Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EDISON D. MACUSI
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9714-1074
edmacusi@gmail.com
Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences,
Wageningen University of Life, Wageningen, The Netherlands
GINALYN C. CUENCA
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0261-5271
djinaleene8@gmail.com
Davao Medical School Foundation, Inc.
Davao City, Philippines
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MICHAEL B. ANDAM
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0552-6055
michael_andam@ymail.com
Davao Del Norte State College
Panabo City, Philippines
LEMUEL C. CARDONA
http://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-7981-6202
cardona_lemuel@yahoo.com
Davao Del Norte State College
Panabo City, Philippines
ABSTRACT
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KEYWORDS
INTRODUCTION
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Moreover, coral reef ecosystems were observed to be less stable near heavily
populated islands (Weijerman, Fulton, & Parrish, 2013). Organisms residing
in marine environments near human populated areas were found contaminated
with pollutants such as heavy metals and polybromenated diphenylethers
(PBDEs) and suffers from diseases and growth anomalies (Aeby et al., 2011;
Kennedy, Twilley, Kleypas, Cowan Jr, & Har,e 2002; Komoroske, Lewison,
Seminoff, Deheyn, & Dutton, 2011). Lotze et al., (2006) showed that human
impacts caused depletion of more than 90% of important species, destruction of
more than 65% of seagrass and wetland habitats, degradation of water quality
and acceleration of the introduction of non-native species. According to Myers,
Mittermeier, Mittermeier, Da Fonseca, and Kent (2000), biodiversity hotspots
are mostly in developing countries with large populations. The rapid economic
rise in developing countries has also been coupled by rapid increase in marine
pollution (Lebreton, Greer, & Borrero, 2012; van Sebille, England, & Froyland,
2012).
One cause of biodiversity decline is land-based pollution defined as pollution
of maritime zones caused by discharges from coastal establishments and other
sources situated on land or artificial structures (UNITAR, 2014). Several studies
have shown the connection of land and marine pollution ( Woolger, 2009; Okuku
et al., 2011; Li et al., 2012). Human activities on land such as tourism, trampling,
farming, garbage dumping, logging and coastal construction activities from
jetties to ports have been found to have negative effects on marine organisms and
marine ecosystems (Fabricius, 2005; Deepananda & Macusi, 2012; Parravicini
et al., 2013). Human land use, for example, has caused the decline of benthic
marine organism diversity (Takarina & Adiwibowo, 2011; Deepananda &
Macusi, 2013). The increase in coastal development and discharge of untreated
waste into rivers and near-shore waters has become a major threat to marine
biodiversity. These have increased sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, biological
pollutants and marine debris in marine ecosystems ( Fabricius, 2005; Bullock,
Kretsch, & Candon, 2008; Smith & Edgar, 2014;). Marine debris and nutrient
enrichment have caused numerous mortality to marine organisms (Villanueva,
Yap, & Montao, 2005; Lazar & Graan, 2011; Di Beneditto & Ramos, 2014;
Lavers, Bond, & Hutton, 2014), while heavy metals have also resulted to declines
of diversity of fouling assemblages (Canning-Clode,Fofonoff, Riedel, Torchin, &
Ruiz, 2011).
With the increasing trend of human population, marine pollution is also
increasing. Commonly, studies on marine pollution have tackled the individual
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METHODOLOGY
This study used literature that deal with marine pollution and its impacts on
marine biodiversity in the Philippines. Literature search was conducted using
information sources such as open access journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar,
Philippine e-Journals, Research Gate and Mendeley. Search phrases used include:
marine pollution, sedimentation, siltation, eutrophication, nutrient enrichment,
plastic ingestion and heavy metals. Both published and gray literature was
utilized to compensate for the limited published articles focused on marine
pollution in the Philippines. A thematic discussion on sedimentation and nutrient
enrichment, heavy metals and plastic pollution on marine organisms and marine
habitats along with its implications on marine biodiversity are presented in this
paper.
