Criticism on Freuds

Theory of Psychoanalysis
PERSONALITY THEORIES
 Criticism on Freuds Theory of Psychoanalysis

INTRODUCTION
CRITICISM ON FREUDS THEORY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Psychoanalytic criticism originated in the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who
pioneered the technique of psychoanalysis. Freud developed a language that described, a model
that explained, and a theory that encompassed human psychology. His theories are directly and
indirectly concerned with the nature of the unconscious mind.
The psychoanalytic approach to literature not only rests on the theories of Freud; it may even
be said to have begun with Freud, who wrote literary criticism as well as psychoanalytic theory.
Probably because of Freuds characterization of the artists mind as one urged on by instincts
that are too clamorous, psychoanalytic criticism written before 1950 tended to psychoanalyze
the individual author. Literary works were readsometimes unconvincinglyas fantasies that
allowed authors to indulge repressed wishes, to protect themselves from deep-seated anxieties, or
both.
After 1950, psychoanalytic critics began to emphasize the ways in which authors create works
that appeal to readers repressed wishes and fantasies. Consequently, they shifted their focus
away from the authors psyche toward the psychology of the reader and the text. Norman
Hollands theories, concerned more with the reader than with the text, helped to establish reader-
response criticism.

Critics influenced by D.W. Winnicott, an object-relations theorist, have questioned the tendency
to see the reader/text as an either/or construct; instead, they have seen reader and text (or
audience and play) in terms of a relationship taking place in what Winnicott calls a transitional
or potential spacespace in which binary oppositions like real/illusory and
objective/subjective have little or no meaning.

Jacques Lacan
Jacques Lacan, another post-Freudian psychoanalytic theorist, focused on language and
language-related issues. Lacan treats the unconscious as a language; consequently, he views the
dream not as Freud did (that is, as a form and symptom of repression) but rather as a form of
discourse. Thus we may study dreams psychoanalytically in order to learn about literature, even
as we may study literature in order to learn more about the unconscious. Lacan also revised
Freuds concept of the Oedipus complexthe childhood wish to displace the parent of ones own
sex and take his or her place in the affections of the parent of the opposite sexby relating it to
the issue of language. He argues that the pre-oedipal stage is also a preverbal or mirror stage, a
stage he associates with theimaginary order. He associates the subsequent oedipal stagewhich
roughly coincides with the childs entry into languagewith what he calls the symbolic order, in
which words are not the things they stand for but substitutes for those things. The imaginary

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order and the symbolic order are two of Lacans three orders of subjectivity, the third being the
real, which involves intractable and substantial things or states that cannot be imagined,
symbolized, or known directly (such as death).

Erikson
Erikson made an enormous contribution to and alteration of Freud's developmental theory. He
changed and extended the stages into a more complex theory extended throughout life. He also
associated a "virtue" and a related developmental issue with each stage. This is especially
important because the failure to resolve those issues explains many problems. The seven stages
are essentially as follows. The first, or "oral" stage has the virtue of hope and the issue of trust.
The anal stage has the virtue of will and the issue of autonomy. The Oedipal stage has the virtue
of purpose and the issue of initiative. The latency stage has the virtue of skill and the issue of
industry. Adolescence has the virtue of fidelity and the issue of identity. The stage involving
marriage and work has the virtue of love and the issue of intimacy. The stage of parenthood has
the virtue of the capacity to care for others and the issue of integrity (Erikson, 1950).

Kohut
Currently a variant on this called "self psychology" is receiving a lot of attention. H. Kohut is
one of the central figures in this movement. It focuses on the formation of the sense of self as an
issue independent of Freud's structural concepts (Kohut 1971)

Grnbaum
The criticism addressed here is the question of the scientific status of psychoanalysis. Grnbaum
(1986) addressed this issue at length. He makes a detailed refutation of the scientific status of
psychoanalysis. Many of his points are well formed and legitimate criticisms. For example, there
is an element of suggestibility involved in the treatment process. The "tally argument," which
Grnbaum (1986) refutes, is that, first, only the psychoanalytic method can yield correct insight
into the causes of neuroses, and second, correct insight is necessary for a durable cure of those
neuroses. Grnbaum (1986) writes that this argument fails because of a number of complex
reasons that he enumerates in great detail, including the fact that successful treatment has
occurred without these conditions being fulfilled. Additionally Freud himself weakened this
argument considerably later in life (Grnbaum, 1986). Grnbaum goes on to a number of
criticisms based on scientific and logical reasoning that weaken psychoanalytic treatment's
scientific status.

