Thermal Performance

of Power Transformers

Tutorial of Cigre Working Group A2.24

Convener: Jan Declerc, Belgium

Aim of the Tutorial

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers

Facilitate and develop the exchange of knowledge and

information, in all countries
Add value to the knowledge and information by
synthesizing state-of-the-art and world practices
Set up bridges between Manufacturers, Utilities,
Laboratories, Research Centres, Universities, ....
Identify the research avenues that appear most promising

This tutorial will be further developed by Cigre A2

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 2

A2 24
 Introduction

Transformers are critical components in T&D systems

Optimal investment, optimal load, life time expectancy
BUT
Load of transformers ~ Power ~ U.I ~ RI2~ heat
Winding with highest temperature alias HOT SPOT
Life of insulation depends on temperature rise
Montsinger relation + 6 K lifetime/2

So lets cool ONAN, ONAF, OFAF, ODAF

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 3

A2 24

Introduction (contd)

Damage mechanisms in transformers:

Thermal ageing of paper
Ageing at hot spot determines life expectancy
Influences mechanical strength, not dielectric properties
Hot spot is mostly not mechanically most stressed region
=> lower mechanical strength acceptable at those places
Bubble generation due to high temperatures
Leads to free gas in oil
Lowers dielectrical strength
Copper sulphide deposition on paper
Increases electrical conductivity of oil impregnated paper
Risk on dielectrical strength reduction
Depends on oil composition
Static electrification
Caused by to high oil flow
Increases with temperature

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 4

A2 24
 Introduction (contd)

Transformer rating is based on thermal capacity

Electrical Insulation System EIS is a critical factor for transformer
loading capability
EIS contains important information for reliability and condition

Until now design test bay

top oil temperature x x
average winding gradient x x
hot spot factor (1.1 1.3) x
IEC 60076-2, ANSI C57.12

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 5

A2 24

Introduction (contd)

Trend
increasing average load of transformers
increasing use in off-design conditions (overload)
using hot spot as important performance indicator
consulting and troubleshooting
Reliability and condition assesment
lack of mastering of material performance
oil chemical characteristics
treatment for paper upgrading
tendency to extend life expectancy of generation system
need to evaluate transformer condition: replace or reinforce

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 6

A2 24
 Introduction (contd)

Tins 98 C
Current I
Losses RI2
Temperature
Lifetime

Load P

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 7

A2 24

Contents of Tutorial

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers

Scope
Fundamentals of thermal ageing
Ratings of new transformers
Practical applications for in service transformers

WG A2.24 Thermal Performance of Power Transformers

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 8

A2 24
 Fundamentals in Thermal Ageing

Provide information about thermal ageing of the

cellulose insulation to help utilities to better manage
their transformers.

Role of chemical environment on paper ageing.

Solubility of ageing markers in oil and paper.
Thermal aspects.
Diagnostics and condition assessment
Condition management and maintenance
TF D1.01.10 - Paper Ageing - Convener: Lars Lundgaard
Supply information for WG A2.24 Thermal performance concerning
mineral oil impregnated cellulose insulation
Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 9
A2 24

Mechanical strength and DP

Classical view (IEC 60354):

Mechanical strength of
cellulose determines life
Life duration = e-p*T
Influence of condition of
insulation not appreciated

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 10

A2 24
 Mechanical strength and DP

Classical view (IEC 60354):

Tensile strength and DP relates: Mechanical strength of
cellulose determines life
120 Life duration = e-p*T
Influence of condition of
Tensile index [Nm/g]

insulation not appreciated

80

Modern approach:
40
Mechanical strength
determined by length of
cellulose chains in fibres
0
1250 1000 750 500 250 0
Degree of polymerisation
DP-value (DP) of cellulose molecules
describes ageing condition
TIME

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 11

A2 24

Ageing: Arrhenius model

Ageing rate

E
R (T + 273 )
Chain Scissions = A e t
-12 130oC
Wet paper
110oC
For one ageing process: Dry paper
ln (ageing rate)

-14
E describes temperature A 90oC
dependence (activation -16

energy) -18
70oC

For hydrolysis, the ageing rate

doubles every 7oC E
-20

A factor describes influence

0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029 0.003
1/Tabs [K-1]
of contamination condition
Can increase ageing tenfold,
equivalent to 20-30oC

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 12

A2 24
 Kraft paper
Normal ageing is governed
mainly by oxidation and
hydrolysis: The total
Oxidation may increase ageing ageing is the
2-3 times sum of these
Hydrolysis (Acid catalyzed) may processes

ln (reaction rate)
increase ageing 10-15 times
when water increases to 3 %

At thermal defects, with

temperatures exceeding normal
conditions, pyrolysis becomes
active
Activation energies of H 2O O2
oxidation, hydrolysis and
1/T
pyrolysis are different
Increasing temperature

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 13

A2 24

Thermally upgraded kraft paper

Paper may be upgraded Ageing rate is lower than for

in many different ways kraft paper; (1/3 for some types)
cyanoethylether, Less sensitive to hydrolysis
dicyandiamind,
melamine, urea.

