) High -frequency directive antennas, 474.492 resistors, 319 -360
intercoupling, 365 High -frequency power amplifiers, 6)2 -697 unit of, 42
Grounded -cathode amplifiers, 159 High -level splatter suppressor, 300 -301, Inductive coupling, unity, 266
Grounded -grid 700 -701
Inductive interstage coupling, 266
amplifiers, 121, 250, 662.667 High -pass filter, 74 -76, 376 Inductive reactance, 12
Inductors, 41, 362 -364
bias supplies for, 166 series- derived, 376
Inert gases, 100
choice of tubes, 666 High -pass transmission -line filters, 371, 376
High -Q isolating trap, 132 Injection voltage, mixer, 200
construction, 664 -665
In -phase spacing, stacked dipole, 481
distortion products, 663 -664 High -voltage leads, 362
Input capacitance, 121, 271
feedthrough power, 662 -663 Holes, semiconductor, 101
Input modulation systems, 289 -293
neutralization, 666-667 Horizontal antennas, end -fed half -wave, Input resistance, 271
tuning, 665 -666 456 -417
Installation and design of mobile equip-
linear amplifiers, 165 -168 Horizontal center-fed half -wave antennas, ment, 133 -117
r -f amplifiers, 159 -161 437 -441 Instantaneous grid potential, symbol for,
stages, control -grid dissipation in,
delta- matched and standard doublets, 120
162
440 Instantaneous value of a.c., 49, 10
Grounding antenna, 443
doublets with quarter -wave transform- Instruments for receiver adjustment, 224-
Ground loops, 364
ers, 439 226
Ground losses, 417
multiwire doublets, 439 -440 Insulation, 36)
Ground -plane antenna, 441 -442
off- center -fed doublet, 440 -441 antenna, 461 -464
Ground resistance, 417 tuned doublet, 437 -439 vhf and uhf antennas, 495
Grounds, 364-365, 398 Horizontal directivity, 412, 418 -419 Insulators, 24
water -pipe, 44) -444 Horizontal rhombic vhf antenna, 50) -30) Integrator, RC, 69, 71
Ground wave, 422 Horizontally polarized antennas, vhf and Interlocks, protective, 401
communication, 422 -425 uhf, 496 -497 International Morse Code, 16
signal propagation, 422 Horn -type and corner -reflector antennas, Internal resistance, 28
Grown -crystal proceu, 105 502 -503 Interelectrode capacitance, 86 -87, 121 -122
Guy wires, 462 "Hot" adjustments, 401 neutralization of, 121 -122

www.americanradiohistory.com
static, 121 Kirchhoff's Laws, 31, 32 formula, 137
Interstage coupling, 263 -267 Klystron, 91 -95 symbol for, 121
inductive, 266 power, 93 -94 Loading, tube input, 149
push -pull transformer, 128 reflex, 94 -91 Local loop supply, 321, 329
Intercoupling of ground currents, 365 Location of keyed stage, 402
Interference Locating noise sources, 344
broadcast, 374 -391 Loftin -White circuit, 133
classifications, 384 -387 Long -wire radiators, 476 -477
hi -fi, 391
Logarithms, 798 -803 Long Yagi antennas, SII
Lagging phase, 52, 53 Loop, idler, 103
image, 389, 390
Lamb noise limiter, 217 lower sideband, 332
isolating, 378 -379
television, 374 -391 Lacy -fl antenna system, 484 Low -frequency
Lead filtering systems, 366 discone antenna, 452
Irtermodulation distortion, 168
Lead inductance, effects, 90 -91, 9) equivalent circuit, transistor, 109
Internal leads, 366
Intrinsic resistivity of silicon, 101 leads, high -voltage, 362 parasitic oscillations, 368 -369
Intrinsic semiconductor, 101 Leakage current, 102 parasitic suppression, 368
Leakage reactance, 73 Low-level speech clipping, 700
Inverse voltage, 102
Inverter, phase, 130 -132 Leading phase, 52, 53 Low -noise transistor preamplifier, vhf, 116
cathode- coupled, 131 -132 Lerre -A'rs file alternator, 536 Low -pass filters, 74 -76, 379-384, 390
Boating paraphase, 131 Left -hand rule, 39 construction, 310 -381
hot- cathode, 131 Length of parasitic element, SI5 -516 using, 381 -383
voltage- divider, 132 Licenses, amateur, 12 Low -power transmitters and exciters, 620-
Iron -core inductors, 43 Limiter 631
Ion, definition, 25 audio noise, 218 low-range ohmmeter, 747
Ionization density, 425 circuit, alternative, 219 -220

Ionospheric propagation, 425 -429 f -m, 322

Ionospheric wave, 422 full -wave, 220 M


Ionospheric reflection wave paths, 428 noise, Bishop, 217.218
IR drop, 28 noise, Lamb, 217 "Magic -eye" tube, 99, 101

Isolating interference, 378 -379 noise, peak, 216 -217 Magnetic


Isolating trap, three -band beams, 531 -532 TNS. 220 circuit, 40

IVS Limiting circuits, I85 -181 core materials, 43


bridge -rectifier supplies, 731.733 audio peak, 185 -187 fields, 39, 40
power supplies, 725 -728 diode limiters, Ill Ohm's Law, 40, 41
1 -KW, 728 -729 grid limiters, 187 -I88 Magnetomotive force, 40
Line discontinuities, 434 -435 Magnetron, 91, 93 -96
Linear amplifier multicavity, 96
class -B, 156.157, 242.243 oscillator, 93, 95
operating parameters, 157 -158 Magnetism, 39 -43
ioperator, 53, 54 class AB, Make -break keying, 325
Junction capacitance, 102 operating parameters, 163 -165 Marconi antenna, 442 -444
Junction diode, PN, 102 -105 grounded -grid, 165 -168 twin -lead, 446
Junction diode, voltage -variable, 102 kilowatt for six meters, 668 -675 two -band, 448 -449
Junction transistor, 105 adjustment, 673 -675 Mark, 325
output characteristics of, 109 a -m linear operation, 675 Markings and color codes, diode, 101
circuit,668 -669 Mast, A- frame, 461
construction, 670 -671 Masts, TV, 461 -462
metering and suppression circuits, 670 Matching nonresonant lines to antenna,
K
plate circuit assembly, 671 -673 455 -461
Key -click elimination, 401 -403 Trihander, 692 -697 Collins, 460.461
Keyed stage, location, 402 circuit, 692 -696 current -feed, 458 -459
Keyer transmitter adjustment and tuning, delta- matched, 456
circuit requirements, 402 -403 697 gamma match, 457
diode, 329 transmitter control circuits and pow- linear r -f transformers, 459

