Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Notes:
1. When a range of accuracy levels is recommended, the lower value is applicable to measurements under relatively good conditions and the
higher value is applicable to measurements under difficult situations.
2. Obtaining the recommended accuracy of precipitation measurements, 37 per cent, will depend on many factors, including gauge
characteristics. For gauges having their orifice above the ground, the gauge catch deficiency is strongly determined by wind speed and
precipitation type. The catch deficiency for light snow falling during strong wind can for example be 50 per cent or more.
2.4 DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF or gauge may be included in more than one network
HYDROLOGICAL NETWORKS if its data are being used for more than one purpose.
In most parts of the world this is more commonly
the case than not. Alternatively, a single network
2.4.1 General concepts of network design
may consist of several types of station or gauge if
A hydrological data network is a group of data- they are all contributing information to the
collection activities that is designed and operated networks objective. For example, both raingauges
to address a single objective or a set of compatible and stream gauges might be included in a flood
objectives. Frequently, the objectives are associated forecasting network.
with a particular use that is anticipated for the data
being collected in the network for example, for a The term network is frequently used in a less rigor-
water resources assessment, a development plan, or ous sense. It is often possible to hear of surface-water
a project design. A particular hydrological station network, groundwater network, precipitation
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-19
network, or water-quality network when the speaker (b) Where do they need to be observed?
is referring to an aggregation of gauges and stations (c) How often do they need to be observed?
that have no coherence in their objectives. Data- (d) What is the duration of the observation
collection sites included in a network under this programme?
looser definition may even have disparate uses for (e) How accurate should the observations be?
the data being collected. This disparity of usage is
more than just a semantical oddity. It can cause To answer these questions, network design can be
confusion and false expectations when network conceptualized as a pyramid, as shown in
analysis and design are being discussed among Figure I.2.5. The base of the pyramid is the science
programme managers and hydrologists. of hydrology. Without a thorough understanding
of the hydrological setting of the area in which the
A network design could be based on a maximiza- network is to be established, there is little chance
tion of the economic worth of the data that are to that the resulting network will generate informa-
be collected. However, such is not the case in the tion in an effective manner. Hydrological
real world. Generally, in water resources decision- understanding comes from both education and
making, the economic impacts of hydrological data experience, but there is no substitute for experience
are never considered. Decisions are made based on when initiating a hydrological network in an area
the available data; the option of delaying the deci- where little or no historical data are available.
sion to collect more data is not explored, or deemed
unacceptable. However, several examples of excep- The right-hand side of the pyramid deals with
tions to this general rule are contained in the quantitative methods for coping with hydrological
Costbenefit Assessment Techniques and User uncertainty. Because of measurement errors and
Requirements for Hydrological Data (WMO-No. 717) errors caused by sampling in space and time, there
and in the Proceedings of the Technical Conference on will always be hydrological uncertainty. Perfect
the Economic and Social Benefits of Meteorological and hydrological information can never exist.
Hydrological Services (WMO-No. 733). A review of Probabilistic descriptions of these errors are the
the hydrometric network in one Canadian province most effective means of dealing with the resulting
indicated that the costbenefit ratio of the existing uncertainty. Probability theory provides the
provincial network was 19 and that the network theorems and the language for doing so and also
could be tripled in size to maximize economic yields the understanding that is necessary for
benefits (Azar and others, 2003). Even in nations appropriate use of the tools of statistics. In
with very dense hydrometric networks, such as the Figure I.2.5, statistical tools are represented by
United Kingdom, economic analysis inevitably sampling theory and by correlation and regression
demonstrates that benefits of hydrometric networks analyses, which are commonly used in quantitative
exceed the cost (CNS, 1991). Nonetheless many network-design approaches. However, there are
countries suffered considerable reductions in their many other branches of statistics that may be found
hydrological networks in the 1980s and 1990s as a useful in network analysis and design. The capstone
consequence of budget reductions for monitoring of uncertainty is Bayesian analysis, which pertains
agencies (Pearson, 1998). For example, network to the level of uncertainty in the descriptions of
reductions in Canada, Finland, New Zealand
and the United States of America were 21, 7, 20
and 6 per cent, respectively. Network reductions,
with rare exceptions such as New Zealand, Decision theory
continue.
Bayesian
In lieu of complete economic analyses, network analysis
designs are usually based on surrogate measures of Socio-
Optimization Corre-
the economics or on guidance such as that presented economic Sampling
theory lation and
subsequently in this chapter. analysis theory
regression
relationship, usually by means of correlations, with assessment will generally have less specific require-
one or more of the base stations. A new secondary ments for its information sources, it will be likely
station can then be established with the equipment that many of the gauges of the flood-forecasting
and funds that had been in use at the discontinued network can be incorporated into the assessment
site. Records can be reconstructed at the discontin- network and used as initial given conditions for its
ued site by means of the base-station records and design. This iterative approach is particularly useful
the inter-station relationship. At times, it may be when designing generalized networks, like the basic
necessary to re-establish secondary stations if it is network on the basis of networks, with more restric-
believed that the conditions either at the secondary tive information demands. Networks with more
site or at its related base station(s) have changed. restrictive demands include benchmark stations,
The perpetual nature of the principal stations in the representative basins and networks for operational
basic network provides a basis for monitoring long- purposes.
term trends in hydrological conditions in the
region. This is particularly important in the light of
2.4.1.4.1 Stations for operational purposes
potential changes in the hydrological cycle that
could be caused by land-use changes or by increases Stations may be established for such specific
in stratospheric greenhouse gases. purposes as reservoir operation, irrigation, naviga-
tion, water-quality monitoring or flood forecasting.
Benchmark or reference stations would also belong
2.4.1.4 Integrated network design
to this category. The length of operation of special
The hydrological cycle is a continuum, and its inter- stations is related to the purpose for which they
connections permit the partial transfer of were installed.
information obtained in one part of the cycle to
another. The efficiency of such transfers is propor- In some cases, the specific purpose to be served
tional to the degree of hydrological understanding may require observations on only one particular
that is captured in the models that are used to route aspect of an element, or be confined to one season
the water (and the information) between the parts of the year. For example, a hydrometric station
of the cycle. For example, precipitation records on may consist of a crest gauge for recording only the
or near a gauged drainage basin permit the recon- maximum flood peak or a storage gauge for meas-
struction of streamflow records during periods uring the total precipitation during a season.
when the stream-gauge malfunctions if a valid Although such stations may perform a valuable
precipitation-runoff model has been calibrated function, they do not provide the data required
during times when all gauges were functioning for general hydrological analyses. Consequently,
properly. A groundwater observation well may such stations may or may not be included in a
perform a similar role for malfunctions of the basic hydrological network.
stream gauge if the well is monitoring the water
table of an aquifer that is directly connected to the
2.4.1.4.2 Benchmark stations
stream.
Each country and each natural region of large coun-
To date, little has been done to include these inter- tries should contain one benchmark station to
actions in network designs in an explicit manner. provide a continuing series of consistent observa-
Ideally, the complementarity between the rain- tions on hydrological and related climatological
gauges and the stream gauges that are operated in a variables. Hydrological benchmark stations should
flood-forecasting network could be used in design- be established in areas that are relatively uninflu-
ing a network for water resources assessment, for enced by past or future anthropogenic changes.
example. If the economic trade-offs between the Since long records are the essence of a benchmark
two networks could be defined, they could be opti- station, consideration should be given to existing
mized together and peak efficiencies in information stations if they meet the other requirements. The
generation could be attained for both. In spite of Reference Hydrometric Basin Network of Canada is
this technological shortcoming, networks should one such example (Harvey and others, 1999).
be designed iteratively, and the outcomes of an Climatological benchmark stations are known as
existing design should become starting points for reference stations.
subsequent designs. By extension of the above
example, this can be illustrated. The flood-forecast- 2.4.1.4.3 Representative basins
ing network will probably have stream gauges and
precipitation gauges at rather specific locations to A representative basin is desirable in each natural
meet its information needs. As the water resources region especially in those regions where great
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-23
economic growth is expected or where the analysis and to tune the network to any changes
hydrological problems are particularly difficult. In in the socio-economic environment that may have
their simplest form, they permit the simultaneous transpired. The steps of the analysis are discussed
study of precipitation and runoff, thus helping to individually below.
make up for deficiencies in short periods of
observation and low densities of minimum
Institutional set-up
networks.
The roles and aims of all of the organizations
involved in various aspects of water resources
2.4.1.4.4 Project stations
management should be defined and identified,
These are stations established for a limited span of particularly legislative responsibilities.
time, for specific purposes, often research oriented. Communication links between these organizations
Other frequent objectives may be investigations should be improved to ensure coordination and
before or after physical interventions in the integration of data-collection networks.
catchment, or for supplementing the regional
coverage of the basic network. Project stations are
Purposes of the network
characterized by:
(a) Limited lifetime; The purposes of the network in terms of the users
(b) Data quality depending on purpose. and uses of the data should be identifi ed. Data
users and uses can vary temporally and spatially.
There is also a need to identify potential future
2.4.1.5 Conducting a network analysis
needs and incorporate these into the design as
Figure I.2.6 lays out the steps that should be taken well.
in conducting a review and redesign of an existing
hydrological network. Such reviews should be
Objectives of the network
conducted periodically to take advantage of the
reduction in hydrological uncertainty brought Based on the purpose of the network, an objective
about by the added data since the last network or set of objectives can be established in terms of
the information required. An indication of the
consequences of not being able to provide this
information may prove useful later.
Institutional set-up
Network design
Review
Depending on the available information and the
Direct linkages
objectives defined, the most appropriate network-
design technique or techniques should be applied.
Feedback mechanisms
This may be simple hydrological characteristics,
regression relationships, or more complex
Figure I.2.6. A framework for network analysis network analysis using generalized least squares
and redesign methods.