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Plaunt
Plaut explores the evolution of psychoanalytic theory. He begins with the five basic contributions
from Freud's psychoanalytic movement, divided into the dynamic, economic, developmental,
structural, and adaptive realms. He then discusses more recent contributions to the field. Plaut
also mentions the important aspects of treatment. Next, he brings forth the criticisms Freudian
theory has received and makes an effort to refute them. Plaut ultimately reports that
psychoanalysis has emerged as a very relevant foundation of psychotherapy.

The dynamic level of Freud's theory involves the interplay between the two main alleged human
instincts--the libido or sexual instinct, and the destructive or aggressive instinct. The economic
level of the theory centers on the investment of energy in exchange for the gain of pleasure. In
the developmental level, Freud identifies an oral phase that begins with the infant sucking at the
mother's breast. The anal phase is marked by control of excretory functions. Sexual fantasies
develop in the phallic phase as well as the entrance into the "Oedipal stage" and a carnal desire
for the mother. At this point, castration anxiety in males and penis envy in females lead to a
period of latency, followed by the final stage of puberty.

The structural level of Freudian theory divides into structural and topographical models. The
structural model is composed of the id, ego, and superego. The id functions according to
instincts, and the superego according to morals. It becomes the job of the ego to balance these
demands with the realities of the outside world. The topographical model breaks the mind down
into the unconscious or inaccessible thought, the conscious or true awareness, and the
preconscious or that which is accessible but not presently being thought about. The final,
adaptive level is never formally addressed by Freud, but involves how the psyche is able to relate
the first four levels to the external world.

Plaut next addresses the developments in the field of psychoanalysis since Freud. Anna Freud
elaborated on the role of the ego and its use of defense mechanisms (e.g., repression), as well as
the residuals resulting from their use. Erikson slightly modified and extended Freud's stages of
development to include adult life. Klein emphasized pre-Oedipal life and its effects on later
psychic and possible psychopathological development. Kohut moved away from Freudian
concepts and focused on individual attainment of sense of self. Lastly, Jung remains noteworthy
for having created another type of analysis, one considering the collective unconscious, a more
spiritual concept allegedly present in all people and not created by repression.

Plaut presents some of the central ideas regarding psychoanalytic treatment. First,
psychoanalysis involves transference, in which the patient transfers emotions toward the parent
onto the therapist. In addition, Freud believed an unresolved Oedipus complex to be a common
type of repression occurring in males, having resulted from castration anxiety. Freud also

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believed dream analysis to be a method of tapping into the unconscious. Lastly, Freudian
technique also includes the use of free association between patient and therapist.

Plaut next tackles some common Freudian criticisms. To the criticism that Freud's theory is too
simple, Plaut defends that like any other model, simplification is necessary for comprehension.
To the criticism that Freud overemphasized sex, he explains that Freud's use of the word "sexual"
really encompassed the genital, anal, and oral. The criticism of psychoanalysis is that Freud's
theory is sexist and places too much emphasis on sex in general. He find it hard to believe that all
mental problems are the direct result of unresolved Oedipal and Electra complexes. Plaunt
believes that Freud's sexism was a direct result of the time period's cultural bias against women
and the fact that Freud himself was male. Plaut cleverly points out that Freud himself
acknowledged that his theory was less developed for women. Furthermore, he states that a
possible overload on sex does not lessen Freud's theory.

Plaut then discusses the criticism that Freudian theory is sexist, ignoring females. Although Plaut
does admit to the one-sidedness of the Freudian model, he also mentions the bias of the day,
which excluded women in general. He also argues that modern developments in the field have
allowed for the inclusion of women.