electronic for RTTY, 328 er supply, 696 -697 marching stubs, 457
transistor, 648 -651 Utility 2- kilowatt, 682 -692 multiwire doublets, 456 -457
circuit, 648 -650 circuit, 682 -685 Q- section feed, 459 -460
construction, 651 construction, 685 -688 quarter -wave matching transformers, 459
dash flip-flop, 650 external anode tetrodes, 688 -690 standing waves, 455.456
tone oscillator, 650 -651 tube combinations, 690.691 T match, 457
Keying tuning and adjustments, 691 -692 voltage feed, 458
audio frequency -shift, 325 -330 Linear r -f transformers, 459 Matching stubs, 457, 322 -523
cathode, 403 -404 Linearity curve of set rode amplifier, 164 parasitic arrays, 522.523
center -tap, 402 Linearity tracer, block diagram, 182 Matching to the antenna transmission line,
circuits, differential, 406 -408 Linearity tracer, oscilloscope, 183 -184 528 -529
crystal oscillator, 240 Linearity traces, 184 Matching transformers, quarter -wave, 459
frequency -shift, 325 Lines, short, tuning, 220 Mathematics and calculations, 784 -126
grid -circuit, 404 -405 Lines, tuned or resonant, 433 -434 MBK, 325
make -break, 325 Link coupling, 266 -267 M- derived section, 75, 76
screen -grid, 405 -406 Link, variable, coupling, 466 Measurement
transmitter, 401 -409 l.issajous figures, oscilloscope, 175 -178 alternating current and voltage, 747
Kilohertz, 47 determination of phase angle, 178 balanced transmission line, 764 -765
Kilowatt oscilloscope settings, 175 -176 circuit constants, 754 -755
dummy load, 754 phase -difference patterns, 176 -178 deviation, 318 -319
CCS power supply, 743 Litz wire, 64 frequency, 758 -759
linear amplifier for six meters, 668 -675 L- matching networks, 258 modulation, 279
adjustment, 673 -673 L- network impedance, 258 power, 752 -754
a -m linear operation, 675 Load impedance, symbol for, 121 with a bridge, 751 -757
circuit, 668 -669 Load line, 83 -84 Mechanical filter, 211 -212, 341
construction, 670 -671 class -B a -f amplifier, 141 Mechanics of modulation, 278 -210
metering and suppression circuits, 670 triode, 85 -86 Mechanism of conduction, 101 -102
plate -circuit assembly, 671 -673 Load resistance Medium- and low -range ohmmeter, 744-

839
747 double- diode, 338 push -pull, 241 -246
Megahertz, 47 general -purpose triode class -B, 702 -704 r -f amplifiers, 244 -250
Mercury -vapor tubes, 98, 100, 718 grid -bias, 283 screen -grid amplifiers, 247 -250
Metallic element, 100 reactance -tube, 312 -316 shunt, 246 -247
Meter, grid -dip, 129 series cathode, 294 -291 techniques, 276
Meter shield, 361 tetrode, 698 -699 tests, 273
Metering and suppression circuits, 670 35 -watt, 114 Neutralizing
Meteors and bursts, 429 vacuum- diode, 339 procedure, 247 -250
Mica -dielectric capacitors, 360 -361 zero -bias triode, 706 single -ended tetrodes, 249 -250
Micromho, 83 Monitoring circuit for modulated -wave Nodal point, 266
Microphones and circuits for mobile equip- pattern, oscilloscope, 180 Noise
ment, 541 Monitoring transmitter performance factor, 148.149
Microwave tubes, 93 -96 with oscilloscope, 178 -179 ignition, 141 -542
Miller effect, 121, 208 modulated -wave pattern, 179 sources, locating, 144
Miller oscillator, 238 trapezoidal pattern, 179 Noise and images, mixer, 200 -201
Misilarlo,coil material, 160 waveforms, 178 -179 injection voltage, 200
Minimum instantaneous plate voltage, sym- Monitor scope, 769 -770 triode mixers, 200
bol for, 120 MSCL, 81 Noise limiter, audio, 218
Mismatch, plate circuit, 143 Mu (), 81 -82, 90 Bishop, 217-218
Mixer M.u.f., 13, 426 Lamb, 217
diode, 90, 92 Mu factor, grid -screen, 88 peak, 216 -217
diode, superheterodyne receiver, 200 Multee antenna, 451 peak, practical, 218 -219
noise and images, 200 -201 Multiband antennas, 447 -430 Noise recording, sun, 604
injection voltage, 200 center-fed, 449 -410 Noise suppression, 216 -220
triode mixers, 200 end -fed Hertz, 448 alternative limiter circuit, 219 -220
pentagrid, as a product detector, 217 folded flat -top, 450 -451 noise limiter
pentode, 92 low- frequency discone, 452 audio, 218
stages, SSB, 346 -310 multee, 401 Bishop, 217-218
triode, 90, 92 single- wire -fed, 412 -453 full -wave, 220
twin triode, 346 -347 3/4 -wave folded doublet, 447 -448 Lamb, 217
unit for 432 MHz, 198 two -band Marconi, 441.449 peak, 216 -217
Mixer and converter tubes, 89 -92 vertical, 413 -415 practical peak, 218 -219
Mobile Multivibrator, 234 TNS, 220
antennas for, 537 -139 Multicavity magnetron, 96 power -line filters, 216
all -band center- loaded, 139 Multielement vhf beam antennas, 50f -Iii Nondirectional vertical array, 498
auxiliary trimmer, 537 -138 eight -element tiltable array, 106 -108 Nonlinearity, distortion products, 310
10- meter, 038 -539 long Yagi, 111 Nonresonant transmission lines, 430 -433
converter, transistorized, 133 -535 screen beam for 2 meters, 109 -111 Nonsinusoidal waves, 68, 69
equipment design and installation, 133- three -element beam, 105 -106 Notation, polar, 04, 11
157 Multiplier Notch, rejection, 210 -211
power sources, 531 -137 frequency, 201 -203 Null circuit, Q- multiplier, 226
three -phase, 136 6360, frequency, 624 Nuvistor converter, 560 -063
transistor power supplies, 113 -006 sweep -speed, oscilloscope, 172 adjustments, 062 -163
operation, 013 -104 Multirange meters, 746 circuit description, 560 -061
rating, 104, 101 Multivibrator construction, 161 -162
self- starting oscillators, 11f bistable, Eccles- Jordan, 118 Nuvistor two -meter converter. 067-072
transformer, 110, 116 direct- coupled cathode, 188 adjustments, 170 -171
Modulated -amplifier distortion, 304 dot, 648 antioverload modification, 571 -172
Modulated -wave p , monitoring cir- Eccles-Jordan, 189 -190 circuit description, 567 -068
cuit for, 180 electron -coupled, 188 construction, 168 -169
Modulation, 308 -310, 698 -701 flip-flop, oscilloscope, 171
amplitude, 277 -307 Multivoltmeter circuits, 745
assymetrical speech, 699 -700 Multiwire doublets, 439 -440,
bandwidth, 277
406 -407 0
Mutual conductance, 82 -84
capability, 279 -280 Mutual inductance, 42 Off- center-fed doublet, 440 -441
cathode, 293 -294 Ohm's Law, 27
envelope, 277 alternating current, 11
factor, 279 application, 27 -33
N
frequency, 308 -324 impedance, 64
high -level splatter suppressor, 700 -701 Narrow -band f -m transmission, 311-312 magnetic circuits, 40 -41
increasing effective percentage of, 699 Nature of SSB signal, 334 -331 Ohmmeter, low- range, 747
low -level speech clipping, 700 nbfm, 311 -312 171 -watt SSB exciter, 624 -631
index, f -m, 310 405 -kHz adapter, 323-324 circuit, 624 -626
measurement, 279 Negative and positive clamping dial assembly, 627 -629
mechanics, 278 -280 circuits, 187 layout, 626 -627
percentage, 277 -279 Negative -grid characteristics, triode, 83 main bandswitch assembly, 627
graphical determination, 279 Negative -grid oscillator, 230 wiring and testing, 629
phase, 316 -319 N (negative) type germanium, 101 I -KW IVS power supply, 728 -729
plate and screen, 292 -293 Negative -resistance oscillator, 233, 234 One -way RTTY circuit, 326
screen grid, 284 -281 Nonmetallic element, 100 Open line, two -wire, 430 -433
suppressor grid, 288 -289 NPN transistor, 101 Operating parameters, 137
system, input, 219 -293 Network Operating region, 81
system, plate, 289-290 pi -L, 261 -262 Operational circuit using 10 -kHz
tetrode, 691 -699 pi- matching, 219 -260 sideband filter, 340
transformer calculations, 140 -141, L- matching, 218 Operator, j, 13, 14
291 -292 Neutralization, 271 -276 Optimum angle of radiation, 419
ariable -efficiency, 281 beam tetrodes, 248 Orientation of crystal cuts, 231
Modulator check, 271 Oscillator, 229
balanced, 336 -337, 343 coil, 246-247 AFSK, 329
cathode- follower, 281 -287 grid, 240 blocking, 190
circuit, SSB, Jr., 352 interelecerode capacitance. 121 -122 blocking, transistor, 111
class -B, practical aspects of, 142 procedure, feedback amplifier, 274 -276 bridge -T, 192