I.2-24 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
Table I.2.6. Recommended minimum densities of stations (area in km2 per station)
not help countries that need a network most as network can furnish the most immediate needs. In
they have very few prior records, and the establish- general, precipitation gauges should be as uniformly
ment of a good precipitation map is not possible. distributed as is consistent with practical needs for
Also, the countries with very irregular rainfall distri- data and the location of volunteer observers. In
bution need to be considered as a special category. mountainous regions, attention must be given to
In such cases, it is not advisable to base the classifi- vertical zonality by using storage gauges to measure
cation on this one characteristic. precipitation at high altitudes. Precipitation gauges
may be designed specifically to measure snow-water
Population density also affects network design. It is equivalent, either through the addition of shield-
almost impossible to install and operate, in a satis- ing to reduce under-catch due to wind or through
factory manner, a number of stations where the use of pressure sensors. Periodic manual snow
population is sparse unless the stations are highly surveys may be used to supplement the network,
automated. Sparsely settled zones, in general, coin- but they should not be counted as part of the
cide with various climatic extremes, such as arid network.
regions, polar regions or tropical forests.
The network should consist of three kinds of
At the other extreme, densely-populated urban gauge:
areas need a very dense raingauge network for both (a) Standard gauges These gauges are read daily
temporal and spatial resolution of storms and for for quantity. In addition to daily depth of
design, management and real-time control of the precipitation, observations of snowfall, the
storm-drainage systems and for other engineering depth of snow on the ground and the state of
applications. the weather are to be made at each standard
precipitation station;
From these considerations, a limited number of (b) Recorders In developing networks, it is advis-
larger zones have been defined for the definition of able to aim to have at least 10 per cent of
density norms in a somewhat arbitrary manner such stations. The greatest density of record-
adopting some general rules. Six types of physio- ing stations should be achieved in those areas
graphic regions have been defined for minimum subject to intense, short-duration rainfalls.
networks: Such stations will provide valuable information
(a) Coastal; on the intensity, distribution, and duration of
(b) Mountainous; precipitation.
(c) Interior plains; For urban areas where the time resolution
(d) Hilly/undulating; needed for rainfall measurements is of the order
(e) Small islands (surface areas less than 500 km2); of one to two minutes, special attention should
(f) Polar/arid. be paid to the time synchronization of the
raingauges. For reliable measurements, tipping-
For the last type of region, it is necessary to group bucket raingauges with an electronic memory
the areas in which it does not seem currently poss- (or another computer readable medium) are
ible to achieve completely acceptable densities recommended.
because of sparse population, poor development of In assigning priorities to locations for record-
communications facilities, or for other economic ing-raingauge installations, the following types
reasons. of areas should be given priority: urban areas
(population in excess of 10 000) where exten-
sive drainage systems are likely to be constructed,
2.4.2.1 Climatological stations
river basins in which major river control
The following types of data are collected at a clima- systems are anticipated or are in operation,
tological station in the basic network: precipitation, large areas inadequately covered by the exist-
snow survey and evaporation. It is understood here ing network and special research projects;
that evaporation or snow-measuring stations, partic- (c) Storage gauges (totalizers) In sparsely settled
ularly the former, will generally measure temperature, or remote regions, such as in desert or moun-
humidity and wind because these meteorological tainous terrain, storage gauges may be used.
elements affect evaporation and melting. These gauges are read monthly, seasonally, or
whenever it is possible to inspect the stations.
2.4.2.1.1 Precipitation stations
Location of precipitation gauges relative to stream-
If one follows certain principles of installation and gauging stations To ensure that precipitation data
use, the small number of stations in the minimum are available for extending streamflow records,
I.2-26 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
Wherever possible, the base stations should be There are places where additional observations of
located on streams with natural regimes. Where water level only are needed as part of a minimum
this is impractical, it may be necessary to establish network:
additional stations on canals or reservoirs to obtain (a) At all major cities along rivers, river stages are
the necessary data to reconstruct the natural flows used for flood forecasting, water supply and
at the base stations. Computed flows past hydro- transportation purposes;
electric plants or control dams may be useful for (b) On major rivers, at points between stream-gaug-
this purpose, but provisions will have to be made ing stations, records of river stage may be used
for calibration of the control structures and turbines for flood routing and forecasting purposes.
and for the periodic checking of such calibrations
during the life of the plants.
2.4.2.2.3 Lake and reservoir stages
Stations should be located on the lower reaches of Stage, temperature, surge, salinity, ice formation,
the major rivers of the country, immediately above etc., should be observed at lake and reservoir
the river mouths (usually above tidal influence) or stations. Stations should be established on lakes
where the rivers cross borders. Stations should also and reservoirs with surface areas greater than
be located where rivers issue from mountains and 100 km2. As in the case of rivers, the network should
above the points of withdrawal for irrigation water. sample some smaller lakes and reservoirs as well.
Other hydrometric stations are situated at loca-
tions, such as where the discharge varies to a
2.4.2.2.4 Sediment discharge and sedimentation
considerable extent, below the points of entry of
the major tributaries, at the outlets from lakes, and Sediment stations may be designed either to meas-
where large structures are likely to be built. ure total sediment discharge to the ocean or to
Hydrometric stations are often established at major measure the erosion, transport and deposition of
cities to meet a number of societal needs. sediment within a country, basin, etc. In designing
a minimum network, emphasis should be placed
To ensure adequate sampling, there should be at on erosion, transport and deposition of sediment
least as many gauging stations on small streams as within a country. An optimum network would
on the main streams. However, a sampling procedure contain a sediment station at the mouth of each
for small streams becomes necessary, as it is important river discharging into the sea.
impracticable to establish gauging stations on all of
them. The discharge of small rivers is strongly Sediment transport by rivers is a major problem in
influenced by local factors. In highly developed arid regions, particularly in those regions underlain
regions, where even the smallest watercourses are by friable soils and in mountainous regions where,
economically important, network deficiencies are for engineering applications, the amount of sedi-
keenly felt even on streams draining areas as small ment loads should be known.
as 10 km2.
The designer of a basic network must be forewarned
Stations should be installed to gauge the runoff in that sediment-transport data are much more expen-
different geologic and topographic environments. sive to collect than other hydrological records.
Because runoff varies greatly with elevation in Consequently, great care must be exercised in select-
mountains, the basic network stations must be ing the number and location of sediment-transport
located in such a way that they can, more or less stations. Emphasis should be placed on those areas
evenly, serve all parts of a mountainous area, from where erosion is known to be severe. After a few
the foothills to the higher regions. Account should years of experience, it may be desirable to
be taken of the varying exposure of slopes, which is discontinue sediment measurements at those
of great significance in rough terrain, and to land stations where sediment transport no longer appears
cover, which may vary with exposure and other to be of importance.
factors. Similarly, consideration should be given to
stations in districts containing numerous lakes, the Sediment-transport data may be supplemented by
influence of which can be determined only through surveys of sediment trapped in lakes or reservoirs.
the installation of additional stations. Echo-sounding devices are useful for this purpose.
However, information obtained in this way is not
2.4.2.2.2 River stages considered a substitute for sediment-transport
measurements at river stations. Sediment discharge
Stage (height of water surface) is observed at all measurement and the computation of sediment
stream-gauging stations to determine discharge. load are covered in 5.5.
I.2-28 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
R Basic variables for river stations only R, L Basic variables for river, lake/reservoir stations only
L Basic variables for lake/reservoir stations only GRF Essential for global river flux monitoring stations
GW Basic variables for groundwater stations only
I.2-30 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
supplemented by intensive, but infrequent, special The next step in choosing sampling locations is to
purpose water-quality surveys aimed at understand- collect relevant information about the region to be
ing short-term fluctuations in water-quality monitored. The information sought includes
parameters. As well, special situations may call for geological, hydrological and demographic aspects,
water-quality surveillance, the continuous, specific as well as the number of lakes and streams, size and
measurement of selected parameters. locations of aquifers, locations of existing water-
quality or stream-gauging stations, flow rates,
Sampling strategies vary for different kinds of water climatic conditions in the catchment area, histori-
bodies and media, for example, water, sediment, or cal developments, present and potential municipal
biota. Rivers mix completely within distances rang- and industrial centres, current water intakes and
ing from several kilometres to a few hundred waste outlets, natural salt springs, mine drainage,
kilometres of any point source of pollution. Lakes irrigation schedules, flow regulation (dams), present
may be vertically stratified because of temperature and planned water uses, stream or lake water-
or inflows of high-density saline water. Groundwater quality objectives or standards, accessibility of
tends to flow very slowly, with no surface indica- potential sampling sites (land ownership, roads and
tion of the changes in its solutes taking place airstrips), availability of services such as electricity,
below. and existing wate-quality data. Figure I.2.9 shows
the steps to be followed in selecting sampling sites.
If the objective concerns the impact of human The distance downstream to the point of complete
activities on water quality in a given river basin, the mixing is roughly proportional to the stream veloc-
basin can be separated into natural and altered ity and to the square of the width of the channel.
regions. The latter can be further subdivided into Rivers are usually sufficiently shallow that vertical
stationary zones for instance, over periods longer homogeneity is quickly attained below a source of
than 10 years, and those in which the impact is pollution. Lateral mixing is usually much more
variable, such as agricultural, residential and indus- slowly attained. Thus, wide swift-flowing rivers may
trial zones. In acid-deposition studies, an important not be completely mixed for many kilometres
factor is the terrain sensitivity to the deposition. downstream from the input point.
