Chapter R

Relativity
Conceptual Problems
1 You are standing on a corner and a friend is driving past in an
automobile. Each of you is wearing a wristwatch. Both of you note the times
when the car passes two different intersections and determine from your watch
readings the time that elapses between the two events. Have either of you
determined the proper time interval? Explain your answer.

Determine the Concept In the reference frame of the car both events occur at the
same location (the location of the car). Thus, your friends watch measures the
proper time between the two events.

2 In Problem 1, suppose your friend in the car measures the width of the
car door to be 90 cm. You also measure the width as he goes by you.
(a) Does either of you measures the proper width of the door? Explain your
answer. (b) How will your value for the door width compare to his? (1) Yours will
be smaller, (2) yours will be larger, (3) yours will be the same, (4) you cant
compare the widths, as the answer depends on the cars speed.

Determine the Concept The proper length of an object is the length of the object
in the rest frame of the object. The proper length of a meter stick is one meter.

(a) Because the door is at rest in the reference frame of the car, its width in that
frame is its proper width. If your friend measures this width, say by placing a
meter stick against the door, then he will measure the proper width of the door.

(b) In the reference frame in which you are at rest, the door is moving, so its
width is less than its proper width. To measure this width would be challenging.
(You could measure the width by measuring the time for the door to go by. The
width of the door is the product of the speed of the car and the time.)

3 [SSM] If event A occurs at a different location than event B in some

reference frame, might it be possible for there to be a second reference frame in
which they occur at the same location? If so, give an example. If not, explain why
not.

Determine the Concept Yes. Let the initial frame of reference be frame 1. In
frame 1 let L be the distance between the events, let T be the time between the
events, and let the +x direction be the direction of event B relative to event A.
Next, calculate the value of L/T. If L/T is less than c, then consider the two events
in a reference frame 2, a frame moving at speed v = L/T in the +x direction. In
frame 2 both events occur at the same location.

1051
1052 Chapter R

4 [SSM] If event A occurs prior to event B in some frame, might it be

possible for there to be a second reference frame in which event B occurs prior to
event A? If so, give an example. If not, explain why not.

Determine the Concept Yes. Let L and T be the distance and time between the
two events in reference frame 1. If L cT, then something moving at a speed
less than or equal to c could travel from the location of event A to the location of
event B in a time less than T. Thus, it is possible that event A could cause event
B. For events like these, causality demands that event A must precede event B in
all reference frames. However, if L > cT then event A cannot be the cause of
event B. For events like these, event B does precede event A in certain reference
frames.

5 [SSM] Two events are simultaneous in a frame in which they also

occur at the same location. Are they simultaneous in all other reference frames?

Determine the Concept Yes. If two events occur at the same time and place in
one reference frame they occur at the same time and place in all reference frames.
(Any pair of events that occur at the same time and at the same place in one
reference frame are called a spacetime coincidence.)

6 Two inertial observers are in relative motion. Under what

circumstances can they agree on the simultaneity of two different events?

Determine the Concept We will refer to the two events as event A and event B.
Assume that in the reference frame of the first observer there is a stationary clock
at the location of each event, with clock A at the location of event A and clock B
at the location of event B, and that the two clocks are synchronized. Because the
two events are simultaneous in this frame, the readings of the two clocks at the
time the events occur are the same. Also, event A and the reading of clock A at
the time of event A are a spacetime coincidence, so all observers must agree with
that clock reading. In like manner, event B and the reading of clock B at the time
of event B are a spacetime coincidence. If observer B is moving parallel with the
line joining the two clocks then the clocks readings will differ by Lv/c2 in the
reference frame of B, where L is the distance between the clocks in the reference
frame of observer A. This means that observer B will agree that the two clock
readings at the times of the events are the same, but will not agree that the events
occurred at the same time unless L = 0.

7 The approximate total energy of a particle of mass m moving at speed

v << c is (a) mc2 + 12 mv2, (b) mv2, (c) cmv, (d) 12 mc2, (e) cmv.
 Relativity 1053

Picture the Problem We can use the expression for the total relativistic energy
of the particle to express its energy in terms of its speed and expand the radical
factor binomially to find the correct approximate expression for the total energy
when v << c.

Express the total relativistic energy mc 2

E = K + mc 2 =
of the particle as the sum of its v2
kinetic energy and the rest energy: 1
c2
1 2
v2
= mc 1 2
2

Expand the radical factor binomially v2

E = mc 2 1 + 12 2 + ... = mc 2 + 12 mv 2 + ...
to obtain: c
mc + 2 mv for v << c.
2 1 2

and (a) is correct.

8 True or false:

(a) The speed of light is the same in all reference frames.

(b) The proper time interval is the shortest time interval between two events.
(c) Absolute motion can be determined by means of length contraction.
(d) The light-year is a unit of distance.
(e) For two events to form a space-time coincidence they must occur at the same
place.
(f) If two events are not simultaneous in one frame, they cannot be simultaneous
in any other frame.

(a) True. This is Einsteins second postulate.

(b) True. The time between events that happen at the same place in a reference
frame is called the proper time and the time interval t measured in any other
reference frame is always longer than the proper time.

(c) False. Absolute motion cannot be detected.

(d) True. A light-year is the distance light travels (in a vacuum) in one year.

(e) True. For two events to form a space-time coincidence, they must not only
occur at the same place but must also occur at the same location.
1054 Chapter R

(f) False. The fact that two events are not simultaneous in one frame tells us
nothing about their simultaneity in any other frame.

9 (a) Show that pc has dimensions of energy. (b) There is a geometrical

interpretation of Equation R-17 based on the Pythagorean Theorem. Draw a
picture of a triangle illustrating this interpretation.

(a) Express the dimensions of pc 2

and simplify them to obtain: [ p][c] = M L L = M L

T T T
ML2
= 2 = [E ]
T

(b) The geometrical interpretation,

based on the Pythagorean Theorem,
of Equation R-17 is shown to the E pc
right:

mc 2

10 A wad of putty of mass m1 strikes and sticks to a second wad of putty

of mass m2 which is initially at rest. Do you expect that after the collision the
combined putty mass will be (a) greater than, (b) less than, (c) the same as
m1 + m2. Explain your answer.

Determine the Concept Because the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy is

converted into mass energy. (a ) is correct.

11 [SSM] Many nuclei of atoms are unstable; for example, 14C, an

isotope of carbon, has a half-life of 5700 years. (By definition, the half-life is the
time it takes for any given number of unstable particles to decay to half that
number of particles.) This fact is used extensively for archeological and
biological dating of old artifacts. Such unstable nuclei decay into several decay
products, each with significant kinetic energy. Which of the following is true?
(a) The mass of the unstable nucleus is larger than the sum of the masses of the
decay products. (b) The mass of the unstable nucleus is smaller than the sum of
the masses of the decay products. (c) The mass of the unstable nucleus is the
same as the sum of the masses of the decay products. Explain your choice.

Determine the Concept Because mass is converted into the kinetic energy of the
fragments, the mass of the unstable nucleus is larger than the sum of the masses of
the decay products. (a ) is correct.
 Relativity 1055

12 Positron emission tomography (PET) scans are common in modern

medicine. In this procedure, positrons (a positron has the same mass, but the
opposite charge as an electron) are emitted by radioactive nuclei that have been
introduced into the body. Assume that an emitted positron, traveling slowly (with
negligible kinetic energy) collides with an electron traveling at the same slow
speed in the opposite direction. They undergo annihilation and two quanta of light
(photons) are formed. You are in charge of designing detectors to receive these
photons and measure their energy. (a) Explain why you would expect these two
photons to come off in exactly opposite directions. (b) In terms of the electron
mass me , how much energy would each photon have? (1) less than mc2,
(2) greater than mc2, (3) exactly mc2. Explain your choice.

Determine the Concept

(a) The linear momentum of the electron-positron pair was zero just before their
annihilation and the emission of the two photons and therefore the linear
momentum of the two photons must be zero.

(b) (3) is correct. Each photon has the rest mass energy, mec2, equivalent of an
electron. Because there are two photons and they have the same momentum, they
share equally, each getting half the available initial rest energy of 2mec2.

Estimation and Approximation

13 [SSM] In 1975, an airplane carrying an atomic clock flew back and
forth at low altitude for 15 hours at an average speed of 140 m/s as part of a time-
dilation experiment. The time on the clock was compared to the time on an atomic
clock kept on the ground. What is the time difference between the atomic clock
on the airplane and the atomic clock on the ground? (Ignore any effects that
accelerations of the airplane have on the atomic clock which is on the airplane.
Also assume that the airplane travels at constant speed.)

Picture the Problem We can use the time dilation equation to relate the elapsed
time in the frame of reference of the airborne clock to the elapsed time in the
frame of reference of the clock kept on the ground.

Use the time dilation equation to t 0

t = (1)
relate the elapsed time t according v
2

to the clock on the ground to the 1

c
elapsed time t0 according to the
airborne atomic clock:

Because v << c, we can use the 1 1v

2

1 1 1+
approximation 1+ x v
2 2c
1 x 2 1
to obtain: c
1056 Chapter R

Substitute in equation (1) to obtain: 1 v 2

t = 1 + t0
2 c (2)
2
1v
= t0 + t0
2c
where the second term represents the
additional time measured by the clock
on the ground.