840
www.americanradiohistory.com
Clapp, 232 plate feed, 267 hot- cathode, 131
classes, 230 resistance, 28 voltage- divider, 132
code -practice, 20, 22 resonance, 63, 66 Phase modulation, 316 -319
Colpiffs, 231 resonant circuit, 63 Phase shift
crystal, 234 -242 RLC circuits, 60-62 correction, 298 -301
electron- coupled, 231, 232 tube circuits, 268 oscillator, 192
Fraeklin, 233, 234 Parameters network, low-Q, 344
Hartley, 189, 231 operating, 137 Phase shift and gain in feedback
magnetron, 93 -93 vacuum -tube, 120 -122 amplifiers, 143 -146
Miller, 238 symbols for, 120 -121 Phasing
negative -grid, 230 Parasitic audio -frequency, 344 -341
phase -shift, 192 arrays, feed systems for, 316 -323 method for SSB generation, 338
Pierre harmonic, 237 -239 delta match and T- match, 120 -321 radio-frequency, 344
relaxation, 117 -118, 188 driven element with center feed, 321 system for SSE generation, 342 -346
reflex kystron, 92 folded-element match calculations, Phosphors, CRT, 99
resistance -capacitance, 191 -192 319 -320 Photocells, 81, 82
self- controlled, 229 -234 gamma match, 321 -322 Photoelectric emission, 73 -77
self- starting, transistor, 333 matching stub, 322 -323 Pi- coupled final amplifiers, components,
stability, 234 rotary -link coupling, 321 239
tone, 610 -631 element, length of, 313 -316 Pierce oscillator, 238
T.N.T., 231 gain measurement, 373 crystal oscillator circuit, 237 -231
T.P.T.G., 231 resonances, 366 -367 harmonic circuit, 237 -239
transistor, 116 -111 suppression, low- frequency, 368 Piezoelectric crystal, 209
transition, 233 suppression, tetrodes, 372 Piezoelectric effect, 234 -236
triode -overtone, 240 -242 Parasitic oscillations Pi -L network, 261 -262
two -cavity klystron, 92 beam tetrodes, 370 -372 harmonic attenuation, 261
two -terminal, 233 checking, 372 -373 Pi- network, 260
Wien -bridge, 191 in r -f amplifiers, 367 -369 amplifiers, tetrodo, 659 -662
beat- frequency, 212 -213 in feedback amplifiers, 274 grounded -screen, 661 -662
Oscillator circuit low -frequency, 361 -368 inductively tuned tank circuit, 662
pentode, 238 -240 triode, 369 -370 component chart, 260
Pierre, 237 Passband, i -f, 208 coupling, 446
transistor, 117 Passband, mechanical filter, 341 matching, 219 -260
Oscilloscope, 169 -114 Passive audio phase -shift network, 343 output capacitor, peak voltage
accelerating potential, 173 Psttern, carrier -wave, ISO rating, 260
block diagram, 169 Patterns, trapezoidal, oscilloscope, 110 Q, 260
deflection polarity switch, 170 Peak Planar triode, 93
display of waveforms, 173 -173 a-c v.t.v.m., 741 Plate
linearity tracer, 183 -184 envelope power, 333 dissipation, symbol for, 120
Lissajous figures, 171 -171 fundamental plate current, symbol for, efficiency, amplifier, calculating, 133 -116
determination of phase angle, 171 120 symbol for, 121
oscilloscope settings, 173 -176 grid excitation voltage, symbol for, 120 feed, parallel, 267
phase-difference patterns, 176 -178 inverse voltage, 102 feed, series, 267
monitoring transmitter performance noise li , 216 -217 potential, instantaneous, symbol for, 120
with, 178 -179 plate voltage, symbol for, 120 power input, symbol for, 120
modulated -wave pattern, 179 voltage measurement circuit, 749 power output, symbol for, 120
trapezoidal pattern, 179 voltage rating, output capacitor, 260 resistance, 82 -84, 91
waveforms, 171 -179 Peaked wave, 69 symbol for, 120
power supply, 173 Pentagrid return amplifier, 122 -123
receiver i -f alignment, 179 -182 converter, 90 return r -f power amplifier, 161 -162
single- sideband applications, 112 -184 mixer circuit for SSB, 346 spacing, breakdown ratings, 237
sweep amplifier, 173 mixer as a product detector, 227 supply voltage, d -c, symbol for, 120
sweep generator, 172 -173 Pentode, 87 -89 voltage, minimum instantaneous,
sweep -speed multiplier, 172 amplifiers, single- ended, 133 -137 symbol for, 120
time-base circuitry, 171 -172 characteristic curves, 18 voltage, peak, symbol for, 120
blanking, 171 -172 coefficients, 91 voltage, static, symbol for, 120
sweep- trigger, 171 crystal oscillator circuits, 231 -240 voltage swing, class-C, 234
trapezoidal patterns, 180 current flow, 90, 91 Plate-and -screen modulation, 292 -293
vertical amplifier, 170 -171 mixers and converters, 90 -92 Plate -cathode capacitance, symbol for, 120
Outlet strips, 394 plate resistance, 91 Plate-circuit
Out -of -phase spacing, stacked dipole, power amplifier, operating considerations, r -f amplifiera, 149 -130
411 -482 characteristics of, 133 -137 coupling, r -f amplifiers, 149 -130
Outtut capacitance, symbol for, 120 RC- coupled amplifier, equivalent efficiency, 233
Output characteristics of junction circuits for, 126 impedance matching, 143
transistors 109 r -f amplifier, 201 mismatch, 143
Ovens, crystal, 236 stages, RC- coupled, 123 -126 Plate current, e8
Overloading, TV -set, 374 -377 PEP, 333 angle, frequency multiplier, 231 -232
Overmodulation, 386 linear amplifier, 682 -692 ge, characteristics of 813 tube, 117
Overtone oscillators, triode, 240 -242 2 -KW supply, 729 -731 average, symbol for, 120
Overtone -cut crystals, 237 Percentage, modulation, 277 flow, one -half angle of, symbol for, 121
Oxide- coated filaments, 80 Percentage modulation, f -m, 310 maximum instantaneous, symbol for, 120
Perforator, tape, 330 peak fundamental, symbol for, 120
Permeability, 40, 41 Plate-current saturation, 81 -83
P Phantoms, 386, 387 static, symbol for, 120
Phase Plate-modulated class -C amplifier, 243
Parallel angle, 32, fl Plate modulation, 289 -290
bias feed, 267 distortion, 123 -124 average power, 289
circuit, impedance curve, 63 lagging, 32, 33 class -B, 290, 291 -293
feed, 268 leading, f2, 33 of beam tetrodo, 293
inductance for bass suppression, 304 Phase inverter of screen -grid tube, 293
inductors, 42 cathode-coupled, 130 -132 Heising, 290 -291
operation, 268 floating paraphase, 131 systems, 289 -290