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biomasses and decline in species richness (Airoldi, Balata, & Beck, 2008;
Pratchett, Hoey, Wilson, Messmer, & Graham 2011). Sedimentation and
nutrient enrichment has been found to have damaging effects to corals and
seagrasses, which provides habitats a number of marine organisms (ISRS, 2004;
Mnard, Turgeon, Roche, Binning, & Kramer, 2012) or directly cause mortality
to marine organisms (Airoldi & Cinelli, 1997; Hutchinson & Williams, 2003,
Macusi & Deepananda, 2013) Eutrophication can be defined as the increase of
organic carbon in an ecosystem (Nixon, 1995). It is the result of a combination
of factors that leads to an increase in the growth of primary producers in aquatic
and marine environments (Schindler, 2006). The growth of primary producers
is due to increasing availability or levels of limiting factors, particularly nutrients
(Correll, 1998). One characteristic of a eutrophic body of water is the presence of
high densities of algae that utilizes excess nutrients (Carpenter et al., 1998). This
process is a natural phenomenon that occurs over centuries in lakes and shallow
marine environments as more sediments are deposited in these bodies of water
(Chislock et al.,2013). Cultural eutrophication, however, is the acceleration of
eutrophication due to anthropogenic activities and observed to have adverse
effects of the environment (Smith & Schindler, 2009; Chrislock et al., 2013).
Sedimentation plays a role in eutrophication by providing additional nutrients,
such as phosphorous and nitrogen, to bodies of water. Nutrients attach to the
sediments from agricultural lands, that aids in its transport to bodies of water
through surface runoffs and erosion that disrupts normal ecosystem functioning
(Fabricius, 2005; Erhunmwunse, Dirisu, & Ogbeibu, 2013).
The synergistic effect of sedimentation and nutrient enrichment that
negatively affect marine biodiversity includes: (1) promotion of algal blooms
which affects marine organisms by clogging or lacerating breathing organs,
produce potent toxins (San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008; Craig, 2012), cause
hypoxic environment due to the oxygen usage of decomposers in decomposing
algae die-offs (Farrell, Tupas, & Murawski, 2010) that may also result to habitat
compression (Prince & Goodyear, 2006); (2) blocking of sunlight that prevents
other marine plants and corals from accessing light for photosynthesis (Kumara,
2013); (3) burial and smothering of marine organisms (Cabaco, Santos, &
Duarte 2008 ); and (4) promotion of environmental parameters that may favour
competitors of ecosystem engineers or favours dominance of a single species that
reduces habitat heterogeneity (Villanueva et al., 2005; 2006; Powell et al., 2014).
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The increase in nutrients also encourages the growth of algae, that has
been observed by Sweet, Bythell and Nugues (2013) to be a reservoir for coral
pathogens. In the study, out of the five ciliates that were detected in algae, three
were found to be associated with coral reef diseases. In the same study, a number
of bacteria that were detected in algae were also known to be associated with
diseases in corals.
Larval settlement of different coral species is also negatively affected by
sedimentation (Babcock & Smith, 2000; Goh & Lee, 2008; Erftemeijer,
Hagedorn, Laterveer, Craggs, & Guest, 2012). Sediments cover hard substrates
making it loose and unstable which prevents the coral larvae from establishing
itself (Berry, Rubinstein, Melzian, & Hill, 2003). Moreover, corals spend energy
for removal of sediments (Junjie et al., 2014) and, therefore, lesser energy is
allotted to fecundity leading to less coral reproduction (Kojis & Quinn, 1984).
Coral recovery was also observed to be slow when it is exposed to sediment-
induced stress (Goatley & Bellwood, 2013).
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sedimentation tolerant species (Li et. al., 2013). Seagrass beds were also observed
to follow a same pattern when exposed to sedimentation. Different species of
seagrass react differently to sedimentation. Thus, allowing for dominance of a
particular species and resulting to changes in species composition (Cabaco et al.,
2008). Changes in the community structure also entail changes in marine fauna
in those habitats and could promote the displacement of resident reef-associated
species. A study by Ray et al., (2014) showed that a change in seagrass composition
also exhibited a change in the fauna of seagrass beds. In the study, three different
seagrass species exhibited >50% dissimilarity on faunal composition, suggesting
that there is a species-specific relationship among several different characteristics
of the seagrass community. Box, Martin, and Deudero (2010) also observed a
change in associated polychaete assemblage as a Posidonia oceanic bed is being
replaced by an invasive macroalgae, Caulerpa racemosa. Although there was no
significant difference in diversity, results showed that there was a change in the
dominant species of ploychaetes associated with C. racemosa that may influence
trophic interactions.