Evaluate the proper elapsed time s

according to the clock on the t0 = (15 h ) 3600 = 5.40 10 4 s
h
airplane:

Substitute numerical values and 1

2

evaluate the second term in equation t' =

140 m/s
5.40 10 4 s
2 2.998 10 m/s
8
( )
(2):
= 5.89 10 9 s 5.9 ns

14 (a) By making any necessary assumptions and finding certain stellar

distances, estimate the speed at which a spaceship would have to travel for its
passengers to make a trip to the nearest star (not the Sun!) and back to Earth in 1.0
Earth years, as measured by an observer on the ship. Assume the passengers make
the outgoing and return trips at constant speed and ignore any effects due to the
spaceship stopping and starting. (b) How much time would elapse on Earth during
their roundtrip? Include 2.0 Earth years for a low-speed exploration of the planets
in the vicinity of this star.

Picture the Problem We can use the length-contraction equation

L = L0 1 (v c ) and t = L v to estimate the speed of the spaceship. Note that
2

there is no time dilation effect during the two-year exploration period. Take the
distance to the nearest sun to be 4.0 cy.

(a) According to the travelers, the

L L0 1 (v c )
2

elapsed time for the trip is: t = =

v v

Multiplying both sides of the cL 1 (v c ) L 1 (v c )

2 2

equation by c yields: c t = 0 = 0
v vc

Because ct = 1.0 cy and 4.0 1 (v c )

2

L0 = 4.0 cy: 1 .0 =
vc
 Relativity 1057

Solve for v to obtain: 16

v= c = 0.97c
17

(b) Express the elapsed time as the t = t travel + t exploration

sum of the travel and exploration (1)
= 2t1 wayl + t exploration
times:

In the Earth frame-of reference: L0 4.0 c y

t1 way = = = 4.12 y
v 0.97 c

Substitute numerical values in t = 2(4.12 y ) + 2.0 y = 10.2 y

equation (1) and evaluate t:

15 (a) Compare the kinetic energy of a moving car to its rest energy.
(b) Compare the total energy of a moving car to its rest energy. (c) Estimate the
error made in computing the kinetic energy of a moving car using non-relativistic
expressions compared to the relativistically correct expressions. Hint: Use of the
binomial expansion may help.

Picture the Problem We can compare these energies by expressing their ratios.
Assume that the speed of the car is 30 m/s ( 67 mi/h).

(a) Express the ratio of the kinetic 1 2

1v
2
K 2 mv
energy of a moving car to its rest 2
= 2
=
mc mc 2c
energy:

For a car moving at 30 m/s: K 1 30 m/s

2

=
mc 2
2 2.998 10 m/s
8

5 10 13 %

(b) Express the ratio of the total E K + mc 2 K

energy of a moving car to its rest 2
= 2
= +1
mc mc mc 2
energy:
1.000 000 000 000 005

(c) The error made in computing the K K K rel

kinetic energy of a moving car using = non -rel
K rel K rel
the non-relativistic expression (1)
compared to the relativistically K
correct expression is given by: = non -rel 1
K rel

From Equation R-14, the relativistic v 2 2

1

kinetic energy is given by: K rel = 1 2 1 mc 2 (2)

c

1058 Chapter R

12
v2
Expand 1 2 binomially to obtain:
c

12
v2 1 v2 3 v4 1 v2 3 v4
1 2 = 1+ + + ... 1 + +
c 2 c2 8 c4 2 c2 8 c4

Substituting in equation (2) and 1 v2 3 v4

simplifying yields: K rel = 2 + 4 mc 2
2 c 8c
1 3 v2
= mv 2 + mv 2 2
2 8 c
3 v2
= K non -rel 1 +
2
4c

Substitute for Krel in equation (1)

and simplify to obtain:
K K non -rel
= 1
K rel 3 v2
K non -rel 1 +
2
4c
1
3 v2
= 1 + 1
2
4 c

1
3 v2
Expanding 1 + binomially yields:
2
4c

3 v 2 ( 1)( 2 ) 3 v 2
1 2
3 v2 3 v2
1 +
2
= 1 + ( 1)
4 c2 +
4 c2 + ... 1 2
4c 2 4c

1
3 v2 K 3 v 2 3 v2
Substitute for 1 + in the = 1 1 =
4 c 2
K rel 4 c 2 4 c2
K
expression for to obtain:
K rel
 Relativity 1059

Substitute numerical values and K 3

=
(30 m/s) 2

evaluate
K
: K rel 4 (2.998 108 m/s )2
K rel
= 7.5 10 15

Length Contraction and Time Dilation

16 The proper average (or mean) lifetime of a pion (a subatomic particle)
is 2.6 108 s. (A neutral pion has a much shorter lifetime. See Chapter 41.) A
beam of pions has a speed of 0.85c relative to a laboratory. (a) What would be
their mean lifetime as measured in that laboratory? (b) On average, how far
would they travel in that laboratory before they decay? (c) What would be your
answer to Part (b) if you had neglected time dilation?

Picture the Problem The pion beam enters the laboratory at a point called the
entrance port (EP). A typical pion in the beam disintegrates at a second point
called the mean disintegration location (MDL). Event A occurs when a typical
pion enters the room at EP, and event B occurs when the pion disintegrates at
MDL. (a) In the reference frame of the beam these two events occur at the same
location, so the time t0 between these two events in this frame is the proper time
between the events. We can use the time dilation formula to calculate the time t
between these events in the reference frame of the laboratory, a reference frame
that moves with speed v = 0.85c relative to the reference frame of the beam.
(b) In the reference frame of the room a typical pion travels at speed v for time
t.

(a) Sketch a typical pion in the

reference frame of the pion beam. Reference frame of beam
In this frame the typical pion is at EP MDL
rest and both EP and MDL are
moving at speed v. Event A occurs v v
when EP is next to a typical pion,
and event B occurs when MDL
reaches the pion at the instant the Typical pion at rest
pion disintegrates:

Sketch a typical pion in the reference Laboratory reference frame

frame of the laboratory. In this
EP MDL
frame the typical pion moves at
speed v. Event A occurs when a
typical pion enters the room at EP, v
and event B occurs when the pion
reaches MDL at the instant the pion Typical pion in motion
disintegrates:
1060 Chapter R

Use the time-dilation equation to t0

t =
relate the mean lifetime t of a 2
1
v
typical pion in the laboratory frame c
to the proper mean lifetime t0 in the
reference frame of the beam:

Substitute numerical values and 2.6 10 8 s

evaluate t: t = = 4.94 10 8 s
2
0.85c
1
c
= 4.9 10 8 s

(b) Express the distance a typical x = vt

pion will travel in the lab frame
before it decays in terms of its speed
and its mean lifetime in the lab
frame:

Substitute numerical values and x = (0.85c ) (4.94 108 s ) = 13 m

evaluate x:

(c) Neglecting time dilation, x = (0.85c ) (2.6 108 s ) = 6.6 m

t = 2.6 108 s, and:

17 [SSM] In the reference frame of a pion in Problem 16, how far does
the laboratory travel in 2.6 108 s?

Picture the Problem We can use x = vt , where t is the proper mean

lifetime of the pions, to find the distance traveled by the laboratory frame in a
typical pion lifetime.

The average distance the laboratory x = vt

will travel before the pions decay is
the product of the speed of the pions
and their proper mean lifetime:

Substitute numerical values and ( )

x = (0.85c ) 2.6 10 8 s = 6.63 m
evaluate x: = 6.6 m

18 The proper average (or mean) lifetime of a muon (a subnuclear

particle) particle is 2.20 s. Muons in a beam are traveling at 0.999c relative to a
laboratory. (a) What is their lifetime as measured in that laboratory? (b) On
average, how far do they travel in that laboratory before they decay?
 Relativity 1061

Picture the Problem We can express the mean lifetimes of the muons in the
1 (v c ) . The
2
laboratory in terms of their proper lifetimes using t = t 0
average distance the muons will travel before they decay is related to their speed
and mean lifetime in the laboratory frame according to x = vt.

(a) Use the time-dilation equation to t 0

t =
relate the mean lifetime of a muon in v
2

the laboratory t to their proper 1

c
mean lifetime t0:

Substitute numerical values and 2.20 10 6 s

t = = 49.2 s
evaluate t: 2
0.999c
1
c
= 49 s

(b) The average distance muons x = vt

travel before they decay in terms of
their speed and mean lifetime in the
laboratory frame of reference is:

Substitute numerical values and x = (0.999c )(49.2 s ) = 15 km

evaluate x:

19 In the reference frame of the muon in Problem 20, how far does the
laboratory travel in 2.20 s?

Picture the Problem We can use x = vt , where t is the proper mean

lifetime of the pions, to find the distance traveled by the laboratory frame in a
1 (v c )
2
typical pion lifetime and x0 = x to find this distance in the
laboratorys frame.

Express the average distance the x = vt

laboratory will travel before the pions
decay in terms of the speed of the
pions and their proper mean lifetime:

Substitute numerical values and x = (0.999c )(2.20 s ) = 659 m

evaluate x:
1062 Chapter R

20 You have been posted in a remote region of space to monitor traffic.

Toward the end of a quiet shift, a spacecraft goes by and you measure its length
using a laser device. This device reports a length of 85.0 m. You flip open your
handy reference catalogue and identify the craft as a CCCNX-22, which has a
proper length of 100 m. When you phone in your report, what speed should you
give for this spacecraft?