841
Plumber's delight, rotatable arrays, 85-watt, transistor, 157 Quadrupler, voltage, 719 -720
527-328 IVS, 723 -728 Quarter -wave matching transformers, 419
Pm, 316 -319 1 -KW, 743 Quartz crystal, equivalent circuit, 235
PN junction diode, 102 -101 1 -KW IVS, 728 -729 Quartz crystal oscillators, 234-242
PNP transistor, 103 oscilloscope, 173 Quench methods, 196 -197
voltage amplifiers, Ill PEP 2 -KW, 729 -731
Point -contact transistor, 103 requirements, 707.713
construction of, 106 current- rating considerations, 708 -709 R
Point- contact transistor and vacuum -tube filter- system resonance, 711 -713
characteristics, comparison of, 108 resistance -capacitance filters, 711 Radian notation, 49
Polarity ripple considerations, 709 -711 Radiating elements, rotatable arrays,
inversion, 83 -86 voltage regulation, 709 326 -327
reversal, grid and plate, 87 SSB transceiver, 733 Radiation, 410 -431
switch, deflection, 170 special, 736 -739 angle, effect of feed system on, 494.491
Polarization, 411 regulated supplies-VP. tubes, 736 -737 angle of, vhf and uhf antennas, 494
antenna, 412 shunt- regulated bias supply, 738 directivity, 411
speech waveform, 280 voltage -regulated, 737 -738 from an antenna, 410 -411
vhf and uhf antennas, 495-496 33 -watt, transistor, 116 -137 harmonic, 377 -379
Polarized antennas, horizontally, transformerless, 719 patterns, vertical, 420 -421
vhf and uhf, 496 -497 transistor, mobile unit, 113 -316 resistance, 411 -412
Polar notation, 54, 33 operation, 113 -134 resistance and feed -point impedance,
Polyphase rectification circuits, 717 rating, 114 -111 411 -418
P (positive) type germanium, !Of self -starting oscillator, 111 resistance, effect of height, 46
Positive and negative clamping circuits, transformer, 111 -116 Radiator cross section, vhf and uhf
187 Power transformer, 113 -116 antennas, 491
Positive -grid characteristics of triode, 83 Power transistor circuit, audio, Radiators, long -wire, 476 -477
Post-modulator filter, 303 class-A, 113 Radio -frequency
Potential, accelerating, oscilloscope, 173 Practical filters, i -f circuits, 209 amplifiers, 242 -268
Power advantage, SSB over a -m, 332 -333 Practical peak noise limiter circuits, chokes, 267 -268
Power 218 -219 energy, generation of, 229-265
control, 393-397 Preamplifier, vhf low -noise transistor, 116 phasing, 344
energy, and work, 33 Pre -emphasis, 323 power amplifiers, I30 -168
gain of a transistor, 108 Prefixes, 47 Class -B, 116 -I19
grid -driving, symbol for, 120 Premium tubes, 98 Class -AB1, 163 -161
input, plate, symbol for, 120 Product detector, 227 -228, 336-317 vacuum -tube amplifiers, 147 -168
in resistive circuits, 32, 33 and beat oscillator, 228 Radio receiver fundamentals, 194 -228
klystron, 93, 94 double-triode, 228 Radiotelegraphy reception, 195
measurement, 732 -734 triple- triode, 228 Radiotelephony demodulation, 194
peak envelope, 333 Product, gain -bandwidth, 107 Radioteletype systems, 321-330
rating, transistor, 334 -333 Propagation, 410-435 Ratio detector, 321 -322
relations in speech waveforms, 291 of radio waves, 421 -422 Ratio, signal -to- noise, 112
sources, mobile, 133 -337 tropospheric, 423 amplifier general characteristics, 127
systems, 392 -397 Protective circuits for tetrodes, 264 -261 amplifier response, 127
Power amplifier Protective interlocks, 401 coupled pentode stages, 121 -126
design, 652-654 Pulsating, d.c., 11 coupled triode stages, 123
circuits, 633.634 Push- button transmitter control circuit, differentiator, 69 -71
tubes, 652-653 399 integrator, 69, 71
pentode, operating characteristics of, Push -pull RC and RL time constant, 43
135-137 audio amplifiers, 137 -138 RC and RL transients, 43-45
push -pull class -A triode, 138 circuits, 137 Reactance, 11 -33
r -f cathode -follower, 161 -162 class-A triode power amplifier, 138 calculations, 824 -826
r -f plate -return, 161 -I62 frequency tripler, 212, 253 capacitive, 12
triode, operation characteristics of, link coupling, 267 feed -point impedance, 411
111 -113 neutralization, 241 -246 frequency chart, audio, 821
cathode -follower, 143 -143 operation, 268 frequency chart, radio, 822
class AB, r -f, 163-165 stages, tank circuits, 216 inductive, 52
class -B audio -frequency, 138 -143 tetrode amplifiers, 656-659 leakage, 73
class-B radio -frequency, 136 -139 transformer intent age coupling, 128 tank -capacitor, 235
high- frequency, 632 -697 triode amplifiers, 614 -616 tank -inductor, 211
radio -frequency, 130 -168 circuit layout, 611 tube linearity checker, 315
r -f class -C, 130 -136 construction, 611 -616 tube modulators, 312 -316
Power line excitation requirements, 611 Receiver
filters, 216 filament supply, 614 a- c /d -c, 387
pickup, 388, 389 grid bias, 634 adjustment, 224.226
wavetrap, 389 grid circuit, 654-655 alignment,
Power output plate feed, 614 front -end, 226
formula, 113 -117 i -f, 225
tube circuits, 268
plate, symbol for, 120 Push -push frequency doubler, 212 superheterodyne, 221
Pou rrntvt, 397 -398 TRF receiver, 223
Power supply, 707 -749 BPO, 226
components, 733 -736 0 i -f with crystal filter, 225-226
bleeder resistors, 735 instruments, 224 -226
filter capacitors, 733 -731 Q circuts, uhf, 223
filter choke coils, 733 amplifier tank circuit, 131 design, f-m, 322 -324
circuits, standard, 714 -720 circuit, 64 -66 deluxe NBA, 604-619
mercury -vapor tubes, 718 effect of loading, 217 alignment, 616 -619
polyphase, 717 effective, 213 circuit, 606 -608
single- phase, 716 -717 parallel- resonant circuit, 63 -68 construction, 609 -612
transformerless, 719 pi- network, 260 r -f circuits, 613-616
voltage- doubler, 719 tank- circuit, 213 -218 wiring, 612 -613
voltage- quadrupler, 719 -720 Q- multiplier, 226 -227 fundamentals, radio, 194-228
design, 739 -743 Q- section feed system, 439 -460 i -f alignment with oscilloscope, 179 -112