Moreover, degradation of one marine ecosystem has implications on other
marine ecosystems. Study on habitat use of fishes by Honda, Nakamura, Nakaoka,
Uy, and Fortes (2013) showed fishes use multiple habitats to complete their life
cycle. The absence of one type of ecosystem can have adverse effects on fish
populations. Seagrass ecosystems, for example, has been observed to be a source
of carbon for other marine ecosystems. The products of seagrass beds were found
to be exported to other marine ecosystems (Gillis et al., 2014). Seagrasses help
maintain coral reef systems by lessening sedimentation by altering/slowing water
movement. Thus, promoting the settlement of suspended particles, and other
pollutants, such as heavy metals through bioaccumulation (Madsen, Chambers,
James, Koch, & Westlake, 2001; Thangaradjou, Nobi, Dilipan, Sivakumar, &
Susila, 2010; Ondiviela et al., 2014; Ahmad et al., 2014).
Heavy metals in the marine environment and its effects on marine organisms
The term heavy metal is defined in many ways and is often misleading
(Duffus, 2002; Hodson, 2004). A good discussion on the definition of the term
heavy metal with reference to life sciences is provided by Appenroth (2010)
and Nagajyoti, Lee and Sreekanth (2010). In general, these metals: zinc (Zn),
cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), arsenic
(As), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), Selenium (Se), Silver (Ag),
Cesium (Cs), Aluminum (Al), Strontium (Sr), Molybdenum (Mo), Uranium
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(U) and iron (Fe) are termed as heavy metals because of their toxicity to living
organisms (Singh, Gautam, Mishra, & Gupta, 2011).
Heavy metals in the marine environment have become one of the problems
that have arisen from land-based pollution and is faced by different countries
worldwide. Heavy metals accumulate in sediment and water of marine
environment (Irnawati, Susanto, & Syabana, 2014). This is a problem since
heavy metals are very persistent in the environment (David, 2002). Heavy metals
have an effect on living organisms even when their natural concentration are very
low (Khayatzayadeh & Abbasi, 2010; Jakimska, Konieczka, Skra, & Namiesnik,
2011) and increasing their concentration through anthropogenic activities could
spell disaster for certain living organisms (Ramakritinan, Chandurvelan &
Kumaragu, 2012). Heavy metal pollution has been observed to have negative
effects on marine organisms and pose a health risk to humans. A review conducted
by Govind and Madhuri (2014) has shown the specific effects of different heavy
metals to the environment and human health.
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Chlamis varia Co, Ni, As, Cd, Hg, Pb Bogdanovic et al., 2014
Venus verrucosa Co, Ni, As, Cd, Hg, Pb Bogdanovic et al., 2014
Paracentrotus lividus Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, Fe Soualili et al., 2008
Cymbula nigra As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn Guerra-Garca et al., 2010
Patella caerulea As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella acanthifera As, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella danilevskii Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella dilatata As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella equilibra As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella grandimana As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella hirsuta Fe, Mn, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella liparotensis As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Caprella penantis As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Zn Guerra-Garcia et al., 2010
Solenocera crassicornis Zn, Cu, Co, Cr, Cd Kumar & Achyutan, 2007
Scylla serrate Pb, Zn, Co, Cu, Cd, Cr Kumar & Achyutan, 2007
Aristeusan tennatus Zn, Pb, Cd Ismahene and Hadi 2012
Parapenaeus longirostris Zn, Pb, Cd Ismahene and Hadi 2012
Palaemon serratus Zn, Pb, Cd Ismahene and Hadi 2012
Patella vulgate Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu Perez-Lopez et al., 2003
Vertebrates
Selaroides leptolepis Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Euthynnus affinis Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Parastromateus niger Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Lutjanius malabaricus Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Epinephelus sexfasciatus Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Rastrelliger kanagurta Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Nemipterus japonicus Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Megalaspis cordyla Zn, Cu, Pb Kamaruzzaman et al., 2010
Carnyx hippos Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni, Co, Cd Kumar & Achyutan, 2007
Al, As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Mn, Hg, Se, Sr,
Chelonia mydas Komoroske et al., 2011
Ag, Sn
Tursiops truncatus Hg Pompe-Gotal et al., 2009
Stenella coeruloalba Hg Pompe-Gotal et al., 2009
Several studies across the globe show that heavy metal pollution can
accumulate in different marine and freshwater organisms (Table 1) as a result of
bioaccumulation and can be toxic to organisms at higher trophic levels. Although
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have been caused by the effluent that was coming from the metal smelting plant.