Picture the Problem The measured length L of the spacecraft is related to its
( )
proper length L0 and its speed according to L = L0 1 v 2 c 2 . We can solve this
equation for v as a function of c, L, and L0.

Express the length L of the L

2
v2
spacecraft in terms of its proper L = L0 1 2 v = c 1
length L0:
c L0

Substitute numerical values and 85.0 m

2

evaluate v: ( 8
)
v = 2.998 10 m/s 1
100 m


= 1.58 10 8 m/s

21 [SSM] A spaceship travels from Earth to a star 95 light-years away

at a speed of 2.2 108 m/s. How long does the spaceship take to get to the star
(a) as measured on Earth and (b) as measured by a passenger on the spaceship?

Picture the Problem We can use x = vt to find the time for the trip as
measured on Earth and t 0 = t 1 (v c ) to find the time measured by a
2

passenger on the spaceship.

(a) Express the elapsed time, as x

t =
measured on Earth, in terms of the v
distance traveled and the speed of the
spaceship:

Substitute numerical values and 95 c y 9.4611015 m

t =
evaluate t: 2.2 108 m/s cy
1y
= 4.09 10 9 s = 129 y
31.56 Ms
= 1.3 10 2 y
 Relativity 1063

(b) A passenger on the spaceship v

2

will measure the proper time: t 0 = t 1

c

Substitute numerical values and

t 0 = (129 y ) 1
(2.2 10 8
m/s )
2

evaluate the proper time:

(2.998 10 8
m/s )
2

= 88 y

22 The average lifetime of a beam of subatomic particles called pions (see

Problem 16 for details on these particles) traveling at high speed is measured to
be 7.5 108 s. Their average lifetime at rest is known to be 2.6 108 s. How
fast is this pion beam traveling?

Picture the Problem We can express the mean lifetime of the pion in the
1 (v c ) and solve for v
2
laboratory in terms of its proper lifetime using t = t 0
to find its speed.

Use the time-dilation equation to t 0 t

2

relate the mean lifetime of a muon in t = v = c 1 0

v 2
t
the laboratory t to their proper 1 2
c
mean lifetime t0:

Substitute numerical values and evaluate v:

2
2.6 10 8 s
v = (2.998 10 m/s ) 1
8
8
= 2.8 10 8 m/s
7.5 10 s

23 A meterstick moves with speed 0.80c relative to you in the direction

parallel to the stick. (a) Find the length of the stick as measured by you. (b) How
long does it take for the stick to pass you?

Picture the Problem We can find the measured length L of the meterstick using
( )
L = L0 1 v 2 c 2 and the time it takes to pass you using L = vt.

(a) Express the length L of the v2

meterstick in terms of its proper L = L0 1
c2
length L0:

Substitute numerical values and

L = (1.0 m ) 1
(0.8c )
2
= 60 cm
evaluate L: 2
c
1064 Chapter R

(b) Express the time it takes for the t =

L
meterstick to pass you in terms of its v
apparent length and speed:

Substitute numerical values and 0.60 m

t = = 2.5 ns
evaluate t: 0.8c

24 Recall that the half-life is the time it takes for any given amount of
unstable particles to decay to half that amount of particles. The proper half-life of
a species of charged subatomic particles called pions is 1.80 108 s (See
Problem 16 for details on pions.) . Suppose a group of these pions are produced
in an accelerator and emerge with a speed of 0.998c. How far do these particles
travel in the accelerators laboratory before half of them have decayed?

Picture the Problem We can express the distance the pions will travel in the
laboratory using x = vt and find their half-life in the accelerator laboratory
1 (v c ) .
2
using t = t 0

Express the average distance the x = vt

pions will travel before decaying in
terms of their speed proper mean
lifetime:

Use the time-dilation equation to t 0

t =
relate the mean lifetimes of the pions v
2

in the accelerator laboratory t to 1

c
their proper mean lifetime t0:

Substitute for t to obtain: vt 0

x =
2
v
1
c

Substitute numerical values and (0.998c )(1.80 10 8 s )

x = = 85.2 m
evaluate x: 2
0.998c
1
c

25 [SSM] Your friend, who is the same age as you, travels to the star
Alpha Centauri, which is 4.0 light-years away, and returns immediately. He
claims that the entire trip took just 6.0 y. What was his speed? Ignore any
accelerations of your friends spaceship and assume the spaceship traveled at the
same speed during the entire trip.
 Relativity 1065

Picture the Problem To calculate the speed in the reference frame of the friend,
who is named Ed, we consider each leg of the trip separately. Consider an
imaginary stick extending from Earth to Alpha Centauri that is at rest relative to
Earth. In Eds frame the length of the stick, and thus the distance between Earth
and Alpha Centauri, is shortened in accord with the length contraction formula.
As three years pass on Eds watch Alpha Centauri travels at speed v from its
initial location to him.

Sketch the situation as it is in your Your reference frame

reference frame. The distance L0
between Earth and Alpha C. is the Earth Alpha C.
rest length L0 of the stick discussed
in Picture the Problem: v

Ed moving

Sketch the situation as it is in Eds Your friend Ed's reference frame

reference frame. The distance L
between Earth and Alpha C. is the Earth Alpha C.
length L of the moving stick
v v
discussed in Picture the Problem:

Ed at rest

The two events are Ed leaves Earth t0 = 3 y

and Ed arrive at Alpha Centauri. In
Eds frame these two events occur at
the same place (next to Ed). Thus,
the time between those two events
t0 is the proper time between the
two events.

The distance L traveled by Alpha L = v t 0

Centauri in Eds frame during the
first three years equals the speed
multiplied by the time in Eds frame:

The distance between Earth and v2

Alpha Centauri in Eds frame is the L = L0 1 2
contracted length of the imaginary c
stick:

Equate these expressions for L to v2

obtain: L0 1 = vt 0
c2
1066 Chapter R

Substituting numerical values yields: v2

(4.0 c y ) 1 = v(3.0 y )
c2
or
v2 9 v2 25 v 2
1 = =1
c 2 16 c 2 16 c 2

Solving for v gives: v = 0.80c

26 Two spaceships pass each other traveling in opposite directions. A

passenger in ship A knows that her ship is 100 m long. She notes that ship B is
moving with a speed of 0.92c relative to A and that the length of B is 36 m. What
are the lengths of the two spaceships as measured by a passenger in ship B?

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship between the measured length L
of the spaceships and their proper lengths L0 to find the lengths of the two
spaceships as measured by a passenger in ship B.

Relate the measured length LA of v

2

ship A to its proper length: LA = L0, A 1

c

Substitute numerical values and 0.92c

2

evaluate LA: LA = (100 m ) 1 = 39 m

c

Relate the proper length L0,B of ship LB

L0,B =
B to its measured length LB: v
2

1
c

Substitute numerical values and 36 m

L0,B = = 92 m
evaluate L0,B : 2
0.92c
1
c

27 Supersonic jets achieve maximum speeds of about 3.00 106c. (a) By

what percentage would a jet traveling at this speed contract in length? (b) During
a time of exactly one year or 3.15 107 s on your clock, how much time would
elapse on the pilots clock? How much time is lost by the pilots clock in one year
of your time? Assume you are on the ground and the pilot is flying at the specified
speed for the entire year.
 Relativity 1067

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship between the measured length L
of the jet and its proper length to express the fractional change in the length of the
jet traveling at its maximum speed. In Part (b) we can express the elapsed time on
the pilots clock t0 in terms of the elapsed time t on your clock.

(a) Express the fractional change in L0 L L

= 1
length of the jet: L0 L0

Relate L to L0: v L
2
v
2

L = L0 1 = 1
c L0 c

Substitute for L L0 to obtain: L0 L v2

= 1 1 2 (1)
L0 c

1
v2 v2 2 1 v2 3 v4
Expand 1 2 binomially to 1 2 = 1 + + ...
c c 2 c2 8 c4
obtain:
1 v2
1
2 c2

Substituting in equation (1) yields: L0 L 1 v2 1 v2

= 1 1 =
2 2
L0 2c 2c

L0 L 1 (3.00 10 6 c )
2
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate the jets fractional change in
L0 2 c2
length:
= 4.50 10 10 %

1
(b) Express the elapsed time on the v2 2 1 v2
pilots clock t0 in terms of the t 0 = 1 2 t t 1
2
c 2c
elapsed time t on your clock:
1 v2
= t t
2 c2
where the second term represents the
time lost on the pilots clock.
1068 Chapter R

Substitute numerical values and evaluate the elapsed time on the pilots clock
in 1 y = 3.15 107 s:

1 v2
t 0 = 1 t = 1 (
1 3.00 10 6 c ) (3.15 10 s) =
2
7
1.00 y
2 2
2 c c2

The time lost by the pilots clock in 1 v2

t t 0 = t
time t of your time is given by: 2 c2

Substitute numerical values and evaluate t t0 for 1 y = 3.15 107 s:

t t 0 =
(
1 3.00 10 6 c ) (3.15 10 s) = (142 s) 1 min =
2
7
2.37 min
2 c2 60 s

28 The proper mean lifetime of a muon (see Problems 18 and 19 for

details) is 2.20 s. Consider a muon, created in Earths atmosphere, speeding
toward the surface 8.00 km below, at a speed of 0.980c. (a) What is the
likelihood that it will survive its trip to ground before decaying? The probability
of a muon decaying is given by P = 1 e t / , where t is the time interval as
measured in the reference frame in question. (b) Calculate this from the point of
view of an observer moving with the muon. Show that, from the point of view of
an observer on Earth, the answer is the same.