-12
With water
added
LN (reaction rate)

Ageing mechanism of -14

upgraded paper is less

-16
known than for kraft
paper -18
Insuldur
-20 Kraft

0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029

1/Tabs [K-1]

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 14

A2 24
 Water is an ageing accelerator

Water and high temperature

may give very short life for a
transformer:

1000
Dry paper But:
Life expectancy [years]

1%

100
1,5 % Equally important as the water are
2%
3% the low molecular acids produced
by ageing of the cellulose (and
4%

10
maybe by some oils?)
1 Hottest areas = most dry areas
=> Transformer can still live long with
0.1 higher average moisture content
50 70 90 110 130
Temperature [oC]
This not fully investigated yet
Water is produced by ageing

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 15

A2 24

Sensitivity of paper to oxygen in oil

Ageing acceleration factor

2.5

1.5

0.5

Seal Type Membrane Free breathing

Oil preservation system

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 16

A2 24
 O2 CO
H2O

Cellulose
Oil oxidation
oxidation

ACIDS
H2O Temperature oxygen

Hydrolysis Pyrolysis

Depoly Levo
merization
glucosane

Dehydration

Furans
Cigre WG 12.18
acids CO2 CO water
2
Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 17
A2 24

Thermal Life is a function of

temperature, water and by-products

1 1
13350
DPEnd DPStart T + 273
Expected _ Life = e [ years]
A 24 365

Water & acids

Hot spot
temperature

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 18

A2 24
 Diagnostics (direct and indirect)

Estimated from knowledge of load temperatures,

contamination of insulation, and materials performance.

Indirectly decided by chemical matters produced from ageing:

Furanes (production depending on paper type)
Water
CO and CO2
Low Molecular Acids
Sludge

Sampling of paper from transformer

Mechanical strength cannot be measured, only DP-value
How representative is a sample for hotspot conditions?
=> Impossible to get paper from hot spot area and/or oldest area
(Hot spot area not always oldest area!)

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 19

A2 24

Furanic compound analysis

Furanes are produced by kraft paper, but to a less degree by

upgraded paper (Insuldur)

Kraft Insuldur
10 10
2 FAL/ gram cellulose [mg]
2 FAL/ gram cellulose [mg]

Dry
Oxygenated
1 1
1 % water added
3 % water added
0.1 0.1

0.01 0.01

0.001 0.001

0.0001 0.0001

1E-005 1E-005

0.01 0.1 1 10 0.01 0.1 1 10

# Chain scissions # Chain scissions

Furanes, (and also low molecular acids) behave like water, are mainly
located in the cellulose, and their concentration in the oil samples
varies with temperature
Furanes degrade with time
Correlation to paper condition is complex

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 20

A2 24
 End of life criteria

In order to evaluate the economic consequences of accelerated ageing, a

normal life duration must be defined
Old IEC 354 gave no indication
IEC 57 92 1981 indicated 65 000 hours at 100C hot spot yearly average
IEC 60076-7 indicates 150 000 hours
IEEE indicate, for thermally upgraded paper operating continuously at 110C,
50% retained tensile strength : 65 000 hours
25% retained tensile strength : 135 000 hours
200 retained degree of polymerisation : 150 000 hours

Thermal Life:Time to critical decomposition DP<200

(Mechanical life of paper) only 10 to 15 % of failures
Dielectric Life: Time span to critical reduction of dielectric safety
Mechanical life : critical mechanical weakness and deformation of windings

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 21

A2 24

End of life : examples of deposit

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 22

A2 24
 End of life : examples of deposit

23

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 23

A2 24

Bubble generation hazard

Residual moisture in winding insulation can lead to generation of

gas bubbles at high temperature
This is the dominant concern in the selection of a limiting hot
spot temperature for safe operation
Physical determinant factors for bubble generation have been
identified in laboratory:
Moisture content in insulation
Hydrostatic pressure
Duration of the high temperature
Real life determinant factors:
Too high rate of temperature rise
Caused by high load cold start
Moisture does not get enough time to migrate
Mostly linked to overload conditions

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 24

A2 24
 Advices

Remember, to improve knowledge of ageing mechanism

and validate ageing model:

Use improved ageing model based on DP

Laboratory ageing experiments do only mimic reality.

Keep track of thermal and condition history of units

Take post mortem analysis of scrapped units in a

systematic way to learn

Link with design of transformer -> Part 2

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 25

A2 24

Contents of Tutorial

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers

Scope
Fundamentals of thermal ageing
Ratings of new transformers
Practical applications for in service transformers

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 26

A2 24
 Thermal design of transformer

Critical parameters:
Stray magnetic field
Leakage flux control
Loss density (in
conductor)
Oil flow pattern and
pressure drop singularities
Insulation coverage
Eddy loss density in
metallic parts
Unpredicted hot spot

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 27

A2 24

Recommended limits for winding

temperature rise

Average Hot-spot
winding temperature
temperature rise
rise
IEC ON, OF cooling 65 K 78 K
IEC OD cooling 70 K 78 K
IEEE Thermally 65 K 80 K
upgraded paper
IEEE Normal kraft paper 55 K 65 K

Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 28

A2 24
Thermal Performance of Power Transformers Tutorial od Cigre WG 29
A2 24