Plastic pollution
Marine debris is a global problem that can affect marine organisms, ecological
processes, aesthetics and economies (Smith & Markic, 2013). It is recognised
globally as a key threatening process to marine life (Smith & Edgar, 2014).
As defined by Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the
Scientific and Technical Advisory PanelGEF (2012) Marine debris is any
persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of, or
abandoned in marine and coastal environment. This definition encompasses a
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myriad of products that can be classified under four main types of materials such
as glass, metal, paper and plastic. Other definition of marine debris also includes
organic materials, which were the dominant marine debris before the production
of plastics and other synthetic materials (Shealvy, 2005).
Of all marine debris, plastics represent the vast majority of man-made
debris in marine environment (Allsopp, Walters, Santillo, & Johnston, 2006;
Barnes, Galgani, Thompson, & Barlaz, 2009; Reisser et al., 2013; Czar et al.,
2014). Plastic can be a range of different types of hydrocarbon polymers, with
polyethylene as the most commonly used plastic (Andersson, 2014). Other
plastic includes polystyrene, nylon and polyvinyl chloride (Andrady, 2003). Ryan
(2013) observed man-made marine debris were roughly two orders of magnitude
more abundant than natural debris such as coconuts and cuttlefish shells. Due
to its durability and slow degradation, plastics have higher residence time in
the marine environment thereby causing the accumulation of these materials in
different oceans in the world (Figure 1) (Law et al., 2010; van Sebille et al., 2012;
Eriksen et al., 2013; Reisser et al., 2013; Czar et al., 2014) and replacing organic
materials as the most common marine debris (Shealvy, 2005). In the Straits of
Malacca and Bay of Bengal, plastic debris was found to compose 98% of the
more than 18,000 debris materials collected in both areas (Ryan, 2013). A study
conducted by Czar et al. (2014) found that plastic had 88% occurrence in all
the samples that they collected from different parts of the world and places their
estimate on the amount of plastic debris in open-ocean surface to be at 7,000 to
35,000 tons, while an estimate from Eriksen et al. (2014) further places plastic
pollution at 268,940 tons or 5.25 trillion plastic particles. This data on plastic
debris may have been underestimated since Reisser et al. (2013) suggest that
biofouling may cause soft plastics to sink and the possibility some plastics were
not included in the collection is present. Moreover, there are also plastic debris,
such as PVC and nylon, that do not float leading to further underestimation
of plastic in the marine environment (Allsopp et al., 2006). An estimate on
the density of marine debris in deeper sea floors puts the value at 2700 pieces
per square kilometre in the ABC-islands, Dutch Caribbean alone, with plastic
making 29% of the total materials collected (Debrot, Vinke, van der Wende,
Hylkema, & Reed, 2014). A study conducted by Galgani, Souplet, and Cadiou
(1996) in the French Mediterranean Coast, has placed plastic debris to as high as
at least 90% of the total debris. Also, in Greece, plastics also make up majority
of marine debris on the sea floor, 79% and 83% of the collected debris in two
different enclosed gulfs (Stefatos, Charalampakis, Papatheodorou, & Ferentinos,
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1999). In association with these in Argentina, a survey that was conducted in river
and estuary bottoms have yielded plastics as the most important anthropogenic
debris amounting to 77% of the total number of debris, constituting to 74% of
the total weight of debris (Acha et al., 2003). These studies corroborate that in
different parts of the globe, plastics comprise a large percentage of marine debris
found in seafloors.