Picture the Problem We can use the given probability function to find the
probability of the muons survival from both the point of view of an Earth
observer and the muon. To do so, well need to use the time-dilation relationship
in (a) and the length-contraction relationship in (b).

(a) The probability of a muon Psurvival = e t (1)

decaying is P = 1 e t , so the
probability of survival is:

From the point of view of an L 8000 m

t = =
observer on Earth: (
v (0.980) 2.998 108 m/s )
= 27.229 s

The mean lifetime of the muon is 0 2.20 s

given by: = =
1 (0.980 )
2 2
v
1
c
= 11.055 s
 Relativity 1069

Substitute numerical values in

27.229 s
11.055 s
equation (1) and evaluate Psurvival: P=e = 8 .5 %

(b) From the point of view of the L

t = (2)
muon: v

The muons reference frame is the L = L0 1 v 2 c 2

one in which it is at rest and Earth is
rushing toward it at 0.980c. Express
the thickness of Earths atmosphere
as measured in the muons frame of
reference:

Substituting for L in equation (2) L0 1 v 2 c 2

yields: t =
v

Substitute numerical values and 8000 m 1 (0.980 )

2

evaluate t: t = = 5.419 s
(0.980 )(2.998 108 m/s )
Substituting numerical values in
5.419 s
2.20 s
equation (1) yields: Psurvival = e = 8 . 5%
a result that agrees, to two significant
figures, with the result obtained in (a).

29 A spaceship commander traveling to the Magellanic Clouds, travels at

a uniform speed of 0.800c. When leaving the Kuiper belt, whose outer edge is
50.0 AU from Earth (Note: 1 AU = 150,000,000 km, and represents the average
distance between Earth and the Sun; AU = astronomical unit), he sends a
message to ground control, Houston, Texas, saying that he is fine. Fifteen
minutes later (according to him) he realizes he has made a typo, so he sends a
correction. How much time passes at Houston between the receipt of his initial
message and the second message?

Picture the Problem Let T be the proper time interval between event A, the
sending of the first message, and event B, the sending of the correction. These
two events take place on the ship, so the time interval between the two events it
the time interval in the reference frame of the ship. Thus, T = 15 min. Let T
be the time interval between these same two events in the reference frame of
Houston. Then the time between the arrival of the two messages in Houston is
Tbetween = T '+ T ' travel .
messages

The time between the arrival of the Tbetween = T '+ T 'travel

two messages in Houston is: messages
1070 Chapter R

Because Houston is moving at speed Tspaceship

T ' =
v = 0.800c relative to the ship:
1 v2 c2( )
Substituting for T ' gives: Tspaceship
Tbetween = + T ' travel (1)
messages (
1 v2 c2 )
During the time interval T ' the ship x = vT '
travels a distance:

The reply has to travel the distance x = cT 'travel

x farther than the first message and
this takes time T 'travel . The reply
travels at speed c, so:

Equating these expressions for x v

vT ' = cT 'travel T 'travel = T '
gives: c

Substituting for T ' yields: v Tspaceship

T 'travel =
c 1 v2 c2 ( )
Substitute for T 'travel and simplify to Tspaceship v Tspaceship
Tbetween = +
obtain: messages (
1 v2 c2 ) (
c 1 v2 c2 )
Tspaceship v
= 1 +
( )
1 v2 c2 c

Substitute numerical values and 15 min

evaluate Tbetween :
Tbetween = (1 + 0.800)
1 (0.800 )
2
messages
messages

= 45 min

The Relativity of Simultaneity

30 According to Jamal: (a) what is the distance between the flashbulb and
clock A? (b) How far does the flash travel to reach clock A? (c) How far does
clock A travel while the flash is traveling from the flashbulb to it?

Picture the Problem The proper distance L0 between the flashbulb and clock A is
50.0 cmin and is related to the distance L measured by Jamal according to
L = L0 1 (v c ) . Because clock A and the flashbulb are at rest relative to each
2

other, we can find the distance between them using the same relationship with
L0 = 50.0 cmin.
 Relativity 1071

(a) Express L in terms of L0: v

2

L = L0 1
c

Substitute numerical values and 0.600c

2

evaluate L: L = (50.0 c min ) 1

c
= 40.0 c min

(b) Jamal sees the flash traveling 40.0 c min

t = = 25.0 min
away from him at 1.0c and clock A 1.600c
approaching at 0.6c. So: and so
L = 25.0 c min

(c) Express the distance d clock A L

d = vt = v
travels while the flash is traveling to c
it in terms of the speed of clock A
and the time t it takes the flash to
reach it:

Substitute numerical values and 25.0 c min

d = (0.600c )
evaluate L: c
= 15.0 c min

31 According to Jamal, how long does it take the flash to travel to clock
A, and what does clock C read as the flash reaches clock A?

Picture the Problem As the light pulse from the flashbulb travels toward clock A
with speed c, clock A travels toward clock C with speed 0.600c. The sum of the
distances traveled by the flash and clock A must equal the distance separating
them as seen in Jamals frame of reference.

Express the sum of the distances l

0.600ct + ct = 12 l t =
between clock A and the flashbulb 3.200c
as seen in Jamals frame of where l is the distance separating
reference: clocks A and B.

Express l in terms of l 0 : 2
v
l = l0 1
c
1072 Chapter R

Substitute for l to obtain: l0 v

2

t= 1
3.200c c

Substitute numerical values and 100 c min 0.600c

2

evaluate t: t= 1
3.200c c
= 25 min

Because clock C starts from zero tC = 25 min

when the flashbulb passes next to it,
its reading when the flash reaches
clock A will equal the time required
for the flash to travel to clock A.
Hence clock C will read:

32 Show that clock C reads 100 min as the light flash reaches clock B,
which is traveling away from clock C with speed 0.600c.

Picture the Problem As the light flash from the flashbulb travels toward clock B
with speed c, clock B travels away from clock C with speed 0.600c. The
difference between these distances must equal the distance between clock B and
the flashbulb as seen in Jamals frame of reference.

Express the difference between the ct 0.600ct = 12 L t =

L
distances traveled by the flash of 0.800c
light and clock B as seen in Jamals where L is the separation of clocks A
frame of reference: and B.

Use the length contraction equation v

2

to express L in terms of L0: L = L0 1

c

Substitute for L to obtain: L0 v

2

t= 1
0.800c c

Substitute numerical values and 100 c min 0.600c

2

evaluate t: t= 1
0.800c c
= 100 min
 Relativity 1073

33 According to Jamal, the reading on clock C advances from 25 min to

100 min between the reception of the flashes by clocks A and B in Problems 31
and 32. According to Jamal, how much will the reading on clock A advance
during this 75-min interval?

Picture the Problem We can find the elapsed time on the clock at A (the proper
time) from the elapsed time on the clock at B using t 0 = t 1 (v c ) .
2

Express the elapsed proper time t0 v

2

on clock A in terms of the elapsed t 0 = t 1

c
time t measured by Jamal:

Substitute numerical values and 0.600c

2

evaluate t0: t 0 = (75 min ) 1

c
= 60 min

34 The advance of clock A calculated in Problem 33 is the amount that

clock A leads clock B according to Jamal. Compare this result with vL0/c2, where
v = 0.600c.

Picture the Problem We can compare the time calculated in Problem 33 with
L0v/c2 by evaluating their ratio.

Express the ratio r of L0v/c2 to t0: L0 v L0 v

2
r= c = c2
t 0 v
2

t 1
c
L0 v
=
2
v
c t 1
2

Substitute numerical values and

r=
(100 c min )(0.600c ) = 1
evaluate r: 0.600c
2

c 2 (75 min ) 1
c

35 [SSM] In an inertial reference frame S, event B occurs 2.00 s after

event A and 1.50 km distant from event A. How fast must an observer be moving
along the line joining the two events so that the two events occur simultaneously?
1074 Chapter R

For an observer traveling fast enough is it possible for event B to precede event
A?

Picture the Problem Because event A is ahead of event B by Lpv/c2 where v is

the speed of the observer moving along the line joining the two events, we can use
this expression and the given time between the events to find v.

Express the time t between events Lp v c 2 t

t = v=
A and B in terms of Lp , v, and c: c2 Lp
Substitute numerical values and
v=
(2.998 10 8
)
m/s (2.00 s )
2

evaluate v: 1.50 km

(
= 1.20 108 m/s )c

2.998 10 m/s
8

= 0.400c

Rewrite the expression for v in terms c 2 (t B t A )

v=
of tA and tB yields: Lp

Express the condition on tB tA if c 2 (t B t A )

t B tA < 0 and v >
B

event B is to precede event A: Lp

Substitute numerical values and

v>
(2.998 10 8
)
m/s (2.00 s )
2

evaluate v: 1.50 km
= 1.20 108 m/s = 0.400c

Event B can precede event A provided v > 0.400c.