842
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rectification, 388 harmonic, 414 Sawtooth wave, 69
SSB, 356 parasitic, 366-367 Scattered reflections, 428 -429
.uperheterotlyne, 197 -200 Resonant S. hem a tic
advantages of, 198 cavities, uhf, 221 -222 Antennascope, 765
arithmetical selectivity, 198 circuits, 62 -68 bridge for balanced lines, 765
choice of intermediate frequency, 198 frequency, 62, 63 capacitance meter, 717
converter stage, 198.200 lines, 433 -434 Hrathkif Ins-13, 751
diode mixers, 200 Response curve, i -f, 181 high -voltage peak voltmeter, 748
principle of operation, 197 -198 Response, RC amplifier, 12' kilowat dummy load, 754
superregenerative, 191 -197 Reverse bias, 102 low -range ohmmeter, 747
wiring, trans- receiver, 550 -311 R -f monitor scope, 769
Receivers and transceivers, 518 -619 amplifier 100 -kHz frequency spotter, 719
Receiving accessories, 226 -228 grid- circuit considerations, 158 -159 rcflrctometer, 761
product detector, 227.228 grounded -grid, 159 -161, 250 r -f probe, 712
Q- multiplier, 226 -227 neutralization, 244 -210 SWR indicator, 760
Receiving converter, RTTY, 326 -328 parasitic oscillation, 367 -369 transistor checker, 771
Reception pentode, 201 v.t.v.m., 751
f -m, 197, 319 -324 gain equations for, Ill SCR (silicon controlled rectifier)
radiotelegraphy, 195 plate- circuit considerations, 149 -I50 devices, 104
RTTY, 326.328 plate -circuit coupling, 149 -150 Screen, 86 -87
SSB signals, 353-357 screen -circuit considerations, 119 circuit considerations, r -f amplifiers, 119
Rectified a.c., 50, 51 tuned cathode circuit, 166 -168 lead inductance, cancelling, 249.250
Rectifiers choke, 267 -268, 364 materials, CRT, 97
crystal, 224 equivalent, 363 supply, dropping -resistor, 264
selenium and silicon, 720 -721 frequency and impedance supply, separate, 264 -265
silicon controlled (SCR), 104 characteristic, 361 supply, series, 264
tubes, mercury- vapor, 718 circuitry, 114 wattage -limiting resistor, 265
Rectifier circuit, 713 -714 feedback, 269 -276 Sc reco beam for 2 meters, 109 -5II

polyphase, 717 circuits, 269 -271 Screen -grid


single-phase, 716-717 phase -shift network, low -Q, 344 impedance, 284 -281
Reactivating filaments, 77 power amplifier keying, 405 -406
Reflection, stratospheric, 424 -425 cathode -follower, 161 -162 modulation, 284-288
Reflectometer, 761 -764 plate- return, 161 -162 modulation, circuits, 281 -286
Reflex klystron, 92 -95 class-C, 110 -156 r -f amplifiers, neutralization, 247 -250
oscillator, 92 probe, 752 tube, 86 -87
Regenerative detector circuits, 195 stage, 201 -203 tube, plate modulation, 291
Regulated supplies-VR tubes, 736 -737 cascade amplifier, 202 Screening, tetrode, 371
Regulator hash, voltage, 342 cathode follower in, 141 S- curve, 163
Reinserted carrier, 335 double conversion, 202 -203 Second detector, a -c loading of, 214
Refection notch, 210-211 variable -je tubes in, ISO Secondary emission, 79, 81 -82
Relaxation oscillator, 117 -118, 188, 234 vhf range, 201 -202 Selenium and silicon rectifiers, 720-723
Relays, 394 Rhombic antenna, 479 -481 Self bias, 262
Reluctance, 40 horizontal vhf, 503 -305 Self- blocking keying system, 404
Remote -cutoff Ribbon and tubular transmission line, Self- controlled oscillators, 229 -234
grid structure, 90 432 -433 Self- pulsing blocking oscillator, 190
tube, 87 -89 Ring modulator, diode, 337 -338 Self- starting oscillators, transistor, 155
Reperforator, 330 Ripple considerations, 709 -711 Selective tuned circuits, 347-349
Residual magnetism, retentivity, 41 RLC circuits Selsyns and synchras, 131
Resistance, 25 parallel, 60 -62 Semiconductor
amplifier, 103 series, 56 -60 devices, 100 -119
gain of a transistor, 108 Ams value, 51 holes, 101
Resistance, ground, 417 Rotatable arrays intrinsic, 101
input, 271 bidirectional, 525 Separate bias supply, 263
internal, 28 construction of, 525 -528 Separate screen supply, 264 -265
load, formula, 137 plumbers delight, 527 -128 Series
symbol for, 121 radiating elements, 526 -527 bias feed, 267
parallel, 28 Rotary beams, 512.532 cathode modulator, 294, 291
plate, 82 -84 three -element array, 114-516 diode gate clipper, 187
symbol for, 120 element spacing, 515 diode operation, 723 -724
Resistance, series, 27, 29 length of parasitic element, 515 -516 feed, 268
series- parallel, 29, 30 materials for elements, 115 inductance, capacitors, 360
Resistance- capacitance more than three elements, 516 inductors, 42
filters, 711 stacking of yagi arrays, 516 plate feed, 267
oscillators, 191 -192 Rotary -link coupling, parasitic arrays, resistance, 28, 29
Resistance- capacitance coupled a -f 521 resistance, capactiors, 360
amplifiers, 124 -127 Rotating vector, 48, 49 resistance circuits, 27
Resistance -transformer coupling, 123 RTTY RLC circuits, 56 -60
Resistivity, table of, 26 converter, audio, 328 screen supply, 264
Resistor, 358 -360 electronic keyer, 328 series- derived high -pass filter, 376
bleeder, 731 receiving converter, 326 -328 series -parallel resistance, 29, 30
composition, 318 reception, 326.328 Series- resonant circuit, 62
equivalent circuits, 339 current and voltage, 64
frequency effects, 359 Swing, f-m, 310
inductance, 359 -360 s Shape factor, i -f circuits, 207 -2C1
screen voltage-limiting, 265 Shop layout, 782 -783
temperature coefficient, 358 -139 Safety Shunt
voltage -equalizing, 38 bias, 262-263 feed, 268
irewound, impedance curves, 360 bleeders, 401 -402 feedback circuit, 146
Resonance precautions, 398 -401 neutralization, 246 -247
antenna, 414 -411 safety signal, 400 resistance, capacitors, 360
curves, 61, 64 Saturation, 41 Shunt -regulated bias supply, 731
filter -system, 711 -713 plate current, 81 -83 Sideband exciters, 353 -315