Plastics also undergo UV degradation, biodegradation, ingestion by marine
animals and fragmentation to smaller microplastics which puts these estimates
on the amount of plastic pollution at the conservative level (Cozar et al., 2014;
Eriksen et al., 2014). Plastics, especially microplastics, are also being incorporated
into food webs, getting passed on from lower trophic levels to higher trophic
level through ingestion. Evidence of this trophic transfer of plastic was shown
by Farrell and Nelson (2013), in which mussels (Mytilusedulis) that were fed
with microplastics were found to transfer these items to a crab (Carcinusmaenas)
that fed on the mussels. Furthermore, trophic transfer of microplastic was also
observed in planktonic food webs, where these materials were transferred from
mesozooplankton to macrozooplankton (Setl, Sopanen, Autio, Kankaanp, &
Erler, 2011). Plastic stored in biomass of marine organisms adds to the removal
of plastic from the ocean surface, leading to further underestimation.
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are near industrial centers (Gregory, 1978). A study conducted Nova Scotias
Halifax Harbour (Walker, Grant, & Archambault, 2006) have shown that the
majority of marine debris found in its intertidal beach were waste generated from
recreational activities. Moreover, the high presence of packaging materials and
plastic bags as marine debris further supports the idea that land-based sources
are primarily the source of plastic in the marine environment (Derraik, 2002;
Ryan, 2013).
Plastic is transferred from terrestrial to marine environments through several
ways. Shealvy (2005) has identified three pathways, namely, sewer overflows
and sewage treatment plants, shore-based solid waste management and through
littering.
According to UNEP (1999), shore-based solid waste management, such
as landfills or open waste dumps, contributes plastic in marine environments.
Poorly managed or illegal landfills contribute to plastic waste either by plastics
getting blown by the wind or when the landfills get flooded and, therefore, carry
plastic debris to rivers and inland bodies of water (Hoellein, Rojas, Pink, Gasior,
& Kelly, 2014). This will in turn, bring the plastic materials to sea. Plastic can be
directly transferred to the sea from landfills that have close proximity to the sea.
Moreover, sewage treatment plants and sewerage facilities is also considered to be
a contributor to marine plastic pollution, as mentioned by Shealvy (2005), the
overflow of these sewage treatment facilities moves debris towards the sea during
flooding. Littering on the streets, gutters, sidewalk, in coastlines and beaches by
people contributes to marine debris (Walker et al., 2006; Bergmann & Klages,
2012; Gago et al., 2014). According to OSPAR Commission (2009), marine
litter in coastlines in the OSPAR region is 542 items per 100m. These materials
are carried by the wind or water flow and will eventually become marine debris (
Sesini, 2011; OSPAR Commission, 2007).
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Marine Birds
Pachyptila desolata
Non-lethal LC (decreasing) Auman et al., 2004
(Antarctic Prion)
Reduction of
Puffinus carneipes (Flesh-
stomach capacity; LC (stable) Lavers et al., 2014
footed Shearwater)
non-lethal
Uria lomvia (Thick-billed
Not determined LC (increasing) Provencher et al., 2010
Murre)
Non-lethal; plastic-
Puffinus tenuirostris (Short-
based chemicals LC (decreasing) Tanaka et al., 2013
tailed Shearwater)
transferred to tissues
Calonectris diomedea (Corys
Non-lethal LC (decreasing) Rodriguez et al., 2011
shearwater)
Marine Fishes
Lampris sp. (big-eye Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined Not known
moonfish) 2013
Lampris sp. (small-eye Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined Not known
moonfish) 2013
Alepisaurus ferox (longnosed Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined LC (Unknown)
lancetfish) 2013
Coryphaena hippurus Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined LC (Stable)
(Common dolphinfish) 2013
Gempylus serpens (snake Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined Not known
mackerel) 2013
Thunnus obesus (big-eye Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined VU (decreasing)
tuna) 2013
Xiphias gladius (broadbill Anela Choy & Drazen,
Not determined LC (decreasing)
swordfish) 2013
Symbolophorus californiensis Not determined Not known Boerger et al., 2010
Myctophu maurolanternatum Not determined Not known Boerger et al., 2010
Loweina interrupta Not determined Not known Boerger et al., 2010
Hygophum reinhardtii Not determined Not known Boerger et al., 2010
Astronesthes indopacifica Not determined LC (unknown) Boerger et al., 2010
Cololabis saira Not determined Not known Boerger et al., 2010
Marine Invertebrates
Lepas sp. (Gooseneck
Not determined Not known Goldstein et al., 2013
barnacles)
Arenicola marina
Not determined Not known Teuten et al., 2007
(Lugworm)
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on23 March 2015
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Williams et al., (2011), could elevate the chances of these accidental ingestions.