Figures I.2.7 and I.2.8 provide some examples of
where and how sampling stations could be located Various protocols are recommended to determine
to meet specific objectives on river and lake representative sampling in the cross-section of the
systems. river, for example, six samples analysed in duplicate,
Station Criteria
1 Immediately downstream of an
Inter natio nal boun dary international boundary
X1 2 Diversion for public supply of
large town
X2
Major city 3 Important fishing, recreation and
amenity zone
X
8 Undeveloped, sparsely 4 Diversion for large-scale
populated basis agricultural irrigation
5 Freshwater tidal limit of major
Recreation river
X3
and fishery
X 6 Diversion for large industrial
6 supply
7 Downstream of industrial effluent
X
Highly industrialized 7 discharges and important
urban area tributary influencing main river
X Irrigation
4 X8
8 Baseline station, water in natural
X5 state
X5
Sea
Station Criteria
X
9 9 Principal feeder tributary
10 General water quality of lake
11 Water supply for major city
12 Water leaving lake
X
10
Re
cre 11
ati X
on
12
X
Inventory of present
and future water use
Inventory of factors
Information influencing water
quality, present and
expected
Review of potential
sources, unused
and used
Collection of
available quality
data
Preparation of quality
and use maps
Data needs
Information required
Control planning
Possible sites
Data collection
Extended survey
Review
Site suitability
inspection checks
Site selected
Figure I.2.9. Scheme for the selection of water quality sampling sites
I.2-32 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
at three positions across the river and two depths or 2.4.3.3 Precipitation quality
mid-depth samples at the quarter points, or other
equal distance points across the width of the river. In general, sampling sites should be selected to give
If a representative sample cannot be obtained, it is accurate and representative information concerning
advisable to select another site, either immediately the temporal and spatial variation of chemical
upstream or downstream. The other alternative is constituents of interest. Important factors to take
to obtain a flow-weighted composite sample from into consideration are prevalent wind trajectories,
samples collected on cross-section verticals. sources for compounds of interest, frequency of
precipitation events (rain, snow, hail), and other
Longitudinal mixing of irregular or cyclic discharges meteorological processes that influence the
into a river will have a secondary influence on the deposition. There are also local criteria to be
location of a sampling site. Their effects need to be considered:
taken into account in deciding the frequency of (a) No moving sources of pollution, such as routine
sampling and interpreting data. air, ground, or water traffic, should be within
1 000 m of the site;
Sampling frequency depends on the purpose of (b) No surface storage of agricultural products,
the network, the relative importance of the fuels, or other foreign materials should be
sampling station, the range of measured values, within 1 000 m of the site;
the time variability of the parameter of interest (c) Samplers should be installed over flat undis-
and the availability of resources. In the absence turbed land, preferably grass-covered,
of suffi cient background information, an arbi- surrounded by trees at distances greater than
trary frequency based on knowledge of local 5 m from the sampler. There should be no
conditions is chosen. After suffi cient data have wind-activated sources of pollution nearby,
been collected, the frequency may be adjusted to such as cultivated fields or unpaved roads.
reflect the observed variability. The frequency is Zones of strong vertical eddy currents,
also influenced by the relative importance of the eddy zones leeward of a ridge, tops of wind-
station and whether or not the concentrations swept ridges and roofs of buildings, particu-
approach critical levels for some substances larly, should be avoided because of strong
measured. turbulence;
(d) No object taller than the sampler should be
For lake stations, the recommended practice is to within 5 m of the site;
sample five consecutive days during the warmest (e) No object should be closer to the sampler
part of the year and five consecutive days every than a distance of 2.5 times the height by
quarter. Special cases include temperate-zone lakes which the object extends above the sampler.
that experience stratifi cation. These should be Particular attention must be given to over-
sampled at least six times a year, together with the head wires;
occasional random sample, to cover the following (f) The collector intake should be located at least
periods: during open water prior to summer strati- 1 m above the height of existing ground cover
fication, during mixing following summer to minimize coarse materials or splashes from
stratification, under ice, and during the periods of being blown into it;
snow melt and runoff. Similarly, additional samples (g) Automatic samplers require power to operate
of rivers should be taken, if possible, after storm lids and sensors, and in some cases for refrigera-
events and during snow melt and runoff. tion in the summer and thawing in the winter.
If power lines are used, they must not be over-
When parameters are plotted against time, some head. If generators are used, the exhaust must
cyclic variation may be apparent amidst the be located well away and downwind from the
random fluctuations. The detection of cyclic events collector;
requires a sampling interval no longer than one (h) To address issues on a continental scale, sites
third of the shortest cycle time and sampling over should preferably be rural and remote, with no
a period at least ten times longer than the time of continuous sources of pollution within 50 km
the longest cycle. Therefore, long-period cycles in the direction of the prevalent wind direction
will not be verified in the initial surveys, but and 30 km in all other directions.
become apparent during the operation of the
network. In order to detect the cyclic variations, It may not be possible to meet all of these criteria in
some random sampling is desirable, for example, all cases. The station description should refer to
on different days of the week or different hours of these criteria and indicate the exact characteristics
the day. of each location chosen as a sampling site.
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-33
In the case of large lakes, the precipitation over the (a) For pollution from point sources, sampling
lake may not be as heavy as along the shores and should be done during low-flow periods, when
the proportion of large particles may be smaller. In pollution inputs are less diluted;
order to sample in the middle of a lake, the sampler (b) When pollutants originate from diffuse sources
can be mounted on a buoy, rock, shoal or small such as runoff from the land of agricultural
island. nutrients or pesticides, sampling must be
focused on flood periods during which the
Event sampling is the preferred method for sampling pollutant is washed out of the soil.
precipitation. Each rain shower, storm or snowfall
constitutes an event. The analysis of event-precipi- If one of the objectives is to quantify the transport
tation samples enables pollutants associated with a of sediment in the river system, it should be noted
particular storm to be determined, and a wind- that peak concentrations of sediment do not neces-
trajectory analysis can determine probable sources. sarily correspond with times of peak flow. Also, a
However, this sampling regime is very sensitive. series of high flow rates will lead to progressively
The same statistical considerations concerning lower sediment peaks an exhaustion effect arising
frequency of sampling apply here as for surface- from the depletion of material available for
water sampling. re-suspension.
An inventory of wells, boreholes and springs fed by include daily information on water levels, discharge
the aquifer should be drawn up, and details of land and temperature and, where appropriate, ice
use should be recorded. phenomena, as well as observations every 5 or
10 days on ice thickness, snow depth and water
Groundwater samples are taken from drainage equivalent. The occasional reports contain
water, open wells and drilled wells. Wells should be emergency information on significant changes in
sampled only after they have been pumped long the regime of water bodies and operational control
enough to ensure that a fresh sample has been strategies, as well as specially requested reports that
obtained. This is particularly necessary where a well are needed to define the development of particular
has a lining subject to corrosion. hydrological phenomena.
An existing well is a low-cost choice, although wells The Casebook on Hydrological Network Design Practice
are not always at the best location or made of non- (WMO-No. 324) gives examples of spatial densities
contaminating materials. A well that is still in use for various hydrological variables and the general
and pumped occasionally is preferable to one that principles for determining them based on the time
has been abandoned. Abandoned or unused wells and space variability.
are often in poor condition with damaged or leaky
casings and corroded pumping equipment. It is
2.4.5 Network-strategy options
often difficult to measure their water levels, and
they may be safety hazards. In addition to seeking to improve representative-
ness of existing surface-water data networks,
Changes in groundwater quality can be very slow Hydrological Services should develop more
and are often adequately described by monthly, comprehensive monitoring strategies. For selected
seasonal or even annual sampling schedules. basins, the hydrometric data-collection activities
need to be integrated with sediment, water qual-
ity, meteorology and aquatic-habitat programmes
2.4.4 Operational data acquisition
(2.4.1.4). For example, concerns for sediment-asso-
networks
ciated contaminant transport require knowledge
Many types of hydrological forecasts are compiled of the source, pathways and fate of fine particles.
on the basis of data from networks. Information This requires an understanding of both the flow
may include measurements, as well as details of and sediment regimes. Whether for the interpreta-
the operation of water-management and flood- tion of concentrations or for calculating
protection works. A forecast system should make contaminant loadings, such integrated monitor-
use of data from the basic network (2.4.1.3) as far ing requires close coordination at all stages from
as possible. The scope of the forecast network is planning to reporting.
determined by:
(a) User demands for forecasts at specified loca- Integrated planning of related data networks should
tions and for current information on the status be developed to maximize the effectiveness of all
of water bodies; water-data programmes. Significant efforts are
(b) The network density needed to describe the required to define network needs from many different
hydrological characteristics and the dimen- perspectives, and, ultimately, to coordinate the data
sions of water bodies; collected on a watershed basis so that adequate water
(c) The technology for data transmission to the data, that is, precipitation, runoff, groundwater and
forecast centre; water quality, are available to meet future needs.
(d) The representativeness of the observations;
(e) The media for issuing forecasts. Present monitoring programmes can be enhanced
by the use of supplementary studies. For example,
The information on water-management operations river studies of sediment sources and morphologic
should be organized to fit in with the normal opera- change (Church and others, 1989; Carson, 1987)
tional routines of the water-management agencies supplement regular programme data to determine
that supply the information. the river behaviour. This knowledge, which is not
acquired from monitoring studies alone, is being
A schedule of reports transmitted to the forecast used for fisheries management, river-engineering
centre by non-automatic monitoring stations studies and water-quality studies.
should be drawn up, and the reports should be
classified according to whether they are regularly or On a different scale, water-quality considerations
occasionally transmitted. The regular reports should are increasingly important to urban drainage design.