36 A large flat space platform has an x axis painted on it. A firecracker

explodes on the x axis at x1 = 480 m, and a second firecracker explodes on the x
axis 5.00 s later at x2 = 1200 m. In the reference frame of a train traveling
alongside the x axis at speed v relative to the platform, these two explosions occur
at the same place on that axis. What is the separation in time between the two
explosions in the reference frame of the train?

Picture the Problem Let both explosions occur at the front end of the train
where there is a clock fastened to the train. In the reference frame of the train,
both explosions occur at the same place. The clock is stationary in this frame, so
it does not run slow. Thus, in this frame the amount the clock reading advances is
also the time T0 between the two events. In the reference frame of the platform
the clock (and the train) moves with speed v = L/T, where L = x2 x1 and
 Relativity 1075

T = 5.00 s. In this frame the clock is moving so it runs slow, advancing by

( )
only T 1 v 2 c 2 during time T. All observers must agree with both the clock
reading when the first explosion occurs (a spacetime coincidence), and with the
clock reading when the second firecracker goes off (also a spacetime
coincidence). Thus, all observers agree with the amount the clock reading
changes by in the interval between the two events.

Equate the expressions for the

amount the clock advances to obtain:
(
T0 = T 1 v 2 c 2 )
Substitute L/T for v to obtain: 2
L
T0 = T 1
cT

Substitute numerical values and evaluate T0:

2
1200 m 480 m
T0 = (5.00 s ) 1 = 4.39 s
(2.998 10 8
m/s )(5 .00 10 6
s )

37 Herb and Randy are twin jazz musicians who perform as a trombone
saxophone duo. At the age of twenty, however, Randy got an irresistible offer to
perform on a star 15 light-years away. To celebrate his good fortune, he bought a
new vehicle for the tripa deluxe space-coupe that travels at 0.99c. Each of the
twins promises to practice diligently, so they can reunite afterward. However,
Randys gig goes so well that he stays for a full 10 years before returning to
Herb. After their reunion, (a) how many years of practice will Randy have had;
(b) how many years of practice will Herb have had?

Picture the Problem Randys clocks, including his biological clocks, are always
at rest in Randys reference frame, so they advance at the same rate that time
advances in Randys frame. The same is true for Herb and the clocks in his
reference frame. Think of a long imaginary stick, at rest relative to Earth, with
one end at Earth and the other at the star. The rest length of this stick is 15 cy.
The time Randy has to practice is the time for the trip in Randys reference frame,
and the time Herb has to practice is the time for Randys trip in Herbs reference
frame.
1076 Chapter R

Sketch the situation as it is in Herbs Herb's reference frame

reference frame. The distance L0
between Earth and the star is the rest Earth Star
length L0 of the stick (discussed in
v
Picture the Problem):

Randy moving

Sketch the situation as it is in Randy's reference frame

Randys reference frame. The L
distance between Earth and the star Earth Star
is the length L of the moving stick
v v
(discussed in Picture the Problem):
Randy at rest

To find the time T0 in Randys v2

reference frame for the star to travel L0 1 2
L c
the distance L we apply the formula L = vT0 T0 = =
distance equals speed multiplied by v v
time. However, to do this we must
find L, which is related to L0 by the
length contraction formula:

Substitute numerical values and 15 c y 1 (0.99)

2

evaluate T0: T0 = = 2.137 y

0.99c

To find the time T in Herbs L0

L0 = vT T =
reference frame for Randy to travel v
to the star we apply the formula
distance equals speed multiplied by
the time:

Substitute numerical values and 15 c y

T= = 15.152 y
evaluate T: 0.99c

While Randy is at the Star the two (a) The time for the trip in Randys
reference frames are at rest relative frame is 10 y + 2(2.137 y ) = 14 y .
to each other. Thus, the time that
Randy is at the star is the same in
both frames. The calculations for the (b) The time for the trip in Herbs
return trip give the same result as for frame is 10 y + 2(15.152 y ) = 40 y .
the outgoing trip.
 Relativity 1077

38 Al and Bert are twins. Al travels at 0.600c to Alpha Centauri (which is

4.00 cy from Earth as measured in the reference frame of Earth) and returns
immediately. Each twin sends the other a light signal every 0.0100 y as measured
in his own reference frame. (a) At what rate does Bert receive signals as Al is
moving away from him? (b) How many signals does Bert receive at this rate?
(c) How many total signals are received by Bert before Al returns to Earth? (d) At
what rate does Al receive signals as Bert is moving away from him? (e) How
many signals does Al receive at this rate? (f) How many total signals are received
by Al before Al returns to Earth? (g) Which twin is younger at the end of the trip
and by how many years?

Picture the Problem (a) In Berts reference frame each successive signal from Al
travels an additional distance equal to vT, where v is Als speed and T is the
interval between successive signals in Als reference frame. We also need to take
into account the dilation of the time intervals measured on Earth due to Als
motion. In Parts (b) and (c) we can use N = f 0 tAl and t Al = t Bert 1 v 2 c 2 to
find the number of signals received by Bert. In Parts (d) and (e) we can proceed
similarly to find the number of signals received by Al and the total number he
receives before he returns to Bert. Finally, we can use the number of signals each
received to find the difference in their ages resulting from Als trip.

(a) The rate at which Bert receives 1

f Bert =
signals f Bert is the reciprocal of the Tbetween signals
time between the arrival of
successive signals on Earth:

The time between the arrival of Tbetween signals = T + Tdelay

successive signals on Earth is the vT
or, because Tdelay = = 0.600T ,
sum of the time T between signals in c
Als frame of reference and the delay Tbetween signals = T + 0.600T = 1.600T
introduced by the fact that Al travels
a distance vT between signals:

Substitute for Tbetween signals to obtain: 1

f Bert =
1.600T

T, the time between the arrival of T0

T=
signals on Earth is related to the (
1 v2 c2 )
proper time interval T0 (the time
between signals in Als frame of
reference) through the time-dilation
equation:
1078 Chapter R

Substituting for T and simplifying 1 (v 2 c 2 )

yields: f Bert =
1.600T0

Substitute numerical values and 1 (0.600 )

2

evaluate f Bert : f Bert = = 50 y 1

(1.600)(0.0100 y )
(b) Express the number of signals N = f 0 tAl
N received by Bert in terms of
the number of signals sent by Al:

Use the time dilation equation to v

2

express the elapsed time in Als t Al = t Bert 1

c
frame of reference in terms of the
elapsed time in Berts frame (the
proper elapsed time):

Substitute for t Al to obtain: v

2

N = f 0 t Bert 1 (1)
c

Find t Bert : 4.00 c y

t Bert = = 6.667 y
0.600c

Substitute numerical values in 2

equation (1) and evaluate N: ( ) 0.600c

N = 100 y 1 (6.667 y ) 1
c
= 533

(c) Express the number of signals N N = f 0 TAl

received by Bert in terms of the
number of signals sent by Al before
he returns:

2 2
v v
Because t Al = t Bert 1 , TAl = 2t Al = 2t Bert 1
c c
the time in Als frame for the
round trip TAl is given by:

Substituting for TAl in the expression v

2

for N yields: N = 2 f 0 t Bert 1

c
 Relativity 1079

Substitute numerical values and 2

evaluate N: (
N = 2 100 y 1
)(6.667 y ) 1 0.600c
c
= 1.07 10 3

(d) Proceed as in Part (a) to find the f Al = 50.0 y 1

rate at which Al receives signals as
Bert is moving away from him:

(e) Express the number of signals N N = f Al t Al

received by Al:

Substitute for t Al to obtain: v

2

N = f Al t Bert 1
c

Substitute numerical values and 2

evaluate N: ( ) 0.600c
N = 50.0 y 1 (6.667 y ) 1
c
= 267

(f) Express the total number of N tot = N outbound + N return

signals received by Al: = 267 + N return

The number, N return , of signals N return = f Al, return t Al

received by Al on his return trip is 2
v
given by: = f Al, return t Bert 1
c

Substitute for N return to obtain: 2

v
N tot = 267 + f Al, return t Bert 1
c

Proceeding as in Part (a), find the f Al, return = 200 y 1

rate at which signals are received by
Al on the return trip:

Substitute numerical values and evaluate N tot :

(
N tot = 267 + 200 y 1
)
(6.667 y ) 1 0.600c = 1334 = 1.33 10 3
c
1080 Chapter R

(g) Their age difference is: t = tBert tAl

Substitute numerical values to 1334 1067

t = 1
= 2.67 y
obtain: 100 y 100 y 1
and
Al is 2.67 y younger than Bert.

Relativistic Energy and Momentum

39 Find the ratio of the total energy to the rest energy of a particle of mass
m moving with speed (a) 0.100c, (b) 0.500c, (c) 0.800c, and (d) 0.990c.

Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-15 to find the ratio of the total
energy to the rest energy for the given particle.