As mentioned by Beneditto and Ramos (2014), there was more marine debris
in the stomach of coastal dolphin Pontoporia blainvillei since its feeding area
is littered with plastic compared to another species of coastal dolphin, Sotalia
guianensis, which had different feeding habit.
In India, Indopacetus pacificus (Longmans beaked whale) was found to
have ingested plastic bags. The whale did not exhibit any external damages or
lesions, which places the ingestion of plastic as the main cause of its mortality
(Kaladharan et al., 2014). A similar case was observed by (Tarpley & Marwitz,
1993) in two different species of cetaceans. Two Pygmy sperm whale and a Minke
whale possibly succumbed to the lethal effects of plastic ingestion. Result of the
necropsy of the three whales showed that one of the Pygmy sperm whale died
of multiple active ulcerations throughout its stomach, while the other Pygmy
sperm whale and the Minke whale was shown to have ingested plastic bags that
have caused blockage in its digestive tract. Blockage in digestive tracts of different
cetaceans were observed by Gomeri et al. (2006), Jacobsen, Massey, and
Gulland (2010) and Baird and Hooker (2000). The authors hypothesized that
the presence of plastic bags in cetacean stomachs resulted to starvation. Ingested
plastic may also cause false sensation of fullness, that may lead to smaller meal
size, causing the whale not to meet its energy requirement and eventually lead to
its demise (Secchi & Zarzur, 1999).
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toxic components is not far-fetched and there are now experimental evidence
that support the occurrence of such events. In an experiment, fishes were fed with
plastic, both contaminated and uncontaminated with organopollutants, showed
that there was higher concentration of pollutants (e.g. PAHs, PCBs & PBDEs)
in fishes that were fed plastics with organopollutants (Rochman et al., 2013).
Furthermore, it was also observed that there was an increasing trend in the
concentration of organic pollutants as the size of fishes increased. Harmelin-
Vivien et al., (2012) showed there was higher concentration of organic pollutants
for fishes that feed on larger prey than those that feed on smaller prey which
would imply that there is biomagnification of these pollutants on plastic. The
idea of prey transferring plastic and its pollutants to its predator was observed by
Takeuchi et al. (2009) in seals. Results suggest that seals do not directly ingest
plastic pollutants. However, they consume fishes that feed on plastic leading to
the increase of pollutants in Seal fat tissues. In addition, lobsters that were fed
with fishes tainted with plastic were found to accumulate the plastic materials in
their bodies up to at least 24 hours (Andersson, 2014).
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19 species of sea grasses and 820 species of algae as cited (Philippine Biodiversity
Conservation Priority Setting, 2010). Sadly, the Philippines is also considered a
biodiversity hotspot, where there is a rapid decline in the biodiversity of the
country (Roberts et al., 2002; Naola, Alio, & Carpenter, 2010) and pollution
is going to make it decline more.