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-35
The design of appropriate monitoring programmes Frequently, more than one service or agency may be
should consider short-interval sampling, integrated operating data-collection sites in one particular
precipitation and runoff monitoring, and extremely region or country. The acceptance by all parties of a
rapid response times if the data are to be useful. single, unique system of site identification will
These conditions are quite different from those facilitate data interchange and the multiparty
covered by standard monitoring procedures. The coordination of data-collection activities. The region
use of computer models is an additional strategy for chosen should be determined by drainage basin(s)
enhancing the information derived from water- or climatic zones, and part of a sites identification
monitoring activities. In certain circumstances, should reflect its location in the region.
monitoring-network designs can be improved by
the use of models. The site identification can be simply an accession
number, that is, a sequential number assigned as
stations are established. For example, site identifi-
cation in the Canadian National Water Quality
2.5 DATA COLLECTION Data Bank, NAQUADAT, represents a sophisticated
system designed for computer processing. It has a
12-digit alphanumeric code, which is the key
2.5.1 Site selection
element in storing and retrieving data in the compu-
Once the network design phase has been completed, ter system. This number is composed of several
the operational requirements have established the subfields (UNEP/WHO, 1996), as follows:
general location of the data-collection sites, and the (a) Type of water a two-digit numerical code indi-
types of instrumentation have been identified, the cating the type of water sampled at any given
best specific site in the general location is selected location, such as streams, rivers and lakes, or
to meet the requirements of the instrumentation as precipitation. The meaning of this code has
outlined in subsequent chapters of this Volume been extended to include other types of aquatic
(5.3.2.1 and 5.4.2). Modifications to the site may be media. A list of all currently assigned codes is
necessary to ensure the quality of the data, for given in Table I.2.8;
example, clearing and control stabilization. (b) Province, basin and sub-basin three pairs
of digits and letters identifying the province,
When a site has been selected and the instrumenta- basin and sub-basin;
tion has been installed, two types of data will be (c) Sequential a four-digit number assigned
collected at the site: descriptive details of the site usually by a regional office.
and its location, and the hydrological observations
that it has been established to measure. Once estab- For example, station number 00BC08NA0001 indi-
lished, the installation should be operated and cates that the sampling site is on a stream, in the
maintained to its predetermined standard. In province of British Columbia, in basin 08 and in
general, this involves the execution of an adequate sub-basin NA, and the sequence number is 1. Station
schedule of inspection and maintenance to ensure number 01ON02IE0009 is on a lake, in the prov-
continuity and reliability of data, and the develop- ince of Ontario, in basin 02 and in sub-basin IE and
ment of routine check measurements and the sequence number is 9.
calibrations to ensure data of the required
accuracy. WMO has accepted a coding system for station
identification (Moss and Tasker, 1991) that is simi-
lar to (b) and (c) of the NAQUADAT system.
2.5.2 Station identification
Two aspects should be considered to ensure the Another well-known coding system for sampling
historical documentation of details of a data- points is the River Mile Index used by the
collection site: the institution of an identification Environmental Protection Agency of the United
system and the archival of descriptive information. States as part of the STORET system. In this system,
the location of a sampling point is defined by its
2.5.2.1 Identification of data-collection sites distance and hydrological relationship to the
mouth of a river system. It includes major and
Every permanent site should be given a unique minor basin codes, terminal stream numbers, the
identifier that will be used to denote all data and direction and level of streamflow, the mileages
other information pertinent to the site. Such iden- between and to confluences in the river system,
tifiers are usually numeric, but they may also be and a code to identify the stream level on which
alphanumeric. the point is located.
I.2-36 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
Municipal 7 Raw 0
Waste- 2 Industrial 0 waste water Primary lagoon effluent 1
treated Municipal 1 Secondary lagoon effluent 2
Mining 2 Conventional primary effluent 3
Livestock waste 3 Conventional secondary 4
Unknown 9 effluent
Advanced waste water 5
treatment effluent
Precipitation 3 Rain 0 Disinfected effluent 6
Snow 1 Raw sludge 7
Ice (precipitated) 2 Digested sludge 8
Mixed precipitation 3 Other 9
Dry fallout 4
Miscellaneous 8 Raw 0
waste water Primary lagoon effluent 1
Treated 4 Municipal 0 Secondary lagoon effluent 2
supply Industrial 1 Conventional primary effluent 3
Mining 2 Conventional secondary 4
Private (individual) 3 effluent
Other communal works 4 Advanced waste water 5
Municipal distribution 5 treatment effluent
Municipal treatment plant 6 Disinfected effluent 6
(intermediate) Raw sludge 7
Treatment residue or sludge 7 Digested sludge 8
Other 9 Other 9
Source: World Meteorological Organization, 1988a: Manual on Water Quality Monitoring Planning and Implementation of Sampling and
Field Testing. Operational Hydrology Report No. 27, WMO-No. 680, Geneva.
2.5.2.2 Descriptive information include the station name and location details, the
station type, the associated stations, establishing/
In many instances the value of the data will be operating/owner authorities, the elevation details,
enhanced if the user can relate it to the details of the frequency of observation, the operating periods
the history of its collection as part of the routine and the details of installed equipment. Additional
production of metadata. To this end, a station regis- items specific to the station type should also be
tration file should record the details of each station. included. Selected information from this text file
The level of detail will of course vary with the should be attached routinely to any data output
parameter monitored. Typical information would (Chapter 10).
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-37
A historical operations file of more detailed infor- Aberdeen Bridge (Highway 148), between Hull and
mation should also be prepared for release as Pointe Gatineau and 15 metres off the pier on the
required (Chapter 10). Again, the level of detail left side looking downstream. If hand-held global
will vary with the type of observations being positioning devices are available, the geographic
recorded. A stream station may include details coordinates of the sampling location should be
such as climate zone and rainfall and evaporation determined and recorded on the station descrip-
notes, geomorphology, landforms, vegetation, tion. The dates that the station was first established
land use and clearing, and station details. Typical and that data collection was commenced should
components of such a file would include the also be recorded.
station description, a detailed sketch of the site, a
map showing the location of the site in the region, For streamflow and water-quality data stations,
and a narrative description of the site and region. location information should also include descrip-
Some examples of the format of such files can be tions of the water body above and below the
found in the UNEP (2005) and Environment station. These should include water depths, a
Canada (1983) publications. Figure I.2.10 is an description of the banks on either side of the water
example of one format. body and the bed material. A description of the
water body should include any irregularities in
morphology that might affect the flow of water or
2.5.2.2.1 Station description
its quality. Such irregularities may include a bend
An accurate description of the sampling location in a river, a widening or narrowing of the channel,
includes distances to specific reference points. It is the presence of an island, rapids or falls, or the
important that these reference points be perma- entry of a tributary near the station. A description
nent and clearly identified. For example, 5 metres of the banks should mention slope, bank material
north-west of the willow sapling is a poor desig- and extent of vegetation. Bed or sediment material
nation for a data site. An example of a useful may be described as rocky, muddy, sandy, vegeta-
description is 30 metres downstream from Lady tion-covered, etc. Station-location descriptions
Farmers rapids
_____________________________________________________
Location of station with respect to towns, bridges, highways, railroads, _____________________________________________________
tributaries, islands, falls, dams, etc.:
im
should mention seasonal changes that may hinder universal transverse mercator (UTM) coordinates or
year-round data collection. Additional informa- legal land descriptions. If the site is on a stream, its
tion in the case of lakes could include surface area, distance upstream from a reference point, such as a
maximum depth, mean depth, volume and water reference station or a river mouth should be
residence time. recorded. National grid references, if available,
should also be provided. For the international
Additional information about conditions, either GLOWDAT (that is, GEMS/WATER data bank (UNEP,
natural or man-made, which may have a bearing 2005) station), one entry is the WMO code for the
on the data should be recorded. Past and antici- octant of the globe for the northern hemisphere:
pated land disturbances and pollution sources 0, 1, 2 and 3 for 090W, 90180W, 18090E
should be mentioned, for example, forest fires, road and 900E, respectively (WMO-No. 683).
construction, old mine workings, and existing and Correspondingly, for the southern hemisphere the
anticipated land use. codes are: 5, 6, 7 and 8 for 090W, 90180W,
18090E and 900E (WMO-No. 559).
2.5.2.2.2 Detailed sketch of station location
Latitude and longitude values should be obtained
A sketch of the location and layout of the station using a global positioning system or, if that is not
(including distances expressed in suitable units) possible, from 1:50 000 or 1:250 000 topographical
with respect to local landmarks and permanent maps. Points on a 1:250 000 map can be located to
reference points, such as benchmarks, should be about 200 m and on a 1:50 000 scale to about
prepared (Figure I.2.11). Sampling or measuring 40 m (WMO-No. 559). If available, navigational
sites and equipment locations should be promi- charts can be used to provide more accurate values
nently shown on the sketch. than the topographical maps.
St
Je
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Blvd Greber
ap
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Gat
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Pointe Gatineau
N
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ee
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Ab e
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La B
M
30 r
Pie eau TP
Ja
tin
15
cq
M
Ga N
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TO ta
s-
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Ca
Parc
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8
P
14
M
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Ri
HW
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LL
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HU
Log boom
er
Riv
Preparations include:
2.5.4 Maintenance of sites
(a) Upgrade site access (helipad, if necessary);
The following maintenance activities should be (b) Equip a temporary campsite with provisions;
conducted at data-collection sites at intervals deter- (c) Store and check gauging equipment;
mined to ensure that the quality of the data being (d) Flood-proof instrumentation such as stage
recorded is adequate. These activities could be recorders.
conducted by the observer responsible for the sites,
if there is one. However, they should occasionally Following the recession of flood waters, particular
be performed by an inspector (9.8.4). attention is required to ensure the safety and secu-
rity of the data-collection site and to restore normal
All collection sites: operation of on-site instrumentation. In some cases
(a) Service the instruments; redesign and reconstruction of the site will be
(b) Replace or upgrade instruments, as required; required. This work should take into account infor-
(c) Retrieve or record observations; mation obtained as a result of the flood.
(d) Perform the recommended checks on retrieved
records;
2.5.5 Observations
(e) Carry out general checks of all equipment, for
example, transmission lines; At all data-collection sites a value must first be
(f) Check and maintain the site to the recom- sensed, then encoded or recorded, and finally
mended specifications; transmitted. Examples of the components of data
(g) Check and maintain access to the station; collection are displayed in Table I.2.9.