843
www.americanradiohistory.com
Sideband transceiver, 200 -watt 3 -band, in-phase, stacked dipole, 491 Standard power- supply circuits, 714 -720
583 -593 out -of- phase, stacked dipole, 481 -482 mercury -vapor tubes, 718
circuit description, 583, 585 Spectrum, frequency, 46, 47 polyphase, 717
construction, 585 -587 Speech single -phase, 716 -717
testing and alignment, 587 -590 amplifier, clipper, 142 transformerless, 719
transmitter alignment, 590 -593 and a -m equipment, 698 -706 voltage- doubler, 719
Sidebands, 277 -278 clipping, 297 voltage -quadrupler, 719 -720
relative proportion, 279 effects of, 140 Standing wave, 433, 455 -456
Side frequencies in the modulator stage, 287 indicator, bridge -type, 760 -762
a -m, 309 low -level, 700 on a resonant antenna, 411
f -m, 310 waveform ratio and reflection coefficient
Signal, error, 193 amplitude, 280 relation, 761
Signal- frequency tuned circuits, 203 -206 dissymmetry, 280 Standing waves on a transmission line,
bandspread tuning, 205 polarization, 280 434
frequency range selection, 205 power relations, 291 Start space, 325 -326
impedance, and Q, 204 Splatter, 280, 297 Static
input resistance, 204 suppressor body, 543
stray circuit capacitance, 206 action, 301 grid current, symbol for, 120
superheterodyne tracking, 204 -205 high -level, 300, 700 -701 grid voltage, symbol for, 120
Significant figures, 826 Split- stator plate neutralization, 245 interelectrode capacitance, 121
Signal, safety, 400 Sporadic -E layer, 427 plate current, symbol for, 120
Signal- strength indicators, 214 -215 Spurious missions, 374, 387 wheel, 542
Signal- to-noise ratio, 182 Square wave, 68, 69 Station and Operator Licenses, 12, 13
Silicon SSB envelope, 335 Steering diodes, 118
crystal noise generator, 767 -769 test, 71 -72 Stop pulse, 325 -326
intrinsic resistivity of, 101 SSB Stratospheric reflection, 424 -425
supplies for SSB, 724-728 advantage with selective fading, 335 Stray circuit capacitance, 206
Silicon and germanium atomic structure, applications, commercial, 331 -332 Stub -fed Zepp -type radiator, 437
100 -101 bandwidth, 333 Stubs, matching, 457
Silicon and selenium rectifiers, 720 -723 distortion products, 349 Substitution method, 755
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), 104 envelope Sterba curtain array, 484
Sine wave, 48 four -tone, 335 Sunspot cycle, 427
Single -band SSB transceiver, 572 -583 square -wave, 335 Sun noise recording, 604
alignment, 580 -581 three -tone, 334 Superheterodyne
circuitry, 573 -571 exciter, 175 -watt, 624 -635 alignment, 225
final adjustment and neutralization, 581 circuit, 624 -626 receivers, 197 -200
layout and assembly, 575 -578 dial assembly, 627 -629 advantages of, 198
transmit operation, 581 -583 layout, 626 -627 arithmetical selectivity, 198
wiring, 578 -580 main bandswitch assembly, 627 choice of intermediate frequency, 198
Single -ended wiring and testing, 629 converter stage, 198 -200
amplifier neutralization circuits, 244 frequency -conversion systems, 346 -350 diode mixers, 200
pentode amplifiers, 135 -137 generation principle of operation, 197 -198
tetrodes, neutralizing, 249 filter method, 338 tracking, 204 -203
triode amplifiers, 133 -135 phasing method, 338 Superregenerative receivers, 195 -197
Single -sideband phasing system, 342 -346 Supports, antenna, 461 -464
applications, oscilloscope, 182-184 Jr., 352 -353 A -frame mast, 461
receivers and adapters, 356 modulator circuit, 352 guy wires, 462
signals, deviation, 332 pentagrid mixer circuit, 346 insulation, 463 -464
transmission, 331 -357 signal, nature, 334 -335 painting, 463
Single -phase rectification circuits, 716 -717 signals trees as supports, 463
Single -swing blocking oscillator, 190 generation, 338 -346 TV masts, 461 -462
Single -tone observations, oscilloscope, 183 reception, 355 -357 wire, 463
Single -wire antenna tuner, 469 -471 silicon supplies for, 724 -728 Suppression
bridge calibration, 470 stability requirements, 335 high -angle radiation, 420 -421
tuner adjustments, 471 transceiver, single -band, 572.583 noise, 216 -220
tuner construction, 470 alignment, 580 -581 alternative limiter circuit, 219 -220
Single- wire-fed antenna, 452 -453 circuitry, 573 -575 limiter
Six -band trans -receiver, 544 -513 final adjustment and neutralization, audio, 218
adjustment, 551 -553 581 Bishop, 217 -218
circuitry, 545 layout and assembly, 175 -578 full -wave, 220
construction, 547 -550 transmit operation, 581 -583 Lamb, 217
controls, 545 -547 wiring, 578 -580 peak, 216 -217
receiver wiring, 550-551 transceiver supply, 733 practical peak, 218 -219
Six -meter TVI filter, 382 transmitter-exciter, deluxe HBT-200, TNS, 220
Six- shooter broadside array, 487 635 -648 power line filters, 216
Skin effect, 64 circuit, 638 noise, vehicular, 541 -544
Skip distance, 426 -427 construction, 641 -642 body static, 543
Skywave, 422 transmitter generator "whine," 542 -343
Slide -back v.t.v.m., 747 alignment, 644 -648 ignition noise, 341 -342
Slope detection of f -m signal, 319 wiring, 643 -644 locating noise sources, 544
Slotted line, 759 -760 vfo assembly, 642 -643 voltage regulator "hash," 542
Space, 325 Stability requirements, SSB, 335 wheel static, 142
Space charge, 82, 87 Stacked Suppression and metering circuits, 670
effect, 80, 82 broadside arrays, 523 -525 Suppressor, 87
limited current, 80 dipole arrays, 481 -483 Suppressor -grid modulation, 288 -289
limited emission, 82, 83 broadside arrays, 483 -484 Suppressor, splatter, high- level, 700 -701
Space -conserving antennas, 444 -446 collinear, 482 -483 Surface wave, 422
broadband dipole system, 446 double extended zepp, 483 Susceptance, 61
twin -lead Marconi, 446 in -phase spacing, 481 Sweep
Space wave, 422 out-of -phase spacing, 481 -482 amplifier, oscilloscope, 173
Spacd half -wave antennas, 483 spaced half -wave, 483 gneerator, oscilloscope, 172 -173
Spacing yagi arrays, 517 Sweep -speed multiplier oscilloscope, 172