Plaut finally addresses the criticism regarding the scientific validity of psychoanalysis. He
presents one of Grnbaum's opinions, which basically refutes psychoanalysis as being the only
method that results in the proper understanding of an individual's neuroses. Regardless, Plaut
argues that psychoanalysis is currently valued as a successful aspect of clinical treatment. Plaut
concludes that psychoanalysis has endured as a valid foundation of psychotherapy.

The final criticism that Plaut briefly explains the position of Grnbaum but omits the positions of
Popper and Eysenck, both significant critics of psychoanalysis. Popper insists that Freud's
theories cannot be falsified and therefore are not scientific, whereas Eysenck claims that
Freudian theories can be falsified and therefore are scientific. Grnbaum takes Eysenck's
argument one step further to claim that Freud's theories are scientific but have been proven
wrong and are simply bad science. Other methods of treatment, such as cognitive and behavioral
therapy, have been proven effective in many instances, and this illustrates that psychoanalysis is
not the only option for the treatment of neuroses and mental illnesses.

Plaut does a fine job of being comprehensive, as well as concise, in explaining the five
foundations underlying Freudian psychoanalytic theory. When discussing new developments
made within the field, however, Plaut fails to present fully the contribution of the other
psychologists. The point at which Erikson's and Freud's correlating stages end and Erikson's
expansion of stages is not clear. Plaut simply intertwines the two theories so that Erikson cannot
be distinguished for his more optimistic, story-like perspective on life (McAdams, 1994, p. 657).

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Second, extremely little is said about Kohut, the least of which is how Kohut was influenced by
psychoanalytic theory in order to expand upon it and create his "self psychology."

Although Plaut mentions the Oedipus complex throughout the paper, he fails to clarify what its
correct resolution entails. He does state that the strength of the superego is proportional to the
strength of the defense used against the Oedipus complex. In addition, Plaut discusses the
development of a castration complex in the Oedipal male, but neither of these fully explains the
resolution of the Oedipus complex. Plaut bring it all together by explaining that castration
anxiety in the young male leads to identification with the father and so the fear becomes
internalized by the boy, enabling a moral voice to develop in the form of the superego.

Klein
Klein was an important figure in the development of psychoanalysis because she was one of the
first to put greater emphasis on the pre-Oedipal stages (Klein, 1975). She wrote of critical issues
during the oral and anal stages, and also of earlier oedipal issues. She theorized that these early
issues made "imprints" on later psychic developments. Among her central concepts was the
formation/existence of depressive and paranoid positions. She was a major precursor of the
modern analysts spoken of as the "object-relations school." This school of thought puts far
greater emphasis than Freud on interpersonal relationships, beginning with the mother-child
relationship.
Melanie Klein- Object Relations Theorist: Object relations theories focus on the interpersonal
relationships with objects, Whereas Freud focused more on the instinctual drives themselves
thus; object relations theorists emphasize the social and environmental influences on personality,
particularly within the mother-child interaction. Klein described the connection between infant
and mother in social and cognitive terms rather than sexual terms.

Karen Horney. 1885 1952. Nee Hamburg, Germany

Studied to be an MD. In 1909 she entered the University of Freiburg [very unusual for a woman]

Feminine psychology. Argued strongly against Freuds notion of both the Oedipus and
Electra complex
Disagreed with Freuds psychosexual stages
Did not accept Freuds division of the psyche into the id, ego, and superego
Countered Freuds idea of penis envy with what she called womb envy
Agreed with Freud on the importance of the unconscious and early childhood

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Believed that personality could continue to develop and change throughout life.
Horney believed neurosis to be a continuous process - with neuroses commonly
occurring at many different points in a person's life.

Alferd Adler
Adler disagreed with Freud about:

- the emphasis on sexuality

- the importance of the unconscious

- a stream of consciousness Adler believed that all three parts of the psyche are
constantly interacting & do NOT act alone.

- While Adler believed our childhood experiences were important, he also believed in what
he called teleology or being motivated towards future goals.

- Alder felt Freud placed too much emphasis on the past. Some consider Adler the
forefather of humanism.

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