(h) Record, in note form, all of the above activities;
(i) Comment on changes in land use or vegetation;
2.5.5.1 Manual stations
(j) Clear debris and overgrowth from all parts of
the installation. At the very minimum, observers should be equipped
with field notebooks and/or station journals in
Streamflow collection sites: which the original observations are recorded as
(a) Check the bank stability, as necessary; they are taken. Forms should also be provided to
(b) Check the level and condition of gauge boards, permit the observer to report observations daily,
as necessary; weekly, fortnightly, or monthly, as required. The
(c) Check and service the flow-measuring devices field notebook or station journal should be retained
(cableways, etc.), as necessary; by the observer in case the report is lost in transit.
(d) Check and repair control structures, as necessary;
(e) Regularly survey cross-sections and take photo- The report forms should be designed to permit easy
graphs of major station changes after events or copying of the results from the field notebook or
with vegetation or land-use changes; station journal. A good approach is to have the
(f) Record, in note form, all of the above activities report form identical to a page in the notebook or
and their results; journal. At least, the various elements should be in
(g) Inspect the area around or upstream of the site, the same columns or rows in both. Space should be
and record any significant land-use or other allowed in the journal and, perhaps, in the report
changes in related hydrological characteristics, form for any conversions or corrections that may
such as ice. have to be applied to the original readings.
Further details are found in the Manual on Stream Alternatively, an observation notebook with carbon
Gauging (WMO-No. 519). paper between successive sheets will permit easy
preparation of an original form for dispatch to the
Flood gauging cannot be programmed as part of a central office and a copy for the local station record.
routine inspection trip because of the unpredictable This is not a satisfactory procedure where the
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-41
notebook is to be carried into the field as moisture conditions are being observed. Data from field
can easily make the entries illegible. The report measurement books may be processed using optical
forms may also be coding forms suitable for direct readers or portable field computers that will allow
conversion to computer medium. the direct input of observations into computer stor-
age. Such devices allow for reduced data transfer
The value of data can be greatly enhanced or errors and automatic data quality checks.
devalued by the standard of the accompanying
documentation. Observers should be encouraged to Field observations that may assist in interpreting
comment on any external influences that may water quality should be entered on the report. These
affect observations, whether they be related to observations may include unusual colour or odour
equipment, exposure, or short-term influence. In of the water, excessive algal growth, oil slicks,
addition, input formats and forms should be flex- surface films, or heavy fish kills. Such observations
ible enough both to allow comments to be appended may prompt the field investigator to take additional
and for these comments to be accessible with the observation-based samples, in addition to those
final data. It is important that published comments required by the routine schedule. The types of
be expressed in standard terminology, and it is pref- samples and their preservation should be consist-
erable that correct vocabulary be employed in the ent with the types of analysis that the investigator
field report. thinks is warranted by the prevailing conditions. If
additional samples are collected at sites other than
There is also reason for setting up the processing the established station, the description of their
system so that quality coding or tagging is carried locations should be recorded accurately. This kind
out as the observations are made. This is particu- of information and the additional samples may
larly applicable to manual observations because it prove very useful in the interpretive phase of the
encourages the making of judgements while the study.
Data collection
Data capture Transmission
Sensing Recording
Note: The table applies to elements or parameters observed in the field. There are notable groups of data, for example, in soils and water
quality, where laboratory analysis or physical samples are performed. Here the data-collection system almost invariably is:
(a) Mechanical sampling
(b) Notebook/data sheet field entries.
I.2-42 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
At automatic recording stations, observations are There are many recording and non-recording
recorded in digital or graphical form. However, the stations from which real-time data are required, for
following observations should be recorded at the example, in the operation of reservoirs, flood-warn-
time of any visits for data retrieval or station ing and forecasting situations, and in some instances
maintenance: as a cost-effective method of data collection.
(a) Site identification number;
(b) Observations from independent sources at the Real-time data collected by field observers must be
time of collection, for example, gauge boards reported using a transmission facility, such as a
and storage rainfall gauges; radio or the public telephone system, to the agency.
(c) Specific comments relating to the recording Similarly, recording stations must report via some
device, including its status, current observation transmission facility. Recording devices may have
and time. the advantage of being able both to transmit data at
prescribed intervals/parameter changes and be
Each inspection should be recorded by completing interrogated by the collecting agency to determine
a station-inspection sheet. Data may be recorded in the current situation or reset observation intervals.
solid-state memory or perforated tape. Final extrac- Data loggers may also provide information on the
tion of observations from the recorded data may be current available storage capacity of the logger and
performed at computing facilities when removable the condition of the available power supply.
memory of perforated tape has been used as the Automated quality-control processes can be
recording medium. However, portable computers developed in these situations.
may be used to extract data directly from data
loggers and to verify the data before leaving the
2.5.5.4 Instructions for observers
station. Field verification allows any necessary
repairs or other changes to be made before leaving Clearly written instructions must be provided to all
the site. observers. These should contain guidance and
directions on the following matters:
Data loggers record data at specific time intervals (a) A brief description of instruments, with
(as programmed by the user). Intelligent loggers diagrams;
will also allow for data compaction and variability (b) Routine care and maintenance of instruments
of observation times. In the case of the observation and actions to be taken in the event of serious
of multiparameters, the coordination of observa- breakage or malfunctioning;
tions can also be performed by the intelligent field (c) Procedures for taking observations;
logger. For example, rainfall data can be recorded at (d) Times of routine observations;
a five-minute interval or at every tip of a bucket, for (e) Criteria for the beginning, ending and frequency
stage data when the level alters by more than 1 cm, of special non-routine observations, for exam-
and water-quality parameters when stream height ple, river-stage observations while water level is
alters by 10 cm and/or on a 24-hour basis. above a predetermined height;
(f) Procedures for making time checks and putting
With graphical recorders, observations are collected check observations on charts at stations with
continuously and processing of the data in the recording instruments;
office is required. Comments should be written on (g) Completion of field notebooks or station
the chart or noted on the inspection sheet if any journals;
errors are detected. As with digital recorders, inde- (h) Completion of report forms, including methods
pendent field observations should be made and of calculating means and totals with appropriate
recorded during each site visit. examples;
(i) Sending of reports to the central office;
After a station has been in operation for a reason- (j) Special routines for real-time stations.
able period, the frequency and timing of inspections
should be re-assessed in the light of the capabili- Such written instructions should be supplemented
ties of the instrumentation and the requirements by oral instructions by the inspector to the observer
for data at that site. In some cases, consideration at the time of installation of instruments and at
should be given to the real-time collection of data regular intervals thereafter.
via various communications options as a cheaper
method of data collection than regular site visits The instructions should emphasize the importance
(2.5.6). of regular observations with perhaps a brief
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-43
account of how the observed data are used in water station by telephone, Internet, radio or radio
resources development, hydrological forecasting, telephone or satellite, and receives single
or flood-control studies. Any special observations discrete values as often as interrogated. It is
that may be required during special periods, for possible to have automatic telephone-dialing
example, during floods, or any special reports that equipment in the central office that can make
are to be filed, should be specifically discussed. calls in series;
Observers should be urged not to forget to fill in (c) Automatic timed Automatic equipment at
the spaces for station names, dates and their signa- stations is programmed to initiate transmission
ture. The necessity of reporting immediately any of a single, instantaneous observation and/or
instrument failure or significant modification of past observations held in a storage register;
the observing site should be emphasized. (d) Automatic event indicator The station trans-
mits automatically, by radio, telephone, Inter-
Observers at stations equipped with automatic net or satellite, a specified unit of change of a
recording instruments must be provided with variable, for example, each centimetre change
instructions on the method of verifying the in the stage of a river;
operation of digital recorders, changing charts and (e) Automatic Data are transmitted by the station
taking check observations. These instructions must and recorded at the central office on a continu-
stress the importance of annotating the chart with ous basis.
all information that might be required for later
processing. This would include station identification,
2.5.6.2 Transmission links
time on, time off, check-gauge readings and any
other entries that would make the record more The possible choices of transmission links include:
easily interpreted at a later time. (a) Dedicated land-lines These are used where
relatively short distances are involved and
At stations with full-time personnel, the staff should commercial lines are not readily available;
be sufficiently well trained to abstract data from (b) Commercial telephone and telegraph lines
recording instruments. For such stations, carefully Telephone and telegraph systems can be used
worded instructions on the method of abstracting whenever feasible. Equipment that permits
data and on the completion of report forms must unattended reception of observations at the
be provided. However, at many ordinary stations, central office is available. Measurements and
where observers may not be thoroughly trained, it commands can be transmitted to and from the
may be undesirable to require observers to under- remote site;
take the relatively complex job of data abstraction. (c) Commercial cellular telephone networks The
In such cases, digital or graphical records should be ever growing coverage of these networks,
forwarded to a central office for processing of the together with better and more reliable equip-
data. ment, make them an interesting and less
expensive option for moving data from a site
and into the central office. The combination
2.5.6 Transmission systems
of reliability and low cost makes it more real-
istic to collect data from stations with no real-
2.5.6.1 General
time interest, from sites previously considered
During recent years, the demands from users of as somewhat remote, to be transmitted using
hydrological data have become more and more commercial facilities. Cellular systems can be
complex; therefore, systems that include automatic used in the same way as standard telephone
transmission of hydrological observations have lines and may continue to operate during an
been incorporated into national networks. This has extreme event when telephone lines fail;
also led to the need for developing codes to facili- (d) Direct radio links These must be used when
tate the formatting of observations for the requirements cannot be met by those facili-
transmission and dissemination of forecasts. ties provided by landlines, or when distances
Hydrological codes are discussed in 2.3.2. The or natural obstacles prevent the economic
following describes different possibilities for trans- installation of wires. Distances of several to
mission systems: hundreds of kilometres may be spanned by
(a) Manual The observer at the station mails radio transmitters, depending upon the carrier
data or initiates radio or telephone calls to the frequency and the transmitter power. At the
central office on pre-arranged criteria; higher frequencies, the transmitter and receiver
(b) Manual/semi-automatic The central office must have a clear line-of-sight transmission
manually interrogates the remote automatic path. This limits the range without repeater
I.2-44 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
stations to about 50 km. In all cases, the instal- of on-site mechanical equipment is difficult.