844
www.americanradiohistory.com
Sweep -trigger circuit, oscilloscope, 171 T.N.T. oscillator, 231 voltage gain, 108
Switching, crystal, 240 Tone oscillator, 650 -651 Transistorized
SWR bridge, 472 Tools, 773 -775 capacitance meter, 757 -758
SWR indicator, twin -lamp, 764 T.P.T.G. oscillator, 231 exciter, 117
Synchros and selsynr, 531 Trace, CRT, 97 mobile converter, 133 -531
Tracer, linearity, oscilloscope, 113 -184 Transit time, effect, 91, 96
Traces, linearity, 184 Transition
T Tracking, superheterodyne, 204 -205 oscillator, 233
Transceivers region, 107
Tank -capacitor reactance, 255 and receivers, 558 -619 Transmission -line, 410 -435
Tank circuit, 65 -68 power supply, 558 -733 characteristics, 431
amplifier, Q of, 155 200 -watt, 3 -band sideband, 583 -193 circuits, uhf, 220
arrangements, 211 circuit description, 583 -181 filters, high -pass, 375
capacitance, 213 construction, 585 -587 impedance, 430
efficiency, 67 -68 testing and alignment, 187 -190 matching system, Collie's, 460 -461
flywheel effect, 67 transmitter alignment, 590 -593 matching to the antenna, 128 -529
push -pull stages, 256 Transconductance, 82 -84 nonresonant, 430 -433
Q, 253 -258 conversion, symbol for, 120 ribbon and tubular, 432 -433
Tank -inductor reactance, 255 cutoff frequency, 107 standing waves, 434
Tank Q, capacitance charts, 255, 216 grid -plate, 89, 91 vhf and uhf, 494
Tape perforator, 330 symbol for, 120 Transmitters
T -D unit, 329 Transformation and exciters, low- power, 620 -651
Teleprinter, 326 impedance, 73 control methods, 397 -398
code, 325 -326 ratio, 72 design, 358 -373
Teleprinting, 325 Transformer distributor unit, 329
Television interference, 374 -391 calculation, modulation, 140.141, 291 -292 exciter, SSB, Deluxe HBT -200, 635 -648
Temperature coupling, 128 circuit, 638
coefficient, resistor, 318 -359 i -f, 206 -207 construction, 641 -642
filament, 78, 79 matching, quarter -wave, 419 transmitter
"Ten -A" exciter, 353, 314 power, 551 -556 alignment, 644 -648
10 -meter mobile antennas, 533 -519 qu -wave, doublets with, wiring, 64) -644
439
Termax- Woodyard types, 71 -74 vfo assembly, 642-643
grid -modulation system, 219 Transformerless power supplies, 719 fundamental, tuned traps, 375
modulated amplifiers, 294 Transients, 68, 69 keying and control, 392 -409
Terminal unit, 326-327 RC and RL, 43 -41 loading problem, 464
Test Transistor output coupling adjustment, 461 -466
equipment, electronic, 744 -772 action, 101 -108 performance, monitoring with
for neutralization, 273 and vacuum -tube configurations, oscilloscope, 178 -179
probes, 712 comparison of, 110 modulated -wave pattern, 179
setup for para,itics, 372 audio amplifier, two -stage, 112 trapezoidal pattern, 179
square wave, 71, 72 bias configurations, 111 waveforms, 178 -179
Tetrode, 88, 89 blocking oscillator, 118 Transport, charge, 106
amplifiers characteristics, 108 -110 Trans -Receiver, six -band, 144 -553
linearity curve of, 164 checker, 770 -772 adjustment, 151.153
push -pull, 616 -619 circuitry, 110 -118 circuitry, 545
cathode modulation, 294 classifications, 107 -108 construction, 547 -150
characteristic curves, 88 configurations, 109 -110 controls, 145 -147
coefficients, 19, 91 electrical symbols, 106 receiver wiring, 110-111
current flow, 88 -89, 90, 91 epitaxial planar, 111 Trap
modulators, 698 -699 equivalent circuit, 109 a-c line, 388
zero -bias, 706 field-effect, 118 -119 high -Q isolating, S32
pi- network amplifiers, 659 -662 i -f amplifiers, 114 isolating, three -band beams, 531 -132
grounded -screen, 661 -662 Transistor Trapezoidal patterns, oscilloscope, 180
inductively tuned tank circuit, 662 junction, output characteristics cf, Traveling -wave tube, 91, 94, 96
plate resistance, 91 105, 109 Trarss discriminator, 320
protective circuits, 264 -265 keyer, 648 -611 TRF receiver alignment, 225
screening, 371 circuit, 648 -650 Triangle, impedance, 11
tubes, 86 -87 construction, 611 Tribander linear amplifier, 692 -697
Thermionic emission, 71, 77 dash flip -flop, 610 circuit, 692 -696
35 -watt tone oscillator, 610 -611 transmitter adjustment and tuning, 697
modulator, 114 low- frequency equivalent circuit, 109 transmitter control circuits and power
transistor power supply, 556 -117 NPN, 105 supply, 696 -697
Thoriated- tungsten filament, 71 -80 operation, 553 -154 Trigger amplifier, oscilloscope, 171
Three -band beams, rotary, 531 -532 oscillators, 116 -118 Trigonometry, 807 -812
Three-element array, rotary beams, 514 -516 PNP, 101 Trimmer, antenna, auxiliary, 537 -538
element spacing 111 point -contact, 105 -106 Triode
length of parasitic element, 111 -516 power gain, 108 amplifiers
materials for elements, 511 power rating, 154 -511 push -pull, 614 -656
more than three elements, 116 power supply circuit layout, 611
stacking of yagi arrays, 516 85 -watt, 117 construction, 651 -616
Three -element beam antenna, 105 -106 31 -watt, 516 -557 excitation requirements, 655
3/4 -wave folded doublet, 447 -448 mobile unit, 553 -156 filament supply, 614
Three -halve, power law, 82, 83 operation, 553 -114 grid bias, 614
Three -tone SSB envelope, 334 rating, 554 -555 grid circuit, 654 -615
Thyratron, 91, 100 self -starting oscillators, 111 plate feed, 614
Tiltable array, vhf, 106 -108 transformer, 115 -556 single-ended, 133 -135
Time -base circuitry, oscilloscope, 171 -172 preamplifier, vhf low- noise, 116 cathode -driven high-A, 166
blanking, 171 -172 resistance gain, 108 characteristic curves, 83 -81
sweep-trigger, 171 self -bias system, Ill current flow, 82, 14
Time constants, RC and RL, 43 SSB filter exciter, 313 -311 grid action, 81, 83
T match, 417 types of, 101 -106 high -a, grid -leak bias for, 127
TNS limiter, 220 unipolar, 118 -119 load line, 81, 86
mixer, 90, 92, 200 TV tube combinations, 690 -691
negative -grid characteristics, 83, 81 blocking, 376 tuning and adjustments, 691 -692
overtone oscillators, 240 -242 channels, vhf, 378
parantic oscillations, 369 -370 coverage, high -band, helical beam
planar, 95 antenna, 502 V
positive -grid characteristics, 85 masts, 461 -462
power amplifier, operation set overloading, 374 -377 Vacuum capacitors, 362
characteristics of, 133 -135 TVI, 374 -391 Vacuum -diode modulator circuits, 339
stages, RC- coupled, 125 filter, six -meter 382 Vacuum -tube
Triple- triode product detector, 228 types, 374 amplifiers, I20 -148
Triplex beam, 491 TVI -proof inclosures, 777.778 radio- frequency, 147 -168
Tripling and doubling circuits, viractor, Twin -lamp SWR indicator, 764 characteristics, 108
103 Twin -lead circuits, special, 185 -193
Tropospheric propagation, 423 folded dipole, 439 classification, 98, 100, 101
Tubes Marconi antenna, 446 constants, 121
at very -high frequencies, 91 -96 Twin noise squelch limiter, 226 keyers, 403
beam -deflection, 357 Twin- triode mixer, 346 -347 parameters, 120 -122
beam -power, 87.90 Two -band Marconi antenna, 448-449 principles, 75 -99
cathode -ray, 94 -99 Two -cavity klystron oscillator, 92 polarity inversion, 85 -86
characteristics, application, 84 -68 Two -element beam yagi type, 512 -514 voltmeter, 748 -752
circuits, 268 200 -watt -band sideband transceiver,
3 Vacuum -tube and transistor configurations,
clamp, 264 583 -593 comparison of, 110
controlled- warmup, 99, 102 circuit -description, 183.585 V antenna, 477 -479
electron -ray, 99, 101, 102 construction, 581 -587 Varactors, 103 -104
gas, 97 -500 testing and alignment, 587 -590 Variable
input loading, 149 transmitter alignment, 590 -593 air capacitors, 361-362
"magic -eye," 99, 101 2-KW PEP supply, 729 -731 vacuum capacitors, 362
mercury- vapor, 98, 100 Two -meter converter, nuvistor, 567 -572 Variable-efficiency modulation, 281
microwave, 93 -96 adjustments, 570 -571 Variable -link coupling 466
mixer and converter, 89 -90, 92 antioverload modification, 571 -572 Variable -ratio autotransformers, 397 -398
pentode, 87 circuit description, 567 -568 Variable -selectivity filters, 209 -210
premium, 98 construction, 168 -569 Variable -a tubes in r -f stages, 150
remote -cutoff, 87, 89 Two- terminal oscillator circuits, 233 Variac, 397-398
screen -grid, 86.87 Two -tone SSB envelope, vector Variation of Q with frequency, 64, 65
special microwave, 91 -94 representation, 334 Varicaps, 102
tetrode, 86 -87 Two -wire open line, 430 -433 Vector, 48 -49, 812 -815
thyratron, 98 diagram, discriminator, 321
traveling -wave, 94, 96 relationship of feedback voltage, 274
types, 76 V representation of two -tone SSB
vhf, 223 -224 envelope, 334
voltage -regulator, 98 -100 Uhf rotating, 48, 49
Tuned electron tubes, 90 -91 Vehicular noise suppression, 541 -544
cathode circuit, r -f amplifier, 166 -168 receiver design, 220 -224 body static, 143
circuits butterfly circuit, 222.223 generator "whine," 542 -143
coupled, 349 coupling into lines and coaxial ignition noise, 541 -842
i -f, 206 -213 circuits, 221 locating noise sources, 544
beat -frequency oscillators, 212 -213 crystal rectifiers, 224 voltage regulator hash, 542
crystal filters, 209, 211 resonant cavities, 221 -222 wheel static, 542
mechanical filter, 215 -212 transmission line circuits, 220 Velocity modulation, 91
Miller effect, 208 tuning short lines, 220 Vertical
practical filters, 209 vhf tubes, 223 -224 amplifier, oscilloscope, 170 -171
rejection notch, 210 -211 Uhf and vhf antenna, 493 -311 antenna, half -wave, 441
shape factor, 207 -208 corner- reflector and horn -type, 502 -503 antenna, multiband, 453 -455
transformers, 206 -207 helical beam, 500 -502 directivity, 412 -419
variable-selectivity filters, 209 -210 horizontally polarized, 496 -497 radiation patterns, 420-421
selective, 347 -349 requirements, 493 Vertical plane directional characteristics,
signal- frequency, 203 -206 changeover, 494 418
bandspread tuning, 205 insulation, 495 Vertical- polarized antennas, vhf and uhf,
frequency range selection, 205 polarization, 495 -496 497 -498
impedance and Q, 204 radiation angle, 494 -495 double skeleton cone, 498
input resistance, 204 radiator cross section, 495 nondirectional, 498
stray circuit capacitance, 206 transmission lines, 494 Vfo
superheterodyne tracking, 204 -205 vertical -polarized, 497 -498 40- meter, 579
doublet antenna, 437 -439 double skeleton cone, 498 transmitter controls, 234
lines, 433 -434 nondirectional, 498 Vhf
plate crystal oscillator, 238 Unidirectional bands, If
traps, 375 driven arrays, 523 -325 beam antenna, mul tielement, 505 -511
Tuner for center -fed antenna feed methods, 523.325 eight -element tiltable array, 506 -508
systems, 471 -473 stacked broadside arrays, 523 -521 long yagi, 511
Tungsten filament, 78, 79 parasitic end -fire arrays, 112 -514 screen beam formeters, 109.511
2
Tuning Unipolar transistor, I18 -119 three -element beam, f01-506
array, 528 -130 Unit low -noise transistor preamplifier, 116
matching to the antenna transmission of capacitance, 34, 31 par si tics, elimination, 369 -371
line, 528 -529 of inductance, 42 tubes, 223 -224
raising and lowering, 530 Unity coupling, 266 TV channel frequencies, 378
bandspread, 205 Unloaded Q, 67 Vhf and uhf antenna, 493 -III
capacitor air gap, 258 Upper sideband, 332 corner -reflector and horn -type, 502 -503
crystal oscillator, 239, 240 Utility 2- kilowatt linear amplifier helical beam, 500 -502
grid -bias modulated stage, 283 -284 (U -2), 682 -692 horizontally polarized, 496 -497
short lines, uhf, 220 circuit, 682 -681 horizontal rhombic, 503 -505
TU (terminal unit), 326 -327 construction, 685 -688 requirements, 493 -496
Tunnel diode, 102 -103 external anode tetrodes, 688 -690 changeover, 494