From Equation R-15: mc 2 E0

E= =
v2 v2
1 1
c2 c2

Solve for the ratio of E to E0 to E 1

=
obtain: E0 v2
1
c2

(a) Evaluate E E0 for v = 0.100c: E 1

= = 1.01
E0 v =0.100 c
1
(0.100c )2
c2

(b) Evaluate E E0 for v = 0.500c: E 1

= = 1.15
E0 v =0.500 c
1
(0.500c ) 2

c2

(c) Evaluate E E0 for v = 0.800c: E 1

= = 1.67
E0 v =0.800 c
1
(0.800c )2
c2

(d) Evaluate E E0 for v = 0.990c: E 1

= = 7.09
E0 v =0.999 c
1
(0.990c )
2

c2
 Relativity 1081

40 A proton (rest energy 938 MeV) has a total energy of 1400 MeV.
(a) What is its speed? (b) What is its momentum?

Picture the Problem The rest energy E0 is equal to mc2. We are given E0 and E,
where E0 = 938 MeV and the total energy E = 1400 MeV. (The total energy is the
rest energy plus the kinetic energy). We can find the momentum p of the proton
using E2 = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4 (Equation R-17), and once we have p we can solve for the
speed v using v/c = pc/E (Equation R-16).

(b) Use Equation R-17 to relate the E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 and E0 = mc 2

momentum to the total energy and so
the rest energy:
E 2 E02
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + E02 p =
c

Substitute numerical values and (1400 Mev )2 (938 Mev )2

evaluate p: p=
c
= 1039 MeV/c
= 1040 MeV/c

(a) Use Equation R-16 to express the v pc pc

speed of the proton: = v = c
c E E

Substitute numerical values and (1039 MeV/c )

evaluate v: v= c = 0.742c
1400 MeV

41 [SSM] How much energy would be required to accelerate a particle

of mass m from rest to (a) 0.500c, (b) 0.900c, and (c) 0.990c? Express your
answers as multiples of the rest energy, mc2.

Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-14 to find the energy required to
accelerate this particle from rest to the given speeds.

From Equation R-14 we have: mc 2

K= mc 2
1 (v c )
2

1
= 1mc 2

1 (v c )
2

1082 Chapter R

(a) Substitute numerical values and 1

evaluate K(0.500c): K (0.500c ) = 1 mc 2

1 (0.500c c )
2

= 0.155mc 2

(b) Substitute numerical values and 1

evaluate K(0.900c): K (0.900c ) = 1 mc 2

1 (0.900c c )
2

= 1.29mc 2

(c) Substitute numerical values and 1

evaluate K(0.990c): K (0.990c ) = 1 mc 2

1 (0.990c c )
2

= 6.09mc 2

42 If the kinetic energy of a particle equals its rest energy, what

percentage error is made by using p = mv for its momentum? Is the non-
relativistic expression always low or high compared to the relativistically correct
expression for momentum?

Picture the Problem We can use Equations R-10 and R-14 to express the error
made in using p = mv for the momentum of the particle when K = E0.

The error in using p = mv for the prel p p

= 1 (1)
momentum of the particle is given prel prel
by:

From Equation R-14 we have: mc 2

K= mc 2
1 (v c )
2

1
= 1mc 2

1 (v c )
2

For K = E0: 1
K = 1 K

1 (v c )
2

or
1
=2
1 (v c )
2
 Relativity 1083

From Equation R-10, the relativistic mv

prel = = 2mv
momentum of the particle is: 1 (v c )
2

Substitute in equation (1) and p mv

1 = 1 = 50%
simplify to obtain: prel 2mv

The ratio of the non-relativistic p p

= = 1 v2 c2
momentum of a particle to its prel p
relativistic momentum is given by: 1 v2 c2

Because 1 v 2 c 2 < 1 , the non-relativistic expression is always low compared to

the relativistically correct expression for momentum.

43 What is the total energy of a proton whose momentum is 3mc?

Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-17 to find the total energy of any
proton whose momentum is given. See Problem 42 for the rest energy of a proton.

The total energy, momentum, and (

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + mc 2 ) 2

rest energy of the proton are related

by Equation R-17:

Substitute for the momentum of the E 2 = (3mc ) c 2 + mc 2

2
( ) 2

proton:
= 9m 2c 4 + m 2c 4 = 10m 2c 4

Solving for E yields: E = 10mc 2

Substitute for m and evaluate E: (

E = 10 938 MeV/c 2 c 2 = 2.97 GeV )
44 Using a spreadsheet program or graphing calculator, make a graph of
the kinetic energy of a particle with rest energy of 100 MeV for speeds between 0
and c. On the same graph, plot 12 mv 2 by way of comparison. Using the graph,
estimate at about what speed the non-relativistic expression is no longer a good
approximation to the kinetic energy. As a suggestion, plot the energy in units of
MeV and the speed in the dimensionless form v/c.

Picture the Problem We can create a spreadsheet program to plot both the
classical and relativistic kinetic energy of the particle.
1084 Chapter R

The relativistic kinetic energy of 1

the particle is given by: K relativistic = mc 2 1

1 (v c )
2

A spreadsheet program to graph Krelativistic and Kclassical is shown below. The

formulas used to calculate the quantities in the columns are as follows:

Cell Formula/Content Algebraic Form

A8 A7+0.05 v/c + 0.05
B7 0.5*$B$3*A7^2 1
2 mv
2

C7 $B$3*(1/((1A7^2)^0.5)1)
1
mc 2 1
1 (v c )2

A B C
1
2
3 mc2= 100 MeV
4
5
1 mc 2
2
mv 2 1 (v c )
1
v/c 2

6 Kclassical Krelativistic
7 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 0.05 0.13 0.13
9 0.10 0.50 0.50
10 0.15 1.13 1.14

23 0.80 32.00 66.67

24 0.85 36.13 89.83
25 0.90 40.50 129.42
26 0.95 45.13 220.26

The solid curve is the graph of the relativistic kinetic energy. The relativistic
formula, represented by the continuous curve, begins to deviate from the classical
curve around v/c 0.4.
 Relativity 1085

250

200
Kclassical
Krelativistic
150

E (MeV)
100

50

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
v /c

45 [SSM] (a) Show that the speed v of a particle of mass m and total
( )
12
v mc 2
2

energy E is given by = 1 and that when E is much greater than
c E2
2 v
mc , this can be approximated by 1
mc 2 (
. Find the speed of an electron
) 2

c 2E 2
with kinetic energy of (b) 0.510 MeV and (c) 10.0 MeV.

Picture the Problem We can solve the equation for the relativistic energy of a
particle to obtain the first result and then use the binomial expansion subject to
E >> mc2 to obtain the second result. In Parts (b) and (c) we can use the first
expression obtained in (a), with E = E0 + K, to find the speeds of electrons with
the given kinetic energies. See Table 39-1 for the rest energy of an electron.

(a) The relativistic energy of a mc 2

E=
particle is given by Equation R-15: v2
1
c2

Solving for v/c yields:

( )
12
v mc 2
2

= 1 (1)
c E 2

Expand the radical expression binomially to obtain:

v
= 1
mc 2 ( ) 2

= 1
1 mc 2 ( ) 2

+ higher - order terms

c E2 2 E2
1086 Chapter R

Because the higher-order terms are v

1
mc 2( ) 2

much smaller than the 2nd-degree c 2E 2

term when E >> mc2:

(b) Solve equation (1) for v:

v = c 1
(mc )
2 2

E2

Because E = E0 + K: E02 1
v = c 1 = c 1
(E0 + K )2
K
2

1 +
E0

For an electron whose kinetic 1

v(0.510 MeV ) = c 1
energy is 0.510 MeV: 0.510 MeV
2

1 +
0.511 MeV
= 0.866c

(c) For an electron whose kinetic 1

v(10.0 MeV ) = c 1
energy is 10.0 MeV: 10.0 MeV
2

1 +
0.511 MeV
= 0.999c

46 Use the binomial expansion and Equation R-17 to show that when
pc << mc , the total energy is given approximately by E mc2 + p2/(2m).
2

Picture the Problem We can solve Equation R-17 for E and factor (mc 2 ) from
2

under the resulting radical to obtain an expression to which we can apply the
binomial expansion to write the radical expression as a power series. Finally, we
can invoke the condition that pc << mc2 to complete the argument that the total
energy is given approximately by E mc 2 + p 2 (2m ) .

From Equation R-17 we have: E= ( )

p 2c 2 + mc 2
2

Factor (mc 2 ) under the radical and simplify to obtain:

2

p 2c 2
E= (mc )2 2
+ 1 = mc 2
p 2c 2
+ 1 = mc 2
1+
p2
( )
mc
2 2
(mc )
2 2
mc 2
 Relativity 1087

Expand the radical factor binomially to obtain:

12
p2 1 p2
1 + 2 2 = 1+ + higher - order terms
m c 2 m 2c 2

For pc << mc2: p2

12
1 p2
1 + 2 2 1+
m c 2 m 2c 2

12
p2 1 p2 p2
Substituting for 1 + 2 2 and E = mc 2 1 +
2 2
= mc 2
+
m c 2m c 2m
simplifying yields: = rest energy + classical kinetic energy

47 Derive the equation E2 = p2c2 + m2c4 (Equation R-17) by eliminating v

from Equations R-10 and R-16.