In the Philippines, 81% of provinces are coastal with a total of 832 coastal
municipalities and coastlines have a population density of 286 persons/km2
with an estimated growth of 2.3% annually (PEMSEA 2015). As of 2010,
the Philippines have a population of more than 92 million and is estimated to
reach over 120 million by the year 2025 (PSA-NSO, 2012). Urban centres in
the Philippines are also densely populated with National Capital Region (NCR)
population density at 18,642 people/km2. This increase in population is coupled
by increase in demands for food and shelter leading to coastal developments to
accommodate this need.
To address the increasing demand for food, culturing of freshwater and marine
species have been adapted. Aquaculture produced 51.7 million tonnesof aquatic
and marine organisms in 2006 (FAO, 2015). In the Philippines, Primavera (2006)
reported that there is an observed >50% decline of mangrove areas from 1951-1988
and was reported to be declining at a rate of 1,400 ha per year from 1990 to 2010
(Long et al., 2014). In addition, seagrass beds have also experienced 40 % decline
(Macusi et al., 2011). Although aquaculture is not the sole cause of these declines,
its effects are significant. In mangroves, for example, Primavera (2006) reported
that 95% of brackish water ponds from 1952-1987 are mangrove area converted
for aquaculture. Intensive fish farming is implicated in the increase of nutrient
and sedimentation in the marine environment. Sediment analysis conducted by
David et al., (2008) showed that as the volume of fish cages and aquaculture
facilities increased, there was also an increase of phosphorous load. In one of the
three sites sampled in Bolinao, Pangasinan, where fish cages for milkfish culture
are numbered to be more than 1,100 , average phosphorous loading have risen to
204.2 kg/km2/yr from a high of 75.7 kg/km2/yr observed prior to aquaculture
development. This study was corroborated by Villanueva et al. (2005; 2006)
in which data showed a very high ammonium (>7 M) and phosphate (>0.8
M) loading in sites of aquaculture. With the increasing aquaculture facilities,
Philippines will experience an increase in nutrient enrichment and sedimentation
in the marine environment. Another source of sediments with high organic matter
content and nutrients in the marine environment are rivers (Woolger, 2009;
Argente et al., 2013). In a study by Chang et al. (2009) in Manila Bay showed
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the source of these excessive nutrients are rivers that drain in the Bay. Their data
showed that there was higher concentration of nitrates and nitrites (3.04M)
in an area of Manila Bay located at close proximity to the mouths of rivers than
areas away from rivers (0.90 M and 0.10 M). This result is in conjunction to
a study conducted by Li and Daler (2004) in East China Sea where pollutants
such as inorganic nitrogen, phosphate, oil hydrocarbons, organic matters and
heavy metals were found to be coming from the Yangtze River. These studies
support the fact that nutrient enrichment and sediment deposition to marine
environment is also influenced by anthropogenic activities on land (e.g. land
clearing for agriculture, mining, urbanization) (Bartley, 2014). Studies on the
effects of sedimentation and nutrient enrichment in the Philippines have shown
negative impacts to corals, seagrasses and other marine organisms. Escobar et al.,
(2013) showed that the June 2010 fish kills in Bolinao and Anda, Pangasinan
coincided with high total inorganic nitrogen (TIN). During the fish kills, TIN
was recorded at 12.2 M, which is almost 3-folds to the ASEAN water quality
criterion of 4.40 M. Furthermore, phosphate concentration (2.37 M) during
the fish kill was also observed to be higher than the ASEAN criterion (1.45 M).
Fish kills are often a result of very low dissolved oxygen levels and is connected
with high nutrient levels. Moreover, a study conducted by Sotto et al. (2014) in
Manila Bay, have found that areas with higher nutrient concentration have lower
near-bottom dissolved oxygen level. They have recorded a dissolved oxygen (DO)
level of 0.028 mg/L during the time which total inorganic nutrients have reached
27.8 M, the highest during the sampling. This result is way below the DO level
of hypoxic waters which is at 2 mg/L (Levin et al., 2009).
Meanwhile, the effects of nutrient enrichment and sedimentation on habitat-
forming species such as seagrasses and corals are of greater concern. These
ecosystem engineers play a significant role in marine biodiversity. Vermeij et al.