lation and operation of radio transmission Under these situations, it may be more reli-
links are subject to national and international able to transmit data electronically to a central
regulations; climate-controlled office. This system also
(e) Satellite links Data transmission using satel- permits a continuous check of the operation of
lites can take place in two ways: transmission the sensors;
of data, as observed by sensors in the satellite (d) Staffing for operational, maintenance and logis-
(such as imagery) or the use of the satellite to tic problems. It is important for these aspects to
relay data observed at remote ground stations be considered in the planning process and to
to central receiving locations. At the present recognize that each individual project will have
time, the science of observation and transmis- its own particularities. Careful attention should
sion or retransmission from satellites is devel- be given to the costs and benefits of all the
oping rapidly. The data involved are available alternatives before any final decision is made.
either directly from the spacecraft or through When designing a system for the automatic
central data banks; transmission of data, the main components to
(f) The Internet Internet Protocol communi- consider for staffing purposes are:
cation in various forms, including the use of (i) Sensors and encoding equipment;
mobile phone networks, makes this an inter- (ii) The transmission links;
esting and less expensive way to send data, (iii) Receiving and decoding equipment.
especially if there is much data to transfer
or continuous transfer is wanted. Internet It is necessary to consider these components jointly
communication works on a number of differ- in the design stage. This is essential because the
ent physical communication paths, including special characteristics of any one component can
both mobile and ordinary telephone networks. have serious consequences on decisions regarding
This makes it more reliable. In systems with a the others. If the ultimate use of the data transmis-
large number of sites, it also makes the retrieval sion system is intended for forecasting, then
time shorter and the communication system in sensing, transmitting and receiving hydrometeoro-
the main office much easier. logical data is an essential but insufficient
component of the forecast system. A forecast centre
having personnel who are well-trained in preparing
2.5.6.3 Factors affecting the choice of
forecasts and warnings, and in notifying persons at
transmission systems
risk is also fundamental (United Nations, 2004).
When considering the possibility of including auto-
matic transmission of data in any measuring system,
2.5.7 Water-quality monitoring
consideration should be given to the following:
(a) Speed with which data are required. This Chapter 7 provides details of instrumentation and
depends upon the following factors: field practices for the collection of water-quality
(i) The speed with which changes in the data. The sampling locations, the sampling times,
measured variable take place; the parameter identifications and the correspond-
(ii) The time between the observation and ing values must be recorded and coherence must
receipt of the data by conventional means, be maintained throughout the handling of the
versus automatic transmission systems; data. If any one of these essential items is lacking,
(iii) The urgency of having this information then the whole effort is wasted.
available for warnings or forecasts;
(iv) The benefits of forecasts from telemetered
2.5.7.1 Station identification
data and economic losses due to lack or
delay of forecasts; The importance of an accurate written description
(v) The advantages of radio and satellite of each station location and the conditions under
transmission versus landlines in times of which the samples are collected are discussed in
storms and floods when these disasters detail in 2.5.2.2.
can destroy the more conventional means
of telecommunications at the time that
2.5.7.2 Field sheets for water-quality
the information is most urgently needed;
monitoring
(b) Accessibility of the measurement sites for qual-
ity control and maintenance; Perhaps one of the most important steps in a
(c) Reliability of the recording device. When local sampling programme is the recording on the field
climatic conditions are rigorous, the operation sheets of observations, sampling date, time, location
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-45
and the measurements made. All field records must (e) Quality control measures used;
be completed before leaving a station. Additional (f) General remarks and field observations.
instructions are contained in 2.5.5.
2.5.7.3 Transportation of water-quality
Two examples of a systematic format for recording
samples
field analyses and observations are provided in
Figures I.2.13 and I.2.14. The formats shown in Once collected, some water samples must be trans-
these figures are appropriate for those personnel ported to the laboratory. The mode of transportation
that use computer systems for storing their results. will depend on the geographic location and the
The format of Figure I.2.13 can be used by anyone maximum permissible time lapse before analysis
collecting water-quality data. Both formats can be for each constituent. The field investigator is
adapted to fit situations specific to a particular need. respons ible for delivering the samples to the
The following information is usually recorded: airline, bus, train or postal terminal on schedule so
(a) Sampling site and date; that there will be minimal delay in sample trans-
(b) Field-measured parameters; port. Logistics for sample transport and storage
(c) Instrument calibration; should be determined before fieldwork is
(d) Sampling apparatus used and procedures; initiated.
Figure I.2.13. Field sheet for use with NAQUADAT or similar computer system
I.2-46 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
2.5.7.4 Field quality assurance in water- Planning and Implementation of Sampling and Field
quality monitoring Testing (WMO, 1988).
empty prior to the storm), can be used to augment if real-time information is required, readily reported
rainfall data from the regular observing network. via some transmission facility.
Eyewitness reports can be obtained of beginning
and ending times of rainfall and of periods of very
heavy rain. Care must be taken in interpretation of
bucket-survey data, and where discrepancies exist 2.6 MEASUREMENT OF PHYSIOGRAPHIC
between data from a bucket survey and the regular CHARACTERISTICS
observation network. Greater weight should usually
be given to the latter.
2.6.1 General
the private and non-profit sectors, and academia. It non-uniform, which allows points to be located on
provides a base or structure of practices and rela- critical terrain features, roads or river banks. The
tionships among data producers and users that accuracy of such digital terrain models depends on
facilitates data sharing and use. Framework data the source of the data, the point density and distri-
can be considered as a set of continuous and fully bution, and other related data used in their
integrated geospatial data that provides context development. Conventional contour maps may be
and reference information for the country or region. prepared from a digital elevation model or TIN.
In general, this will consist of alignment data such
as geodetic control, data on land features and form Orthophotos are images of the landscape from
such as physiographic data, and conceptual data which features can be referenced to one another.
such as government units. A rigorous national data They are digital images produced by processing
framework facilitates information exchange and aerial photography to geodetic control elevation
significantly reduces duplication of effort. data to remove all sources of distortion. The image
Framework data that will be of interest to hydrolog- has the properties of scale and accuracy associated
ical analysis include geodetic control, elevation, with a map. Such images can be derived using
orthoimagery, hydrography, transportation, govern- airborne or satellite sensors.
ment units and cadastral information (National
Research Council, 1995). The basic elements used in estimating physio-
graphic parameters are rarely measured directly by
Geodetic control is defined by using the interna- the hydrologist, who essentially works with global
tional system of meridians and parallels divided positioning system data, orthophotos, maps, aerial
into 360 degrees, with the zero meridian passing photographs and satellite imagery. Therefore, the
through Greenwich. This system is the most widely accuracy of the evaluation depends upon the accu-
used. Its only disadvantage is that a degree in longi- racy of source materials.
tude varies from 111.111 km at the Equator to 0 at
the Pole and represents 78.567 km at a latitude of
2.6.3 Point measurements
45 (a degree in latitude always measures 111.111
km). Local systems and other modes of projection The geometric point is defined here as a unique
are also in use, for example, the Lambert system. location on a line or within an area or volume. A
However, these cannot be recommended in an point may be a physical element, such as the loca-
international guide. Furthermore, algorithms for tion of a measuring instrument or the outlet of a
converting geographic coordinates to local refer- basin. It can also be an element of an area (plot of
ence systems when this may be required are readily land) on which a given characteristic or set of char-
available. acteristics is to be defined or measured. The
physiographic characteristics attributed to a point
Elevation or altitude is provided in relation to a may be simple or complex. An example of a simple
given level or reference plane. While local reference characteristic of a point is its elevation, which is
data are sometimes used, until relatively recently one of its unique identifiers in three-dimensional
mean sea level was the most commonly used vertical space. A more complex characteristic might be a
data. The widespread use of global positioning description of the soil profile that underlies the
system observations led to the adoption of point.
geocentric vertical (and horizontal) data in
accordance with the world geodetic system, in Applications of remote-sensing techniques, starting
preference to those based on mean sea level. The with aerial photography, has had the effect of
reference ellipsoid, WGS-84, or a national geocentric expanding the notion of a point to an area (pixel),
variation is therefore the preferred vertical reference. which may measure up to several square kilome-
The fundamental requirement in any use of a tres. Within their limits of accuracy, available
coordinate system is that the data used must be techniques may not be able to distinguish between
specified. two points (for example, an instruments lack of
resolution), and a pixel might be taken to be a
The topography of a river basin may be represented point.
in two different ways: as a digital elevation model
or as a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The The horizontal location of a point, that is, its posi-
digital elevation model is a grid of elevation values tion on the globe, is determined by a selected system
that has regular spacing while TIN is a series of of coordinates (2.6.2), which falls within the scope
points linked into triangular surfaces that approxi- of geodesy and topography. A universal system has
mate the surface. The spacing of points in TIN are been invented to make the coding of a point in a
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-49
catalogue explicit by indicating its geographical should not exceed six per cent for a distance on the
position. This is the GEOREP squaring system map of 10 cm or 4 per cent for 100 cm and 2 per
(UNESCO, 1974) for spatial representation of linear cent beyond. Many hydrological features can be
features. Other systems may locate points by their derived directly from the orthoimagery or digital
linear distances along a stream from a given origin, terrain data with the aid of GIS (2.6.7).
for example, mouth or confluence.