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insulation, 491 Voltage regulator Wheel static, 142
polarization, 491 -496 hash, 142 Whip antenna, 139
radiation angle, 494 -493 tube, 91 -100 "Whine," generator, 142-143
radiator cross section, 491 Voltage -variable junction diode, 102 Wien -bridge oscillator, 191
transmission lines, 494 Voltohmmeters, 741 -746 Wire, antenna, 463
vertical -polarized, 497 -491 Volume control, automatic, 214 Workshop practice, 773 -783
double skeleton cone, 491 VOX circuitry, 401 -409
nondirectional, 491 V.t.v.m.
Video amplifier circuit, compensated, 127 a -c, 741 X
Video -frequency amplifiers, 127 -128 bridge -type, 750
Voltage Heatbleit IM -13, 750 -712 X- array, 414
amplifier, cascaded, 127 modern, 750 -712
amplifiers, PNP transistor, III slide -back, 747
avalanche, 102 T
decay, 102
feed, 411 w Yagi, long, vhf antenna, 111
gain of a transistor, 108 Yagi arrays, stacking of, 116-117
Water -pipe grounds, 443 -444 Yagi -type two -element beam, 112 -$14
gain per stage, audio amplifiers, 123
Wave composition, 61, 69
peak- inverse, 102
Waveform
rating of capacitors in series, 3$
base -collector, 313 z
regulation, 709
oscilloscope, 173 -171
quadrupler, 719 -720
Wave interference with height, 423 Zener
Voltage and current, 744 -747
Wavemeter, crystal-diode, 379 control region, 104
Voltage divider
Waves diode, 104
a-c, 61 -62 knee, 104
nonsinusoidal, 61, 69
calculations, 30 -31 standing, 413 -416 Zepp
phase inverter, 132 Wavetrap antenna system, 437
Voltage -equalizing resistors, 31 circuit, 381 center -fed, 437
Voltage -doubler circuits, 719 power line, 389 double -extended, 483
Voltage -regulated power supplies, 737 -731 Wheatstone Bridge circuits, 711 Zero-bias tetrode modulators, 706

847
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