Picture the Problem We can solve Equation R-16 for v and substitute in
Equation R-10 to eliminate v. Simplification of the resulting expression leads
to E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (mc 2 ) .
2

Express the relativistic momentum of mv

p=
a particle using Equation R-10: 1 v2 c2

From Equation R-16 we have: v pc pc 2

= v =
c E E

Substitute for v and simplify to pc 2

m
obtain: p= E

1
( pc 2
E ) 2

c2
or
mc 2
1=
p 2c 2
E 1 2
E

Multiply both sides of the p 2c 2

E 1 2 = mc 2
p 2c 2 E
equation by E 1 :
E2
1088 Chapter R

Square both sides of the equation: p 2c 2

E 2 1 2 = mc 2 ( ) 2

Solve for E2 to obtain Equation R-17: E 2 = p 2 c 2 + mc 2 ( ) 2

48 The rest energy of a proton is about 938 MeV. If its kinetic energy is
also 938 MeV, find (a) its momentum and (b) its speed.

Picture the Problem (a) We can solve the relation for total energy, momentum,
and rest energy of the proton for its momentum and evaluate this expression for
K = E0. In Part (b) we can equate the expression for the momentum of the proton
under the conditions that exist in this problem with the general expression for the
relativistic momentum of the proton and solve the resulting equation for the speed
of the proton.

(a) Relate the total energy, E 2 = p 2 c 2 + mc 2( ) 2

momentum, and rest energy of a

proton:

Solving for p yields: E 2 E02 (E0 + K )2 E02

p= =
c c
K + 2 E0 K
2
=
c

If K = E0: E02 + 2 E02 3E0

pK =E0 = =
c c

Substitute numerical values and 3 (938 MeV )

p K = E0 =
evaluate p: c
= 1.62 GeV/c

(b) In Part (a) we established that 3E0

p K = E0 =
the momentum of the proton is c
given by:

Substituting for E0 and simplifying 3mc 2

p K = E0 = = 3mc
yields: c
 Relativity 1089

The relativistic momentum of the mc

p=
proton is also given by: v2
1
c2

Equating these expressions gives: mc

3mc =
v2
1
c2

Solve for v to obtain: 3

v= c = 0.866c
2

49 What percentage error is made in using 12 mv 2 for the kinetic energy of

a particle if its speed is (a) 0.10c and (b) 0.90c?

Picture the Problem We can use the expressions for the classical and relativistic
kinetic energies of a particle to obtain a general expression for the fractional error
made in using 12 mv 2 for the kinetic energy of a particle as a function of its speed.

The percentage error made in using K K rel K classical K

2 = = 1 classical
2 mv for the kinetic energy of a
1
K rel K rel K rel
particle is given by:

The relativistic kinetic energy of the mc 2

K rel = mc 2
particle is given by Equation R-14: 1 (v c )
2

1
= 1mc 2

1 (v c )
2

K
Substitute for Krel in the expression for and simplify to obtain:
K rel

K 1
2 mv
2
v2
= 1 = 1
K rel 1 1

1 mc 2
2 1 c 2

1 (v c ) 1 (v c )
2 2

1090 Chapter R

(a) Evaluate f for v = 0.10c:

f (0.10c ) = 1
(0.10c )2
1
2 1 c 2
1 (0.10 )2

= 0.75%
(b) Evaluate f for v = 0.90c:

f (0.90c ) = 1
(0.90c )2
1
2 1 c 2
1 (0.90 )2

= 69%

General Problems
50 A spaceship departs from Earth for the star Alpha Centauri, which is
4.0 cy away in the reference frame of Earth. The spaceship travels at 0.75c. How
long does it take to get there (a) as measured on Earth and (b) as measured by a
passenger on the spaceship?

Picture the Problem We can find the duration of the trip, as measured on Earth,
using the definition of average speed; that is, t = L/v. The elapsed time measured
by the passenger is the proper time and is related to t through the time dilation
equation (Equation R-3).

(a) Relate the time t for the trip as t =

L
measured on Earth to its length L and v
the speed u of the spaceship:

Substitute numerical values and 4 .0 c y

t = = 5.33 y = 5.3 y
evaluate t: 0.75c

(b) Use Equation R-3, the time v

2

dilation equation, to express the t 0 = t 1

c
proper time measured by a
passenger:

Substitute numerical values and

t p = (5.33 y ) 1
(0.75c )
2
= 3.5 y
evaluate t0: 2
c
 Relativity 1091

51 The total energy of a particle is three times its rest energy. (a) Find v/c
for the particle. (b) Show that its momentum is given by p = 8mc .

Picture the Problem (a) We can solve the expression for the relativistic energy
of the particle for v/c and evaluate this expression for E = 3E0. In Part (b) we can
solve the expression relating the total energy, momentum, and rest energy of the
particle for p and evaluate it for E = 3E0 to show that its momentum is given by
p = 8 mc.

(a) The relativistic energy of the mc 2 E0

E= =
particle is given by Equation R-15: 1 v2 c2 1 v2 c2

Solving for v/c yields: v E2

= 1 02
c E

For E = 3E0: v E2
= 1 0 2 = 0.889 = 0.943
c 9 E0

(b) Equation R-17 relates the total ( )

E 2 = p 2c 2 + mc2
2
= p 2c 2 + E02
energy, momentum, and rest energy
of the particle:

Solving for p yields: E 2 E02

p=
c

Evaluating p for E = 3E0 yields: (3E0 )2 E02 8 E0 8mc 2

p= = =
c c c
= 8mc

52 A spaceship travels past Earth moving at 0.70c relative to Earth. 5.0

minutes after the spaceship passes closest to Earth, a message is sent from
Houston, Texas, to the craft. (Neglect all effects of the rotational motion of
Earth.) (a) How long does it take for the signal to arrive? (b) The spaceship and
the control center agree on the time when the ship passes closest to Earth. Five
minutes after the message is received aboard the ship, a return message is sent by
the ship back to Houston. What is the time interval in Houston between the time
their message was sent, and the time the return message is received?
1092 Chapter R

Picture the Problem The pictorial representation summarizes the information

given in the problem statement. Note that the spaceship, moving at 0.70c, has a
5.0 min head start. This means that, in the Earth frame of reference, the message
is received by the spaceship after a time t has passed since the spaceship passed
closest to Earth. In Part (b) well have to determine the time-dilated interval of
5.0 min aboard the spaceship.
x = v t = c( t + tdelay )
v = 0.70c v = 0.70c v = 0.70c

Spaceship position Spaceship position

when signal is sent when signal is received
Houston

v tdelay v( t t delay )

c( t t delay )

(a) The distance x from Earth to the x = c (t t delay )

ship is given by:

x is also given by: x = vt

t delay
c (t t delay ) = vt t =
Equate these expressions to
obtain: v
1
c

Substitute numerical values and 5.0 min

t = = 16.67 min
evaluate t: 0.70c
1
c
= 17 min

(b) Express the total time from the t tot = t to ship + t return 5.0 min (2)
sending of the original message
(5.0 min after the closest passage) to
the receipt of the return message:
 Relativity 1093

According to observers on Earth, 5.0 min 5.0 min

t return = =
the time between receipt of the 1 (0.70)
2 2
v
message and its return is: 1
c
= 7.001 min
and
t to ship = 16.67 min + 7.001 min
= 23.67 min

In Earths frame of reference, the x to ship = vt to ship = 0.70ct to ship

spaceship is at a distance from Earth
given by:

Substitute numerical values and evaluate xto ship :

( )
x to ship = (0.70) 2.998 10 8 m/s 23.67 min
60 s
min
= 2.980 10 m
11

The time for the signal to return to x 2.980 1011 m

t return message = =
Earth from this distance is: c 2.998 108 m/s
= 994 s = 17 min

Substitute numerical values in t tot = 19 min + 17 min 5.0 min

equation (2) and evaluate ttot: = 31 min

53 [SSM] Particles called muons traveling at 0.99995c are detected at

the surface of Earth. One of your fellow students claims that the muons might
have originated from the Sun. Prove him wrong. (The proper mean lifetime of the
muon is 2.20 s.)

Picture the Problem Your fellow student is thinking that the time dilation factor
might allow muons to travel the 150,000,000,000 m from the Sun to Earth. You
can discredit your classmates assertion by considering the mean lifetime of the
muon from Earths reference frame. Doing so will demonstrate that the distance
traveled during as many as 5 proper mean lifetimes is consistent with the
origination of muons within Earths atmosphere.
1094 Chapter R

The distance, in the Earth frame of reference, a muon can travel in n mean
lifetimes is given by:

d0 nv n(v c )c
d =n = =
1 (v c ) 1 (v c ) 1 (v c )
2 2 2

Substitute numerical values for v, c, and and simplify to obtain:

d =n
(0.99995)(2.998 10 8 m/s )(2.20 s ) = (66.0 km )n
1 (0.99995 )
2

In 5 lifetimes a muon would travel a d = (66.0 km )(5) = 330 km , a distance

distance: approximating a low-Earth orbit.

In 100 lifetimes, d 6600 km, or approximately one Earth radius. This relatively
short distance should convince your classmate that the origin of the muons that
are observed on Earth is within our atmosphere and that they certainly are not
from the Sun.

54 (a) How tall is Mount Everest in a reference frame traveling with a

cosmic ray muon that is traveling straight down, relative to Earth, at 0.99c? Take
the height of Mount Everest according to an Earth-based observer to be 8846 m.
(b) How long does it take the muon to travel the height of the mountain from the
reference frame traveling with the muon? (c) How long does it take the muon to
travel the height of the mountain from the Earth-based reference frame?