The axis of a stream is rarely straight. When it
The physiographic description of a point covers its comprises quasi-periodic bends, each half-period
geometric properties (form, relief, slope, etc.) and is called a meander. The properties and dimen-
its permanent physical properties (permeability, sions of meanders have been thoroughly studied
nature of rocks, soil structure, land-use type, etc.). by geographers and specialists in river
The former are limited to the local slope, while the hydraulics.
latter comprise a whole range of possible physical
properties, expressed in scalar form for a point on a
2.6.4.2 The drainage network
horizontal surface or in vectorial form for a profile,
for example, geological core. In a basin, streams are organized to form a drainage
network. In a network, all streams are not the same
2.6.4 Linear measurements size, and several systems have been proposed for
classifying them. Several stream classification
Any physiographic element is linear if it can be systems are in use in various countries and current
represented by a line on a map or in space. In hydrol- GIS provide for automatic stream classification
ogy, three types of linear elements are common: according to schemes devised by Horton, Schumm,
(a) Boundaries; Stahler, Shreve and others. The best known schemes
(b) Isopleths of a permanent feature, for example, is Hortons, in which any elementary stream is said
contours; to be of order 1, any stream with a tributary of order
(c) Thalwegs. 1 is said to be of order 2, and any stream with a
tributary of order x is said to be of order x + 1. At a
The first two types are linked to areal aspects, which confluence, any doubt is removed by giving the
will be examined later. higher order to the longest of the tributaries form-
ing it (Figure I.2.15) (Dubreuil, 1966). This
The thalweg is itself to be considered not only as introduces some inaccuracy that was avoided by
represented in horizontal projection and longitudi- Schumm by systematically giving order x to the
nal profile, but also by the way in which it combines reaches formed by two tributaries of order x 1
with other thalwegs to form a drainage network, (Figure I.2.16). The main source of error in such
which has its own physiographic characteristics. evaluations is to be found in the mapping of the
Some drainage network characteristics are linear, streams, where the definition of the smallest streams
for example, the bifurcation ratio, while others are is often rather subjective.
areal in nature, such as the drainage density.
Of the linear characteristics of the drainage network
that are measurable on a map, the confluence ratio
2.6.4.1 The stream
Rc and the length ratio Rl are based on Hortons laws
A stream in horizontal projection may be repre- and have been verified for Hortons classification.
sented, if the scale of the diagram is suitable, by two Given that Nx is the number of streams of order x,
lines representing its banks. From these two lines, and lmx=lx/Nx is the mean length of the streams of
an axis can be drawn equidistant to the two banks. order x, these laws are expressed by the following
The axis may also be defined as the line joining the relationships:
lowest points on successive cross-sections. In fact,
these elements, the visible banks and the lowest Nx = Rc * Nx+1 (2.9)
points, are not always very clear, and the map scale
does not always permit the banks to be featured and
properly. Mapping, thus, is reduced to representing
a stream by a line. lmx = Rl * lmx1 (2.10)
Lengths along a river are measured by following which form geometric progressions and may be
this line and by using a curvometer. The accuracy of written as follows:
the determination depends on the maps scale and
quality, as well as on the curvometers error, which Nx = N1 * Rc1x (2.11)
I.2-50 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
3
1 1
2
1
1 1
2
3 1 2
2 1
1 2
2
1
1 2 4
1 4
1
1
2
1 1
2 1
1
1
3
3
2
1
2
1 1
1
2 3
1
4
1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1 2 1
2 2
1 2
3 2 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
3 2
1
1
1
1 2 1
2 3 3
4 2
1 2 1
1 1
1 1
1
4
F
Change in slope
Threshold
Threshold
Pool
Altitude
E
Pool
Rapid
1000
900
Kissidougou
800
Faranah Tinkisso
Konsankoro
Altitude in m
DION
700
MolokoroKouroussa
Krouan
Baro
600
MandianaKankan
NIA
Siguiri-Tiguiberi
Noura-Souba
NDA S
Keni
Kenieroba
Dialakoro
Koulikoro
Bamako
Ouaran
N AN
Gouala
Sotuba
500 M
I Dabola
AF
O
KA
U
MIL
RA
O
NI
NIGE
R
400 TIN
KIS
SO
NIGER
300
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
Horizontal distance in km
by the indirect method (5.3.5) and in runoff models The basin area is determined in a GIS or measured
(Volume II, Chapter 6). by planimetry by following the boundaries estab-
lished as described above.
2.6.5 Area measurements
The basins shape is characterized by comparing its
perimeter with that of a circle having the same
2.6.5.1 The basin
area. If A is the basin area and P its perimeter, both
The basin is defined as the area that receives precip- measured according to the above rules and
itation and, after hydrological processes resulting expressed in compatible units, then the ratio of the
in losses and delays, leads it to an outflow point.
The watershed boundary, the basins perimeter, is Real perimeter
such that any precipitation falling within it is
directed towards the outflow, whereas any precipi-
tation falling outside drains to a different basin and
outflow. In some cases, it may not be easy to deter- 30N
119E
two perimeters is called the Gravelius coefficient of The hypsometric distribution gives the percentage
compactness, which is given by: (or fraction) of the basins total area that is included
in each of a number of elevation intervals. The
C = 0.282 P A1/2 (2.13) hypsometric curve shows, on the ordinate, the
percentage of the drainage area that is higher than
The notion of an equivalent rectangle is also linked or equal to the elevation that is indicated by the
to the basins shape, and permits the definition of a corresponding abscissa (Figure I.2.21). In practice,
particular slope index. The equivalent rectangle has the cumulative distribution of area is obtained in a
the same area and the same Gravelius coefficient as GIS or by planimetric calculation of successive areas
the basin. The length of this rectangle is: between contours of elevation beginning with the
basins lowest point.
C
L = A
1/2 1 + 1 1. 2 7 2 / C
2 (2.14)
1 .1 2 8 It is possible to calculate the basins mean elevation
by dividing the area under the hypsometric curve
The drainage density is defined as the total length of by the length of the ordinate corresponding to the
streams of all orders contained in the basins unit area: whole basin.
Iko
Be
75
tsi
pa
bo
at
ka
An
Percentage of the basin's area
at
tsa
Am
tra
bo
na
dir
50
ok
a
25
Figure I.2.20. Relief and drainage network Figure I.2.21. Hypsometric curves
(Courtesy ARPA-Piemonte) (Courtesy ARPA-Piemonte)
I.2-54 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
where z is the contour interval, l is the total length I = ( i(ai ai1) / L )1/2 (2.17)
of all contours within the basin, and A is the basins
area. The difficulty and main source of error in esti- The Roche slope index is as follows:
mating this characteristic lie in the measurement of
l. The contours are almost always very tortuous Basin Length of equivalent Slope index
and their real length is not really characteristic of rectangle
the role they play in calculating the index. Therefore, Betsiboka at
it may be necessary to smooth the irregularities Ambodiroka 238 km 0.078
keeping in mind the final results may be somewhat
inconsistent and variable. Ikopa at Antsatrana 278 km 0.069
A mean slope can also be estimated by taking the When basins have a very low slope, for example, in
basins total difference in elevation and by divid- the interior plains of North America, there may be
ing it by one of its characteristic dimensions. closed sub-basins having no outlet to the main
However, the distribution of slopes in the basin is stream or significant portions of the basin that
neglected by this approach. One way of avoiding contribute to streamflow very infrequently. Under
this is to derive the slope index from the hypso- these circumstances the concept of an effective
metric curve, which is a synthesis of the relief drainage area may be used. This is customarily
delineated by the contours, and to weigh the defined as the area that would contribute to stream-
areal elements corresponding to the various eleva- flow in a median year. Establishing the effective
tion intervals by a non-linear function of the drainage area for a basin may require significant
mean slope in each interval. Roches slope index, cartographic and hydrological analysis.
also called the index of runoff susceptibility,
meets these conditions. The notion of the equiva- A basins physical characteristics are essentially the
lent rectangle (equation 2.14) is applied to each soil types, the natural plant cover or artificial cover
contour to transform geometrically the contours (crops), the land cover (for example, lakes, swamps,
into parallel straight lines on the rectangle repre- or glaciers), and the type of land use (for example,
senting the entire basin (Figure I.2.22). If ai and rural or urbanized areas, lakes, or swamps). They
ai1 are the elevations of two successive contours may also be expressed in terms of the basins reac-
and x i is the distance separating them on the tion to precipitation, this is, classes of permeability.
equivalent rectangle, the mean slope between These physical characteristics may be assembled as
these two contours is taken to be equal to layers within a GIS.
(ai ai1) / xi, and the slope index is written by
designating as i the fraction of the basins total The quantification of these characteristics requires
area included between ai and ai1: definition of criteria and procedures for delineating
Ikopa at Antsatrana
1800 m
2100 m
1500 m
1200 m
900 m
600 m
300 m
Betsiboka at Ambodiroka
1800 m
1500 m
1200 m
900 m
600 m
300 m
40 m
100 km
the areas meeting these criteria. It then remains 2.6.6.2 Topographical methods
only to measure each of these areas and to express
each as a percentage (or fraction). The tools for Once the site of a dam has been fixed, the calcula-
determining such distributions include GIS, normal tion of the reservoirs efficiency and management
and/or specialized cartography, aerial photography requires knowledge of the curve of volume
and remote-sensing with relatively fine resolution impounded as a function of the reservoirs
(pixels not to exceed some hundreds of square stage (stage-volume curve). To determine this rela-
metres). tionship, ground-surface-elevation contours are
needed throughout the area to be occupied by the
future impoundment. This requires maps or topo-
2.6.5.2 The grid
graphical plans of the area on scales of between
The formation of physiographical data banks, 1/1 000 and 1/5 000. If these are not available, maps
especially for the development of rainfall-runoff on a scale of 1/50 000 can be used for preliminary
models with spatial discretization, leads to the design, but a topographical survey on an appropri-
division of the basin area based on systematic ate scale will be needed subsequently.
squaring or griding. Depending on the objective,
the grid size may be larger or smaller, and may be By using the contour map, planimetric
measured in kilometres (1 or 5 km2) or based on measurements are made, in a GIS or manually, of
the international geographical system (1 or 1 the areas contained within the contours with the
grid). GIS (2.6.7) have made interchanging hypothetical reservoir in place. A plot of these
between gridded and ungridded data a simple areas versus their related elevations is known as a
task once the initial databases have been stage-area curve. The stage-volume curve is
assembled. computed from the stage-area curve by graphical
integration.