(2008) showed that 98% of Ocyurus chrysurus reef population utilized seagrass
nurseries during its juvenile stage. In a study conducted by Honda et al. (2013)
in the Philippines, 29 fish species were found to utilize multiple habitats with 11
species reported to have been found utilizing seagrass beds and 15 species utilizing
corals. Habitat heterogeneity, created by ecosystem engineers (i.e. seagrass and
corals) is found to positively affect biodiversity (Cardoso et al., 2004; Hosack et
al., 2006). Nutrient enrichment and sedimentation is shown to reduce habitat
heterogeneity by either promoting dominance of a single species or by total
eradication of these habitat-forming species (Villanueva, 2005; 2006; Powell et
al., 2014). In a review conducted by Cabaco et al. (2008), seagrass are negatively
138
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139
IAMURE International Journal of Ecology and Conservation
were observed in near shore sites and sites that were facing Pampanga river.
Heavy metals were also detected in the water column near a jetty port and several
beach resorts in Iloilo, Philippines (Sarinas et al., 2013; Sarinas & Alfonsa,
2014). Both these studies registered a high concentration of heavy metals that
exceeded the allowable value by Philippine Government. The result of the study
showed that sea water near a jetty port had average cadmium concentration was
0.69 mg/L, average chromium concentration was 0.81 mg/L and average lead
concentration was 0.34 mg/L. In a different site in Iloilo, Philippines, average
chromium, lead and cadmium concentrations in sea water was 0.55 mg/L, 0.77
mg/L and 0.02 mg/L, respectively. Moreover, heavy metal contamination was
present in marine sediments in Marinduque, Philippines from a mine tailings
spill incident that occurred in 1996 (David, 2002). Although several studies
have discussed presence of heavy metals in marine environments and organisms
in the Philippines (e.g. Su et al., 2009; Solidum et al. 2013), its effects on marine
biodiversity is not placed into consideration. Heavy metals also cause biodiversity
decline due to its toxicity that cause mortality to organisms (Factor & de Chavez,
2012).
Another threat to Philippine marine biodiversity is plastic pollution. Globally,
there has been an increasing trend both in the amount of plastic debris and
number of marine organisms affected by it. In the Philippines, this increase in
plastic pollution is also evident. The amount of garbage collected from Philippine
seas has been doubling every year since 2010 and in Manila Bay alone, more
than 750 liters of marine debris are plastic with 23.2% of this being plastic bags
(Ranada, 2014). No data or records of the amount of marine plastic debris were
found for a comprehensive review in other parts of the Philippines. Further, no
reports on plastic ingestion or entanglement by marine organisms has been found
in the Philippines. This explains the inadequacy or lack of knowledge on the
extent of this problem in the country although the majority of its population is
residing on or near coastlines. Although many data were not included for lack of
them such as on amount of heavy metals and their different levels of toxicity in
the marine environment or examples of plastic ingestions of turtles and mammals
specifically in the Philippines, our study can be useful reference for exploring
those topics. Further, this review highlights the need for relevant investigations
that need to be done with regard to effect of eutrophication, heavy metals and
plastic pollution in the Philippine marine environment.
140
Volume 15 July 2015
CONCLUSIONS
Nutrient enrichment, heavy metals and plastic pollution has been found
to negatively affect marine biodiversity globally. These stressors have lethal and
sub-lethal effects on marine organisms, affecting marine biodiversity directly
or indirectly. Direct effect includes removal of individuals due to mortality
while indirect effects include habitat degradation and alteration, food web
simplification, increase alien species invasion and reduction of individual
fitness. In the Philippines, there have been few studies on effects of nutrient
enrichment, sedimentation and heavy metals on different marine species but
fewer investigations were found in relation to its effects on marine biodiversity. In
the case of plastic pollution, no studies were found to have been conducted in the
Philippines that shows the effect of this stressor to marine organisms or to marine
biodiversity as a whole even though plastic pollution pose a valid threat to marine
organisms. In general, this review may become the basis for further studies on
effects of marine pollution (nutrient enrichment, sediments, heavy metals and
plastic) on marine trophic interactions especially in the Philippine setting.
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