Picture the Problem Apply the length contraction equation to find the height of
Mount Everest in the frame of reference traveling with the muon and use the
relationship between the distance an object travels, its speed, and the elapsed time
to solve Parts (b) and (c).

(a) The height h of Mount Everest in h = 1 (v c ) h0

2

the frame of reference traveling with

where h0 is the height of Mount Everest
the muon is given by:
in Earths frame of reference.

Substitute numerical values and h = 1 (0.99 ) (8.846 km ) = 1.248 km

2

evaluate h:
= 1.2 km
 Relativity 1095

(b) In the frame of reference h

t muon frame =
traveling with the muon, the v mountain
mountain is traveling toward it at a
speed of 0.99c. Hence the time to
travel the height of the mountain is
given by:

Substitute numerical values and 1.248 km

t muon frame =
evaluate t: (
0.99 2.998 10 8 m/s )
= 4.2 s

(c) From the Earth-based reference h0

t earth frame =
frame, the time it takes the muon to vmuon
travel the height of the mountain is
the ratio of the height of the
mountain to the speed of the muon:

Substitute numerical values and 8.846 km

t earth frame =
evaluate tearth frame : (
(0.99) 2.998 108 m/s )
= 30 s

55 A gold nucleus has a radius of 3.00 1014 m, and a mass of 197 amu.
(1 amu has a rest energy of 932 MeV.) During experiments at Brookhaven
National Laboratory, these nuclei are routinely accelerated to a kinetic energy of
3.35 104 GeV. (a) How much less than the speed of light are they traveling?
(b) At these energies, how long does it take them to travel 100 m in the laboratory
frame?

Picture the Problem We can apply Equation R-15, the expression for the total
relativistic energy of a particle, to find how much less than the speed of light the
gold nuclei are traveling. The time it takes the nuclei to travel 100 m in the
laboratory frame can be found using the distance, rate, and time equation.

(a) Express the difference between v = c v (1)

the speed of light and the speed of
the gold nucleus:

The total relativistic energy of a gold mc 2

K + mc 2 =
nucleus is given by Equation R-15: 1 (v c )
2
1096 Chapter R

Solving for 1 (v c ) yields: mc 2

2

1 (v c ) = K 2
2
(2)
mc
1+
K

mc 2 mc 2 (197 amu )(932 MeV/amu )

Evaluate to obtain: =
K K 3.35 10 4 GeV
= 5.48 10 3 << 1

Because mc2 << K, equation (2) can mc 2

1 (v c )
2
(3)
be approximated by: K

Solve for v/c to obtain: mc 2

2
v
= 1
c K

1
Expanding the radical binomially mc 2 2 2 2
1 mc 2
yields: 1 = 1
K 2 K
+ higher order terms

Because mc2 << K:

1

mc 2 2 2 1 mc 2
2

1 1
K 2 K
and
1 mc 2 2
v = c 1
2 K

Substituting for v in equation (1) 1 mc 2 2

yields: v = c c 1
2 K
2
1 mc 2
= c
2 K

Substitute numerical values and evaluate v:

2
1 197 amu 932 MeV/amu
v =
2 3.35 10 GeV
4
(
2.998 10 m/s = 4.50 km/s
8
)

 Relativity 1097

(b) Because the nuclei are, to three x 100 m

t = = 0.334 s
significant figures, traveling at the c 2.998 10 8 m/s
speed of light:

56 Consider the flight of a beam of neutrons produced in a nuclear

reactor. These neutrons have kinetic energies of up to 1.00 MeV. The rest energy
of a neutron is 939 MeV. (a) What is the speed of 1.00 MeV neutrons? Express
your answer in terms of v/c. (b) If the average lifetime of such a neutron is 15.0
min, what is the maximum length of a beam of such neutrons (in a vacuum, in
the absence of any interactions between the neutrons and other material)?
Estimate this maximum range by calculating the length corresponding to five
mean lifetimes. After five mean lifetimes only e5 or 0.007 (0.7%) of the
neutrons remain. (c) Compare this to the range of so-called thermally
moderated neutrons, whose kinetic energies are around 0.025 eV. Express your
answer as a percentage. That is, what percent of the 1.00 MeV-neutron range is
the thermally moderated-neutron range? (Note that our assumption of a vacuum
continues, however in reality neutrons of this energy interact readily with matter,
such as air or water, and real ranges are much shorter.)

Picture the Problem We can apply K + mc 2 = mc 2 1 (v c ) , the expression

2

for the total relativistic energy of a particle, to find the speed of 1.00 MeV
neutrons. We can use the equation relating distance, rate, and time to estimate
their maximum beam length. Finally, we can use the non-relativistic expression
for their kinetic energy to find the range of thermally moderated neutrons.

(a) The total relativistic energy of a mc 2

K + mc 2 =
neutron is given by Equation R-15: 1 (v c )
2

Solving for v/c yields:

2

v 1
= 1
c 1+ K

mc 2

Substitute numerical values and

2

evaluate v/c: v 1
= 1 = 4.61%
c 1 + 1.00 MeV

939 MeV
1098 Chapter R

(b) Express the maximum v

x = n ct (1)
expected beam length of the c
neutrons as a function of the
number n of lifetimes:

Evaluate this expression for n = 5:

(
)
x = (5)(0.0461) 2.998 10 8 m/s 15.0 min
60 s
= 6.22 10 m
10

min

(c) Express the ratio r of the xthermally moderated

range of thermally moderated r= (2)
x1.00 MeV
neutrons to the range of 1.00
MeV neutrons:

Because the energy of the v v 2K

2

thermally moderated K = mv = m c 2 =
1
2
2 1
2
c c mc 2
neutrons is 0.025 eV, we can
use the non-relativistic equation
for their kinetic energy:

Substitute for v/c in equation 2K

(1) to obtain: x thermally moderated =n ct
mc 2

Substitute numerical values and evaluate xthermally moderated :

2(0.025 eV )
x thermally moderated =5
939 MeV
( ) 60 s
2.998 108 m/s (15.0 min )
min
= 9.84 10 m
6

Substitute numerical values in 9.84 10 6 m

equation (2) and evaluate r: r= = 0.016%
6.22 1010 m

57 You and Ernie are trying to fit a 15-ft-long ladder into a 10-ft-long
shed with doors at each end. You suggest to Ernie that you open the front door to
the shed and have him run toward it with the ladder at a speed such that the
length contraction of the ladder shortens it enough so that it fits in the shed. As
soon as the back end of the ladder passes through the door, you will slam it shut.
(a) What is the minimum speed at which Ernie must run to fit the ladder into the
shed? Express it as a fraction of the speed of light. (b) As Ernie runs toward the
shed at a speed of 0.866c, he realizes that in the reference frame of the ladder, it
is the shed which is shorter, not the ladder. How long is the shed in the rest frame
of the ladder? (c) In the reference frame of the ladder is there any instant that
 Relativity 1099

both ends of the ladder are simultaneously inside the shed? Examine this from
the point of view of relativistic simultaneity.

Picture the Problem Let the letter L denote the ladder and the letter S the
shed. We can apply the length contraction equation to the determination of the
minimum speed at which Ernie must run to fit the ladder into the shed as well as
the length of the shed in rest frame of the ladder.

(a) Express the length LL of the shed v

2
L2
in Ernies frame of reference in LL = LL,0 1 v = c 1 2L
c LL,0
terms of its proper length LL,0:

Substitute numerical values and 10 ft

2

evaluate v: v = c 1 = 0.75c
15 ft

(b) Express the length LS of the shed v2

in the rest frame of the ladder in LS = LS,0 1
c2
terms of its proper length LL,0:

Substitute numerical values and 0.866c

2

evaluate LS: LS = (10 ft ) 1 = 5.0 ft

c

(c) No. In your rest frame, the back end of the ladder will clear the door before the
front end hits the wall of the shed, while in Ernies rest frame, the front end will
hit the wall of the shed while the back end has yet to clear the other door.

Let the ladder be traveling from left to right. To explain the simultaneity issue
we first describe the situation in the reference frame of the shed. In this frame the
ladder has length LL = 7.5 m and the shed has length LS,0 = 10 m. We (mentally)
put a clock at each end of the shed. Let both clocks read zero at the instant the
left end of the ladder enters the shed. At this instant the right end of the ladder is
a distance LS, 0 LL = 2.5 m from the right end of the shed. At the instant the
right end of the ladder exits the shed both clocks read t, where
t = (LS,0 LL ) v = 9.63 ns . There are two space-time coincidences to consider:
the left end of the ladder enters the shed and the clock at the left end of the shed
reads zero, and the right end of the ladder exits the shed and the clock on the right
end of the shed reads (LS,0 LL ) v = 9.63 ns . In the reference frame of the ladder
the two clocks are moving to the left at speed v = 0.866c. In this frame the clock
on the right (the trailing clock) is ahead of the clock on the left by
vLS,0 c 2 = 28.9 ns, so when the clock on the right reads 9.63 ns the one on the left
reads 19.3 ns. This means the left end of the ladder is yet to enter the shed when
1100 Chapter R

the right end of the ladder is exiting the shed. This is consistent with the assertion
that in the rest frame of the ladder, the ladder is longer than the shed, so the entire
ladder is never entirely inside the shed.