2.6.6 Volumetric measurements
2.6.7 Geographical Information Systems
Volumetric measurements pertain primarily to
the defi nition of water and sediment storage. GIS are now ubiquitous in the fields of operational
Evaluation of groundwater storage is covered by hydrology and water resources assessment. Many
hydrogeology. It therefore will not be discussed aspects of data collection and interpretation can be
here, nor will the estimation of sediment depos- facilitated by means of GIS.
ited on the soil surface. Surface storages are
generally either the volumes of existing lakes or In network planning and design, the ability to map
reservoirs, for which bathymetric methods are quickly and display surface water and related
used, or the volumes of reservoirs that are being stations enables a more effective integration to take
designed, for which topographical methods are place. Network maps, showing basins or stations
used. selected according to record quality, watershed, or
operational characteristics, can be used for both
short-term and long-term planning. The essential
2.6.6.1 Bathymetric methods
features of complex networks can be made very
Ordinary maps rarely give bathymetric data on clear.
lakes and reservoirs. The volume of an existing
reservoir, therefore, has to be measured by making GIS techniques are being incorporated in hydrolog-
special bathymetric readings. Usually, this is done ical models for the purpose of extracting and
from a boat by using normal methods for sound- formatting distributed watershed data. Used in
ing and for positioning the boat. The depths conjunction with digital elevation models or TINs
should be referenced to a fixed datum and a stage (2.6.2), complete physiographic and hydrological
gauge or a limnigraph so that variations in stage depiction of basins can be readily accomplished.
can be monitored.
Runoff mapping and interpolation is being carried
Depth measurements can be used to plot out using GIS routines in many countries. The effi-
isobaths, and the reservoirs volume above a ciency of handling large volumes of data means
reference plane can be calculated through that more comprehensive and detailed maps,
double integration (generally graphical) isolines and themes can be prepared. This repre-
of the isobath network. One application of this sents a significant improvement to water
method is sedimentation monitoring in a resources-assessment technology, as map prepara-
reservoir. tion is often time-consuming and expensive.
I.2-56 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES
The interpretation of real-time data can also be standing water (Carroll, 2001). Microwave sensors,
facilitated through GIS. The thematic mapping of both airborne and satellite, have been used as well
stations reporting over threshold amounts or digital to monitor snowpack properties. RadarSat active
indications of rainfall would obviously be very radar has also been used to map the areal extent of
useful to both operational hydrology and forecast- wet snow.
ing agencies.
Airborne optical devices (Lidar) are now used to
GIS systems are now available for standard comput- determine topography more rapidly and, often,
ers in practical, low-cost formats. The main cost more accurately and at lower cost than conven-
factor now resides in the areas of database compi- tional aerial photography. The resulting digital
lation, and training and updating of technical elevation model has applications in hydraulic and
staff. hydrological modelling and in determining glacier
mass balance. Satellite Lidar altimetry has been
used to obtain very good topography for military
2.6.8 Emerging technologies
purposes and in research applications, but has not
The subsequent chapters of this Volume of the yet been commercialized. In the absence of national
Guide deal with proven technologies that are topographic data, the low-resolution global digital
commonly used in many parts of the world. elevation model GTOPO30 with a horizontal grid
However, as indicated above, new technologies are spacing of 30 arc seconds (roughly 1 km) may be
continuously evolving. This section provides some considered. The vertical accuracy of the data is
insight into several of these so that Hydrological about 30 m. This digital elevation model is also
Services may be kept aware of their possibilities. linked to the HYDRO1k package which provides a
suite of six raster and two vector data sets. These
data sets cover many of the common derivative
2.6.8.1 Remote-sensing
products used in hydrological analysis. The raster
In the field of hydrological measurements, two data sets are a hydrologically correct digital eleva-
kinds of remote-sensing techniques are commonly tion model, derived flow directions, flow
used: active (by emission of an artificial radiation accumulations, slope, aspect and a compound topo-
beam toward the target and analysis of the target graphic (wetness) index. The derived streamlines
response), or passive (by analysis of the natural and basins are distributed as vector data sets.
radiation of an object).
A further existing topographic data option is the
In active methods, radiation may be high-frequency 3 arc-second (90 m) digital elevation model
electromagnetic (radar) or acoustic (ultrasonic produced by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.
devices). The apparatus may be installed on the The data for most of the coverage area have been
ground (radar, ultrasonic), on airplanes, or on satel- processed to level 1, which provides for an absolute
lites (radar). Active remote-sensing is usually done horizontal accuracy of 50 m and a vertical accuracy
on an areal basis, but may also be used for point- of 30 m. The level 2 digital elevation model,
oriented measurements (ultrasonic). currently available only for the United States, has a
horizontal accuracy of 30 m and vertical accuracy
In passive methods, the radiation is electromag- of 18 m.
netic (from infra-red (IR) to violet, and rarely
ultraviolet). Most current applications are made by Other uses of remote-sensing in hydrology include
means of a multi-spectral scanner, which may be sensing of near-surface soil moisture using airborne
airborne, but is more frequently carried on a satel- natural gamma or satellite passive microwave tech-
lite. Passive sensing is always areal. niques and measurement of land surface temperature
as a precursor to determining evapotranspiration.
Radars are now used for quantitative precipitation Leaf area index measurements use may also lead to
estimates over a given area. Snow-water equivalent remote-sensing of evapotranspiration. Remote-
can be determined by measuring the natural gamma sensing of water quality also offers considerable
radiation from potassium, uranium and thorium promise as new satellites and sensors are developed.
radioisotopes in the upper 20 cm of soil under bare Water bodies that are affected by suspended sedi-
ground conditions and with the snowpack. ment, algae or plant growth, dissolved organic
Observations are made from a low-flying aircraft. matter, or thermal plumes undergo changes in spec-
Data are collected on a swath about 300 m wide and tral or thermal properties that may be detected by
15 km long. Results will be affected by ice lenses or airborne or satellite sensors (UNEP/WHO, 1996).
liquid water in the snowpack, ground ice or Some use has been made in the measurement of
CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION I.2-57
water body areas and the extent of flood inunda- measurement. Efforts are therefore underway to
tion using RadarSat active radar. Aside from the automate the measurement process through use of
requirement to calibrate airborne or satellite sensors, robotics and other procedures. One early approach
there is also a need to ground-truth the remotely to improved safety was the development of stream-
sensed data to ensure that remotely sensed values gauging cableways that could be operated from the
represent in situ values. river bank. Another was the moving boat method,
which reduces the time required for a discharge
measurement, but still requires exposing personnel
2.6.8.2 Hydroacoustic methods
to the hazard.
Hydroacoustic methods hold considerable promise
for hydrological data acquisition. Acoustic signals One current concept calls for an automated,
may be used to identify the interface between two unmanned boat equipped with an Acoustic Doppler
dissimilar media or to explore the characteristics of Current Profiler the position of which is monitored
a single medium. For example, echo sounders are by use of the global positioning system.
used to define the streambed in hydrographic Measurements can therefore be made under high
surveys or to sense the distance to the water surface hazard conditions with minimum exposure of
when mounted in or above a stream. Results can be personnel to the hazard. Another approach uses a
very satisfactory provided careful attention is paid hand-held radar to measure surface velocities and,
to calibration of the instrument. Acoustic current where channels are unstable, ground-penetrating
meters that determine water velocity by measuring radar to define the channel cross-section. The radar
the Doppler shift of acoustic energy reflected from device produces an accurate surface velocity, which
water-borne particles have been used for a number must then be related to mean velocity, while the
of years. ground-penetrating radar moving along a bridge or
cableway produces an accurate cross-section.
The 1990s saw the development of the Acoustic
Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP), an instrument Other risk reduction efforts include the decommis-
that uses acoustic energy to determine streamflow sioning of water-level sensors based on mercury
from a moving boat. The instrument consists of manometers and the increased use of satellite tele-
four orthogonal ultrasonic transducers fixed to a phones as a means of maintaining contact with
moving boat. As the boat traverses a river the field parties in remote areas.
instrument measures the frequency shift of the
reflected signals and uses trigonometry to produce
2.6.9 Staff training
velocity vectors in uniformly spaced volumes
known as depth cells. The velocity of the boat is Whatever the level of technical sophistication of a
removed in computer processing and, with the data-collection authority, the quality of its staff will
channel geometry also defined by the instrument, always remain its most valuable resource. Careful
the streamflow along a river transect can be recruitment, training and management is the key
calculated. This technique has been used successfully to attaining and maintaining the appropriate
to measure relatively large streams. More recently, personnel.
efforts have been directed to the measurement of
smaller streams (under 2 m depth) using hand-held WMO has published a set of Guidelines for the
or in situ instruments. Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology
and Operational Hydrology (WMO-No. 258). UNESCO
Acoustic devices have also been developed to exam- has published a document on Curricula and Syllabi
ine lake dynamics or to determine the density and in Hydrology (UNESCO, 1983). With respect to data
material characteristics of bottom and sub-bottom collection and processing, employee education,
sediments. Ultrasonic flowmeters are reviewed in although costly and time-consuming, can be a
Chapter 5. sound investment that results in greater productiv-
ity and effectiveness. A carefully structured training
programme is essential for all personnel engaged in
2.6.8.3 Risk reduction for personnel
data collection because they are in a strong position
There are inherent dangers to personnel involved to influence the standard of the final data. Formal
in acquiring hydrological data under difficult condi- training should aim at providing both a general
tions. These dangers are perhaps best exemplified course in first principles, plus training modules to
by the challenge of measuring streamflow under teach in-house procedures. All material should be
flood conditions. High velocities, debris or ice may relevant and current. The Canadian hydrometric
threaten the life of persons attempting to make the technician career development programme (HOMS
I.2-58 GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES